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GALILEO: POWER, PRIDE, AND PROFIT THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF REALIST, IDEATIONAL, AND LIBERAL FACTORS ON THE GALILEO SATELLITE PROGRAM By Michael P. Gleason Master of Science, December 1997, Troy State University Bachelor of Science, May 1987, United States Air Force Academy A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 31, 2009 Dissertation directed by John M. Logsdon Professor Emeritus of Political Science and International Affairs The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Michael Peter Gleason has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of November 10, 2008. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. GALILEO: POWER, PRIDE, AND PROFIT THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF REALIST, IDEATIONAL, AND LIBERAL FACTORS ON THE GALILEO SATELLITE PROGRAM Michael Peter Gleason Dissertation Research Committee: John Mortimer Logsdon, Professor Emeritus of Political Science and International Affairs, Dissertation Director Henry Richard Nau, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs, Committee Member Chad Rector, Assistant Professor of Political Science and International Affairs, Committee Member ii Abstract GALILEO: POWER, PRIDE, AND PROFIT This study is about the European navigation satellite program dubbed “Galileo” and its ability to date to survive in the face of many serious obstacles. It seeks to understand Galileo’s ability to survive by answering two basic research questions: 1) Did realist factors, liberal factors, or ideational factors weigh the most heavily on European decision-makers’ assessments of the need for Galileo? And 2) Are European decision- makers’ assessments of the need for Galileo being driven more by the international, European, national or industrial levels? This study weighs these factors and assesses the influence of these levels upon European decision-makers at key decision points in 1999, 2002, 2004, and 2007 in order to judge whether or not Galileo’s ability to survive may be attributed to changes in the comparative weight of these factors and levels over time. iii Table of Contents Abstract of Dissertation…………………………………………………………………..iii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………iv Acronym List……………………………………………………………………………..v Part I: Orientation Chapter 1: Overview………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 2: The European Space Sector, Terminology, and GPS and Galileo Basics…...19 Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………59 Part II: Dead Reckoning Chapter 4: Setting Out…………………………………………………….…………......85 Chapter 5: Getting on Course……………………………………………….……….…183 Chapter 6: Coming Together………………………………………………….………..230 Chapter 7: Altering Course……………………………………………………………..251 Chapter 8: The Journey Continues……………………………………………………...319 Bibliography:………………………………………………………………………...…332 iv Acronym List AECMA European Association of Aerospace Industries ARTES Advanced Research in Telecommunication Systems ASAT Anti-satellite ASI Agenzia Spatiale Italiana (Italian Space Agency) ASTRO+ Advanced Space Technologies to Support Security Operations BNSC British National Space Center BOC Besoins Operationels Communs C3I Command, Control, Communication and Information CFE Conventional Forces in Europe CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy CNS/ATM Communication, Navigation, and Surveillance/Air Traffic Management COR Common Operational Requirements for a European Global System of Observation by Satellite DG Director-General DG TREN EC Directorate General for Transportation and Energy DGA Armament Procurement Agency (France) DGPS Differential GPS DLR German Aerospace Research Center DoD Department of Defense DoT Department of Transportation EC European Commission v ECAC European Civil Aviation Conference ECU European Currency Unit EDA European Defense Agency EEC European Economic Community EGAS European Guaranteed Access to Space EGNOS European Geo-stationary Navigation Overlay Service ELDO European Launch Development Organization ESA European Space Agency ESC European Space Council ESDP European Security and Defense Policy ESRO European Space Research Organization ESS European Security Strategy ETG European Tripartite Group EU European Union EUMETSAT European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites EUROCONTROL European Organization for the Safety of Air Navigation EUSC EU Satellite Center EUTELSAT European Telecommunications Satellite Organization FP7 2007-2013 EU Financial Perspective GDP Gross Domestic Product GJU Galileo Joint Undertaking GLONASS Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (Russian) GMES Global Monitoring for the Environment and Security vi GNP Gross National Product GNSS-1 Global Navigation Satellite System - 1 GOC Galileo Operating Consortium GPS Global Positioning System GSA GNSS Supervisory Authority HLD High Level Definition ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization IGO Intergovernmental Organization ILS International Launch Service IMO International Maritime Organization INMARSAT International Maritime Satellite Organization IO International Organization IOV In-Orbit Validation ISS International Space Station ITU International Telecommunications Union JTF ESA/EC Joint Task Force MOU Memorandum of Understanding MNC Multi-national Corporations NRO National Reconnaissance Office OS Open Service OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense PNT Positioning, Navigation, and Timing PPI Public Private Initiative vii PPP Public Private Partnership PPS Precise Positioning Service PRS Public Regulated Service R&D Research and Development R&T Research and Technology SA Selective Availability SAG Space Advisory Group SAR Search and Rescue SIAC Single Intelligence Assessment Capacity SLBM Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles SoL Safety-of-life SPS Standard Positioning Service SSA Space Situational Awareness SSC Spectral Separation Coefficients SSTL Surrey Satellite Technology Limited STAR 21 Strategic Aerospace Review for the 21 st Century TENS Trans European Networks WEU Western European Union WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System WRC World Radio Conference WTO World Trade Organization viii Part I: Orientation Chapter One: Overview This study is about the European navigation satellite program dubbed “Galileo” and its ability to date to survive in the face of many serious obstacles. Galileo represents much more than a satellite system. Today, it is Europe’s most important high-technology project. 1 It is the European Union’s first attempt to lead the complete development of a critical technological infrastructure which will span the European Union and the globe. These aspects make Galileo significant internationally, within the European Union, and within the European Union’s Member States. This dissertation seeks to determine if changes in the motives driving Galileo have helped Galileo to avoid program cancellation. A chronological study of the Galileo program examines decision points in 1999, 2002, 2004, and 2007. This examination reveals the presence of various factors that influenced European decision-makers at these points in time. The factors are categorized as realist, liberal, or ideational and their significance is subjectively weighed. The study examines evidence of shifts in the relative weight of these factors on European decision-makers and a subjective judgment is made about their significance. The influence of realist factors is indicated primarily by the importance of military or defense organizations, the significance of military or defense sources of money, and the decision-making authority of military or defense officials over the Galileo program. Realist indicators also include expressions of policy by key European 1 The Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs, Press Release, “Tiefensee: Galileo is an Important European Project,” May 17, 2007. http://www.bmvbs.de/en/Transport/Aviation- ,1897.996936/Tiefensee-Galileo-is-an (accessed February 11, 2008). Wolfgang Tiefensee was the EU Transportation Council President in 2007. 1 decision-makers on Galileo which convey that power is the most important tool to insure European security. In contrast, the relative significance of liberal factors are indicated primarily by the level of involvement and control of the Galileo program by civil or commercial organizations, the significance of civil or commercial sources of funding for Galileo, and the decision-making authority of civil officials or commercial leaders. Liberal indicators also include expressions of policy by key European decision-makers which point to Galileo’s importance for international cooperation, efficiency, cost effectiveness, economic well-being, and as a public good. Ideational motives are indicated primarily by evidence which shows that identity considerations, especially ideas about European pride and prestige overrode realist and liberal motives. In addition, this study considers the relative influence of the international, European, national, and industrial levels. The national level includes an examination of French, German, Italian, and the United Kingdom perspectives on Galileo. This method helps improve the understanding of the Galileo program. It provides a subjective judgment that shines light on the significance of the many motives driving the Galileo program and improves our ability to anticipate Galileo’s future. 1. Galileo’s Challenges It has not been smooth sailing for Galileo.
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