goods and services which provide us with our livelihoods and satisfaction. That is, humans are both producers and consumers. Ecotourism and green Chapter Two productivity are concepts for us to use as producers, as business people. Of course, we will need to be ecotourists when we travel if our ecotourism businesses are to survive and grow. The Changing Nature As producers we seek payment and profit for our work and our investments. The marketplace (where the laws of supply and demand prevail) provides the incentive for us to be conscious of costs. However, if our of Tourism timeframe is short we pay no heed to the long-term sustainability of the resources we use (for example, the soils of our farms and the fish in the sea) and deplete them — ultimately, completely exhausting them. If institutional arrangements are such that we need not concern ourselves with the costs that Tor Hundloe our waste disposal places on others (say, pollution from a factory killing fish downstream), other industries will fail and overall we will be worse off. As producers we need to face the correct prices (prices which reflect Introduction the costs of pollution and resource degradation). We need to have the best Tourism is the world’s largest industry, a position it achieved after available information on such matters as the conservation of inputs (such as the end of the Cold War. In 2000, 698 million people were classified as energy and water); and we need a general management philosophy that looks international tourists (meaning that they spent at least one night in a foreign to “do more with less”. You will understand that a profit-maximising goal country). Fifty years ago there were only 25 million international travellers. should drive businesses to this very approach. Yet lack of good information By the year 2020, it is predicted that 1.6 billion people, or one-fifth of the and the wrong price signals — both of which are prevalent in modern forecast world population, will be international tourists. economies — result in waste, environmental degradation and reduced profits. This is what some call a “lose–lose” situation. The philosophy of green production comes from understanding this. It is a philosophy based on Expect Change a sound theoretical and practical understanding of how business works (how entrepreneurs and managers think) and a sound understanding of The history of modern tourism covers nearly three centuries. It started technical possibilities for saving resources such as energy and water, and with the Grand Tour by the sons (with some notable exceptions, women were the environmental costs associated with not saving them. Because of its not in this privileged position) of the northern European aristocracy, and the role in the production process, green productivity is often called “cleaner travels of famous scientists such as Carl Linnaeus in the early 1700s. With the production” or “eco-efficiency”. formation of a middle class in Europe as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace, the weather-weary and wealthy sought sun, relaxation and health-giving Ecotourism has evolved during the period that green productivity waters in the Mediterranean, in locations such as Nice, the coasts of Italy and has also evolved, although ecotourism started earlier. A very brief sketch Greece, and the Canary Islands. of the history of modern tourism, leading to ecotourism, is presented in the next chapter. Nice, originally an obscure stop-over on the Grand Tour of Italy, promoted its sun as the best in the world. The rich came for health purposes. Honeymoon travel became fashionable for the well-off in the 1830s. A much sought-after destination became Niagara Falls. This location’s reputation was such that by the late 18th century it was considered the greatest natural wonder in the world. Today, we have an extensive list of places competing for this accolade, and those that are deserving are on the World Heritage List (see Box 1 for those in APO economies).

- 4 - - 5 - Box 1: World Heritage Properties in APO Member Countries Following Rousseau’s description of all mountain streams and abysses, came the cult of the mountains with the inevitable comparison of all Bangladesh • Historic Monuments of Ancient mountainous places to the Swiss Alps. Henry Thoreau promoted the nature • Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat Nara walk from which bushwalking was to develop. In 1872, the world’s first • Ruins of the Buddhist Vihara at • Shrines and Temples of Nikko Paharpur National Park, Yellowstone, was declared, and the concept of National Parks Nepal was adopted around the world. The coming of the camera and landscape • The Sundarbans • Sagarmatha National Park India • Kathmandu Valley photography played a fundamental part in promoting tourism, with native and • Ajanta Caves • Royal Chitwan National Park human cultural artefacts as backdrops to recreational experience. • Ellora Caves • Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord th • Agra Fort Buddha Of course, without mass transport (originally trains, then in the 20 • Taj Mahal Pakistan century steam ships, followed by the motor car and jet passenger aircraft • Sun Temple, Konarak • Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro from the 1950s) tourism would not have grown, and continue to grow as • Mahabalipuram • Taxila it does today. • Kazianga National Park • Takht-Bahi and Sahri-Bahlol • Manas Wildlife Sanctuary • Historical Monuments of Thatta From the 1980s the film industry, and then television, played a • Keoladeo National Park • Fort and Shalamar Gardens in significant role in enticing people to dream of sun, surf and sand. Popular • Churches and Convents of Goa Lahore music by groups such as the Beach Boys and by Elvis Presley (in “Blue • Khajuraho • Rohtas • Hampi Hawaii”) exported the beach culture worldwide. Today it is “Baywatch”. But, Philippines • Fatehpur Sikri as we will point out, the beach culture does not suit everyone, everywhere, • Tabbataha Reef Marine Park • Pattadakal at all times. However, the warm waters and sunny days of the French Riviera • Baroque Churches of the Philippines • Elephanta Caves • Rice Terraces of the Philippines and the Mediterranean (and their more than comparable rivals) are no longer • BrhadisvaraTemple, Thanjavur Cordilleras the sole privilege of the aristocracy. • Sundarbans National Park • Puerto-Princesa Subterranean • Nanda Devi National Park River National Park Until very recently the growth in tourism was concentrated in the • Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi • Historic Town of Vigan West and in the northern hemispheres. By the end of the 20th century • Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi • Republic of Korea • Qutb Minar, Delhi new groups of tourists emerged from all corners of the globe. In particular, • Sokkuram Grotto Pulguksa Temple the fast-growing middle class in Asia is creating an expanding market of • Darjeeling Himalayan Railway • Haeinsa Temple Changgyong P’ango Indonesia • Chongmyo Shrine millions of tourists. • Ch’angokkung Palace Complex • Borobudur Temple Compounds Wherever tourists gather in large numbers there are impacts: usually • Ujung Kulon National Park • Hwasong Fortress • Komodo National Park positive financial ones for the local hospitality industry and for those who Sri Lanka supply the hotels and restaurants with food, resources and labour; but • Prambanan Temple Compounds • Sacred City of Anuradhapura • Sangiran Early Man Site • Ancient City of Polonnaruva sometimes negative impacts on the local culture, and more often than not • Lorentz National Park • Ancient City of Sigirya negative environmental impacts. Iran • Sinharaja Forest Reserve • Tchogha Zanbil • Sacred City of Kandy As tourist numbers inevitably increase, so will these positive and • Persepolis • Old Town of Galle and its negative impacts. However, this does not mean that the future will be like the • Meidan Eman, Esfahan Fortifications present, or the past. Tourism — what tourists are seeking from experiences Japan • Golden Temple of Dambulla — has changed over time. Still, there are some constant themes, such as • Buddhist Monuments in the Thailand seeking the sun (or at least a warmer climate in winter for those living in colder Horyu-ji Area • Historic Town of Sukhothai climes) and coastal destinations (the beach and sand). In Box 2, Tsung-Wei • Himeji-jo • Historic City of Ayutthaya Lai summarises the threats of expanding tourism and the promises (Is that • Yakushima • Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng • Shirakami-Sanchi Wildlife Sanctuaries all they are?) of ecotourism. • Historic Monuments of Ancient • Ban Chiang Archaeological Site Kyoto Vietnam • Historic Villages of • Complex of Hué Monuments Shirakawa-go and Gokayama • Ha Long Bay • Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome) • Hoi An Ancient Town • Itsukushima Shinto Shrine • My Son Sanctuary

- 6 - - 7 - Box 2: A Snapshot (by Tsung-Wei Lai) Ecotourism: An Overview Nature-based tourism gains in significance yearly, and as a sub-set of The rapid expansion of international tourism is fostered by economic this type of tourism, ecotourism grows rapidly. There are many explanations globalisation. Modern mass tourism is embraced by governments as well as for this development, ranging from psychological ones pertaining to human multinational aid and lending institutes as a “smokeless” (non-polluting) industry relationships with nature, to the influence of popular education (the natural to increase employment and economic prosperity, especially in developing history television shows), to the very significant change in attitude towards countries. Amid the trend of free trade and economic globalisation, the influx of foreign capital for tourism development projects flows into remote and pristine the environment which has seen it become a mainstream issue on par with areas to create holiday paradises. With foreign capital, remote fishing villages economic wellbeing, education and health. The principles of sustainable are being transformed into world-class island resorts catering to tourists from development, put on every country’s agenda by the Brundtland report, “Our around the world. Common Future”, are changing the world. Beneath the image of paradise painted with sun, beaches, and coconut At this point in time, ecotourism is still special interest tourism, of trees, however, mass tourism development projects are often ridden with which there are many kinds. Imagine that there is a large hotel on the outskirts long-term negative impacts on the environment. Mass tourism often promotes of a city with many cultural attributes and nearby there is a National Park. unsustainable production and consumption patterns in developing countries At any one time, staying in this hotel could be tourists whose prime interest where appropriate technology for waste treatment and pollution abatement is often insufficient or entirely lacking. Equally, if not more important, concerns is shopping in the city. Then there could be tourists whose main interest is regarding conventional tourism projects include the associated social and culture — they undertake tours to museums, cathedrals and occasionally go cultural impacts on the host regions/communities through disruption of shopping and take one walk in the National Park. Then there could be tourists traditional ways of life, promotion of monoculture, and the exploitation of whose first love is sport. They might have gathered in this hotel because local labour. it is near to a football ground, tennis centre or ski field. While not involved with their favourite sport, they might do some shopping or visit the theatre. Since the publication of Brundtland’s report, “Our Common Future,” in 1987 “sustainable development” has become a buzzword in the global political And there could be nature lovers at the hotel. They spend most of the time arena. In 1992, “Agenda 21”, a comprehensive program of action for sustainable ambling through the National Park, having picnics near a crystal clear stream, development across industries and countries, was adopted by 182 nations but also find time to engage in other activities. There could be adventure at the Earth Summit held in Rio. In 1995, the tourism industry presented its tourists who seek the natural environment because of the thrills of white-water contribution towards a sustainable development strategy with the “Agenda 21 rafting, but that is where their interest stops. for the Travel and Tourism Industry — Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development,” published by the World Travel and Tourism Council, the World What of the ecotourists? They might do all, or at least some, of the Tourism Organization, and the Earth Council. things just mentioned, but their main activities will involve not simply walking in the National Park, but seeking out knowledge about it. What animal The “green reform” promoted by the conventional mass tourism industry and government agencies is often considered by conservationists as species live in the area? What is the geological foundation of the place? Are merely “greenwashing” or ecotourism “lite” that focuses on minor cost-saving there any threatened plants or animals? What is the area’s cultural history? measures rather than seriously grappling with the principles and practices The ecotourists will want to assist in some small way in the management of ecotourism (Honey 1999, p. 49; McLaren 1998, p. 109). Honey further of the area. contends that the mass tourism industry often promotes self-regulation and green innovations for cost-saving, while opposing any tourism industry taxes, The differences between tourist types should be becoming obvious. even those designed to promote environmental protection (Honey 1999, p. The ecotourist will be keen to discover that the hotel is practising green 32–33). productivity: it has had a environmental audit and found that there is waste in the use of water and energy; it has had consultants prepare an environmental In the past decade, growing interest in ecotourism and nature-based tourism presents an opportunity to address the environmental and social management system by which to better manage resources — to do more impacts of tourism activities, while fostering sustainable tourism. with less. The ecotourists — and presumably the other visitors also — are pleased that it is a “green” hotel. However, that does not make for an ecotourism experience. The ecotourist notices that the tour operators in the National Park are extremely careful to stay on the walking tracks, to limit

- 8 - - 9 - numbers of tourists at any point in time, and to ensure the removal of wastes. A range of views is expressed in Part B on the matter of scale and The tours are sound “green” products. And the hotel and park management related issues. At this stage in the development of ecotourism (recall it is staff work together to achieve the interests of both the public sector and of very recent origin) the optimal approach is likely to be “let a thousand the private sector. It appears that good profits are being earned each year flowers bloom”. by the operators and are likely to continue. That is, the tourism businesses are sustainable and so is the environment on which they depend. Yet, green tourist products and sustainable businesses based on sustainable ecosystems are Box 3: Definition of Sustainable Tourism (by Tsung-Wei Lai) necessary but not sufficient conditions to meet the ecotourism criteria. In Boxes 3 and 4, Tsung-Wei Lai defines sustainable tourism, nature-based The definition of sustainable tourism is still open to various interpre- tourism and ecotourism. tations. Sustainable tourism, according to McLaren (1998, p. 109), is defined as meeting the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and Ecotourism is nature-based tourism; it is low impact tourism (based on enhancing opportunities for the future. Based on the principles of ecological the principles of green productivity and ecology); but it is, importantly, both economics, Driml and Common (1996, p. 4)define sustainable tourism as an enjoyable and learning experience for the tourists (that is, the tourists want tourism which is compatible with the conservation of the existing natural interpretation of the environment they are in); it is tourism which respects environment while generating a non-declining stream of net economic benefits. The difference between “tourism as sustainable development” and “sustainable local cultures (however, it is not cultural tourism — where the prime focus is tourism” should be recognised. Sustainable tourism only has to maintain culture); and it gives something back to the community in recognition of the its viability as a profit generating activity for an indefinite period of time satisfaction gained by the tourists. whereas “tourism as sustainable development” needs to fulfil the principles of sustainable development. Ecotourism is linked to the distinctive nature of a place. It is not adventure tourism — one can bungy jump anywhere! Ecotourism is not Butler (1993, p. 29) suggested a more comprehensive definition of sightseeing, because sightseeing does not require tourists to engage with the sustainable tourism, that is, tourism place. Firsthand (or some would say “hands on”) experiences like being able which is developed and maintained in an area (community, environment) to smell the flowers and vegetation as it rots, being able to hear the song in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over birds, and pull leeches from your skin in a rainforest, are the characteristic an indefinite period, and does not degrade or alter the environment of ecotourism. (human and physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of other activities and To summarise, good interpretation services, cultural sensitivity and processes. involvement with the local community are the three issues which differentiate ecotourism from its cousins — green tourism and sustainable tourism. Readers of this book will discover debate about the acceptable scale Box 4: Nature-based Tourism and Ecotourism of ecotourism. Some advocate small-scale (village level) operations. They (by Tsung-Wei Lai) don’t believe larger operations (whether they be bus, boat, rail or cable-car tours, or resorts and theme parks) can meet ecotourism criteria. There is no The concept of nature-based tourism burgeoned in the early 1900s with easy answer to this other than to say that scale does not matter if the tourism the Sierra Club outings in the United States. In the early 1980s, the concept product is low impact (some large-scale operations can have less impact of ecotourism was developed by conservationists, such as Hector Ceballos- because of their design than the cumulative impact of many small-scale Lascurain who started to use the term “ecotourism” while lobbying to conserve wetlands in northern Yucatan for a breeding ground for the American flamingo. operators) and meets the other necessary criteria of good interpretation and To persuade developers not to build marinas, he argued that tourist activities giving something back to the community. such as bird watching would boost the economy of the rural community and help conserve the fragile ecosystem at the same time. Accordingly, ecotourism One can understand, to some extent, the proponents of small-scale was branded as a means to give nature value so that conservation can be ecotourism because until fairly recently — until the advent of accredited achieved without sacrificing economic growth. or certified ecotourism products — there was a strong propensity for the large-scale operations not to meet ecotourism criteria. The scale question is The definition of ecotourism is still evolving. According to Australia’s likely to be answered on a case-by-case basis, much depending on the type National Ecotourism Strategy, ecotourism is defined as “nature-based tourism of tourism operation, the management philosophy, government regulations that involves interpretation and education of the natural environment and is and type of infrastructure.

- 10 - - 11 - What these criteria do not explicitly focus on are matters such as how managed to be ecologically sustainable.” The Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment to have minimal impact, how to “design with nature”, how to interpret nature, and improves the benefits of local people.” Honey expands the social charac- how to benchmark, and how to prepare an ecotourist audit. Consider the teristics of ecotourism to include aspects of ethics and democracy (1999, following issues as examples. pp, 22–24). According to the broad definition suggested by Honey, genuine ecotourism has the following characteristics: With regard to minimal impact on animals, think of whale-watching. The number of tourists to a whale-watching area will be determined by the • involves travel to natural destinations; size of the area. The number of boats will be limited, the movement and • minimises impact; noise of the boats will be strictly controlled. If the tourist activity interacts with dolphins, the number of people in the water at any one time will be strictly • builds environmental awareness; limited. Feeding of the animals will not be permitted. • provides direct financial benefits for conservation; If the issue is design of an accommodation house, the basics will • provides financial benefits and employment for local people; include (before a sod of earth is turned) a climate analysis, a locality analysis • respects local culture; and and a site analysis. Climate will determine the design of the building and • supports human rights and democratic movements. the materials used. The locality analysis will determine the actual site of the building, the construction methods, the water supply, etc. At the site level, In essence, the key elements that distinguish ecotourism from other a large range of matters will be dealt with to minimise impact: drainage, tourism operations are: a focus on the natural environment, ecological sustain- stormwater, solid waste, noise, visual impact, air quality, cultural sensitivity, ability, education and interpretation, and local and regional benefits. As one of and personal experiences. the fastest growing sectors in the tourism industry, ecotourism is charged with a mission to promote sustainable tourism practices. As an example of how climate determines design, consider Box 6 which relates to a small tourism establishment in the wet tropics. At the site level see the discussion in Box 7. Ecotourism in Detail In Box 5, the eight principles of ecotourism applied by the Australian Box 6: Climate and Design: Wet Coastal Tropics (from certification scheme (NEAP) are outlined. These criteria are consistent with Queensland Tourism) those suggested by a range of experts; in fact, they could be considered marginally more rigorous than those used by Honey, who is very critical (and rightly so) of “lite” ecotourism. Climate Condition • Very humid all round with warm to hot conditions and high Box 5: Ecotourism Criteria ground temperatures • Solar radiation is intense. Focuses on directly and personally experiencing nature. • Summer is usually a wet season. Provides opportunities to experience nature in ways that lead to greater Design Response understanding, appreciation and enjoyment. Represents best practice for environmentally sustainable tourism. • 100% shading of habitable area all year round by use of large Positively contributes to the conservation of natural areas. overhangs. Provides constructive ongoing contributions to local communities. • Lightweight materials for structures (heavy materials like bricks or blockwork store heat) Is sensitive to and involves different cultures, especially indigenous cultures. • Raised floors to assist in cooling. Consistently meets customer expectations. • Roofs should be well insulated, as should walls and floors. Is marketed accurately and leads to realistic expectations. • Ventilation should be maximised.

- 12 - - 13 - • siting the development in an area Layout with natural values that can be When deciding upon the exact used to interpret the environment location of the building, and the in a wider context; and relationships between the different • considering the type of tenure, components of the development, there and rights of access and use. are a number of factors that need to be considered. These include: What to Build • The site — features of the site This process can be broadly such as: aspect, slope, vegetation, broken down into eight categories, or hydrology, soil types, fauna, ‘building blocks’. Each building block geomorphology and cultural integrates with the others to form the heritage. final design of the structure. Each will • Interactions between people play some part in influencing the choices and the site — the movement made about one or more building blocks. of people around the site, as well as the views, sounds and The eight building blocks are: smells that can be experienced. 1. layout; Opportunities for these 2. planning; experiences should be enhanced, 3. building practice; as they will add to visitors’ appreciation of the location. 4. materials; • Technology systems — energy, 5. forms; waste, water supply communi- 6. material's qualities; cations. lighting, etc. The layout 7. technology (energy, water of the buildings on the site should supply, waste); and allow these systems to operate efficiently, and should also assist 8. costs. in minimising the effects of their installation and operation on the site.

Box 7: Site Analysis (from Queensland Tourism)

When conducting a site analysis, development site needs to be selected. there are two issues that need to be addressed: There are some general rules to be followed when deciding upon • where to build; and the specific site of a structure. These • what to build. include: • building on the least sensitive Where to Build areas, or areas that have already After decisions have been made been subject to human on the best general location, a specific disturbance;

- 14 - - 15 - References • External lighting — should be kept to the minimum needed for safe pedestrian movement around the site. Lights should be positioned low Butler, R. W. 1993. “Tourism — an evolutionary perspective”, in Tourism and to the ground or controlled for coverage and to minimise glow spread. Sustainable Development: Monitoring, Planning, Managing, eds. J. G. Nelson, This reduces the impact of lighting on the activities of fauna and the R. Butler, & G. Wall, Department of Geography, University of Waterloo. visual disturbances of the natural nightscape. Driml, S. and Common, M. 1996. “Ecological Economics Criteria for Sustainable • For similar reasons, any high-noise mechanical systems (e.g. extractor Tourism: Application to the Great Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage fans) should be located within a building near areas that are used Areas, Australia,” Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 4(1): 3–16. for high noise activities (such as loading docks or playground areas). Otherwise they should be isolated in purpose-built structures. Honey, M. 1999. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development — Who Owns Avoiding, or limiting the use of these systems is the most acoustically Paradise? Island Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. effective means of noise control. McLaren, D. 1998. Rethinkling Tourism and Ecotravel — the paving of The figure illustrates a design response to a selection of potential site paradise and what you can do to stop it. Kumarian Press, Connecticut, constraints: U.S.A.

• buildings are placed to minimise or avoid damage to natural vegetation, Tourism Queensland, 1999. “Grow Your Own Ecotourism Business” Vol 1, to minimise interference with natural ground and surface water flows Tourism Queensland, Brisbane. and, importantly, fauna pathways and feeding areas;

• taking advantage of breezes, winds and access to sunlight; and

• balancing views and privacy (visual and acoustic).

Next consider interpretation, there is a need to be conscious of various facts: (i) interpretation provides information, but information is not necessarily interpretive; (ii) interpretation should be pleasurable; (iii) interpretation should involve first hand experience and awaken visitors’ senses, motivate and develop attitudes based on knowledge; and (iv) interpretative tools (guided walks, activities etc.) are only limited by the imagination.

In Conclusion Ecotourism is the future of tourism, but it will have to resolve the issue of large-scale ecotourism. Depending on the circumstances, there can be better ecological and economic benefits from large-scale ecotourism. There are already examples in Australia where this is obvious. However, scale is a case-by-case decision. The fundamentals of ecotourism (given that it is taken as given it will be based on green productivity principles, in that it is nature-based, provides quality experiences, is enjoyable, and is profitable not only for the operators but the local community) do not change with a change in scale. And there are as many ways as there are intelligent people to practice ecotourism.

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