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Mountains and Their Importance for the Idea of the Other World in Japanese Folk Religion Author(S): Ichiro Hori Source: History of Religions, Vol

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Mountains and Their Importance for the Idea of the Other World in Japanese Folk Religion Author(S): Ichiro Hori Source: History of Religions, Vol Mountains and Their Importance for the Idea of the Other World in Japanese Folk Religion Author(s): Ichiro Hori Source: History of Religions, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Aug., 1966), pp. 1-23 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062094 Accessed: 10-10-2017 22:28 UTC JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to History of Religions This content downloaded from 206.224.223.250 on Tue, 10 Oct 2017 22:28:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Ichiro Hori MOUNTAINS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR THE IDEA OF THE OTHER WORLD IN JAPANESE FOLK RELIGION INTRODUCTION-MOUNTAINS AND MOUNTAIN ASCETICS Japan presents to the observer a very complicated mountain worship which has developed along diverse lines and become quite widespread. Edward Morse, a pioneer of Japanese archeology and natural history, wrote that he was much impressed upon observ- ing that almost every high mountain top has its own shrine and that some of them are piously worshiped by thousands of people who climb there in summer after many miles of arduous travel.l Mountain worship is intricately involved with Japanese history. On the one hand, there still survive some elements of ancient naturalistic beliefs. On the other, the syncretistic Shugen-do sects were institutionalized under the strong influence of Mantrayana Buddhism of the Tendai (T'ien-t'ai in Chinese) and Shingon (Eso- teric Buddhism, Chen-yen in Chinese) schools in the Middle Ages. This article comprised the fourth of six Haskell Lectures, "Folk Religion in Japan: Continuity and Change," and was delivered at the Divinity School of the University of Chicago, November 9, 1965. I wish to thank Professor Joseph M. Kitagawa, Professor H. Byron Earhart, Mr. Alan Miller and others for reading the first draft and making a number of helpful suggestions and corrections. 1 Edward Morse, Japan Day By Day (Boston, 1917), I, 95. 1 This content downloaded from 206.224.223.250 on Tue, 10 Oct 2017 22:28:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Mountains and Their Importance Before the Meiji Restoration almost every Shinto shrine had its own Buddhist temple, called jingui-ji or betto-ji, where services were conducted according to Buddhist usage by Buddhist priests, frequently by those of Mantrayanistic Tendai and Shingon schools. According to Mizoguchi's study,2 more than 90 per cent of the village shrines in mid-northern and northeastern Japan were served by Shugen-do priests, including mountain ascetics, whether called shugen-ja ("exorciser"), yamabushi (literally, "a priest who lies down on the mountain"), or hoin (honorary title for a Buddhist exorciser, meaning literally "the seal of the law"). They were also in charge of sacred mountains and hills near villages and guided parishioners to such centers of the order as Mount Kimpu (Yoshino), Mount Omine, Mount Kumano in Kinki Province (middle Honshf); Mount Hiko in Kyuishfi; Mount Ishizuchi in Shikoku; Mount Taisen in western Honshu; Mount Haku in mid- northern Honshu; and in northern Honshu the group of Haguro, Gassan, and Yudono. From these religious centers priests went once or twice a year to their parishioners' villages and visited from house to house to distribute charms, amulets, or talismans; to hold purification ceremonies; or to offer prayers for peace and prosperity. Accordingly, both the settled village yamabushi and the itinerant yamabushi exerted deep and lasting influence upon the spiritual life of the common people. Under these circumstances, while Japanese Shinto was influenced by Shugen-do, Shugen-d6 itself borrowed many elements from ancient shamanism, Yin-Yang and Taoistic magic, Confucian ethics, and above all from Man- trayana Buddhism. In other words, Shugen-d6 has incorporated within itself many of the significant characteristics of Japanese religion. Parenthetically it might be added in this connection that in 1868 the Japanese government adopted the policy of dissolving the historic pattern of Shinto-Buddhist amalgamation and ele- vated Shinto as the de facto state religion. In this situation Shugen-d6, which had had precarious relationships both with Shinto and Buddhism, suffered a great deal. Many of the Shugen- do priests were returned to secular life. Some of them chose to become priests of Shingon or Tendai schools of Buddhism, while others became engaged in secular professions. Only since the end of World War II has Shugen-do been allowed to enjoy independent 2 Komazo Mizoguchi, "Tohoku, Hokuriku-chih6 ni okeru Shugen Chakusai" (" On the Coloration or Influence of Shugen-d6 in Northeastern and Mid-northern Honshu"), Shikyo Kenkyf, IV, No. 4, 192-98. 2 This content downloaded from 206.224.223.250 on Tue, 10 Oct 2017 22:28:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms status as a minor religious group. Nevertheless, the historic im- portance of Shugen-d5 in the religious life of the Japanese people cannot be overlooked. SACRED MOUNTAINS AND COSMOLOGY It is generally agreed that mountains have been the object of wor- ship among many peoples. Their height, their vastness, the strange- ness of their terrain often inspire in the human mind an attitude of reverence and adoration.3 We might say that mountains in their very nature have some measure of holiness, in the sense in which Rudolf Otto defined the term "holy," or "numinous," with the elements of mysterium tremendum and fascinosum.4 There are many significant evidences of mountain worship and mountain gods in the ancient civilized peoples. The five sacred mountains (Wu-chen or Wu-yoh) in China; Mount Kanchinjunga in Tibet; Mount Sumeru or Meru in ancient India; Mount Alburz or Hara Berezaiti in ancient Persia; Mounts Sinai, Nebo, Hor, and Zion from the Old Testament; and Mount Olympus in Greece, are only a few examples. Also, we find numerous examples of sacred mountains among non-literate peoples in Oceania, Arctic Asia, Africa, and North and South America. In each case, the mountains were believed to be the center of the world, the cosmic mountain, the pillar supporting and linking heaven and earth, or the residence of a god or gods. They were the sites of religious services in which sacrifices and prayers were offered and divine revelations and oracles received. There ascetics practiced their religious austerities in order to acquire magical, superhuman power or to attain enlightenment. Taking on metaphysical significance, some of the sacred mountains were believed to possess such divine qualities as eternity, power, or stability, as in the case of Mount Sumeru repre- senting the stability of Buddha's body.5 In Hindu and more par- ticularly Buddhist traditions,6 Mount Sumeru or Meru is supposed to be the cosmic mountain at the center of the world and the 3 See, e.g., J. A. MacCulloch, "Mountains, Mountain Gods," in J. Hastings (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (hereinafter cited as "ERE") (Edinburgh, 1930), VIII, 863. 4 Rudolf Otto, Idea of the Holy, trans. J. W. Harvey (rev. ed.; London, 1946), pp. 5-40. 5 See "Fo-su-khin-tsan-kin" (Skt., "Buddhakarita-karya-sitra") (Nanj5 Cata- logue, No. 1351), I, i, 49. 6 Concerning the typical Buddhist cosmology centering around Sumeru, see "Jambu-dvipa," "Dirghagama-sutra" (Nanjo Catalogue, No. 545), Vol. XVIII; "Numbers and Quantities," Lo-shi-o-phi-thdn-lun (Skt., probably "Lokasthiti(?)- abhidharma-6astra" (Nanj6 Catalogue, No. 1277), Vol. II; "Abhidharma-kosa- sastra" (Nanj5 Catalogue, No. 1267), Vol. XI. Cf. Willibald Kirfel, Der Kosmo- graphie der Inder (Berlin, 1920). 3 This content downloaded from 206.224.223.250 on Tue, 10 Oct 2017 22:28:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Mountains and Their Importance abode of the gods. It is the chief of mountains, the "Golden Mountain" which is 84,000 miles high, whose upper part is divided into thirty-three heavens. At the very top of this cosmic mountain is the palace of Sakra Devanam Indra, the supreme god of India, who governs the whole cosmos. Seven concentric rings of large mountains surround it, with intervening seas. Between these and the eighth and outermost ring are the four worlds, including Jam- budvipa in the south, the world where we are now living. The sun, moon, and planets are believed to revolve around Mount Sumeru. Cosmological significance of mountains is also recognized by the Babylonian and Assyrian traditions, according to which seven- storied temple-towers (ziggurats) were built symbolizing the seven heavens.7 The famous temple-tower of Borobudur in Java also has the form of a ziggurat, even though it was built between the seventh and the ninth centuries A.D. under the strong influence of Indian Buddhism. It consists of nine levels which pilgrims ascend step by step, worshiping at each statue of Buddha and chanting the sutras. When they reach the top level of the tower, they are believed to be able to pass from the profane world to the sacred world, from the human world full of ignorance and suffering to the Buddha's world of enlightenment and salvation.8 We should note in this connection that cosmic mountains are also utilized in shamanism, especially in Central Asia and Mon- golia, where, for example, the shamans of the Altaic Tatar tribes believe that their supreme god Bai Ulgen presides over the whole world at his palace on the top of a golden mountain that emerges from the earth and stands at the center of heaven.
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