Photomorphic Mapping in Chile

DONALDD. MACPHAIL* University of Colorado Boulder, Colo. 80302 Photomorphic Mapping in Chile

A photo interpretation analysis is based on composite images related to field shapes, drainage patterns, land use, vegetation, etc.

INTRODUCTION OEA/Chile, little was done to regionalize the EOGRAPHERS FOR YEARS have been de- data or even to correlate the many medium- G fining regions, but occasionally they are scale thematic maps available at the In- confronted with initiating such a differentia- stituto de Investigaci6n de Recursos Na- tion in a place where there are few existing turales (IREN) of the Chilean Development guidelines. At times and in certain situations Corporation (CORFO). We hoped to use we are hard put to find a good research mainly these sources to achieve our objective, method in this respect. Our experience in but the problems we encountered were nu- Chile may be enlightening and instructive, merous.

ABSTRACT:In 1966 a program to map the agricultural regions of Chile began around "photomorphic" areas. Each has a broad, repetitive pattern which forms the composite image of the fields and fence lines, the system of drainage, and the tone ranges of land use, rock outcrop, soil moisture, and vegetation. Descrip- tive and identifying information consists of recognizing the surficial and photographic features with respect to continuity, uniformity, tonal quality, and apparent form. The core area of Chile between the Aconcagua Valley and Puerto Montt was mapped by photomorphic area. Random samples (25 km2) consisted of 2 percent of each photomorphic type. Sample maps gave information not available from other sources: detailed land use, land tenure, and related farm size. Tests showed strong correlations with other important landscape features. This method may provide a useful approach to land inventory via remote sensing. even if merely recounting past successes and mistakes. On the premise that this is so, I Our first problem centered on the fact that will explain the evolution of a methodology the compilation of the medium-scale land use which can be useful in certain kinds of re- maps (1:250,000) from the more detailed gional study. field maps at 1:20,000 was only partly com- In 1966, we set out to organize systemati- plete. We had no basis for easily generalizing cally the core area of Chile into a regional the detailed information available in San- framework for agriculture. In spite of the tiago with the limited funds and personnel vast amount of information, both quantita- available-two research geographers and two tive and qualitative, left by the big land in- student assistants. The other complication ventory of the Proyecto AerofogramCtrico was that simple correlation of the various, medium-scale thematic maps on soil, land * The research program discussed here was the capability, geomorphology, topography, and Regional Land Systems of Chile Project (1966-69) which was jointly supported by the Agricultural land use (still incomplete) did not readily fit Development Council, New York City and the into recognizable and workable units. Council on Research and Creative Work of the We began thinking of another approach to University of Colorado in cooperation with the the problem. One which we considered Institute de Investigacibn de Recursos Naturales of the Chilean Development Corporation seriously was a research design based on ran- (CORFO), Santiago. dotn points which could be superimposed on the large network of detailed photomaps for "When land use is visualized on a national scale, central Chile. However, such a model, al- local complexities disappear in the generalized picture. Even in a regional treatment, local land though yielding much data, would fail to use patterns cannot be set forth adequately, al- achieve one of our objectives, namely, the though distribution, composition, or dominance identification of rural landscapes and their of one or the other major land uses in the regional complex may find fuller recognition" (Mar- subsequent analysis. Neither would we be schner, 1959: 99). able to analyze land-use relationships on adjacent farms, nor observe time changes Kellogg stated in 1966 that "similar patterns with crop rotations on the contiguous pro- on aerial photographs can be misleading" prietorships. F. J. Marschner's fine book on (SCS, 1966: iii). Nonetheless, in spite of such land use patterns in the United States stim- warnings, we tried to set up a methology that ulated our thinking of using the air-photo ap- would utilize the patterns so evident on the proach to our problem (Marschner, 1959). photo-maps and photo-mosaics of Chile. Other well-known publications that reflect We had several objectives. We wanted this idea in part include reports by the Com- regional distribution that would help in monwealth Scientific and Industrial Re- formulating a typology of rural land; we search organization (CSIRO)of Australia, the wanted a method that would accomodate the Adanual of Photographic Interpretation, and vast amount of specialized information al- Agricultural Handbook 294 (Mabbutt, 1968; ready available on the thematic maps; and Colwell, 1960, SCS, 1966). However, the use we wanted to get additional knowledge on of the patterns of landscape, as they appear local agricultural practices, not available from in aerial ~hotography,as a systematic and other sources, that could be related to defi- analytical tool has some new approaches to nite types of terrain. resource mapping. Many geographers are interested in the use of patterns as they appear on aerial photographs. But few in the United States, In studying the 1 : 100,000 photo-mosaics aside from Broeck, Hart, and Thrower, have and photo-maps, it was apparent that broad used these in systematic fashion (Broeck, identifiable patterns appeared that in many 1932; Hart, 1968; Thrower, 1966). In Chile, instances were repetitive. Such air-photo- there was complete coverage of the central images are, of course, composites of the core on photo-mosaics at a scale of 1 : 100,000. geometry of the fields and fence lines, the In the Central Valley, north of the Bib-Bi6 pattern of drainage, and the tone ranges re- River, there were photo-indices at this scale lating to land use, rock outcrop, soil mois- of fairly recent aerial photography (ca. 1961). ture, and vegetation. We set out to use these Southward to Chiloe Island, controlled photo- composite patterns as our basic criteria in maps existed not only at 1 : 100,000 scale, but categorizing rural landscapes. The tonal vari- also at 1:50,000. In addition, there were the ations related to land use, whereas the field recent high-quality photos themselves from sizes and patterns pertained directly to Proyecto AerofotogramCtrico, not to mention property size and the history of settlement. the photo-maps, all at a scale of 1:20,000 Obviously, the drainage patterns and densi- (Hodell and Quinn, 1964). The large-scale ties correlated closely with underlying geo- photo-maps could be acquired through IREN morphological characteristics. We chose to along with generalized data on land use, soils, call the composite images we noted photo- geomorphology, plus cadastral information morphic areas. for every farm identified on the photo-maps The photomorphic area is a means of gather- by tax roll number. The temptation to use ing information in depth on the different rural the aerial photos and photo-maps in our quest land types of Chile. The classification of land for regionalizing the land systems of Chile types dates back to the 1930s, yet the use- was natural and it was strong. fulness of this kind of regionalization may be Marschner himself held reservations con- enhanced by the recognition of their photo- cerning the representation of land use pat- graphic images and their subsequent analysis terns on a national or regional scale in spite of by appropriate techniques (Veatch, 1933). the fact that the fundamental differences in It was impossible and unnecessary to dupli- these patterns across the United States were cate in 1966 and 1967 the scope of the many the cornerstone of his classic study. In dis- detailed surveys completed a few years earlier cussing land use patterns as recorded on aerial by the multi-million-dollar Aerophotogram- photographs, he stated: metric Project of the O.A.S., Chile, and PHOTOMORPHIC MAPPING IN CHILE 1141

TABLEI. EXAMPLESOF CHILEANPHOTOMORPHIC PATTERNS AND AREALMATRICES

I Idealized Commercial Pattern I Fabric Para-tone Corresponding-Photo- Format Grid Visitype Carto- morphic Image or Texture graphics and (Zip-a-tone) Sheets Designs Screens

Fris6 No. 7087 20% Mezzo B None Eroded granite hills, No. 420 Chilean Coast Range Chevron 1 No. 7137 1 No. 605 No. 423 Drainage ditches, irrigated pasture, Central Valley Denim I No. 7150 1 None No. 558 Irrigated alfalfa fields, Central Valley

Crinoline No. 609° No. 423a Street patterns, City of (reverse) (reverse) (reverse) Osorno Medium No. 7086 10yo Dust No. 320 I Cultivated land, Los "Spatter"* No. 430 Lagos, Glacial Plain I

a Actual field sample shows an exact reversal of tone with the same pattern indicated. b "Spatter" is not a term used in the textile industry, but was employed here for lack of better term. the Inter-American Development Bank (Ho- literature is singularly scarce of descriptive dell and Quinn, 1964; Vera, 1964; Saa V., terminology for areal patterns. Thus, con- 1967). Yet greater information was needed on siderable innovation was required to describe crop types, land tenure, and property size to the qualities of the photomorphic imagery. supplement the data provided by the thematic The identifying verbal descriptions include maps of the aforementioned project, now the prevailing tone and pattern of the areal published by IREN,in order to regionalize the matrix in combination with linear patterns land systems in the agricultural nucleus of the and tones of the drainage and field networks country (Instituto Forestal, 1966, 1967; (Figure 1). We still have yet to establish IREN, 1964). many such terms to replace code designations. The aerial photographic patterns which Some of the terminology was derived from comprise the photomorphic unit (Table 1) fabric patterns in the textile industry (Ben- form a composite image of the photo-identi- dure and Pfeiffer, 1946; Denny, 1962). fiable features of the physical and cultural We mapped photomorphic areas for the en- landscape, and though complex, are homo- tire territory of Chile from the Aconcagua geneous in character and have recognizable Valley in the north of Puerto Montt on the areal extent. This image consists of a va- shore of the Seno of Reloncavi in the south. riety of tones associated with vegetation, The land studied totaled 47,479 square miles crop types, and soil moisture conditions, of (122,712 sq. km.). This is the agricultural patterns produced by the geometry of the nucleus of mainland Chile. fields, of patterns resulting from the drainage A photo-analysis record was kept on each systems, and of forms associated with visible photomorphic area with notations of photo- rural and urban settlement. In other words, graphic tone and texture, field size, field those perceptible features such as photo- pattern, distribution of rural population, and tone, field size and form, drainage pattern drainage pattern and density. Associated and density, and populated structures com- features seen on the thematic maps of IREN bine to produce the composite image that can were recorded also on this form. be mapped geographically. Photomorphic areas were identified by The principal descriptive and identifying major north-south physical zones: I, the information consists of recognizing the sur- Andes; 11, the Interior Basins and Valleys; ficial and photographic features with respect 111, the Coast Range; and IV, the Pacific to their continuity, uniformity, outstanding Littoral. Sub-areas for each of the foregoing tonal qualities, and characteristics of appar- were classified as follows: A, Forest and ent form. Unfortunately, photo-interpretation Woodland; B, Partially Cleared Forest and 1142 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC

points was considered but abandoned for reasons previously stated, plus the fact that we had already determined our areal boundaries from photo-interpretation methods. We needed area samples that would tell us what in fact the photomorphic areas represented and what functional relationships occurred within them pertaining to land use and land tenure. Widely spaced, east-west traverses were considered. We used these in 1960 at the Instituto de Geograffa of the Universidad de Chile to provide field verification for a medium-scale land use map to be prepared with air-photo interpretation procedures (Saa V., 1967). Inasmuch as land use manifested greatest variety from the Central Valley to the Pacific coastline, the field mapping of such corridors was to provide the starting places for mapping by photo-interpretation alone north and south of the field traverses. For our present problem, however, the idea of sample FIG. 1. Portion of map showing photomorphic areas and sample locations in the Central Valley traverses was far from ideal. First, we were region of Chile. concerned with more features than land use alone. Second, there was a danger of omitting important land types which might fall be- Woodland; C, Cultivated and Pastoral Land; tween the sampling corridors. This made the D, Land Not Used (rock outcrops, glaciers, selection both arbitrary and extremely diffi- et cetera); E, Tidal Areas and Seismic Sub- cult. There was yet another alternative. sidence; and F, Dunes. Finally, an Arabic The sampling plan adopted used a centi- number was arbitrarily assigned to each local meter grid superimposed on a base map of photomorphic area to distinguish it from other 1:500,000. At this scale, one square was areas of its kind in the same zone. These areas equivalent to the size of a single, standard were often discontinuous, and widely dis- aerial photograph (scale 1:20,000) on the persed and, therefore, the problem was not base map. The squares were numbered and only differentiation but also proper idetifica- selected using a table of random numbers. A tion. A given photomorphic unit might be complete air-photo would be the sample unit designated thus, 11 C 31 (see Figure 1). mapped on the ground for individual crops Once underway with this procedure, we and land tenure class, with a verification of conducted an early field check with an area in property boundaries. A sufficient number of the Central Valley where there was a dis- squares (photos) were selected to represent tinctive landscape produced by a prehistoric two per cent of each photomorphic area lahar (large volcanic mudflow). Along the (Figure 1). In the areas selected, the aerial margins of the lahar, the photomorphic pat- photographs and corresponding photo-maps terns changed abruptly. The fields and pro- were checked to be certain that they typified prietorships were small and the land use was the image patterns of the photomorphic intensive and cash oriented on alluvial soil. areas on the smaller-scale photo-mosaics. A On the surface of the lahar, quite the opposite few atypical aerial photos, such as one cen- was true. The fields and farms were large, and tered on the floodplain of a river crossing although irrigated, tended to be dedicated to large irrigated orchards, were arbitrarilj- subsistence crops. The technique looked shifted to an adjacent photo to get a more promising so we continued delimiting the representative sample. photomorphic areas throughout the regions of Once selected, the photos were secured for the Montaiia, the Lake District, and the field mapping. Photo-maps of the same scale Island of Chiloe. gave property boundaries for individual Our task was now to devise a sampling farms. From the tax-roll numbers on these design that would give us the results needed maps, we listed the name of each owner and to provide the data not available in the farm. Originally, the plan was to correlate offices of IREN. The random distribution of local mapping of land use (employing the PHOTOMORPHIC M APPING IN CHILE 1143

I.G.U.* key) and land tenure with the minor were located in inaccessible parts of the Coast civil division data (by communa) of the most Range and Andes. recent agricultural census. This idea had to be At the outset in Chile. it was assumed (al- revised when we discovered that the last though by no means ashred nor confirmkd) census was reorganized to record data por that the composite photographic images explotacic'n. That is to say, each owner re- would conform to distinct rural landscapes. ported all of his agricultural production on a The project geographers thought it more single form for his place of residence, re- realistic to call the areas delimited on the gardless of how many individual parcels of photo-maps photomorphic until such time as land he possessed, or how widely separated field verification and correlation with the- they might be geographically within a prov- matic maps of land use, land capability, soil, ince. According to one of the directors of the and geomorphic types at a scale of 1 :250,000 census, data for a specific locality could be in was possible. Then a hierarchy of land types error as much as 80 percent for crop yields or would follow. Subsequent field mapping and land use acreages in some instances.+ This checking showed that the differences ob- situation suggested to us that we needed to served in the photomorphic patterns were in- add formal interviews to our field work. deed real. Even the boundaries held up quite We hoped to obtain detailed information well and did, in fact, mark the limits of sig- on at least two different types of farms (an nificant landscape changes. Photomorphic orchard-dairy operation and a vineyard or analysis gave us the means to compare avail- small subsistence farm, for example) within able cartographic data that, at the outset of the area of the photo samples. We would get our study, we found difficult to do. more interviews if time permitted. The type of information sought included the farm population, farm labor, machinery in opera- In effect, we used a dual approach in tion, water sources, land use with the agri- evaluating the photomorphic areas. First, cultural year for each crop noted, marketing using the area samples, we obtained a sub- practices, transhumance, a house description, stantial amount of data at the local level. and a statement of the greatest problems re- Second, by map correlation, we recognized lating to farm production. The interviews pro- some significant regional relationships. The vided supplemental information unavailable photomorphic classes which correspond to from any other source and obviously tied Class I and Class I1 lands (irrigated as well as directly with the field mapping for the 1966- dry-farm) in terms of land capability, amount 67 argicultural year. The interviews were to only 7 to 8 percent of the total land in the conducted by Chilean geographers to insure study area. Of these, the most important and good rapport with the informants. Informal productive is a land type associated with interviews, field observations, and notes on alluvial fans, terraces, and lacustrine deposits. ground photography taken at each site were The photomorphic identification is 11 C 48. recorded in a permanent field record book. This class represents about 5 percent of the Upon completion, the mapping informa- study area. The primary land use is con- tion was transferred from the aerial photos to sistently a rotation of chacra (a pre-Colum- the controlled photo-maps of the same scale. bian combination of potatoes, maize, squash This information was then processed (by the and beans, which are interplanted), grain, Secci6n de Planimetria of IREN) to determine and pasture, all under irrigation. Secondary the exact number of hectares in each farm, land use includes horticulture, fruit orchards, each land use class, and each tenure class and vineyards, also irrigated. These are the mapped. After tabulation, these data pro- prime farm-lands of Chile and the study vided the basis for a Fortran computer pro- shows that even in the traditional core of gram designed to consolidate the information Chile, truly productive land is relatively assembled and run correlations on the various scarce. classes of data received. Of the 153 photos Once mapped, a photomorphic area be- (field-sample localities), 20 were analyzed comes a useful diagnostic tool in regional from photo-interpretation only, because they studies. First. it can be used as a framework for yantitative analysis because the areas are measurable planimetrically. Sample areas, * I.G.U. (International Geographical TJnion). randomly selected, may provide additional in- t The purpose for the change in reporting methods by the Chilean agricultural census was to formation, not available from other sources. provide special information for the agrarian reform Second, the photomorphic areas can be used that was then just getting under way. to correlate and analyze a variety of thematic 1144 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING, 1971 maps in a given region (present land use with morphic approach may be a way for develop- those of soil types of land capability, for ex- ing nations quickly to identify economically ample). Third, the photomorphic areas of depressed regions or other important problem Chile closely correspond with specific ag- areas. In other words, small-scale imagery gregations of land use, soil, geomorphology, from high-flying aircraft or orbital satellites and other topographic characteristics, and can produce areal patterns which can be thus, may serve as the basis for delimiting mapped, and sample areas can be subse- landscapes or land types within a regional quently evaluated in detail on the ground. hierarchy. Moreover, in those areas where extensive air- It is possible to use the photomorphic photo coverage exists, photo-mosaics can also technique to identify problem landscapes be used for this type of analysis. This ap- within the country. Comparing land use and proach is currently being tested in the Ten- land capability, one can locate places where nessee Valley, and future projects are con- widespread land management practices occur templated using the same technique (Peplies, that lead to the overuse or underuse of the 1970). Planning commissions, state govern- land as we think of its productive potential. ments, and other organizations with regional For example, in five different photomorphic responsibility may find in these methods a classes (111 B 6, 111 B 10, 111 C 8, 111 C 9, useful and economic way to organize a re- and 111 C 16) in the Coast Range between source survey. 35" and 40' south latitude, land use and land capability seem to be in an intense discordant THEPHOTOMORPHIC IMAGES OF relationship. In these areas, which represent THE OSORNOAREA (Figure 2) almost 13 percent of our study area, the pri- THE WESTERN GLACIAL PLAIN (Photomorphic mary land use consists of a dryland rotation No. I1 C 3) of cereal grain (principally winter wheat) and pasture. This practice occurs consistently in Photomorphic Image. This is a two-toned areas designated as wholly unsuitable for (light and medium gray) matrix with a me- cultivation (Class VI and Class VII land dium dense "spatter" pattern with occasional capability). Not surprisingly, devastating soil dark patches. The drainage pattern has a low erosion is commonplace. The rural population density in a parallel to sub-parallel system. density in these same areas is approximately Geographic Features. The City of Osorno, 200 inhabitants per square kilometer (ap- just north of the confluence of the Rios proximately 77 inhabitants per square mile). Rahue and Negro, lies on the western margin Keep in mind that we based much of the of the Lagos Glacial Plain. Here, volcanic ash research design on the composite images of rests on fluvial and glaciofluvial deposits at aerial photography. Wherever and whenever low elevations (less than 100 ft above sea we traveled in the field, we carried the level, a.s.1.) The relief is gently rolling with 1: 100,000 photo-maps with us if possible. The some dissection along the main streams. The differences noted in the photographic patterns chief natural vegetation consists of roble consistently corresponded to distinct and (Nothofagus obliqua) and laurel (Laurelia diverse qualities of landscape. The boundaries sempervirens). These occur as scattered rem- of photomorphic areas represented real and nants in the fields and as occasional woodlots abrupt changes in the character of the land. on the farmsteads. Erosion here presents no By combining the information from our serious problem. The soils are of the Osorno sample localities and the broad areal pat- series except in Wadis (bogs) where drainage is terns visible on the medium-scale thematic poor and restricted (Reconciliaci6n series). maps, we are now in the process of setting up The upland soils are used in a dry-field rota- a regional hierarchy of land types that should tion of cereal grains and pasture with scat- be useful in Chile for planning- and socio- tered apple orchards and truck crops. economic analysis, especially in governmental agencies such as the Office of Development THE SOUTHERN COASTAL PRE-CORDILLERA. and Planning (ODEPLAN),the Institute of (Photomorphic No. I1 C 21) Agricultural Development (INDAP) of the Photomorphic Image. The matrix is a mo- Ministry of Agriculture, and the Agrarian saic of large- to medium-sized angular patches Reform Corporation (CORA). of varying tones, from very light to very dark. Photomorphic mapping seems to be a A dark, linear, angular pattern is superposed. promising approach to systematic environ- Geographic Features. This area lies on the mental surveys of a reconnaissance nature. western flank of the Lake District glacial With the advent of remote sensing, the photo- plain along the Rios Rahue and Negro and PHOTOMORPHIC MAPPING IN CHILE 1145

FIG. 2. Photomap of the Osor~loarea showing photomorphic images. Images reduced eight tiines (Source: Regional Land Systems of Chile Project in cooperation with the Instituto de Investigaci6n de Recursos Naturales, CORFO).

consists of gently rolling hills not exceeding Geographic Features. The Coast Range is 500 feet a.s.1. The dominant soils include the predominantly composed of metamorphics, Crucero and Cudico series, and of secondary especially micaceous schists and phyllites. imporatnce are the soils in the Osorno, Fresia, The highest summits range from 2,700 to La Union, and Reconciliacion series. These 3,100 feet a.s.l., and 2000-foot elevations are are dominantly of volcanic origin. Here, the common. The dark-toned areas consist of the land is dedicated to a cereal-pasture rotation "bosque valdiviano" which has an association with subsistence crops, livestock raising, and of principal species consisting of tepa (Laurelia dairying playing secondary roles. philippiana) , tineo ( Weimannia trichosperma) , THE VALDIVIAN FOREST (Photomorphic No. ulmo (Eucryphis cordifololia), olivillo (Aestoxi- 111 A 2). con punctatum), and coigue (Nothofagus Photomorphic Image. This is a uniform, me- dombeyi). The land is covered by this dense dium gray matrix with lighttoned, elongate, forest association except for the light-toned "saw-toothed" enclaves, especially along the strips consisting of areas which have been water courses. The drainage pattern is fairly cleared, mainly along streams, and used for dense and is rectilinear or sub-dendritic. pasture. 1146 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING, 1971

PARTIALLY CLEARED VALDIVIAN FOREST (PhO- matrix with a dark, angular "Frise" pattern tomorphic No. I11 B 2) containing scattered, dark-toned patches. The drainage network is dominantly rectangular Photomorphic Image. A two-toned matrix and of medium density. consisting of dark to medium gray and very The area occupies an light tones; the gray predominates. The over- Geographic Features. intermediate, north-south belt between Los all pattern consists of the gray-toned matrix Lagos Glacial Plain to the east and the being separated by light-toned, straight-sided heavily wooded Coast Range to the west. It wedges which create angular intrusions. The lies immediately to the west of the Cities of drainage network consists of dendritic pat- La Union and Osorno. The hilly terrain varies terns on the first-order streams and sub- in local relief between and feet parallel patterns in the second-order basins. 100 1,000 Geographic Features. The land type occurs a.s.1. The dominant soils are residual, derived along the inner flanks of the Coast Range from volcanic tuffs and conglomerates. These belong to the La Union and Cudico west and southwest of the City of Osorno. It is partially cleared Valdivian forest (see dark-brown clay loams which support a three- to four-year rotation of wheat or oats above). The cleared angular strip: reflect the and clover. There are indications of "hyper- local cadastral patterns. The Napeco soil series dominates in this pre-cordilleran zone utilization" of the land here as the dominant land capability is Class VI, inappropriate for of the Coast Range. It is derived from vol- widespread cultivation of crops. canic conglon~erates. Upon clearing, these soils can produce severe erosion. The La EXAMPLEOF A RANDOMSAMPLE AREA: Uni6n soils are of secondary importance and RANCAGUABASIN (Figure 3) derive from volcanic tuffs on the intermediate NO. I11 slopes between the Coast Range and the PHOTOMORPHIC c 48 glacial plain to the east. The landscape is typical of the most productive lands of Central Chile. Here, soils are SAN JUAN DE LA COSTA AREA (Photomorphic mainly light to medium-heavy alluvium and No. I11 C 2). occasionally lacustrine. Few are the limiting Photomorphic Image. This is a light-toned factors relating to land use. The landscape is

FIG.3. Aerial photograph of sample area, Iiancaqua Basin. PHOTOMORPHIC MAPPING IN CHTL.E 1147 a flat and gently sloping surface of an inter- the limits of larger landholdings in the past montane basin (Figure 2). century. Three different responses to Chile's This locality blends vestiges of the past agrarian reform programs can be seen here. In with recent innovations. The "fundo" (farm two cases, subdivision probably occurred Pz in Figure 3) on the north bank of Estero sooner than it might have in former time. La Cadena has rectangular fields lined with Those farms with PI symbol are the par- blue-gum eucalyptus. Large eucalyptuses in titioned fragments of a larger farm with each the center of the fields provide shade for sibling heir becoming an owner-operator of an livestock under the warm, cloudless, summer independently run farm. An adjacent farm skies of central Chile. The house of the owner was legally subdivided, but the original unit is in a rectangular area surrounded by a is still tacitly maintained as all of the proper- landscaped garden, dairy barns, and sheds. ties (symbol Ads) continue to operate under Nearby, along a paved highway, is a row of the direction of a common administrator. The inguilino (peasant) sites consisting of adobe units on the cadastral map (Figure 3) bearing cottages with small irrigated vegetable gar- the word CORA are parcels turned over to the dens. Immediately to the south (farm Pg) is a former resident peasants on a government- modern livestock farm with a vineyard. Ab- owned farm under Law 15.020. Only one farm sent are the traditional and stately Lom- in this area was run by a farm foreman bardy poplars or fragrant eucalyptuses along (symbol MA, Figure 3). the fence rows. The organization is more The commonest use of the land includes utilitarian and mechanized. The dairy barn white winter wheat, red clover, maize, and and bodega for wine storage are centrally lo- Chacra with broom corn, alfalfa, beans, cated, while poultry and pig lots are on the barley, potatoes, peaches, and walnuts. The periphery of the property. greatest number of farms are engaged in The cadastral pattern has a degree of commercial crop production, but there are a regularity within a system of metes-and- variety of other types devoted to dairying, bounds (Figure 4). The accordance of some of vineyards, orchards, and commercial seed the present property and fence lines indicate production.

LEGEND - LEYENDA -LAND TENURE-TENENCIA DE LA TIERRA RANCAGUA - 1966-67

Owner-Operator X.p.Y ....;..p Propistario

hnawr , Adminirtmdor

Foreman Mayardorno

Renter Arrandetario

Agrarion Reform Form Asentomianto

Poved Highway I Carretero Pavimentado Grovel Road 1 Camim de Gmva Dirt Road I Camino de Tirm

2 km 1 , , , , "2. , , , 0 1

FIG.4. Cadastral pattern, sample area, Rancaqrla Basin, 1967. 60). Seccidn de Geografia Regional y Planificacidn, Instituto de Geografia, Universidad de Chile. Bendure, Zelma and Gladys Pfeiffer, 1946. Amer- 17 pp. (English translation, mimeographed.) ica's Fabrics. New York: The Macmillan Com- Marschner, F. J. 1959. Land Use and Its Patterns pany. in the United States. Agricultural Research Ser- Broeck, J. 0. M. 1932. The Santa Clara Valley, vice, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural California: A study in landscape changes. Geogr. Handbook No. 153, Washington, D.C.: U.S. en Geol. Mededeelinger, Anthyopo-Geogr, Reeks Govt. Printing Office. No. 4. Utrecht, Netherlands. Peplies, Robert W. and James D. Wilson. 1970. Colwell, Robert N., Editor, 1960. Manual of Analysis of a Space Photo of a Humid and For- Photographic Interpretation. Washington, D.C.: ested Region: A Case Study of the Tennessee American Society of Photogrammetry. Valley. Technical Report 70-6, Commission on Denny, Grace G. 1962. Fabrics, 8th ed. Phila- Geographic Applications of Remote Sensing. delphia & New York: J. B. Lippincott Company. Assoc. of American Geographers, East Tennes- Hart, John Fraser. 1968. Field patterns in Indiana. see State University, Johnson City, Tennessee. The Geog. Review. 58: 450-571. 76 PP. Hodell, Charles, and Quinn, A. 0. 1964. Final Powers, William E. and Clyde F. Kohn. 1959. Report of the Proyecto Aerofotogram&trico OEA/ Aerial Photo-Interpretation of Landforms and Chile. Santiago: Organizacidn de 10s Estados Rural Cultural Features in Glaciated and Coastal .4mericanos. Regions. Evanston: Northwestern University Instituto Forestal. 1966. Inventario de las Plan- Studies in Geography No. 3. taciones Forestales de la Zona Centro Sur de Chile. Saa Vidal, RenC. "Land-Use Mapping in Chile." Informe Te'cnico No. 24 Santiaao: Ministerio de Photogrammetria. Vol. 22 (1967). pp. 153-159. Agricultura. Thrower, Norman J. W. 1966. Original survey and Instituto Forestal. 1967. Clasijicacibn Preliminar land subdivision: A comparative study of the del Bosque Nativo de Chile. Informe Te'cnico No. form and effect of contrasting cadastral survevs. 27 Santiago: Ministerio de Agricultura. Assoc. of Amer. ~eo~raphers,Monograph ~eries, Instituto de Investicaci6n de Recursos Naturales No. 4. Chicago, Illinois. (IREN). 1964. ~ielos,Descripciones, Proyecto U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Soil Conservation Ser- Aerofotogramdtrico Chile/OEA/BID. Publica- vice (SCS). 1966. Aerial-Photo Interpretation in ci6n No. 2, Santiago: Corporaci6n de Fomento Classifying and Mapping Soils. Agric. Hand- de la Produccibn. book No. 294. Washington.-, D.C.: Government Kohn, Clyde F. 1951. The Use of Aerial Photo- Printing Office. graphs in the Geographic Analysis of Rural Veatch, J. 0. 1933. Agricultural Land Classification Settlements. Photogrammetric- Engineering. 17 : and Land Tyfies of Michigan. Mich. Agric. Exper. 759-771. Station Special Bulletin No. 231. E. Lansing: Mabbut, J. A. 1968. Review of concepts of land Michigan Agricultural College. classification, in G. A. Stewart (Ed.) Land Vera, Luis. 1964. Tdcnicas de Inventario de la Tierra Evaluation, pp. 11-28, South Melbourne: Mac- Agriroln: La experiencia del Proyecto Aerofoto- millan of Australia. gramEtrico OEAIChile, Secretaria General de la MacPhail, Donald D. 1960. Progress Repovt :Land- Organizacihn de los Estados Americanos. Wash- Use Mapping Program of Central Chile (1959- ington, D.C.: Uni6n Panamericana.

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