May 28 I will let you know which day you are going!!! Please also submit a good question about your Mangals & Salt Marshes- presentation to me electronically. These question will be Vascular Plant Tidal Communities uploaded to the website as a study guide for the final. Low – energy coastal regions such as estuaries or coastal habitats protected by barrier islands June 2 & 4 -Student Presentations Powerpoint Presentation 5-7 minutes. Both people must speak during the presentation. Intro, Material & Methods, Results & Discussion

June 6- Lab practical, Notebooks & pressings due! June 10- Final 7:30-10:30pm

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Switching gears from algae to angiosperms Angiosperm Characteristics

1) Pigments: chl a &chl b blade cartenoids- B-carotene, violaxanthin flower leaves 2) Chloroplast structure: 2membranes stacks of 2-6 stem holdfast 3) Storage product: starches:amylose & amlyopectin

4) Flagella: None depend of pollinators, wind, birds, bugs, bats roots/rhizomes 5) Mitosis: double fertilization • Less tissue specialization • More tissue specialization sperm cell undergoes mitosis • Happy in salt water • Stressed by salt water 1 sperm fuses with egg to form zygote 1 sperm fuses with polar nuclei to form endosperm

3 - nutritional source for growing zygote 4

1 Brief history of photosynthetic organisms on earth DOMAIN Groups (Kingdom) 1.Bacteria- cyanobacteria (blue green algae) 3.45 bya = Cyanobacteria appear and introduce photosynthesis 2.Archae 3.Eukaryotes 1.5 bya = first Eukaryotes appeared (nuclear envelope and ER 1. Alveolates- dinoflagellates thought to come from invagination of plasma membrane) 2. Stramenopiles- diatoms, heterokonyophyta 0.9 bya = first multicellular algae (Rhodophyta - Red algae) 3. Rhizaria- unicellular amoeboids 800 mya = earliest Chlorophyta (Green algae) 4. Excavates- unicellular flagellates 400-500 mya = plants on land – derived from Charophyceae 5. Plantae- rhodophyta, chlorophyta, seagrasses 250 mya = earliest Heterokontophyta (Brown algae) 6. Amoebozoans- slimemolds 100 mya = earliest seagrasses (angiosperms) 7. Fungi- heterotrophs with extracellular digestion

8. Choanoflagellates - unicellular

9. Animals- multicellular heterotrophs 5 6

Types of flowering plants Unicellular, freshwater

Chloroplast peptidoglycan 1. Mesophytes/ Glycophytes- grow where freshwater is available & lack Glaucophytes specialized adaptations that prevent water loss

2. Hydrophytes- live in water, partially or fully submerged (seagrass) Plantae Rhodophyta 3. Xerophytes- have, morphological, anatomical, & reproductive phycoerythrin Chlorophytes adaptations to aid in the retention of water ( mangroves & salt marsh plants

Chl b, Charophytes 1. Halophytes- adaptations to prevent water loss & can grow in Starch- saline habitats amylose & Land Plants 1. Facultative- do not require saline conditions amlyopectin Embryo, 2. Obligate- specific requirement for sodium to complete their cuticle life cycle

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Adapted from Sadava 2014

2 Zonation Patterns- physical factors and biotic interactions Zonation Patterns

physical factors biotic interactions

physical biotic factors interactions

Dave Lohse

Salt Marshes -typically areas of natural salt- tolerant herbs, grasses, or low shrubs growing on Salt Marsh Zonation unconsolidated sediments bordering saline water bodies soil salinity and flooding whose water levels fluctuates tidally Over 400 species- 9 maritime formation (Juncus) Distichlis Frankenia Salt Salicornia Spartina water Graciliaria

Zostera Land

• Relatively high nutrients - detritus • Soil anoxia • Hypersaline to evaporation • Disturbance from beach wrack 11 12

3 Some adaptations for salt marsh living: Some adaptations for salt marsh living: Soil Anoxia & Substrate Type: Salt stress • Rhizomes- thick anchoring & delicate absorbing roots, • Epidermal salt glands bind unconsolidated sediments to reduce erosion, • Salt vacuoles – store salt in release oxygen reduce anaerobic conditions suppress stem, drop stems seasonally methane production • Thick cuticle – reduce contact

• Succulent

Soil anoxia: • Aerenchyma = tissue with air spaces • Lacunae = space in stem to root

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Spartina foliosa – native cord grass Ecological Roles of Salt Marshes

1. Primary Production- below ground biomass 90%, 10 x sequestration rates of terrestrial forest, 90% in soil so long term blue carbon storage

2. Food Sources- detrital food chain • Monocot in the grass family- Poaceace 3. Habitats-important nursery habitats for marine fish • 3m tall culms (stems) •Culms & leaves only 1/3 to 1/10 of biomass 4. Stabalization of Sediments- root systems •Salt glands excrete excess salt, leave salt crystals on leaves 5. Filtration- removal of organic waste by marshes lowers the • Have lacunae tissue in stems/roots allows oxygen sediment and nutrient loading to adjacent shores transport to roots (often aneorobic soil) • Occur in lowest parts of salt marsh

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4 Spartina foliosa/alterniflora HYBRID

• Problem in salt marsh communities in the SF Bay & Puget Sound

Negative impacts: • Changes physical environment (oxygen, nutrients, hydrology, accretion rates) • Displaces native cordgrass (S. foliosa) and pickleweed • Changes invertebrate community (much less rich) • Decreases available water – chokes water channels, decreases foraging area for birds • Eradication is difficult Grosholz lab, UC Davis17 18

Sarcocornia pacifica – pickle weed • Dicot- Chenopodiaceae Distichlis sp, the salt grass •Succulent- water containing cells •Concentrates salt in tissues, • Has salt glands drops stems every year • Occurs in the high marsh •Often parasitized by dodder, Cuscuta salina • Occurs in the low-mid marsh

Juncus spp, the spiny rush

• Occurs in the high marsh

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5 Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions East coast: An experiment The players: examining the effects of salt • Spartina zone gets flooded more, less saline stress on species interactions: • Juncus zone becomes hypersaline thru evaporation (Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat) • Distichlis co-occurs with both Spartina and Juncus

Positive interaction = Facilitation

Negative interaction = Competition

Research question: Distichlis Is the nature of species interactions Juncus mediated by the physical environment?

Spartina 21 Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat22

Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions The experiment: The experiment:

• Remove all vegetation in plots of both zones • Remove all vegetation in plots of both zones • Remove neighbors (potential competitors or • Remove neighbors (potential competitors or facilitators) in half of plots facilitators) in half of plots • Water (alleviates salt stress) in half of plots • Water (alleviates salt stress) in half of plots • Count percent cover of target species, see whether • Count percent cover of target species, see whether target species increases or decreases based on target species increases or decreases based on neighbors and physical stress neighbors and physical stress Treatments in each zone: - Water + Neighbor - Water - Neighbor “Control” + Water + Neighbor “Watered” Juncus Juncus + Water - Neighbor

Spartina Spartina 23 A “FACTORIAL” DESIGN24 Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat

6 Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions The results: The results: Spartina zone (less Spartina zone (less stressful): stressful): Spartina outcompetes Distichlis in Spartina outcompetes Distichlis in both watered and control plots both watered and control plots Distichlis more abundant when Distichlis more abundant when neighbors are removed. neighbors are removed.

Competition is prevailing interaction

Juncus zone (more Juncus zone (more stressful): stressful):

modified from Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat 25 modified from Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat 26

Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions The results: The results: Spartina zone (less Spartina zone (less stressful): stressful): Spartina outcompetes Distichlis in Spartina outcompetes Distichlis in both watered and control plots both watered and control plots Distichlis more abundant when Distichlis more abundant when neighbors are removed. neighbors are removed

Competition is prevailing Competition is prevailing interaction interaction

Juncus zone (more Juncus zone (more stressful): stressful): Control plots – presence of Control plots – presence of neighbors increased abundance of neighbors increased abundance of Juncus = facilitation Juncus = facilitation

Watered plots – Neighbors decrease abundance of Distichlis = modified from Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat 27 modified from Bertness and Shumway 1993 28 competition

7 Salt marsh ecology: changing interactions The conclusion: Alleviating salt stress shifts nature of Mangals interactions from facilitative to competitive Bertness and Shumway 1993, AmNat

Associational Neighborhood habitat

defenses amelioration

Negative interaction Negative Positive interactions Positive

Physical stress Mangroves & associated tidal marsh communities Consumer pressure modified from Bertness and Callaway 1994,TREE29 30

Mangal taxonomy Mangal Distribution Domain Eukaryote Kingdom/Clade Plantae Phylum/Division Magnoliophyta - angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Order Malpighiales Family Rhizophoracea Genus Rhizopora species mangle- red mangrove

- Tropical tidal habitats - 40 species of Mangroves dominate 75% of the tropical coastline between 25 N & 25 S - Orders Myrtales & Rhizophrales make up 50% of the species 31 32

8 Mangal Genera Share the following features: Mangrove Forest Classification 1. Species restricted to mangals. 2. Trees exhibit major role in community structure. 1 Coastal Fringe- along protected shoreline berms 3. Morphological specializations, including aerial roots & vivipary 2 Overwash- low intertidal 4. Plants exhibit salt- exclusion physiology 5. Taxonomic isolation from terrestrial relatives 3 Riverine- along streams and rivers and extend several at the level of genera miles inland

4 Basin- occur in a depression behind a berm or fringing mangals, connected to streams or tidal creeks

5 Scrub- occur where abiotic conditions are severe due to limited water

6 Hammock- inland tropical wetlands, isolated by fresh water

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Adaptations of Mangroves 1. Mechanical adaptations for attachment in soft sediment

2. Aerial roots are common & specialized for diffusion of gases to subterranean portions.

3. Vivipary- germination of seedlings while fruit remains attached to tree

4. Seeds & seedlings can survive in salt water & disperse via salt water

5. Xerophytic modifications- survive with little fresh water

6. Halophytic modifications- survive with high amounts of 35 salt 36

9 Mangrove Leaves Mangrove trunks & bark

lenticles- dense masses of cells that results in breaks in the bark - function in gas exchange - critical for root survival evergreen complex leaf anatomy thick outer walls & cuticles salt is accumulated in leaves causing succulence and eventually shed glandular hairs- function in salt excretion lenticles- ”cork warts” secrete water & chloride hypodermis upper layer contains tannins lower layer contain hydrocytes- water containing cells

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Zonation patterns

40% of root is used for gas exchange

Upper limit determined by biotic interactions Lower limit determined by abiotic factors

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10 Rhizopora mangle- red mangrove Lacunae- gas exchange Red Bark & Leathery Leaves Vivipary-seedling germinate from fruit while attached to tree

Enlargement of airspaces

Air spaces forming channels in leaves, stems and roots

Also have a structural role

Stilt roots- develop from the stem “prop” - develop from a branch “drop” Lacunae- gas exchange

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Avicennia germinans- black mangrove Seagrass Leaf Diagram Hair on leaves- salt secretion lacunae Bundle sheath- containing phloem & xylem Cryptovivipary-embryo grows out of the seed but not the fruit before dropping

aerenchyma

Fiber bundles Wheat stomata

Aerenchyma tissue- gas exchange Cable root with Pneumatophores- extend 10-20 cm 43 above root function in gas exchange 44

11 Aerenchyma tissue- gas exchange Avicennia marina- white mangrove

Formed by cell separation Mechanism for root aeration in low Stilt or Cable roots oxygen concentrations

Nectaries at base of leaves secrete sugar 45 Hair on leaves- salt secretion 46

Mangal Macroalgae Water Regulation & Osmoregulation important primary producers facultative halophytes- competitive exclusion limits epiphytic algae on roots = to the leaf litter from the tree them to saline habitats slow growth because they spend a lot of energy dealing with salt

salt secretors- Avicennia- 33% of the salt non secretors- Rhizophora - exclude 90% of salt

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12 Ecological roles of Mangals Coastal Resilience & Mangroves

1. Coastal Resilience Storm surge- low pressure & high winds raise water level at the coast 2. Filtering land runoff -peak water levels can exceed 7m in heightflooding 3. Stabilization of sediments Mangroves can reduce storm surge and surface waves 4. Trapping sediments 5. Primary Production 6. Nursery Habitats

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Loss of Mangals Angiosperm Characteristics extraction, pollution & reclimation

1) Pigments: Has lead to declines of finfish & commercial shrimp these species depend on detrital & benthic microalgae

Long term pollution from oil spills cause mutations in the trees 2) Chloroplast structure:

Habitat Loss 3) Storage product: seagrass 1.5% yr mangroves 1.8% yr tropical forests 0.5% yr 4) Flagella:

5) Mitosis:

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