Select Bibliography
The following references are intended to supplement those given at the end of each _of the vegetable family sections; pests and disease references are given at the end of Appendix 2. Many of the following texts contain relevant lists of reference sources to specific crops.
Acland, J.D. (1971) East African Crops, Longman, Harlow. Allen, O.N. and Allen, E.K. (1981) The Leguminosae, Macmillan, Basingstoke. ASHS (1976) Proceedings of the Tropical Region Annual Meeting, American Society for Horticultural Science, Puerto Rico. ASHS (1978) Proceedings of the Tropical Region Annual Meeting, Vol. 22, American Society for Horticultural Science, Chile. Astley, D., Innes, N.L. and Meer, Q.P., (1982) Genetic Resources of Allium species, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, AGPG/IBPG/ 81/77, FAO, Rome. AVRDC (1975) Reports on Chinese Cabbage, Mung Bean, Soybean, Sweet Potato and Tomato, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taiwan. AVRDC (1977) Pre- and Post-harvest Vegetable Technology in ASia, Workshop Proceedings, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taiwan. AVRDC (1978) Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Tropical Tomato, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taiwan. Chupp, C. and Sherf, A.F. (1960) Vegetable Diseases and their Control, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Cobley, L.S. and Steel, W.M. (1976) An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops, (2nd ed.), Longman, Harlow. Dalziel, J .M. (1955) The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa, Crown Agents for Overseas Governments and Administrations, London. Edmond, J.B. and Ammerman, G.R. (1971) Sweet Potatoes: Production, Proces sing and Marketing, Avi, Westport, Connecticut. Esquinas-Alcazar, J.T. (1981) Genetic Resources of Tomatoes and Wild Rela tives, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, AGP:IBPGR/80/103, FAO, Rome. FAO (1977) An Analysis of an FAD Survey of Post-harvest Food Losses in
416 Select Bibliography
Developing Countries, AGPP:Misc/27, FAO, Rome. FAO (1981) Production Yearbook 1980, Vol. 34, FAO, Rome. Forsyth, J. (1966) Agricultural Insects of Ghana, Ghana Universities Press, Accra. Greenshill, T.M. (1968) Growing Better Vegetables, Evans Brothers, London. George, R.A.T. (1980) Technical Guidelines for Vegetable Seed Technology, AGP/SIDP/80/10, FAO, Rome. Grubben, G.J.H. (1976) The Cultivation of Amaranth as a Tropical Leaf Vege table, Communication 67, Department of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. Grubben, G.J.H. and Van Sloten, D.H. (1981) Genetic Resources of Amaranths. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, AGP/IBPGR/80/2, FAO, Rome. IBPGR (1981) Genetic Resources of Cruciferous Crops, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, AGP:IBPGR/80/100, FAO, Rome. ISHS (1971) 'First East African Horticultural Symposium', Acta Horticulturae 21, International Society for Horticultural Science, The Hague, Netherlands. ISHS (1973) 'Second East African Horticultural Symposium', Acta Horticul turae 33, International Society for Horticultural Science, The Hague, Netherlands. ISHS (1975) 'Third African Symposium on Horticultural Crops', Acta Horti culturae 49, International Society for HorticUltural Science, The Hague, Netherlands. ISHS (1977) 'Fourth African Symposium on Horticultural Crops', Acta Horti culturae 53, International Society for Horticultural Science, The Hague, Netherlands. ISHS (1978) 'Fifth African Symposium on Horticultural Crops', Acta Horti culturae 84, International Society for Horticultural Science, The Hague, Netherlands. ISHS (1979) 'Vegetable Growing in the Asian and Pacific Region', Acta Horti culturae 101, International Society for Horticultural Science, The Hague, Netherlands. Ito, P.J. (1970) 'Potato production in Hawaii, Australia, Philippines and Asian Countries', Proc. 2nd Int. Symposium, Tropical Root and Tuber Crops, Honolulu. Jones, H.A. and Mann, L.K. (1963) Onions and their Allies: Botany, Cultivation and Utilization, Interscience, New York and London. Leakey, C.L.A. and Wills, J.B. (1977) Food Crops of the Lowland Tropics, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Lorenz, O.A. and Maynard, D.N. (1980) Knott's Handbook for Vegetable Growers, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York. Lutz, J .M. and Hardenburg, R.E. (1968) The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, Florist and Nursery Stocks, Agricultural Handbook No. 66, USDA, Washington DC. Martin, F.W. and Ruberte, R.M. (1975) Edible Leaves of the Tropics, Agency for International Development, Agric. Res. Service, US Department of Agriculture. Masefield, G.B., Wallis, M., Harrison, S.G. and Nicholson, B.E. (1969) The
417 Select Bibliography
Oxford Book of Food Plants Oxford University Press, Oxford. Milner, M. (ed.) (1975) Nutritional Improvement of Food Legumes by Breeding, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Moody, K. (1973) 'Weed control in tropical legumes', In Proceedings 1st /ITA Grain Improvement Workshop, Int. Institute of Tropical Agric. Ibadan, Nigeria. NAS (1975) Underexploited Tropical Plants with Promising Economic Value, National Academy of Sciences, Washington DC. NAS (1978) Post-harvest Food Losses in Developing Countries, National Aca demy of Sciences, Washington DC. NHRI (1976) Proceedings of the First National Seminar on Fruits and Vege tables, National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria. Paul, A.A. and Southgate, D.A.T. (1978) McCance and Widdowsons: The Composition of Foods, HMSO, London. PCAR (1975) The Philippines Recommends for Vegetable Crops, Philippine Council for Agricultural Research, Los Banos, Laguna. Phillips, T.A. (1968) An Agricultural Notebook, Longman, Harlow. Ruskin, F .R. (ed.) (1975) The Winged Bean, a High Protein Crop for the Tropics, National Academy of Sciences, Rep. 17, Washington DC. Simmonds, N.W. (ed.) (1976) Evolution of Crop Plants, Longman, Harlow. Steinbauer, C.E. and Kushman, L.J. (1971) Sweet Potato Culture and Diseases, Agricultural Handbook No. 388, USDA, Washington DC. Tindall, H.D. and Proctor, F.J. (1980) 'Loss prevention of horticultural crops in the tropics', Symposium on Post-Harvest Food Crop Conservation, Associa tion of Consulting Scientists, in Progress in Food Nutrition Science, 4, Nos. 3-4, Pergamon Press. van Eijnatten, C.L.M. (1969) Report on Home Gardens for Improved Human Nutrition, 1966-68, FAO, Rome. Vickery, M.L. and Vickery, B. (1979) Plant Products of Tropical Africa, Mac millan Press, London. Villareal, R.L. and Opena, R.T. (1974) The Wild and Unimproved Vegetables of South-east Asia, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taiwan. Ward, A. (1978) Pest Control in Tropical Root Crops, PANS Manual No.4, Overseas Development Administration, London.
ABSTRACT JOURNALS Abstracts on Tropical Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Horticultural Abstracts, Commonwealth Bureau of Horticulture and Plantation Crops, East Malling Research Station, Maidstone, England.
418 Appendix 1 Cultivars of Vegetables Grown in Tropical Areas
Amaranthus caudatus AMARANTHUS SPP.
India: A 38.
A. cruentus
India: Chauli, Choti West Africa: Amarante Rouge, Amarante Verte, Fotete, Fotete Rouge, Fotete Vert-rouge, Guri 170, Kumetis 3, Nandom 11, Kulungu 14
A. dubius
West Africa: Klareon
A. tricolor
India: Badi Chauli, Banerjee's Giant, Champa, Dengo Sag, Kativa Data, Lal Sag Rouge, La.! Sag Verte, Natia Sag, Paddo Natra Sag, Palang Sag. Philippines: Green Leaf, Red Leaf, Tiger Leaf
Asparagus officinale ASPARAGUS
Malaysia: Giant French, Perfection Central Africa: Colossale de Conover, Early Giant Argenteuille, Umburgia East Africa: California 500, Mary Washington. Multiregional: California 500, Darbone, Huchels Stamdenauslese.
419 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis ASPARAGUS BEAN
India: Pusa Barsati, Pusa Dofasali, Pusa Phalguni Philippines: Bulacan Dark Purple, Los Banos Bush Sitao No.1, Singapore light Green, Tender Green West Africa: Hanbru, Iran Grey, Jebba Pea, Maherere Clay, Pale Green, Prima, Six Weeks Georgia West Indies: Long White Multiregional: California Blackeye
Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris BEETROOT
India and Sri Lanka: Crimson Globe, Detroit Dark Red Philippines: Crosby Special, Detroit Dark Red, Early Wonder, King Red West Africa: Asgrow Wonder, Crosby's Egyptian, Egyptian Turnip Rooted, Spangsbjerg Central and South America: Detroit, Detroit Red Short-top, Early Wonder Green, Garnet, Greentop Bunching, Redpack, Ruby Queen, Wonder Precoce, Sempre Verde Multiregional: Crimson Globe, Detroit Dark Red, Early Wonder, Egyptian Turnip-rooted, Emerald, Flat Egyptian, Globe, Green Trop
Momordiea eharantia BITTER CUCUMBER
India: Arka Harit, Coimbatore Long, Karela, Pusa Do Mansmi
Lagenaria sieeraria BOTTLE GOURD
India and Sri Lanka: All Seasons Long, Doodhi Long White, Hot Season Long White, Lau, Long White Prolific, Pusa Manjari, Pusa Meghdut, Pusa Summer Prolific Long, Summer Prolific Round, White Surat West Indies: Lau, Long White Prolific
Vieia/aha BROAD BEAN
India and Sri Lanka: The Sultan China: Hsinchu No.2, Kou Pan Chin East Africa: Early Long Pod, Aquadulce Multiregional: Long Pod, Aquadulce, Ada Early, Green Windsor
420 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
Brassica oleracea var. capitata CABBAGE
India and Sri Lanka: Chieftan, Copenhagen Market, Earliest, Eclipse Drumhead, Express, Glory of Enkhuizen, Golden Acre, Jersey Wakefield, Large Blood Red, Mammoth Rock Red, Pride of India, Pusa Drumhead, Drumhead Savoy, September Thailand: Big Cropper, Chogo, Copenhagen, Harvester Queen, Green Boy West Africa: Brunswick, Copenhagen Market, Glory of Enkhuizen, Milan Gros des Vertus, Selected Drumhead, Stein's Early Flat Dutch Central Africa: All Seasons, Ballhead Hybrid, Brunswick, Charleston Wakefield, Copenhagen Market, Glory of Enkhuizen, Golden Acre, Greengold Hybrid, Hundredweight, Medium Copenhagen, Milan Gros des Vertus, Oxheart Curled, Selected Drumhead East Africa: Brunswick, Cape Spitzkool, Copenhagen Market, Early Drumhead, Early Jersey Wakefield, Express Cross, Glory of Enkhuizen, Main Crop, Mammoth Red Rock, Oxheart Curled, Prize Drumhead, Savoy Vertus, Sugarloaf, Summer Stride, Surehead Central and South America: Bonanza, Brunswick, Chato de Quintal, Charleston Wakefield, Caracao de Boi, Early Copenhagen Market, Golden Acre, Green Acre, Greenback, Improved Globe, Premium Late Flat Dutch, Savoy Chieftan Multiregional: Best of All, Copenhagen Market, Early Jersey Wakfield Market, Glory of Enkhuizen, Golden Acre, Greyhound, Ostara, Pride of the Market, Prize Drumhead, Sugarloaf, Winterwhite
Daucus carota subsp. sativus CARROT
India: Chantenay, Coreless, Danvers, Early Nantes, Half-Long Nantes, Imperator, Pusa Kesar, Streamline. Sri Lanka: Early Nantes, Pusa Kesar Philippines: Chantenay, Imperator, Long Imperator, Nantes, Red Core, Chantenay Pacific Islands: Chantenay, Egmond Gold, Imperial Long, New Kuroda. West Africa: Amsterdam Forcing, Cape Market, Chantenay Elite, Danvers Half-long, Early Nantes, Early Scarlet Horn, Long Imperator, Muscada, Nantes Improved, Oxheart, Touchon East Africa: Amsterdam, Chantenay Half-long, Chantenay Red Core, Impera tor Red Core, Industry, Long Chantenay, Nantes, Oxheart, Long Chantenay, Royal Chantenay Central Africa: Chantenay Red Core, Muscade, Rouge Touchon. Multiregional: All Seasons, Cape Market, Champion Scarlet Horn, Chantenay, Chantenay Red Core, Early Gem, Early Nantes, Favourite, Formula, Imperator 58, Nantes, New Kuroda, Oxheart, Royal Chantenay, Topweight, Touchon
421 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS Manihot esculenta CASSAVA
West Africa (Nigeria): Abayode, Arubielu, Goro, Isunikankiyan, Male-Agbara, Nsukka, Ogunjobi, Ogu-ocha, Ojunkaije, Okurun-owa, Oloya, Oyanrugba dudu, Oyanrugba funfun, Oyanrugba Pupa (Sierra Leone): mack Kandah, Shenge, White Kandah South America (Brazil): Branca de Santa Caterina
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis CAULIFLOWER
India and Sri Lanka: Aghani, Continuity, Dania, Early Benares, Early Market, Early Patna, Early Snowball, Kunwari, Late Benares, Maincrop Benares, Patna Main Crop, Pusa Katki, Poosi, Pusi, Snowball 16, Snowpeak Philippines: nocos Early, Snow Queen West Africa: Early Patna, Earliest Erfurt Dwarf, Hercule, Snowball, Tropical, Viking Central Africa: Snowball East Africa: Cumulus, Early Market, Early Patna, Early Six·weeks, Early Italian, Phenomenal Early, Snowball, Snowcap, Snowdrift, Southern Giant Cross Central and South America: Piracicaba Precoce, Snowball, Teresopolis Multiregional: Alpha, Bravo, Early Giant, Extra Early Six·weeks, Patna Early, Phenomenal Early, Snowball, Snow Giant, Talmira, Tornado, White Top
Apium graveolens var. dulce CELERY
India: White Gem Sri Lanka: White Gem China: Huang Hsin Medium Early, Huang Hsin Late, Hainan West Africa: Clayworth Pink, Grand Dore Ameliore, Giant White, Golden Self· Blanching, Utah 52·70, Vert Commun East Africa: Golden Self·blanching, Golden Plume, Mammoth White, Utah 52·70 Central Africa: Dore Barbier, Giant White Multiregional: Cornell, Florida 683, Giant Pascal, Golden Self·blanching, Golden Plume, Mammoth White, Solid White, Summer Pascal, Utah 52·70
Brassica chinensis CHINESE CABBAGE
India and Sri Lanka: Chihili, Michihli, Wong Bok South-east Asia: Chang Puh, Cheehoo, Chinese Taisai; Chitose Giant, Kyoto No.3, Nozaki Early, Pakchoy, Santoh, Wong Bok West Africa: Petsai, Michihli
422 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
East Africa: Chihili, Kyoto No.2 Central and South America: Michihli, Petsai, Wong Bok
Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus CHINESE RADISH
South-east Asia: Awa Long White, Early 40 Days, Ideal Market, Mino Early Long White, Nerima Long White, Sakurajima Mammoth White Globe, Tokin ashi, Winter Queen
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus CLUSTER BEAN
India: Duragapura Safed, Pusa Mausami, Pusa Maubahar, Pusa Sadabahar, Rajasthan Southern USA: Brooks, Esser, Hall, Mills, Kinman
Colocasia esculenta COCOYAM
Philippines: Calamba, Debu White, Lampacan, Palawan, San Fernando, Tanay Africa: Sacramento, Trinidad, Ventura
Cucumis sativus CUCUMBER
India and Sri Lanka: Balam Khira, Japanese Long Green, Khira Poona, Pusa Sanyog, Straight Eight South-east Asia: Giant Climbing, Green Slicer, Market King, New Market No.2, Kyoto Three Foot, Pixie, Southern Cross West Africa: Addai, Ashley, Fabulus, Le Genereaux, Li-Chui, Long Green Ridge, Mamba, Matro, Poinsett, Palmetto, Porto Rico, Singapore Central Africa: Beth Alpha, Marketeer, Porto Rico, Rollinson's Telegraph, White Bush' East Africa: Ashley, Colorado, Cool and Crisp, Early Fortune, London Long Green, Paloma, Telegraph Central and South America: Armenian Yard Long, Armour, Ashley, Improved Long Green, Japanese Climbing, Palmetto, Pixie, Poinsett, Polaris, Stono West Indies: Ashley, Cherokee, Gemini, Poinsett, Polaris Multiregiona1: Ashley, Cool and Crisp, Early Fortune, Early Marketeer, Green Gem, King of the Ridge, London Long Green, Palomar, Poinsett
423 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS Solanum melongena EGGPLANT
India: Arka Kusumakar, Arka Navneet, Arka Shee1, Arka Shirish, Benares Giant White, Black Beauty, Gudyattam, Improved Muktakeshi, Manjri Gota, Nurki, Punjab Bahar, Punjab Chamkila, Pusa Anmol, Pusa Krand, Pusa Purple Cluster, Pusa Purple- Long, Pusa Purple Round, Surti Gota, Wynad Giant Philippines: Aroman, Bulacan, College Long Purple, Madinina, Pingtung Long Red, Sinampiro West Africa: Black Beauty, Florida High Bush, Florida Market, Peradeniya Kenya: Black Beauty, Early Long Purple, Florida High Bush Hawaii: Waimanalo Long Haiti: Black Beauty, Cambodgienne, Florida Market, Philippinois West Indies: Benares Giant White, Pusa Kranti, Pusa Long Purple Multiregional: Bari, Black Beauty, Black Magic, Florida High Bush, Florida Market, Improved Long Purple, Improved Muktakeshi, Inbar, Long Purple, New York Purple, Peradeniya, Vedette
Cichorium endivia ENDIVE
West Africa: Broad-leaved Batavian, Batavian Full Hearted, Batavian White Giant, Ever White Curled, Exquisite Curled, Florida Deep Heart, Frisee de Meaux, Frisee Imperiale, Green Curled Central Africa: Batavia Amelioree, Batavian White Giant, Comet de Bordeaux, Ever White Curled, Florida Full Heart, Frisee de Meaux, Frisee Imperiale, Green Full Hearted Broad Leaved, Grosse BoucIee East Africa: Florida Deep Heart, Full Heart Central and South America: Broad Leaved Batavian, Deep Heart Fringed, Full Heart Batavian, Green Curled Pink Rib, Green Curled Ruffec Moss Curled, Salad King, White Curled Multiregional: Batavian Fullhearted, Florida Deep Heart, Green Curled
Phaseolus vulgaris FRENCH BEAN
India and Sri Lanka: DWARF: Contender, Jampa, Giant Stringless, Premier, Masterpiece, Sprite, The Prince, Pusa Parvati, Tendergreen; CLIMBING: Earliest of All, Kentucky Wonder South-east Asia: DWARF: Black Seeded, Bounty, Canadian Wonder, Cherokee Wax, Edogawa, June Green, Green Lord, Green Ruler, Seminole, Top Crop; CLIMBING: Blue Lake, Bountiful, Golden Wax-pod, Hawaiian Climbing, Kentucky Wonder West Africa: DWARF: Canadian Wonder, Contender, Long Tom, Premier. Refugee, Tendergreen, Tenderlong, The Prince, Triomphe de Farcy;
424 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
CLIMBING: Abundance, Blue Lake, Kentucky Wonder, White Coco Central Africa: DWARF: Arian, Bagnol Thin Pod, Contender, Dwarf Lignereaux, Fin de Mouchar, Kinghorn Wax Stringless, Michalet Long Pod, Processor, Regal, Topcrop, Tendergreen, Triomphe de Farcy; CLIMBING: Blanc de Juillet, White Coco, White Kentucky East Africa: DWARF: Black Prince, Brown Dutch, Canadian Wonder, Contender, Long Tom, Masterpiece, Primavera, Processor, Saxa; CLIMBING: Abundance, Kentucky Wonder, Lazy Housewife South America: DWARF: Campineiro, Rasteiro, Trepador Multiregional: DWARF: Canadian Wonder, Contender, Long Tom, Masterpiece, Phoenix Claudia, Saxa, The Prince; CLIMBING: Cherokee Wax, Kentucky Wonder, Tropic Wonder, Tendercrop, Tender and True
Pisum sativum GARDEN PEA
India and Sri Lanka: Alderman, Arkel, Asauji, Bonneville, Early Giant, Early Wonder, Meteor, New Line, Perfection, Phenomenon, Pioneer, Show Perfec tion, Sylvia, Telephone, Thomas Laxton South-east Asia: Alderman, Black-eyed Marrowfat, Southern Gem, Taichung No.9, White Flower Tender Pod (Sugar Peas) West Africa: Lincoln Central Africa: Express Long Pod, Meteor, Roi des Corouby, Telephone it Rames East Africa: Alaska Express, Alderman, Black Eyed Susan, Clipper, Greenfeast, Harrison's Glory, Idaho White, Kelvedon Wonder, Laxton's Progress, Meteor, Onward, Perfection, Rondo, Unica, Witham Wonder South America (Brazil): Early Perfection, Elegante, Moreninha, Petrolina Multi-regional: Alderman, Black Eyed Susan, Little Marvel, Earlycrop, Early Onward, Green Feast, Onward, Pioneer
Brassica juncea INDIAN MUSTARD
South-east Asia: Big Stem, Chicken Heart, Sawi Southern USA: Chinese Broad Leaf, Florida Broad Leaf, Fordhook Fancy, Green Wave, Southern Giant Curled South America: Lisa
Brassica oleracea var. acephala KALE
Indonesia: Argalingga West Africa: Dwarf Blue Scotch, Extra Curled Scotch, Extra Moss Curled
425 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
East Africa: Dwarf Green Curled, Extra Fine Moss Curled Central and South America: Couve Manteiga, Couve Tronchuda, Dwarf Blue Curled Scotch, Dwarf Green Curled, Georgia Multiregional: Marrow Stem, Thousand Headed
Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes KOHLRABI
India and Sri Lanka: Earliest White, Earliest Purple, Kyote No.3, Purple Vienna, White Vienna Central Africa: Early Purple Vienna, Early White Vienna, Violet Goliath East Africa: Early Purple Vienna, Early White Vienna, Violet Goliath Central and South America: Early Purple Vienna, Early White Vienna
Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum LEEK
India and Sri Lanka: Prizetaker West Africa: Bulgarian, Goliath, Large American Flag, Carentan Giant, Walton Mammoth, Musselburgh Central Africa: Carentan Giant, Jaune Gros du Poitou, Southern Long East Africa: Broad Flag, Italian Giant, Musselburgh Central and South America: Giant Musselburg, Large American Flag Multiregional: American Flag, Broad Flat, Carentan, Early Market Colonna, Elephant, Italian Giant, Improved Musselburg, Prizetaker, Swiss Giant
Lactuca sativa LETTUCE
India and Sri Lanka: AI, Black Seeded Simpson, Chinese Yellow, Golden Ball, Great Lakes, Imperial 859, Improved Unrivalled, little Gem, Slow Bolt Thailand: Black Seeded Simpson, Cornell No. 456, Great Lakes, Imperial West Africa: AI, All the Year Round, Black Seeded Simpson, Great Lakes, Webb's Wonderful Central Africa: Gloire de Nantes, Grosse Blonde, Paresseuse East Africa: All the Year Round, Golden City, Great Lakes, Iceberg, New York, Webb's Wonderful Central and South America: Bibb, Butter Crunch, Caravan, Climax, Continuity, Francisco, Fulton, Mignonette, Paris White Cos, Salad Bowl, Vanguard Multiregional: Cabrillo, Climax, Great Lakes, little Gem, Mignonette, New York, Nonsuch, Pennlake, Webb's Wonderful, White Heart
426 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
Phaseolus lunatus LIMA BEAN
India: Burpee Bush, Challenge, Florida Butter, Fordhook 242, Henderson Bush, Hopi, Wilbur West and East Africa: Fordhook 242, Fordhook 861, Improved Bush Multiregional: Carolina, Easy Shell, Florida Speckled Butter, Fordhook 242, Henderson, King of the Garden, Ventura, Western, Wilbur
Cucurbita pepo MARROW C. moschata PUMPKIN C. maxima SQUASH India and Sri Lanka: Arka Chandan, Arka Suryamukhi, Genuine Mammoth, Large Red, Large Round, Pusa Alankar Philippines: Malagkit na na Bilog, Tinumbaga South-east Asia: Black Sappro, Blue Kierj, Butternut, Chirimen, Futtsu Early Black, Red Sappro, Uchiki Kuri West Africa: Black Beauty, Cozella, Early Prolific Straitneck, Early Summer Crookneck, Long Napolitan, Pusa Chilkri, Pusa Nasdar, Pusa Summer Prolific Round, Summer Prolific Long Central Africa: Black Beauty, Longue de Nice, Rouge Vif d'Etampes, Verte des Maraichers East Africa: Butternut, Cozella, Flat Boer, Golden Bantam, Green Hubbard, little Green, Long Green Bush, Long White Bush, Queensland Blue, Trop 111 Central and South America: Banana Grey, Banana Pink, Buttercup, Butternut, Early Yellow Summer Crookneck, Golden Hubbard, Improved Green Hubbard, Mexican Globe, Ranger, Royal Acorn, Table Queen, Warren Turban Multiregional: Australian Green Butternut, Banana, Butternut, Early Yellow Prolific, Golden Delicious, Golden Hubbard, Green Hubbard, Kentucky Field, little Gem, Queensland Blue, Straitneck, Table Queen, Winter Crook heck, Yellow Crookneck
Cucumis melo MELON, SWEET
India and Sri Lanka: Amritsari, Arka Jeet, Arka Rajhans, Durapur Madhu, Fiazabadi, Haramadhu, Haridbari, Lucknow-Safeda, Kutana, Pusa Sharbati, Sarda Melon South-east Asia: Earl's Favorite, Honey Dew, Large Yuki Melon, Market Gold, Okitsu, Pearl, Yellow Pear West Africa: Ananas d'Amerique, Charentais, Delicious, Doublon, Edisto Central Africa: Cantaloupe Cavaillon, Cantaloupe Charentais East Africa: Charantais, Ein-dor, Hales Best, Honey Dew, Imperial 45, Hogan, Smith's Perfect 427 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
Central and South America: Banana, Campo, Casaba, Crenshaw, Dessert Sun, Edisto, Golden Beauty, Hales Best 36, Honey Dew, Perlita, Rocky Ford, Top Mark Multiregional: Cristel, Dutch Net, Hales Best, Honey Dew, Honey Rock, Jaune Canaria, Ogden, Smith's Perfect
Vigna radiata MUNG BEAN
India: Pusa Baisakhi, Krishna, Kopargaon, Jawahar
Hibiscus esculentus OKRA
Tropical Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh): Long Green, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani, Red Bhindi Philippines: Clemson Spineless, Emerald, Louisiana Green Velvet, Native Brown, Sabour Selection Central and East Africa: Clemson Spineless, Green Velvet, Perkins Mammoth, Perkins Spineless, White Velvet West Africa: Akissi, Clemson Spineless, Green Emerald, Green Velvet, Long Green, Long Podded, Precoce d'Odieme, Pusa Sawani Central and South America: Clemson Spineless, Dwarf Long Pod Green, Green Velvet Spineless, Tendergreen Multiregional: Clemson Spineless, Emerald Green, Perkins Mammoth, White Velvet
Allium cepa var. cepa ONION
India: DhuIia, Early Grano, Niphad 53, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Red Globe, White Globe, Yedugiri Thailand: Granex, Red Creole, Yellow Bermuda Philippines: Excel, Granex, Red Globe, Red Creole Fiji: Hybrid Tropic Ace, Pusa Red, Texas Early Grano, Tropic Red, Texas Early Grano 502, Yellow Bermuda West Africa: Bombay Red, Crystal Wax, Early Cape Yellow Flat, Evergreen Bunching, Blanc de Galmi, Granex White, Granex Yellow, Lisbon White, Mulhouse, Paris Early, Red Kano, Red Patna, Silver Skin, Queen, Texas Grano, Violet de Soumarane, Yellow Bermuda East Africa: Bombay Red, De Wildt, Granex Yellow, Pretoria Grano, Red Creole, Silver King, Texas Grano, Tropical Hybrid, White Creole Central Africa: Barletta White, Red Creole, Texas Early Grano, Tropicana Hybrid, White Creole, White Valencia
428 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
Central and South America: Baia Periforme, Burgundy, Cojumatlan, Eclipse, Excel L 35, Excel Bermuda, Granex 33, Granax Yellow, Italian Red, Laredo, Primero, Red Bermuda, Red Creole, Red Grano, Ringer, Texas Early Grano, Texas Grano 502, White Grano, Yellow Creole Multiregional: Bombay Red, Early Cape Yellow Flat, El Toro, Evergreen, Evergreen White Bunching, Red Creole, Texas Early Grano No. 502, Tropicana, Yellow Bermuda.
Solanum tuberosum POTATO, (IRISH)
India: Craig's Defiance, Great Scot, Gola, Kufri Alankar, Kufri Chamatkar, Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Dewa, Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Lavkar, Kufri Naveen, Kufri Neela, Kufri Red, Kufri Sindhuri, Phulwa, Satha Thailand: Bintje, Donata, Monitor, Multa, Nascor, Patrones, Spartan West Africa: Arran Banner, Etoile de Leon, Regale Valdor Central Africa: Claudia, Bintje
Cucurbita moschata PUMPKIN (See MARROW)
Raphanus sativus RADISH
India and Sri Lanka: Chinese White, Contai Long, Crimson French Breakfast, Japanese White, Jaunpur Giant, Long White, Punjab Sel-5, Pusa Chetki, Pusa Desi, Pusa Himani, Pusa Reshmi, Rapid Red White Tipped, Scarlet Globe, White Icicle West Africa: Black Spanish, Burpees White, Cherry Belle, Chinese Rose, Early Scarlet Globe, French Breakfast, Japanese White, Long it bout Blanc, Pernot, Red Giant, Red Prince, Scarlet Globe, Sparkler, White Chinese, White Icicle Central Africa: Cherry Belle, Early Deep Scarlet, 18 Days, Long it bout Blanc, Red Prince, Sparkler East Africa: All the Year Round, Cherry Belle, French Breakfast, Red and White Bombay, Scarlet Globe, Sparkler, White Icicle (Kenya): Giant Globe, Long Red, Scarlet Turnip Central and South America: Acacia Globe, Champion, Cherry Belle, Comet, Crimson Giant, Early Scarlet Globe, Mexican Bartender, Red Boy, Rojo Grande, Sparkler (Brazil): Akumuru Hatsuka, Cincinnati Market, Compredo Branco, Redondo Vermelho Gigante, Redondo Vermelho Precoce, Sparkler (W. Indies): Scarlet Globe, Sparkler, White Icicle Multiregional: Cherry Belle, Chinese Rose, Crimson French Breakfast, Icicle,
429 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
Mars, Red Turnip, Red-White Tipped, Round Red Forcing, Saxa 481, Scarlet Globe.
Rheum rhaponticum RHUBARB
Multiregional: Champagne, Holstein Bloodred, linneus, Martha Washington, Myatt's Victoria, Oregon Red Giant, Prince Albert, Victoria
Phaseolus coccineus RUNNER BEAN
South~ast Asia: Butterfly Runner, White Dutch Runner
Glycine max SOYA BEAN
South~ast Asia: Express Green, Festival Green, Hakucho, Late Giant Black seeded, Mukawashirna, Takii's Extra Early China: Hak tau, Wong tau West Africa: Amsoy, Bilomi, Bossier, Chippewa, Chung Hsing, Clark, Hale, Hampton, Hawkeye, Improved Pelican, Jupiter, Kent Lee, Malayan, Scott South America: Bossier, Bragg, Davis, Hardee, Pampeira, Parana, Planalto, Prata, Santa Rosa, Sulina Southern USA: Hampton, Hardee, Lee, Semmes Multiregional: Improved Pelican
Cucurbita moschata SQUASH GOURD (See MARROW)
Zea mays SWEET CORN
India: Golden Sunshine, Stowell's Evergreen South America (Brazil): Branco, Cubana, Puerto Rico 50 Multiregional: First of All, Golden Bantam
Capsicum annuum SWEET PEPPER
India: Californian Wonder, Elephant's Trunk, King of the North, Yolo Wonder Philippines: Labayo, Pasitis
430 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
Central Africa: Banana, Doux d'Espagne, Doux de Valence, Large Early Neapolitan Kenya: Californian Wonder, Sweet Neapolitan, Yolo Wonder Puerto Rico: Agronomico 106, Bigheart, Blanco del Pais, Cubannelie, Delray Bell, Early Pimento, Florida VR-2, PR Wonder, Yolo Y. Multiregional: Allbig, Bellamy, Burlington, Bullnozed Red, Bullnozed Yellow, California Wonder, Cherry, Emerald Giant, Golden Asti, Golden California Wonder, Keystone, Oakview Wonder, Penn Wonder, Ruby King, World Beater, Yolo Wonder, Zaria
Ipomoea batatas SWEET POTATO
Philippines: Batanes, BNAS 51, Centennial, Georgia Red, Goldrush, Heartgold, Julian, Seedling 47 Hawaii: HSPA-3, Kona B, McBryde, Nancy Hall, Onolena, Puerto Rico, Tantalus Multiregional: Apache, Don Juan, Mameya, Mississippi, Nemagold, Porto Rico, Red Velvet
Beta vulgaris var. cicla SWISS CHARD
Philippines: Dark Green Lucullus, Fordhook Giant West Africa: White Leaved, Green Leaved East Africa: Fordhook Giant, Lucullus Central and South America: Fordhook Giant, Large White Ribbed, Rhubarb Chard
Lycopersicon lycopersicum TOMATO
India: Best of All, CO-I, Devlin's Choice, Fire Bali, HS 101, Italian Red Pear, Kalianpur Angurlata, Kekruth Ageti, Marglobe Supreme, Moneymaker, Oxheart, Ponderosa, Punjab Topic, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Lal Meeruti, Pusa Red Plum, Pusa Ruby, Sioux Philippines: Improved Pope, Red Creole Fiji: Burley Gem, Red Cloud Nigeria: Cerio 56, Harvester, Marzanino, Roma VF, Ronita Ghana: Improved Zuarungu, Pearson, Red Top, Roma VF Cameroun: Homestead 24, Indian River, Merveilles des Marches Upper Volta: Moneymaker, Roma VF, Rossol Central Africa: Kokomo, Merveilles des Marches, Super Marmande Kenya: Beauty, Marglobe, Mecheast 22, Moneymaker, Roma, Rossol, Rutgers
431 Appendix 1 CULTIVARS
Multiregional: Ace 55, Best of All, Bonny Best Campbell, Campbell 1327, Early Market, Floradel, Heinz 1327, Homestead, Gall, Indian River, Leader, Manalucie, Manapal, Marglobe, Moneymaker, Marmande, Pritchard, Rutgers, Saint Pierre, San Marzano, Suncross, Victor
Brassica rapa TURNIP
India and Sri Lanka: Early Milan Red Top, Early Snowball, Golden Ball, Purple Top White Globe, Pusa Chandrima, Pusa Kanchan, Pusa Sweti, Snowball Philippines: Purple Top White Globe, Seven Top, Shogoin West Africa: Early Snowball, Jersey, Purple Top Milan Central Africa: Jersey East Africa: Early Snowball, Golden Ball, Purple Top White Globe, Snowball Central and South America: Chato Topo Roxo, Crawford, Purple Top White Globe, Redondo Topo Roxo Multiregional: Early Snowball, Early White Milan, Golden Ball, Purple Top White Globe, Red Globe
atrullus lanatus WATERMELON
India and Sri Lanka: Arka Jyoti, Asahi Yamato, New Hampshire Midget, Pusa Bedana, Sugar Baby, Sugar Sweet, Tarmuj South-East Asia: Asahi Sugar, Charleston Grey, Congo, Cream Suika, Sugar Baby, Sugar Suika, Striped Sugar West Africa: Blackstone, Darlington, Dixie Queen, Florida Giant, Malali, Red Diamond, Rouge Commune, Striped Klondike, Sugar Baby, Tom Watson Central Africa: Congo, Malali East Africa: Congo, Hawkesbury, Striped Klondike, Tom Watson (Kenya): Charleston Grey, Chilean Black, Congo, Fairfax, Sugar Baby, Tom Watson Central and South America: Blackstone, Black Seeded Chilean, Charleston Grey, Congo, Crimson Sweet, Dixie Queen, Fairfax, Florida Giant, Golden Honey, Jubilee, Klondike Striped, Rio Gray, Sugar Baby, Tom Watson Multiregional: Ali, Charleston Grey, Chilean Black Seeded, Crimson Sweet, Congo, Fairfax, Malall, Sugar Baby
432 Appendix 2 Crop Protection Details Compiled by Susan Carr
PESTS
Acanthomia spp. (Hemiptera, Coreidae) A. brevirostris A. horrida (Germ.) A. tomentosicollis (Stil.) Spiny Brown Bugs
Serious on Leguminosae in parts of Africa. Adult bug sucks sap from the seed and is often associated with a fungus (Nematospora coryli) which is thought to result in the more serious shrivelling of the seed. The adult is a small brown bug, 7-10 mm long according to species. The eggs are laid on the leaves and the 5 stages of nymphal development take 28-35 days. Control: Chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT and endosulphan) have been used. (Hill, 1975 p. 208).
Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) Bean Bruchid
Widespread and serious storage pest of beans. Larvae feed within the seed. The adult beetle is about 45 mm long. The eggs are laid on the ripening pods. The larvae, which are white with a dark head, tunnel into and feed on the seed, leaving holes as the adult emerges. The life cycle takes 4-6 weeks. Control: Harvesting and threshing pods as soon as ripe. Storing tightly packed with dry sand so that the beetles are unable to move and lay eggs. Dusting beans with gamma BHC or pyrethrins. Store fumigation with phosphine gas by trained operators. (Hi1I,1975 p. 372, Kranz etal.,1977 p. 425)
433 Appendix 2 PESTS
Achaea acerata Hew. (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) A. terpsichore Sweet Potato Butterfly
A. acerata is a common and serious pest of Sweet Potato in East Africa. A. terpischore attacks Long-fruited Jute in Nigeria. Larvae cause serious defoliation. The butterflies have orange wings with black margins and a wingspan of 30-40 mm. The eggs are laid in large batches on both sides of the leaves. The larvae are greenish-black and spiny; they at first feed on the upper leaf surface under a protective webbing and then become solitary, nocturnal and devour the whole leaf. Pupation takes place often several feet from the ground on any nearby support. c.-ontrol: DDT has been used. (Hill, 1975 p. 281, Epenhuijsen, 1974 p. 57)
Acyrthosiphum pisum (Harris) (Homoptera, Aphididae) (= Macrosiphum pisum (Harris)) Pea Aphid
Occurs throughout the cooler regions of the world (e.g. Europe, North America) and also at high altitudes in warmer climates (Africa, India, Java, Tasmania). An occasionally serious pest of Peas which also occurs on other legumes. Adults and nymphs suck cell sap from shoots and young leaves, causing distortion. Virus vector. Adults are large green, yellow or pink aphids (about 3 mm long). They may be winged or wingless and usually only female forms occur. Living young are produced. The life cycle is completed in about one week. Control: Aphicides such as dimethoate, formothion, demeton-S-methyl, menazon, diazinon and pyrethrum. (Hill, 1975 p.153, Kay, 1979 p.297)
Adisura spp. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) A. atkinsoni (Moore) Pod Borer
Of great economic importance in India. Caterpillars feed on flowers and developing pods within a web. The web results in distorted pod growth. Control: Endosulfan, 'Y-BHC, monocrotophos are used. (Singh et al., 1978 p.18)
Agrius convolvuli (L.) (Lepidoptera, Sphingidae) (=Herse convolvuli (L.)) Sweet Potato Hawk Moth, Hornworm
434 Appendix 2 PEST~
Serious in parts of India on beans. Larvae cause defoliation. The adults are large grey Hawk Moths with black lines on the wings and pin} bands on the abdomen; wingspan 80-120 mm. The eggs are laid singly on an) part of the plant. The larvae are usually greenish or brownish with a posteriOJ 'horn'. Pupation occurs in the soil. The life cycle can be completed in 6 week! under warm conditions. Control: Parathion can be used where necessary. (Hill, 1975 p.291, Onwueme, 1978 p.188, COPR, 1978 p.81)
Agrotis spp. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) A. ipsilon (Hufn.) (= Euxoa ipsilon Rott. = Scotia ipsilon Rott.) A. segetum (D. and S.) (=Euxoa segetum Schiff.) Cutworms
Widespread and serious pests. Seedlings may be cut off at ground level and root crops deeply gnawed by the larvae; leaves may also be attacked. The adult moths have greYish-brown forewings with darker markings; the hindwings are whitish. Wingspan of A. ipsilon is 40-50 mm; of A. segetum 3040 mm. Large numbers of eggs are laid on plant stems or on the soil surface. The larvae at first feed on the foliage; later instars usually feed in the soil during the day and surface feed at night. Pupation occurs in the soil. Up to 4 generations a year may occur in Africa but only one in Europe. Control: Weeding removes some egg-laying sites. Some organo-phosphates (fenitrothion, trichiorphan, tetrachlorvinphos) and carbaryl are effective against young larvae. The older soil-inhabiting larvae are difficult to control; fenitrothion is recommended. (Hill, 1975 p.300)
Amsacta spp. (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) A. albistriga Walker A. moorei (Butl.) Red Hairy Caterpillar
Can be serious in India and Senegal. Larvae attack and defoliate the young crop and may become gregarious. Adult moths are white with blackish dots and appear at the onset of the rains. The larvae are hairy and reddish-brown. Pupation takes place in the soil. Several generations of A. albistriga occur in one year whereas in the case of A. moorei there may be a second generation or the pupa may remain in the soil for more than 10 months. Control: Hand-picking of larvae and egg masses. Dusting or spraying with organo-phosphates (diazinon, dichiorvos, dichrotophos, monocrotophos, phosphamidon). (Smartt, 1976 p.199, Kranz et al., 1977 p.510, Feakin, 1973
435 Appendix 2 PESTS
p.144-5, Singh et al., 1978 pp.21, 22)
Anasa tristis (De Geer) (Heteroptera, Coreidae) Squash Bug
Widely distributed in USA. Adult bug sucks sap from the leaves, which wilt and become dark coloured and crisp. Small plants may be killed outright. In severe attacks fruit production is reduced or prevented. The adult bugs are dark brown, hard-bodied, narrowly shield-shaped, 16 mm long, nearly 6 mm wide and have well-developed wings. Shiny oval yellow eggs are laid on the undersides of leaves. The nymphs are green, soft-bodied and wingless; later stages may turn grey and develop wing pads. Control: Not described. (Whitaker and Davis, 1962 p.178)
Ancylostomia stercorea (ZeU.) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Pod Borer
Important in West Indies. Larvae infest and feed on green peas within the pod. Control: Spraying with organo-phosphates (tetrachlorvinphos, trichlorphon) at peak flowering or pod initiation. (Kay, 1979 p.328, Singh et al., 1978 pp.41, 180,183)
Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hubn.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) Velvet Bean Caterpillar
Common in southern USA, Central and South America. Larvae feed voraciously on leaves and young pods. The adult moths are grey with brown flecks and an oblique dark line on each wing. The larvae are green or blackish with lighter stripes and grow up to 40 mm long. Pupation occurs in the soil and 3 or 4 generations occur in one season in the USA. Control: Spraying with carbaryl. (Smartt, 1976 p.197, Scott and Aldrich, 1970 p.142)
Aonidomytilus albus (Ckll.) (Hemiptera, Diaspididae) Cassave Scale, Cassava Stem Mussel Scale
Found in West and East Africa, Madagascar, southern USA, Central and South America, West Indies, India and Taiwan. Important in East Africa. Adult and nymph scales smother the lower stems of the plant and cause wilting and leaf fall. Infested cuttings can be seriously dehydrated. The adult female is a silver-white, mussel-shaped scale, 2-2.5 mm long. The
436 Appendix 2 PESTS male is smaller, 1 mm long, and oval. The nymphs are paler; they moult twice under a cottony wax secretion. Only males pupate. The life cycle takes 5-6 weeks. Control: Using clean cuttings, spraying or dipping cuttings with demeton-S methyl, parathion or malathion. (Hill, 1975 p.l89, COPR, 1978 p.l30)
Aphis spp. (Homoptera, Aphidae) A. brassicae Cabbage Aphid A. craccivora Koch Groundnut Aphid, Cowpea Aphid (= A. leguminosae Th. = A. laburni Kalt.) A. !abae Scopoli Bean Aphid, Black Bean Aphid A. gossypii Glover Cotton or Melon Aphid
Virtually world-wide distribution, except that A. !abae does not occur in Australasia, Indonesia and much of South America. Serious as vectors of virus disease. Adults and nymphs suck cell sap causing leaf distortion and wilting. In large numbers they may debilitate the plant. The adults of A. craccivora and A. !abae are black or dark brown; those of A. gossypii are yellowish-green to black with red eyes. They may be winged or wingless and 1-2 mm long. Only females occur and they produce living young. Under favourable conditions the life cycle is completed in 7 days. Control: Early planting and close spacing is recommended against the Groundnut Aphid; and burying the crop debris. immediately after harvest. Spraying with carbaryl or organo-phosphorus compounds: disulfoton, phorate or menazon are recommended as preventative treatment; and demeton-S-methyl or oxydemeton-methyl as eradicants. With beans particular care should be taken not to harm the bees which pollinate the crop. (Hill, 1975 pp. 158,160, 161, Feakin, 1973 p.123, Smartt, 1976 pp.204, 238)
Apion ampulum (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) Pod Borer
Troublesome on Black Gram in many parts of Asia. (Kay, 1979 p.380)
Araeocerus !asciculatus Deg. (Coleoptera, Anthribidae) Coffee Bean Weevil, Anthribid Beetle
Feeds on stored products, tubers in the case of Xanthosoma spp. The adult weevil is brown with light brown mottling, 1.54 mm long. The legless larvae are white with a yellow head and up to 6 mm long. (Frolich and Rodewald,1970 p.322)
437 Appendix 2 PESTS
Aspavia armigera (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae) Stink Bug
A minor pest of Celosia and Amaranthus in West Africa. The stink bug sucks sap causing small clear spots on the leaves. The adult has a yellowish body, heavily spotted, and a black head. It is 7-8 mm long and 4-6 mm across. (Wyniger, 1962 p.330, Grubben, 1976 p.148)
Asphondylia spp. (Diptera, CecidomYiidae) A. cyamopsii Cluster Bean Pod Gall Midge
A serious pest in India. A Pod Gall Midge (Asphondylia sp.) occurs in Japan on Soya Bean. The adult female transmits a fungal infection to the developing seeds while ovipositing. Either the fungus or insect larvae stimulate a gall to form and pod growth stops. The adult midge migrates to the crop at flowering and lays eggs within pods, one egg beside each seed. Two generations a year occur in warmer regions. Control: Fenthion, cyanophos, fenitrothion, phenthoate, acephate and EPN applied at fortnightly intervals from early pod set. (Singh et al., 1978 p.62, Kay, 1979 p.75)
Aspidiella hartii (Ckll.) (Homoptera. Diaspidae) (=Aspidiotus hartii) Yam Scale
A pest of Yams in West Africa, India and the West Indies. The scale mainly attacks stored yams, although in the West Indies the princi pal damage is to the young vines which can be completely destroyed. Control: Tuber setts can be scrubbed to remove the scales and dipped in gamma-BHC or heptachlor. Plants can be sprayed with DDT or malathion, as can also the storage building. (COPR, 1978 p.172, Hill, 1975 p,469)
Aspidiotus destructor Sign. (Homoptera, Diaspidae) Coconut Scale Insect
Widespread in the tropics (Africa, India, Indonesia). Larvae and adults suck the leaf sap, producing circular yellow zones and premature leaf fall. On yams they form colonies on the stored tubers causing them to shrivel. The scale of the female is round and flat, greyish-white or almost transparent and about 1.5 mm diameter; the body is yellowish-green. The scale of the male
438 Appendix 2 PESTS is much smaller and oval. The female lays 20-50 eggs; the life cycle takes 1-2 months so that several generations occur in a year and the numbers can build up rapidly. Control: Several predators, in particular some Ladybird species (Coccinel lidae) , make biological control possible. Scrubbing yam tubers, particularly before planting, gives good control. Organo-phosphorus sprays (diazanon, malathion, parathion) are effective. (Kranz et a/., 1977 p.353, Frolich and Rodewald 1970 pp.28, 40, 202, 208, Wyniger, 1962 p.236)
A thalia spp. (Hymenoptera, Tenthridinidae) Cabbage Sawfly A. proxima Kluz Mustard Sawfly
Occasionally serious pests, widespread in temperate and subtropical countries. In the tropics they occur in East Africa and South America. The larvae strip the leaves. The adult Sawfly has a dark head and thorax and yellow abdomen. It is about 15 mm long. The leading edge of the forewing is black. The eggs are laid in small pockets cut in the leaf. The larvae are about 25 mm long, oily black or green; black specimens often have yellow spots. The head is shiny black. They differ from lepidopterous caterpillars in having six pairs of abdominal prolegs instead of four. Pupation occurs in the soil. Control: Destroying nearby wild crucifers. Spraying with DDT, carbaryl or pyrethrum (on waxy-leaved crops a wetting agent helps the spray). (Hill 1975 p.341)
Aulacophora spp. (Coleoptera) A. africana Weise Red Melon Beetle (= A. foveicollis = Raphidopalpa foveicollis) A. similis Olivier Squash Beetle, Cucurbit Leaf Beetle A. virula
Aulacophora species occur in the Mediterranean regions, Africa and Asia. J:he adult beetles shred the leaves and the larvae attack the roots and fruit of cucurbits. The adults of A. similis are yellow. They can live from 100-200 days. Eggs are laid singly or in groups of 2-5 in the soil near the base of plants. The grub is pale yellow, orange-yellow when fully grown. It feeds on roots or any part of the plant near the ground. Pupation takes place in the soil. The life cycle takes 30-64 days. Control: Spraying with organo-phosphorus compounds (dichlorvos, trichlor phon, fenthion), chlorinated hydrocarbons (thiodan) and carbamates (carbaryl). (Kranz et al., 1977 p.424, PCAR 1975 p.52, Bohlen, 1973 p.82)
439 Appendix 2 PESTS
Baris planetes (Coleoptera, Curculionidae)
A minor pest of Celosia in western Nigeria. The beetle feeds on the capsules, causing a fairly high loss of seed. It has a black body with 2 light spots on the back and is about 4 mm long. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 pA8)
Belonolaimus gracilis Steiner Sting Nematode
Occurs in very light soils on a wide range of hosts. The nematodes feed on the root system and cause stunting of the tap root and reduction of the lateral root system. (Smartt, 1976 p.227)
Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Homoptera, Aleyrodidae) Tobacco Whitefly
Widespread. Larvae and adults weaken the plant by sucking sap from the leaves and causing early leaf fall. They are also important as virus vectors. The adult is a small (1 mm long) 4·winged fly covered in a white powdery secretion. The eggs are laid into the leaf tissue. The larval stages are greenish·white and scale· like; once they start feeding they do not move. Control: Spraying with DDT, dimethoate or pyrethrum (Hill, 1975 p.146)
Brachmia convolvuli (Wlsm.) (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae) Leaf Folder
A serious pest of Sweet Potato, occurring in Canary Islands, Mauritius, Com oro Islands, South-east Asia and Java. Larvae feed on leaves which they fold in a web, eventually causing leaf-fall. (Tabidia aculealis, occurring in Malaya, causes similar damage.) The adult moths have greyish-brown forewings with white markings, and white hindwings fringed with grey. Eggs are laid on the underside of leaves. The mature larvae are cream coloured with a black head and abdominal segment 5, and black bands on abdominal segments 8-10. The life cycle takes 24 days. Control: Spraying with carbaryl or fenitrothion. (COPR, 1978 p.80)
Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) (Homoptera, Aphididae) Mealy Cabbage Aphid
A major pest of brassicas with an almost worldwide distribution. Large numbers of the pest build up on the underside of leaves and feed on the plant sap causing leaf distortion and debilitation. Also important as a virus vector.
440 Appendix 2 PESTS
Adults may be winged or wingless and of a green colour masked by a covering of grey powdery wax. Only females are found and living young are produced. Control: Various organo-phosphates are effective. Systemic insecticides are better than contact insecticides because of the aphid's waxy covering. (Hill, 1975 p.154, Kranz etal., 1977 p.345)
Bruchidius atrolineatus (Coleoptera, Bruchidae)
A serious pest of Cowpeas in West Africa, but elsewhere less important being a 'field' rather than a 'storage' bruchid. It attacks only Vigna unguiculata. (Singh etal., 1978 p.223)
Bruchus chinensis L. (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) Bean Weevil
Occurs in the Philippines. The weevils feed on the stored seeds. Adult beetles are brown with two whitish spots on the back and are about 2 mm long. Control: Prompt harvesting of seeds. Fumigation of the store with carbon disulphide.
Bruchus pisorum (L.) (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) Pea 'Weevil'
A widely distributed and serious pest of Peas, particularly in cooler climates (Canada, USA, South Africa, USSR, India, Japan and Australia). The larvae feed on the seed in the field, but do not persist in store. The adult resembles a weevil. The eggs are laid on the seed-pods. Legless larvae feed and pupate within the seed, one per seed. A circular exit hole is left as the adult emerges from the pea. Control: Dusting with rotenone during the early bloom period. Seed fumiga tion (carbon disulphide or carbon tetrachloride). (Singh et al., 1978 pp.224, 290,293, Kay, 1979 p.298)
Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) Maize Stalk Borer
A major pest of Maize and Sorghum in tropical Africa above 700 m. The caterpillars chew windows in the leaves, killing the central leaves in severe attacks. In older plants the caterpillars bore into the stem and cob. The adult moth is brown and has a wingspan of 35 mm. The eggs are laid in a long line on the stem within the leaf sheath. The larvae are buff or pinkish with black spots. They feed on the leaves, leaving the upper epidermis intact. Later they may bore into and feed within the stem, where they pupate. In the second generation some eggs may be laid on the cobs. Two generations may occur in a
441 Appendix 2 PESTS year or the second generation larvae may enter a diapause until the next rains. Control: Removing crop debris and thick-stemmed grasses. Allowing 2 months to elapse between harvest and planting the next crop. Dusting or spraying DDT into the funnels between leaf sheath and stem when the maize is 30 cm high and repeating if necessary after 3 weeks. (Hill, 1975 p.293)
Callosobruchus spp. (Coleoptera, Bruchidae) C. chinensis (L.) C. maculatus (F.) C. rhodesianus Cowpea Bruchid, Weevil, Beetle
Serious storage pests. Cosmopolitan in the tropics and subtropics. Particularly important in India. The larvae bore into and feed on the seed. The adults emerge leaving small exit holes and the cowpeas can be reduced to a powder in serious infestations. The adult weevil is about 3 mm long with an oval brownish body and darker spots on the elytra. Infestation can begin in the field. Eggs are laid on the outside of the pods. The larvae burrow into the seed and pupate within it. The life cycle takes about 4-5 weeks and each female may lay up to 90 eggs. Control: Pre-planting dusts; fumigation of the store with carbon disulphide, dichlorvos or aluminium phosphide; or dusting with malathion or carbaryl. (Hill, 1975 p.373, Kranz et al., 1977 p.399, Singh et al., 1978 p.36)
Carpolonchaea chalybea (Wild.) (Diptera, Lonchaeidae) Shootflies, Stem-mining Fly
Occurs in South America. The larvae burrow into and damage the growing point. The adult is a shiny blue fly. The eggs are laid among the folded leaves of the growing plant. The larvae bore into the growing point and may kill it. Secondary growth may also be damaged. Pupation takes place in the soil. The life cycle takes about 50 days. Damage occurs at the start of the rains. Control: Resistant cultivars should be selected. Planting when fly numbers are low. Baits of DDT or malathion in molasses against adult flies. Diazinon, dicrotophos, dimethoate, methamidophos or monocrotophos sprays against larvae, which are difficult to control. (COPR, 1978 p.138)
Ceratis capitata (Wied.) (Diptera, Tephritidae) Mediterranean Fruit Fly
A serious pest on Sweet Pepper in Nigeria. Occurs in the Mediterranean area, Africa, South West Australia, Central and South America. The larvae tunnel into the fruits and introduce pathogens which rot the fruit.
442 Appendix 2 PESTS
The adult is a brightly coloured fly, 5-6 mm long. The head is brown with blue-red eyes, the thorax black with yellow and white markings, the abdomen yellow. The eggs are laid in groups below the fruit skin. The fruit generally fall prematurely and the larvae pupate in the soil. There may be 8-10 generations a year. Control: Destruction of infested fruit. Baiting adult flies with malathion or trichlorphan in sugar solution. Biological control. The systemic fenthion is said to destroy the larvae. (Hill, 1975 p.326)
Ceratoma ruficormis Olivo (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Bean Leaf Beetle
Serious in the West Indies; also occurs in Africa. Vector of Cowpea Mosaic. Control: Carbamates (carbaryl) or organo-phosphorus sprays (malathion, dimethoate). (Kranz et al., 1977 ppAO, 41, Kay, 1979 p.93, Singh et al., 1978 p.l55)
azilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae.) (= C. zonellus (Swinhoe)) Spotted Stalk Borer, Pink Borer
A serious pest in hot lowland areas of East Africa and India; also found in Sudan, Malawi, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sikkim and Thailand. The larvae feed on the leaves, causing a 'window' effect and tunnel down within the leaf sheath or into the stem. In older plants they tunnel into the cobs. The adult male moth has pale brown forewings with a dark margin and straw coloured hindwings; the female is much paler. The wingspan is 20-30 mm. The scale-like eggs are laid in rows usually on the lower surface of the leaf near the midrib. The larvae pupate in the stem. The life cycle takes 29-33 days and there are at least 6 generations a year. Control: Removing crop residues; work is being done on resistant varieties of Sorghum. Chemical control is difficult and repeated sprays of DDT or endrin are necessary. (Hill, 1975 p.258)
Cletus spp. (Heteroptera, Coreidae) C. capen sis C. fuscescens
Occur in West Africa, on Celosia and Amaranthus. The bugs cause damage to immature seeds by sucking on the inflorescence; they also suck young shoots and leaves, causing small clear spots. C. fuscescens is a light brown bug, 7-9 mm long and 3 mm broad, with a white stripe on the wings. (Bohlen, 1973 p.96, Epenhuijsen, 1974 pp.21, 32, 48, Grubben, 1976 p.148)
443 Appendix 2 PESTS
Copa spp. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) C delata C kunowi Weise C occidentalis Leaf Beetles
Minor pests of cucurbits in Africa. Occasionally appear in swarms (Tanzania). C delata has ivory-grey wing covers, yellow head and thorax, and is 5-6 rom long. Control: Organo-phosphorus compounds (dichlorvos, trichlorphon, fenthion), carbaryl and chlorinated hydrocarbons (endosulfan) give control. (Bohlen, 1973 p.82, Hill, 1975 p,438)
Crioceris livida Dalm. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) (= Lilioceris livida) Yam Shoot Beetle
A minor pest which occurs throughout West Africa. Adults and larvae feed on young leaves and shoots, particularly early in the rainy season. Infested plants are much branched and stunted and yields are reduced. The adults are reddish-brown to black, with light yellow to brown elytra marked with darker spots. Small groups of pink eggs are laid on the lower surface of leaves. The larvae are thick and fleshy and cover themselves with their own excreta. Control: Hand-picking of the pest. Carbaryl, dichlorvos or endosulfan may be used. (COPR, 1978 p.174, Coursey, 1967 p.114, Hill, 1975 p,469)
Crocidolomia binotalis Zeller (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Cabbage Moth, Common Pyralid Caterpillar
A minor pest but widespread, occurring in Africa, India, South-east Asia and Australasia. Caterpillars feed on the lower surface of bras sica leaves and particularly the growing point. They may bore into the forming head and so prevent its growth. The moth is brownish grey, slightly darker along the margin of the forewings. The eggs are laid in a mass. The larvae are at first yellow-green with a brown head, then brown to dark green with lighter stripes on back and sides. Pupation takes place in the ground. The life cycle takes about 4 weeks to complete. Control: light traps are sometimes used against the moths (Philippines). Effective insecticides include derris, pyrethrum and many organo-phosphates. (Knott and De anon , 1967 p. 177, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.l58, PCAR, 1975 p.38)
444 Appendix 2 PESTS Cutworms (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) (see also Agrotis spp.) Agrotis ipsilon (Hufn.) Black Cutworm Feltia subterranea (F.) Granulate Cutworm Periodrome margaritosa (Haw.) Variegated Cutworm Prodenia praefica (Grote) Western Yellow Striped Armyworm
These 4 species of cutworms occasionally damage cucurbits. During the day they feed on underground parts of the plant and at night they also feed on the stem base and lower leaves. They may destroy small plants but otherwise are not usually serious. Cutworm is the common name of the smooth shiny cylindrical clay-coloured caterpillar of various Noctuidae.
Cydia ptychora Meyr. (Lepididoptera, Tortricidae) (= Laspyresia ptychora) Cowpea Seed Moth
A serious pest in tropical Africa and India, particularly in the humid lowlands. Larvae feed on mature and drying seeds although they are not usually storage pests. The adult is a small greyish moth with a wingspan of 11-13 mm. The white eggs are laid singly or in groups of up to 5 on the flower or pod. The larvae penetrate the pod and feed on the grain. They pupate at or near the soil surface. The life cycle is completed in 34 weeks, so that several generations occur in a year. Control: Work is being done on resistant varieties. Time of sowing should be such that podding occurs when the moth population is low (dry season). The grain should be promptly harvested. Effective sprays include organo-phosphates (phosphamidon, dimethoate). (Singh et al., 1978 p.20!)
Cylas spp. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) C. brunneus (F.) C. formicarius (F.) C. puncticollis Boh. Sweet Potato Weevils
Serious and widely occuring pests, recorded from USA, Central and South America, West Indies, West and East Africa, India and Malaysia. C formicarius is the most commonly found and most damaging species. The adults attack mainly Sweet Potato, but also other species of Ipomoea and Maize, eating the leaves and stem. The larvae bore into the tuber tainting it with an unpleasant smell and bitter taste. Damage continues in store, encouraging secondary rots.
445 Appendix 2 PESTS The adults are small black weevils with a brown thorax and legs (c. brunneus and C. !ormicarius) or dark blue-black (c. puncticollis), and are about 6-8 mm long. They have wings and can fly quite well but move mainly by crawling. They usually appear when the tubers begin to form. The eggs are laid in holes on the base of the stem or directly into the tuber. The larvae are white, curved and legless and tunnel extensively inside the stems and tubers. Pupation takes place sometimes in the tubers, more often in the soil. The life cycle takes 4-7 weeks, so that several generations occur in a year. Control: Crop rotation. Using more resistant varieties. Using shoot tips as planting material. Earthing up the tubers. Prompt harvesting and removal of crop debris. Very dry soils increase infestations. (Hill, 1975 p.408, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.60, Kranz et al., 1977 p.403, Onwueme, 1978 p.l87)
Dacus spp. (Diptera, Tephritidae) D. ciliatus Lw. Lesser Melon Fly D. cucurbitae Coq. Melon Fruit Fly (= Strum eta cucurbitae Coq.)
Major pests of cucurbits, particularly Melon, in Africa, India and Hawaii so that crops cannot be grown in many areas. Also serious in Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Taiwan, China and northern Australia. The larvae tunnel within the fruit, contaminating them with frass and intro ducing rotting organisms. The adult of D. cucurbitae is a large brown fly, 8-10 mm long, with a wingspan of 12-15 mm. There is a dark brown leading edge to the transparent wings. The eggs are laid in groups under the skin of young fruit. The larvae are typical dipterous maggots, 10-12 mm long when fully grown. Pupation takes place in the soil, occasionally in the fruit. The life cycle is completed in 34 weeks so that there may be many generations in one year. Control: Destroying infested fruit. Biological control with parasites has been successfully tried. Spraying poisonous baits of malathion or trichlorphan in sugar solution onto the leaves helps control the adult fly. The systemic insecti cide fenthion gives some control of the grubs. (Hill, 1975 p.323, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.l6l, Kranz et aI., 1977 p.532)
Diabrotica undecimpunctata Mann. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Spotted Cucumber Beetle (adult) Southern Corn Rootworm (larva)
A serious pest of young cucurbits in North America; a related species occurs in South America. The larva is a pest of Groundnut and also attacks Maize. Adults feed on leaves and stems and are contaminated with Envinia which causes bacterial wilt of cucurbits. The larvae damage the seedling leaves and feed on underground parts of the plant.
446 Appendix 2 PESTS
The adult beetle is yellowish-green with black spots and a black head. It is about 6 mm long. Eggs are laid in the soil. The larvae are wrinkled, yellowish. white with a brown head. They grow to 10·18 mm. The life cycle takes about 50 days; there are 3 generations a year in the USA. Control: Diazanon and phorate granules are effective. The pest has become resistant to chlorinated hydrocarbons in USA. (Hill, 1975 p.381).
Diacrisia obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) Hairy Caterpillar
Occurs in India, south and east Asia. Larvae attack a wide range of plants skeletonizing the leaves. The adult moths are buff coloured with a bright red abdomen and dark spots on wings and body. Eggs are laid early in the season on weeds. The larvae at first feed gregariously and then disperse and may defoliate host plants. The life cycle takes about 3 months. Control: As for Amsacta spp. (Feakin, 1973 p.145, Hill, 1975 p.441 , Kay, 1979 p.380, Smartt, 1976 p.199)
Ditylenchus dipsaci (Ktihn.) Filipjev Bloat
Occurs in the Philippines. The eelworms attack the leaves and bulbs of Onion. Seedlings may be killed before emergence. Older plants are stunted and the leaf tips turn yellow. Affected bulbs are softened by eelworm action and are susceptible to storage rots. Control: Long rotations. Soil fumigation in small areas (dichloropropane. dichloropropene). (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.207) See general notes on eelworms under Meloidogyne spp.
Dysdercus superstitiosus (F.) (Heteroptera, Pyrrhocoridae) Cotton Stainer
Occurs widely in tropical Africa. Adults and older larvae feed in large numbers on the fruits and seeds of Okra and Roselle. The adult bug has a reddish body and head with white markings; the wings are reddish with black marks, length 14·18 mm. The eggs, yellow turning orange, are laid in moist soil or crop debris. The adult bugs are strong fliers. The life cycle takes 30-60 days. Control: On a small scale chickens will control the pest. Alternatively spraying with carbaryl (or BHC plus DDT dust). (Epenhuijsen, 1974, p.66, Hill, 1975 p.206)
447 Appendix 2 PESTS
Earias spp. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) E. biplaga Wlk. E. insulana (Boisd.) Spiny Bollworms
Serious pests. E. biplaga is restricted to Africa; E. insulana occurs widely in Africa, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, India and South-east Asia. The larvae feed on the immature seeds of Okra and Roselle. The adult moth is greenish-yellow with a heavy body and a wingspan of 20 mm; E. biplaga has brown markings. The blue ridged eggs are laid singly on the plant. The fat spiny larvae are usually light brown with yellowish spots. They bore into unripe fruits and eat the seeds. Pupation occurs on the plant or among plant debris. The life cycle is completed in 4-5 weeks. Control: In heavy attacks removal of flowers after blooming may help. Dusting the early larvae with carbaryl (or DDT plus BHC). (Epenhuijsen, 1974 pp.66, 68, Hill, 1975 p.309)
Empoasca spp. (Hom opt era, Cicadellidae) E. fabae (Harris) E. facialis (Jacobi) E. flavescens (Fabricius) E. lybica (De Berg) Leaf Hoppers
Widely distributed, although different species are restricted to certain areas; thus E. flavescens occurs in North Africa and Asia. Can be serious but readily controlled. Nymphs and adults suck cell sap mainly on the underside of the leaves. The leaves curl and dry out reducing yields. Egg plants may fail to fruit. The adults are pale green, wedge-shaped and about 2.5 mm long. The eggs are embedded in the larger leaf veins or petioles. The nymphs are paler and smaller than the adults. The life cycle varies between 2 weeks and 3 months, depending on the environment. Control: Hairy-leaved varieties are less susceptible. Many sprays give effective control (e.g. monocrotophos, phosphamidon, formothion, dimethoate as well as DDT and carbaryl). (Hill, 1975 p.132, Kranz et al., 1977 pp.309, 310)
Epicauta albovittata (Gestro) (Coleoptera, Meloidae) Striped Blister Beetle
Can be serious in East Africa. Other closely related species are common and serious in different parts of the tropics, especially Africa and South America. Adult beetles feed on the leaves and in large numbers may defoliate the crop.
448 Appendix 2 PESTS
The adult beetle is black with whitish longitudinal stripes and is 13-20 mm long. Eggs are laid in the soil in clusters of 100 or more. The larvae feed on orthopteran egg cases. Control: Very resistant to insecticides, but high doses of parathion are effective. (Hill, 1975 p.365, Scott and Aldrich, 1970 p.141)
Epilachna spp. (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) E. chrysomelina (F.) African Melon Ladybird E. [ulvosignata Reiche E. hirta (Thunb.) E. philippinensis Dieke E. punctata E. similis (Thunb.) E. varivestis Muls. Mexican Bean Beetle Epilachna Beetles
Fairly serious pests, particularly in dry conditions, feeding on a wide range of crops but especially on cucurbits in Africa and beans in North America. E. philippinensis occurs in the Philippines, E. varivestis in North and Central America, and the other species in Africa. Adults and larvae may skeletonize the leaves and also gnaw stems and fruit. The adult beetles are oval, 6-8 mm long and red to yellowish-brown with black spots; a typical 'ladybird' appearance. They are strong fliers. The eggs are yellow and laid in clusters usually on the underside of the leaf. The larvae are yellow and spiny; they are sufficiently mobile to move from plant to plant. Pupation occurs on the leaves. The life cycle is completed in about 35 days; in Africa there are about 5 generations a year. Control: Spraying with organo-phosphorus compounds (malathion and phorate) and carbamates (carbaryl). (Hill, 1975 p.361, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.237, Smartt, 1976 p.200)
Epitrix spp. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) E. cucumeris Harris Potato Flea Beetle, Egg Plant Flea Beetle E. parvula F. Egg Plant Flea Beetle E. tuberis Gentner Tuber Flea Beetle
Widespread and can be important (e.g. in the Philippines). The beetles make numerous small holes in the leaves. Larvae feed on roots and leave brown feeding tunnels in potato tubers. The adults are small black or brown beetles with a metallic sheen. The eggs are laid in damp soil and the larvae feed on underground vegetation. Control: Spraying with carbaryl. Alternatively applying phorate granules, chlordane or diazinon to the planting holes. (Kay, 1973 p.105, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.238)
449 Appendix 2 PESTS
Erinnyis ella (L.) (Lepidoptera, Sphingidae) Cassava Hornwonn
Occurs in North, Central and South America and the West Indies. The caterpillars feed on the leaves and can affect yields if heavy infestations occur in the first 2 months. The adult is a large grey moth with a wingspan of 100 mm and black stripes on the abdomen. The forewings of the male are brownish with a black stripe. The green eggs are laid singly or in groups on leaves and petioles. The larvae vary from green to brownish-black and resemble those of Hippotion celerio, having a tenninal horn. Pupation takes place in leaf litter or soil. There are 2-8 generations a year. Control: Biological control is very successful. An egg parasite, Trichogramma [asciatum, can kill a large proportion of the eggs. Polistes sp. wasps are also effective predators. Bacillus thuringiensis sprays control the larvae, particularly if used in the early stages. Chemical sprays are therefore best avoided. On a small scale hand-picking is sufficient. (COPR, 1978 p.135)
Etiella zinckenella (Treit.) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Pod Borer
Widespread and common in the tropics and subtropics. Sometimes serious. larvae feed on seed within the pod. The adult moth is brown with a wingspan of 24-27 rnm. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the developing pod. The larvae are blue with a yellow head and wriggle violently if disturbed. Cannibalism can occur if 2 larvae occupy the same pod. Pupation occurs in the soil. The life cycle takes 6-11 weeks. Control: Spraying is not usually economic although carbaryl is effective. (Hill, 1975 p.273).
Euchrysops mala thana (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae)
Occurs in Nigeria. A related species. E. cnejus, is a pest of Cowpea in India and the Philippines. larvae damage the flowers. The adult butterfly is dark greyish-brown with a black dot surrounded by an orange circle on the hind wings. Underneath the wings are paler with black and white markings. The larvae are green. Control: Sprays such as chlorinated hydrocarbons (BHC, endosulfan) and organo-phosphorus compounds (monocrotophos) are effective. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.103)
450 Appendix 2 PESTS
Euscepes spp. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) E. batatae (Waterh.) E. postfasciatus (Fairm.) Sweet Potato Weevil
Minor pests of Sweet Potato occuring in southern USA, Central America and India. E. postfasciatus is also found in the Cook Islands, Fiji, Futuna Island, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Ryuku Island, Tonga, Guam and Guyana. The weevils gnaw the tubers leaving scars and tunnels. E. batatae is an inconspicuous dark brown to reddish-brown weevil, 3 mm long, with a small yellow spot on each elytrum. It does not fly. The snout is relatively long and curved. E. postfasciatus is greyish-brown with small white spots and is about 4 mm long. Eggs are laid on underground parts of the plant. Larvae are white and legless; they tunnel in the tubers, where pupation occurs. The life cycle takes about 5 weeks. Control: Crop rotation, pest-free cuttings, earthing-up plants, clearing debris. Cuttings can be dipped in diazinon or malathion. Recommended sprays are chlorfenvinphos, diazinon and disulfoton. (COPR, 1978 p.90, Hill, 1975 pA64, Onwueme, 1978 p.188, Wyniger, 1962 p.208)
Exelastis atamosa W. (Lepidoptera, Pterophoridae) Red Gram Plume Moth
A serious pest in India and Sri Lanka. Larvae damage flower buds, young pods and seed. They may bunch leaves and inflorescences together with webbing and excreta. life cycle not described. Control: Spraying with chlorinated hydrocarbons (endosulfan and DDT). (Singh et al., 1978 p.17)
Gasteroclisus rhomboidalis (Coleoptera, Curculionidae)
A pest of Celosia and Amaranthus in West Africa. The beetle bores into stems of maturing plants, usually near the top. A black beetle, 11-14 mm long. The body is covered with a yellowish deposit; underneath this the abdomen is marked with small squares. life cycle and control not described. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 pp.32, 50, 61)
Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa L. (Orthoptera, Gryllidae) African Mole Cricket
Important on Amaranthus in Africa. The cricket cuts off young plants in the course of its tunnelling. It lives almost wholly underground. The adult has a brown body, about 30 mm long,
451 Appendix 2 PESTS with 2 long tail-like appendages and forelegs broadened for digging. The eggs (150-300) are laid in a single underground cavity. Control: None described. (Grubben, 1976 p.148, Wyniger, 1962 p.358)
Gymnogryllus lucens (Wlk.) (Orthoptera, Gryllidae) Cricket
Serious pest of Yam in eastern Nigeria. The tubers and vines are eaten by the adult; young plants may be killed. Control: Dusting the planting setts or holes with aldrin or gamma-BHC. (Kay, 1973 p.l94)
Halticus tibialis Reut. (Heteroptera, Miridae) Flea Hopper
A pest on Pumpkin, Winter Squash, Sweet Potato and Groundnut, occurring in West Africa, Indonesia and Japan. Infested leaves show light yellow patches and turn completely yellow when heavily attacked. The adult is a small shiny black plant bug, 1.5-2 mm long, with transparent wings. The upper part of the hind leg is thickened for jumping. The eggs are inserted in leaf tissue. The life cycle is completed in 6 weeks. Control: None described. (Frolich and Rodewald, 1970 p.l88, Wyniger, 1962 p.215)
Halyomorpha annulicomis (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae) Stink Bug
Occurs on Okra in Nigeria. Punctures and deforms pods. Control: Remove affected pods. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.66)
Heliothis spp. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) H. armigera (Hubner) H. assulta Gn. H. virescens (F.) H. zea (Boddie) Bollworm, Corn Earworm, Gram Caterpillar
This pest is widely distributed and attacks the fruits of a wide range of plants, principally Cotton, Beans, Maize and Sorghum; also Potato, Tomato, Pigeon and Chick Peas. H. zea occurs in America and H. armigera in Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia but otherwise these two species are almost indistinguishable. H. virescens is serious in the West Indies. The adult moth is brown with a wingspan of 40 mm. The yellow eggs are
452 Appendix 2 PESTS laid on plants; the caterpillar is usually brownish or greenish with pale and dark stripes along the body. There are 6 larval instars. Pupation occurs in the soil. There may be 5 or 6 generations in one season and one female may lay more than 1000 eggs. Control: Grow susceptible crops apart from each other. Spray early with carbaryl, malathion or mevinphos. (Hill, 1975 p.294, Kay, 1979 p.57, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.267, Kranz et al., 1977 p,479)
Heliothrips spp. (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) H. fasciatus H. indicus Bagn. Thrips
H. indicus is a pest of Cocoyam in Africa and India; H. fasciatus attacks Lima Beans. Thrip damage usually shows as a silverish discoloration of the leaves and can result in severe leaf shedding. The adults are minute light brown thrips, about 2-3 mm long, and they insert their eggs into the leaves. Several generations occur in a season. Control: Not described. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.280, Wyniger, 1962 p.348)
Hellula spp. (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) H. phidilealis Wlk. H. undalis Oriental Cabbage Worm
H. phidilealis occurs in Central and South America and Sierra Leone. Important pests of Crucifers; H. undalis is found in northern, middle and southern Africa, Near and Middle East, eastern Asia and Australia. Larvae tunnel in and feed on leaves, stems, growing points and roots. Leaves are spun together in a web. Larvae (H. undalis) are creamy-white with brown stripes and black heads. They are 15 mm when fully grown. Control: Dichlorvos, trichlorphon, malathion, carbaryl. (Bohlen, 1973 p.80, Hill, 1975 p,427)
Hemitarsonemus latus (see Polyphagotarsonemus latus)
Herse cingulata Fabr. (Lepidoptera, Sphingidae) Sphinx Moth
A pest on Sweet Potato occurring in Central and South America, West Indies and Australia. The leaves are heavily attacked and often stripped to the midrib.
453 Appendix 2 PESTS
The adult is a large brownish-grey moth with indistinct light spots; the body segments are reddish-brown and dark brown. The wingspan is up to 100 mm. The fleshy caterpillars are greyish-brown with light and dark dorsal lines; the tail end bears an orange and red dorsal horn. Pupation takes place on the ground. The life cycle takes 6-8 weeks. Control: Not described. (Wyniger, 1962 p.212)
Herse convolvuli (see Agrius convolvuli)
Heteroligus appius (Burm.) (Coleoptera, Dynastidae) Lesser Yam Beetle
Occurs on Yam in West Africa. Both larvae and adults feed on the tubers. The adult beetle is similar in appearance to H. meles but smaller (21-22.5 mm long). The eggs are laid close to the Yam plants and the larvae pupate in the soil. The beetles migrate to wetter regions during the dry season but, unlike H. meles, return to breed. There is one generation a year. Control: Dusting the planting holes or the setts with aldrin or gamma-BHC. (COPR, 1978 p.170, Coursey, 1967 p.109)
Heteroligus meles (Billb.) (Coleoptera, Dynastidae) (=H. claudius Klug) Greater Yam Beetle
A serious pest of Yam in tropical Africa. The beetles feed on the tubers, both the planting setts and towards harvest. Young plants may die and the harvested tubers are of poor quality and pre disposed to rot. The adult beetles are 23-33 mm long, dark brown to black with 2 conspicuous tubercles on the head. The eggs are laid in damp soil close to rivers. The larvae are cream-white to grey and initially feed on dead organic matter in the soil and later on plant roots. Emergence from the pupa is stimulated by the onset of the rainy season and the beetles migrate to the Yam fields, attracted particularly by vigorous leafy plants. They feed voraciously for 4-5 months, become quiescent for 2 months, then feed again before the breeding migration. One generation a year. Control: Dusting the planting holes or the setts with aldrin or gamma-BHC. late planting, although this results in reduced yields. (COPR, 1978 p.169, Coursey, 1967 p.109)
Heteronychus spp. (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) H. santa-helenae Blanch. Black Maize Beetle, Sugarcane Beetle
454 Appendix 2 PESTS
H ficas (Klug) Lesser Yam Beetle H consimiIis Kolbe
Important pests of cereals, Sugarcane and Yam in many parts of tropical Africa. H consimifis is confined to East Africa. Adult beetles gnaw through stems just below ground level. The larvae feed on the roots and although less damaging they cause wilting and yellowing of the plant. The adult is a black, rounded scarab beetle, 15-20 mm long. The eggs are laid in moist soil at the base of the plants. The larvae are curved, 6-legged grubs. There is usually one generation a year. Control: Chlorinated hydrocarbon seed dressings have been used (aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, gamma-BHC). (Hill, 1975 p.355)
Hilda patruelis St~l (Homoptera, Tettigometridae) Groundnut Hopper
A locally serious pest in parts of Africa (Nigeria, Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique). Adults and nymphs suck sap from stems, pegs and pods usually just below soil level. They live in association with black ants. The adult bug is 4-5 mm long and either completely green or with greenish brown markings and white patches on the forewing. Batches of eggs are laid on the stem at or below ground level. The nymphs are like the adults but wing less. The life cycle can be completed in 6 weeks. Control: Not usually necessary. Treating the soil with dieldrin before planting controls the ants which protect the bugs from predators. (Hill, 1975 p.137)
Hippotion celerio (L.) (Lepidoptera, Sphingidae) Taro Hornworm, Taro Hawkmoth, Silver Striped Hawkmoth
A widespread pest of Taro, found in the Old World Tropics, Australia, Pacific Islands and also in temperate regions. Serious in India and the Pacific Islands. The larvae feed on the underside of leaves especially around the edges and can cause severe defoliation. The Hawkmoth is brown with white markings on the forewings, and black on the hindwings which also have a red tinge near the base. The wingspan is 70 mm. Eggs are laid on the leaves and stems. The larvae are green (occasionally brown) with a pale yellow lateral stripe, 2 'eye' spots on the fourth and fifth segments and a pink or black horn at the tail end. Control: Hand-picking may suffice. Carbaryl can be used. In the Solomon Islands a naturally occurring predator (Palexorista sp.) keeps numbers in check. (COPR, 1978 p.200)
455 Appendix 2 PESTS
Hylemya antiqua (Meig.) (Diptera, Anthomyiidae) Onion Fly
A minor pest of Onion in Europe, Egypt and USA. Larvae bore into stems and bulbs. The adults are slender grey flies about 6 mm long. Eggs are laid in the soil. Control: Diazinon, ethion, fensulfothion. (Hill, 1975 p.448)
Hymenia recurvalis F. (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Leaf Caterpillar, Beet Webworm
A relatively important pest of Beet, Celosia and Amaranthus, occurring in Africa, India and Melanesia. The caterpillar feeds on the leaves which it may roll up within a web. The adult has dark brown wings with white stripes. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars are small (up to 20 mm) and smooth. Pupation takes place in the soil. The life cycle takes 23-35 days. Control: Chemicals such as bromophos, carbaryl and lindane are used. Mela thion is effective but taints the leaves. Biological control is being tried with promising results. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.3l, Grubben, 1976 p.154)
Lagria villosa T. (Coleoptera, Lagriidae)
Occurs in Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania) on a wide range of plants including Pumpkin, Winter Squash and Okra. A leaf eating beetle. The beetle is a dark metallic brown, covered with short hair and about 12 mmlong. Control: Not described. (Bohlen, 1973 p.94, Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.66, Frolich and Rodewald, 1970 p.175)
Laphygma exigua (see Spodoptera exigua) Laphygma frugiperda (see Spodoptera frugiperda)
Laspeyresia glycinivorella Mats. (Lepidoptera, Torricidae) Soya Bean Moth, Pod Borer
Occurs in north-eastem Asia (China, Japan, Korea). The larvae feed on the seed within the pod. The adult moth has reddish or yellowish-brown forewings; the hindwings are greyish. The eggs are laid singly on developing pods. Pupation occurs in the soil.
456 Appendix 2 PESTS Control: Pod-boring caterpillars can be controlled with organo-phosphates such as tetrachlorvinphos, azinphos-methyl and fenitrothion, and by carbaryl. (Hill, 1975 p.273, Smartt, 1976 p.21l)
Ligyrus spp. (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) L. ebenus (Degeer) (South and Central America, Jamaica) L. cuniculus (F.) (Brazil, French Guiana and West Indies)
A serious root pest. Adults and larvae tunnel into the roots, especially of watered plants in dry weather, causing plants to wilt. The adult beetles are dark brown to black, 25 mm long and have a domed back. Eggs are laid singly in soil and organic material. The larvae are curved and 6-legged. Pupation takes place in the soil. The adults emerge at night, after 14 days. Control: In small areas affected plants can be dug up, the grubs killed by pushing wire through the tunnels, and replanted. Biological control with a para sitic wasp (Campsomeris dorsata) or a fungus is a possibility. (COPR, 1978 p.204)
Lilioceris livida (Dalm.) (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Yam Shoot Beetle
Occurs throughout West Africa and many areas in East Africa. Adults and larvae feed on young leaves and shoots. The adult beetles are reddish-brown to black, with light yellow to brown elytra on which are dark spots. The pink elongated eggs are laid in small groups on the underside ofleaves. The larvae are thick and fleshy. Control: Hand-picking of the larvae; spraying with carbaryl, dichlorvos or endosulfan. (COPR, 1978 p.174)
Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) (Homoptera, Aphididae) (= L. pseudobrassicae) False Cabbage Aphid, Mustard or Turnip APhid
A serious pest of brassicas; also found on other vegetables. It occurs in all tropical and subtropical countries. Adults and larvae feed on cell sap in large numbers, causing leaves to yellow and impairing seed production. Their sugary secretion encourages the growth of sooty mould. They can transmit viruses. The adults are yellowish-green, 2-2.5 mm long, and may be winged or wingless. Only female forms occur in the tropics and they produce living young, which mature in 10-16 days. Control: Natural enemies include some species of ladybirds and hoverflies, and certain fungal parasites. Waxy varieties of brassica are somewhat resistant.
457 Appendix 2 PESTS Sprays include organo-phosphates, carbaryl and nicotine sulphate. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.335)
Longitarsus manilensis Weise (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Flea Beetles
Found in the Philippines on Pigeon Pea. The adult flea beetles feed on the leaves at night; they are attracted by lush growth. Ufe cycle and control measures not described, but see Epitrix spp. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.89, Singh et al., 1978 pp.312, 318)
Lixus trunculatus F. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) Stem Borer
A relatively major pest of Amaranthus in West Africa; also occurs in India. The larvae bore tunnels in the basal part of the stalk, weakening the plant and reducing yields. The adult beetle is 7-12 mm long, black and covered in black or golden down. The female lays the eggs (about 200) into the stalk cortex. The larvae tunnel down the stem and pupate after 20·30 days. Up to 10 larvae may be found in one plant. Control: Burn crop debris. Insecticides such as bromophos, carbaryl and lindane. (Grubben, 1976 p.156)
Maruca testulalis Geyer (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Bean Pod Borer, Spotted Borer or Mung Moth
A widely distributed and important pest of tropical grain legumes. larvae feed voraciously on the flowers and affect the development of the pods. The moth has brown forewings with white markings and a wingspan of about 25 mm. Groups of 2-16 pale yellow eggs are laid on the petals and sepals. The larvae are yellowish-, greenish-, or reddish-white, about 15 mm long, with dark spots. Pupation occurs on the soil. The life cycle is completed in 18-35 days. Control: Repeated applications of DDT or gamma-BHC at the time of flowering give some control. Research is being done on resistant varieties and cultural methods of control. (Bohlen, 1973 p.92, PCAR, 1975 p.7, Singh et al., 1978 p.193)
Megastes grandalis Guen (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Sweet Potato Pyralid Moth, Stem Borer
Found in South America and the West Indies.
458 Appendix 2 PESTS
The caterpillars tunnel in the stems and tubers of Sweet Potato. Growth is checked and the leaves wilt and die. The adult is a small dull-coloured moth with a wingspan of 25-30 mm. Groups of 2-3 eggs are laid in axils, on. petioles, or undersides of leaves. The caterpillars bore into the stem and tunnel towards the tubers, in which they feed without damaging the surface. Pupation occurs near the base of the stem. The life cycle takes 6-8 weeks and they are active during the dry season. Control: Sprays of carbaryl, chlorvinphos, malathion or methomyl are recommended in the West Indies. (COPR, 1978 p.91, Wyniger, 1962 p.210)
Melanagromyza obtusa M. ([ijptera,~romyzidae) (= Agromyza obtusa) Pod Fly
A serious pest of Pigeon Pea in India and Sri Lanka. Larvae feed on the seeds. The female fly lays the eggs inside the pods, preferring tender plants and particularly attacking the late varieties. Damaged seeds show a distinct striping and the pods are twisted. The detailed life cycle is not recorded. Control: Spraying with endrin, endosulfan (chlorinated hydrocarbons) or monocrotophos (organo-phosphate). A chalcid (Euderus lividus) parasitises the larvae. (Kay, 1979 p.328, Singh et aI, 1978 pp.16, 26-28, 32, 36, 38)
Meloidogyne spp. (Heteroderidae) Root-knot Nematodes
Widespread and serious pests of many tropical crops. The nematodes stimulate the formation of root galls interfering with plant water supply and resulting in stunted and chlorotic growth. Affected plants can be predisposed to disease. The female secretes a gelatinous sac containing several hundred eggs. This can burst through the root surface and the larvae hatch in the soil. They enter soft plant tissue such as root tips and stimulate the formation of gall tissue on which they feed. The female is an entirely sedentary parasite but the male may be free-living in the soil. In favourable conditions up to 10 generations occur in a year. Control: Resistant varieties have a hypersensitive reaction and encapsulate the larvae in necrotic tissue. Crop rotation is not always successful because of the wide range of hosts. Hot water treatment of setts involves heat treatment at 65°C for several hours. Drying out the soil by deep ploughing, flooding and ploughing in of certain organic residues, e.g. Ricinus communis, Arachis hypogea, are sometimes successful. (COPR, 1978 p.l65, Coursey, 1967 p.1l7, Kranzetal., 1977 p.251)
459 Appendix 2 PESTS
Mirperus jaculus (Heteroptera, Coreidae) Plant Bug
Minor pest of Okra in Nigeria. Adults and nymphs feed on stems and petioles, causing plants to wilt. The adult bugs are black and about 22-25 mm long, 6-8 mm wide. Control: Not generally necessary. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 pp.66, 100)
Monolepta bifasciatea Hornst. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Leaf Beetle, Corn Silk Beetle
A minor pest of Sweet Corn in Australia and the Philippines. The beetles eat the silks and so interfere with pollination. The adult beetles are buff yellow with purplish bands and are 4-6 mm long. Control: Treat silks with carbaryl (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.259)
Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar) (Acarina, Tetranychidae) Tanajoa, Green Cassava Mite, Green Spider Mite
Occurs in Central and East Africa, Central and South America, and the West Indies. The mites feed on the growing point, young leaves and stems. Leaves develop mosaic symptoms and yellow spots, darken and become deformed. Plants are stunted and may branch. The eggs are laid singly on the underside of leaves. There are 3 nymphal stages. The adult female may be wind-dispersed after lowering itself on a silken thread. Mite damage is most serious in dry weather, since in wet weather they are washed off the plants. In the laboratory the life cycle is completed in 7-11 days. Control: Biological control with predaceous mites and Staphylinid beetles is effective in Central America. Acaricides such as diazinon, dimethoate and mancozeb can be used. (COPR, 1978 p.140, Hill, 1975 p.429)
Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae)
An important pest of Yam Bean in Nigeria. The larvae bore into the green pods and feed voraciously on the beans. The adult moth has brown to dark grey forewings and whitish hindwings with a brown stripe. The wingspan is 22 mm. The larvae are pinkish. Control: Not described. (Epenjuijsen, 1974 p.90)
Myiabris spp. (Coleoptera, Meloidae) M chinensis M farqunarsoni
460 Appendix 2 PESTS
M. temporalis Flower Beetles, Blister Beetles
Widespread and common in Africa and Asia. Can be serious on Cowpea and Water Leaf. The adult beetles feed on the flowers. The adult beetles are large (25-35 mm long) with conspicuous red or yellow and black markings. If touched they give off an acrid fluid which blisters the skin. The eggs are laid in the soil. The larvae are often num'erous after locust invasion since they feed on Orthopteran eggs. Pupation occurs in the soil. Control: Not generally necessary. Chlorinated hydrocarbons (BHC, endosulfan) are effective. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.94, Hill, 1975 p.366)
Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae) Southern Green Stink Bug, Green Vegetable Bug
A widespread and polyphageous pest, important on a range of fruit and vegetables. Feeding punctures of older nymphs and adults disfigure the pods and fruit; immature fruit may fall. The bug is often contaminated with Nematospora fungus which may contribute to the damage. The adults are large green shield bugs, about 15 by 8 mm. The eggs are laid in flat sheets of 50-60 on the underside of the leaf. Development is slow (3 genera tions a year in Egypt) and dependent on the presence of seeds or fruit. Control: Not necessary in Africa. Methyl-parathion controls most bugs. In Australia DDT, phorate and BHC are used. (Hill, 1975 p.221, Hinson and Hartwig, 1977 p.68)
Nisotra spp. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) N. gem ella Erich. Flea Beetles
Pests on Okra in the Philippines. The beetles feed on the leaves. The adult beetle is small and bluish-black. The eggs are laid in the soil. The larvae feed on the roots without significant damage. The adults feed on the outer layers of leaf tissue and are particularly damaging when they attack the cotyledons. Control: Carbaryl. (Frolich and Rodewald, 1970 p.269, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.267)
Noctuidae spp. (see Cutworms)
461 Appendix 2 PESTS Ochropleura flammatra (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) Cutwonn
Serious in India, especially on Chick Pea and Lentils. Larvae cut through stems and branches and feed on foliage at night. Control: Dusting BHC (or aldrin) on to lower parts of plant and raking it in the soil where the larvae hide during the day. (Singh et al., 1978 pp.19, 27)
Omphisa anastomosalis Guen (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Sweet Potato Stem or Vine Borer
A pest of Sweet Potato found in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, China, Japan and Hawaii. The larvae tunnel through the stem and, in heavy attacks, mine into the tuber. The leaves wilt and wither. The moth has white wings with a reddish tinge, wingspan is 33 mm. The eggs are laid on stems, leaf stalks or leaves. The yellowish-white caterpillars have brown tubercles; they tunnel, feed and pupate within the stem. The life cycle is completed in 6-8 weeks. Control: Crop hygiene and crop rotation. Sprays of carbaryl or BHC are used in Malaysia. (COPR, 1978 p.92, Wyniger, 1962 p.210)
Ophiomyia phaseoli (Tryon) (Diptera, Agromyzidae) (= Melanogromyza phaseoli (Tryon» Bean Fly
Widespread and important pest of legumes, particularly in West Africa (Senegal). The larvae tunnel within petioles and stems, causing yellowing and stunted growth. Heavily infested plants may die. The adult fly is a small (about 2 mm long) black midge. Eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves. The small white larvae tunnel down through the stem and pupate within it, causing swellings and cracking near ground level. The life cycle is completed in 2-3 weeks. Control: Avoid growing crops in the dry season when the damage is greatest. Burning crop residues and rotation. Seed dressing with organo-phosphorus compounds (disulfoton, phorate) or spraying with carbamates (carbaryl). (Hill, 1975 p.329, Kranz eta/., 1977 p.519)
Ostrinia furnacalis (Gn.) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) (=Pyrausta salientialis (Snell.» Corn Borer
A serious pest of Sweet Corn, occurring throughout Central and South-east Asia and Australiasia.
462 Appendix 2 PESTS
The larvae bore into the stems, disrupting the development of the ear and often causing the plant to collapse. The adult moth has yellowish wings with wavy brown markings, and a wing span of up to 30 mm. The eggs are laid in clusters on the underside of leaves. The larvae at first feed on the leaves and young flower spikes, then tunnel through the leaf ribs down into the stem. Pupation occurs towards the base of the stem or in the soil. There may be more than one generation a year, depending on the temperature. Control: Cultural practices such as clearing the stubble, planting late to avoid egg laying and using resistant cultivars. Spraying the larvae before they begin to tunnel with trichlorphon, parathion, carbofuran. (Hill, 1975 p.270)
Palaeopus costicollis Mshl. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) (= Palaeopus dioscorea Pierce) Yam Weevil
An occasional pest of Yam in Cuba and Jamaica. The adults and larvae tunnel into the tubers, particularly the head ends which are normally used for planting. The adult weevils are dull black, red-legged and about 4 mm long. The larvae are legless. Control: Using clean planting material. Crop rotation. Washing the setts in Bordeaux mixture plus lead arsenate. Dusting planting holes or setts as for Heteroligus meles. (COPR, 1978 p.171, Coursey, 1967 p.114)
Papuana spp. (Coleoptera, Dynastidae) P. huebneri (Fairm) P. inermis Prell P. woodlarkiana (Montr.) var. laevipennis Taro Beetles
The beetles are pests of Cocoyam in Australasia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. 'The adult beetles tunnel in the corm and up to the growing point. Young plants wilt and die, older plants usually recover. Damaged corms are susceptible to storage rots. The adult beetles are dark brown to black with anterior horns, and 20-27 mm long. The eggs are laid underground near a host plant. Larvae feed on organic matter and probably roots. Pupation takes place as much as one metre below the soil surface. The life cycle takes from 119-215 days, depending on the species. Control: Gamma-BHC or gamma-BHC plus carbaryl granules in the planting holes. (COPR, 1978 p.202)
463 Appendix 2 PESTS
Parasaiosetia nigra (Nietn.) (Hemiptera, Coccidae) Black Scale
Found in most warm countries. Adults and larvae infest Cassava stems but do not normally affect yields of vigorous plants. However, infested cuttings make poor plants, if they root at all. The adult female scale is dark brown or black, domed, 2-4 mm long and has a waxy appearance. Eggs are laid beneath the scale and the young crawl over the plant before settling down to feed. Females moult twice and males 3 times. Control: Using clean cuttings. DDT, kerosene emulsion and parathion have been recommended for scale control. (COPR, 1978 p.132)
Pectinophora gossypiella (Saund.) (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae) (= Platyedra gossypiella (Saund.)) Pink Bollworm
A potentially serious pest of Okra but easily controlled. Widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics. The larvae feed on the flower buds and the seeds. The adult is a small brown moth, wingspan 15-20 mm. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups near a flower bud. The larvae are at first white and later develop red transverse bands above. They tunnel into the fruit near the base and feed within. Pupation occurs in the leaf litter, or in cooler regions inside the fruit. The life cycle takes 5-6 weeks. Control: Removal of crop debris and allowing a short gap between successive crops helps reduce attacks. Carbaryl sprays are effective. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.67, Hill, 1975 p.245)
Phyllotreta spp. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Flea Beetles
Widespread and common in the tropics, but usually of minor importance. Adults feed on the leaves of seedlings and young plants, producing numerous small round holes. The larvae feed on the roots but do no serious damage. The adults are normally black with a metallic green sheen or else black with yellow stripes; they are 1.5-3 mm long. They move by jumping. Eggs are laid singly or in groups near the host plant and pupation takes place in the soil. In temperate zones there are 3 generations a year. Control: If necessary a seed dressing of BHC, or treatment with DDT, BHC or derris dust. Favourable growing conditions reduce the sensitive growth phase. (Hill, 1975 p.383, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.l74)
464 Appendix 2 PESTS
Pieris spp. (Lepidoptera, Pieridae) P. canidia Sparman Cabbage White Butterfly
The caterpillars feed on the leaves and may strip the whole plant. The Small White Butterfly (P. rapae) has a wingspan of about 50 mm, the wings being yellowish white. The forewings have black markings along the top and black dots (one in the male, 2 in the female). The Large White (P. brassicae) is bigger. The eggs are laid on the leaves singly (P. rapae) or in clusters (p. brassicae). The caterpillars of P. rapae grow to about 20 mm and are yellow green, becoming green; those of P. brassicae are about 30 mm, green with black spots and yellow lines. Pupation takes place in crevices or among dead leaves. Control: Spraying with derris, pyrethrum or organo-phosphates. DDT can be used but resistant strains develop. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.178)
Piesma dilutus (Heteroptera, Piesmidae)
Occurs on Amaranthus in Nigeria. The bug transmits a virus and causes the young leaves to become lumpy and the leaf margins to curl. An active bug, about 34 mm long, light brown above and green below. It sucks sap in the leafaxils at the end of the wet season and the beginning of the dry season. Control: Not described. (Epenjuijsen, 1974 p.31)
Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera, Yponomeutidae) (= P. maculipennis ( Curtis)) Diamond-back Moth
A virtually worldwide pest of many Cruciferae. Newly hatched caterpillars mine in the leaf tissue. Later stages feed mainly on the underside of the leaf, making holes right through it. The adult is a small grey to greyish-brown moth with a wing span of 10-20 mm. There are 3 pale triangular markings along the back of each forewing and when the wings are closed these form diamond shapes. Eggs are laid in groups of 1-6 on the upper surface of the leaf. The caterpillars crawl to the underside and mine within the leaf; later they feed on the lower leaf surface. The caterpillars are green to brownish-green, about 10 mm long, and jump when disturbed. Pupation takes place within a cocoon on the lower leaf surface. The life cycle takes from 2246 days. Control: Spraying with derris, pyrethrum, organo-phosphates and carbaryl. (Hill, 1975 p.247, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.l54)
465 Appendix 2 PESTS
Podagrica spp. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) P. sjostedti (Jac.) P. uniforma (Jac.) Leaf Beetles
Pests of Jute, Okra and Roselle in Nigeria. The beetles chew holes in the leaves; the larvae feed on the roots and occasionally on the capsules. P. sjostedti is metallic blue with a brown head and body. P. uniforma is shiny brown. Control: Using tolerant varieties. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.69, Kranz et al., 1977 p.425, Stanton, 1966 p.57)
Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acarina, Tarsonemidae) (=Hemitarsonemus latus (Banks)) Yellow Tea Mite, Broad Mite
A widely distributed pest of many plants, not generally serious. Larvae and adults feed on the underside of leaves sucking the cell sap, causing leaf distortion and mottling. Possibly transmits viruses. The adult mites are yellow and about 1.5 mm long. The eggs, which are covered with tubercles, are laid singly on the underside of leaves. The minute larvae feed close to the egg shells and pupate on the leaf. Female pupae are carried by adult males onto new leaves. The life cycle is short, 1-2 weeks. Control: Spraying with acaricides such as dicofol (chlorinated hydrocarbon). (Hill, 1975 p.419, Kranz etal., 1977 p.268, Purseglove, 1968 p.536)
Pratylenchus spp. Root Lesion Nematode
Widespread and serious pests of many crops. Important on Yam particularly in West Africa, South America, Jamaica, Japan and Solomon Islands. The nematodes cause cracking of the skin of the tuber and a dark brown dry rot extending irregularly into the flesh. The nematodes are about 0.8 mm long and can move freely in and out of the roots and underground stems. They reproduce within the plant tissue. Control: Crop rotation is fairly successful. Planting healthy setts; give hot water treatment at 46-520 C for 15-30 minutes, or immerse the setts in DBCP or fensulfothion. (COPR, 1978 p.165, Coursey, 1967 p.118, Kranz et al., 1977 p.255)
Prodenia litura Fabricius (see Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.))
466 Appendix 2 PESTS
Psara spp. (Lepidoptera, Pyralididae) P. bipunctalis P. pallidalis
Pests of Celosia and Amaranthus in West Mrica. The caterpillars feed on the leaves and spin a web causing the leaves to curl around them. P. bipunctalis has yellowish wings with small brown spots and moon-shaped stripes. P. pallidalis is yellowish-brown and the wings have a thin dark margin. The wingspan of both species is about 20 mm. The caterpillars are about 15 mm long, those of P. bipunctalis being greyish-green and those of P. pallidalis being green. Control: Not described. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.48)
Psilliodes spp. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) P. balyi Jacoby P. splendida Harold Flea Beetles.
Occur in the Philippines. The adults feed on leaves, particularly of seedlings; the larvae bore into stems. P. balyi is shiny black and 1.5-2 mm long. P. splendida is metallic blue and larger. Control: Spraying with carbaryl. (See general notes on Flea Beetles under Epitrix spp.) (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.124)
Pthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera, Gelechidae) (= Gnorimoschema operculella Zell.) Potato Tuber Moth
A widespread and important pest of Solanaceae and Beet in warmer countries (although not in West Mrica). The larvae mine in the leaves, causing silver blotches, and in the veins, petioles and stems. Plants wilt. Older larvae tunnel in the tubers, introducing rotting organisms. The adult moth is small with narrow fringed wings (wingspan 15 mm); the forewings are grey-brown with dark spots, the hindwings whitish. Eggs are laid singly on the lower leaf surface or in stored tubers. The larvae are pale green. Pupation takes place in surface litter or just below the skin of the tuber. The life cycle may be completed in 34 weeks, resulting in up to 12 generations a year, but it is very temperature dependant. Control: spraying with DDT, dicrotophos, dimethoate or parathion. (Hill, 1975 p.243)
467 Appendix 2 PESTS
Riptortus tenuicornus (Heteroptera, Coreidae)
A serious pest of Cowpea in West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria). Other Riptortus spp. are important in Sri Lanka and Australia. Nymphs and adult bugs suck plant sap causing the pods and buds to shrivel. The bug is small and elongated (15 mm long) with a constricted waist. Under neath the body is brown with four cream spots. Control: Spraying with chlorinated hydrocarbons (endosulfan) and carbamates (methomyl). (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.103, Singh et al., 1978 pp.8S, 87)
Sagra spp. (Coleoptra, Chrysomelidae) S. adonis S. carbunculus Stem Boring Beetles
S. adonis occurs in Nigeria and S. carbunculus in Bangladesh. The beetles may defoliate young plants. The white fleshy larvae feed inside the stem causing gall-like swellings. S. carbunculus is metallic blue, 20 mm long, with long hind legs. Control: Not described. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.77, Singh et al., 1978 p.3S)
Scapteriscus vicinus R. and Heb. (Orthoptera, Gryllotalpidae) West Indian Mole Cricket
A pest of Tomato in the West Indies. The cricket cuts off the plant stem just below the soil surface. The adult has a red- to yellow-brown body and is about 30 mm long. It lives and breeds underground like the African Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa). There is one generation a year. Control: Not described. (Wyniger, 1962 p.3S8)
Schizonycha spp. (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) Cockchafer Grub
An important pest of many crops; this particular species occurs only in Africa (East Africa, Sudan, Egypt). The larvae feed underground on roots and on the pods of Groundnut. Damage to leaves by the adults is not usually serious. The adult is a shiny brown beetle, about 15 mm long and nocturnal. The eggs are laid in the soil, especially on newly ploughed land rich in organic matter. The fleshy white curved larvae live and feed underground for 6 months before pupating in the soil. The life cycle takes 7 months and there is only one generation a year.
468 Appendix 2 PESTS Control: Deep ploughing can kill larvae and pupae and also exposes them to sunlight and predators. Adults can be caught in light traps. Seed-dressings or soil treatment with aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and BHC are effective. (Hill, 1975 p.349)
Scirtothrips dorsalis H. (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) Chillie Thrips
Serious on Sweet Pepper in India. Probable vector of mosaic and leaf-curl virus. The adults and nymphs suck cell sap, resulting in distorted shoots and leaves and underdeveloped fruits. The adult thrips are yellow and black, 2-2.5 mm long, and clothed in hairs. They feed on the underside of leaves. Control: Not described. (Hill, 1975 p.233, Purseglove, 1968 p.S28, Wyniger, 1962 p.384)
Scutellonema bradys (Steiner and Lettew) Yam Nematode
A serious pest of Yam in India, West Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean. The nematode feeds just below the surface of the tuber causing small yellow lesions at first and later a dark dry rot layer. Secondary pathogens often result in further rotting. Damage continues in storage. The nematode infests the tubers through the roots, growing points or cracks in the skin. Eggs are usually laid within the plant tissue. As many as 100 000 nematodes may be found in one tuber. Control: Using clean planting material; a hot water dip of SO-SSoC for 40 minutes is effective; also introducing a fallow period. Many crops such as Cowpea, Okra, Melon, Sorghum act as alternative hosts for the nematode. (COPR, 1978 p.163, Kranz et a1., 1977 p.2SS)
Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) (= Calandra oryzae) Maize Weevil, Rice Weevil
A very serious storage pest, virtually cosmopolitan in all warmer countries. The larvae feed within the grain. The adult weevils are small (3.54 mm long) and dark brown. The eggs are laid in small holes chewed in the grain. The plump legless larvae feed and pupate inside the grain. The adult emerges by biting a circular exit hole. The adults are capable fliers and long-lived (up to S months). Infestation can start in the field. Control: Infested buildings should be cleared and sprayed with BHC or mala thion. Infested grain can be mixed with malathion wettable powder or fumigated
469 Appendix 2 PESTS with methyl bromide or ethylene dichloride plus carbon tetrachloride by approved operators. (Hill, 1975 p.388)
Sphenoptera perotetti Fe. (Coleoptera, Buprestidae)
A pest of Groundnuts in India. The larvae tunnel into the stem and down into the roots causing the plants to die back. The adult is a metallic coloured beetle about 10-12 mm long. The eggs are laid in the base of the stem or on the ground. Control: Not described. (purseglove, 1968 p.233, Wyniger, 1962 p.343)
Spodoptera exempta (Wlk.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) (= Laphygma exempta (Wlk.)) African Armyworm
A serious pest of grasses and cereals, occurring in Africa, Asia, Australia, Indonesia and the Philippines. The larvae feed on the leaves particularly of young plants. They may occur in very large numbers causing heavy crop losses. The adult moth has mottled grey-brown forewings and white hindwings. The wingspan is 25-35 mm. The eggs are laid in masses on the leaves and covered with black hairs from the moth's body. The colour of the larvae varies; they tend to be pale green at first, becoming brownish-black with striping. The gregarious forms are usually darker. Pupation occurs in the soil. The life cycle is completed in 3-4 weeks. Control: Naturally occurring viruses and bacteria. Forecasting of moth migration combined with sprays (DDT, endosulfan, malathion, trichlorphon, carbaryl). (Hill, 1975 p.303, Kranz et al., 1977 p.494)
Spodoptera exigua (Hb.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) (= Laphygma exigua) Lesser Cotton Leafworm, Beet Armyworm
A virtually cosmopolitan pest, more common in warm climates. The larvae attack most crops. The young larvae feed mainly on the lower leaf surface between the veins, giving a 'window' effect. The older larvae eat all the leaf except the larger veins and may attack the flowers and fruit. The adult moth has grey forewings with two rust-coloured spots; the hind wings are white with brown veins and edges. The wingspan is 25-30 mm. The eggs are laid on the lower leaf surface (about 600 per female). The larvae are light green and striped; they may swarm to adjacent fields. Pupation takes place in the soil. The life cycle is completed in 2-2~ weeks.
470 Appendix 2 PESTS
Control: Removing weeds, burning crop debris. Dusting or spraying with contact insecticides such as DDT, BHC, endrin or parathion. (Hill, 1975 p.305, Kranz et al., 1977 p.493)
Spodoptera frugiperda (J .E. Smith) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) (= Laphygma [rugiperda) Fall Armyworm
A serious pest of Maize in the Americas. The larvae feed on the leaves; in a young plant the growing point may be killed; in older plants the larvae burrow into and feed on the ears. The adult moth has grey mottled wings and a wingspan of about 35 mm. The life cycle resembles that of S. exempta. The larva is pale and develops dark stripes; its dark head has a pale Y -5haped marking. The life cycle takes about 4 weeks. The moth overwinters in the tropics and subtropics but disperses into temperate regions during the growth season (reaching Canada by the fall (autumn), hence 'fall worm'). Control: Healthy plants are better able to withstand attack. Sprays include carbaryl, methomyl, malathion, parathion and trichlorphan. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.498)
Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) (= Prodenia litura (F.) auctt.) Cotton Leafworm, Cutworm, Click Beetle
The larvae are a frequent pest of minor importance on a great many crops. They are found in the Mediterranean, Africa, Asia and Australia. The caterpillar is a leaf-eater. Occasionally it behaves like a Cutworm, gnawing at stems just above soil level. Heavy infestations can result in severe defoliation but this is not common. The adult moth has a whitish body with red tinges. The forewings are yellow brown with white bands; the hindwings are whitish. The wingspan is about 35 mm. The eggs are laid in large batches on the underside of leaves and covered with .hair scales. The larvae are at first gregarious and later disperse. They are pale green becoming brown with dark markings and yellow stripes. Pupation takes place in an earthern cell just below the soil surface. The life cycle takes about 4 weeks and there are up to 8 generations a year. Control: Numbers can be reduced by ploughing and burning the crop stubble, flooding and weed removal. Sprays such as DDT, BHC, endrin and parathion are effective. (Hill, 1975 p.307, Wyniger, 1962 p.423)
471 Appendix 2 PESTS Stomopteryx subsecivella Zell. (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) (= S. nerteria Meyr) Groundnut Leaf Miner
Occurs in South Africa, India and South-east Asia. Can be serious. The larvae tunnel and feed within the leaf, sometimes stunting the plant's growth. The adult moth is small (wingspan 10 mm) and dark brown with a pale spot on the forewings. The eggs are laid singly on the leaves of groundnut and other legumes and the larvae burrow into the leaves producing blister mines. Later instar larvae emerge and pupate within a shelter of leaflets spun together with a web. The life cycle is completed in about 35 days. Control: Crop rotation with non-leguminous crops. Spraying with mono crotophos, dicritophos or phosphamidon (organo-phosphates). (Feakin, 1973 p.l46, Singh etal., 1978 p.44, Smartt, 1976 p.l99)
Strumeta cucurbitae Coq. (see Dacus cucurbitae Coq.)
Syagrus calcaratus F. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Leaf Beetle
A pest of Okra in Nigeria. The beetle damages the leaves. The eggs are laid on the roots on which the larvae feed without significant damage. There are 1-2 generations a year. Control: Not described. See general notes under Epitrix spp. (Frolich and Rodewald, 1970 pp.246, 264)
Sylepta derogata (F.) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Cotton Leaf Roller
Widespread in Africa, South-east Asia, Australia and Pacific Islands. Generally not serious because of naturally occurring parasites. The larvae feed on the leaf edges and cause them to curl and fall. The adult moth has cream wings with brown wavy lines. The wingspan is 3040 mm. The eggs are laid singly or in groups on the leaves. The larvae are translucent green with a black head; they feed within leaves rolled by a silken web. Pupation takes place on the leaf or amongst debris on the ground. The life cycle takes 4-5 weeks. Control: Hand-picking of rolled leaves. Spraying with carbaryl. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 pp.66, 74, Hill, 1975 p.273)
472 Appendix 2 PESTS
Tabidia aculealis (Wlk.) (Lepidoptera) Leaf Folder
Occurs in Malaya. Larvae feed on leaves which they fold within a web (similar to that of Brachmia spp.) (COPR, 1978 p.80)
T arophagus proserpina (Kirkaldy) (Hemiptera, Delphacidae) Taro Leafhopper
The Leafhopper is found in Australasia (Hawaiian Islands, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Ryuku Islands and Queensland). The adults and nymphs suck sap. They are serious as vectors of Alomae and Bobone virus diseases of Taro. The adult Leafhoppers are about 4 mm long, dark brown with a white patch on the back of the thorax. They may have full-sized or reduced wings. The eggs are laid in the leaf midrib. The nymphs are white. The life cycle takes 18 days. Control: Biological control with Cytorhinus fulvus has been successful in Hawaii. Sprays of carbaryl, malathion or trichlorphon can be used. (COPR, 1978 pp.197-200)
Tetranychus spp. (Acarina, Tetranychidae) T. cinnabarinus (Boisd.) ~ (- T. l . L) T. urticae 5 -. te anus . T. truncatus Ebara and T. Red Cotton Mite, Two Spotted Spider Mite, Red Spider Mite
Widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics; T. cinnabarinus is now thought to have a tropical distribution and T. urticae a temperate one. T. truncatus is found in the Philippines. The mites attack a wide range of plants. Adults, larvae and nymphs feed on the underside of the leaf, sucking cell sap and causing clusters of minute yellow spots to develop on the leaf. Eventually the leaf withers and is shed. The adult females are oval, red or greenish and 0.5 mm long; the males are slightly smaller. The eggs are laid singly on the underside of the leaf and held by a web. The larvae are 6-legged and pinkish. There are then 2 nymphal stages; the nymphs are 8-legged and green or reddish. The life cycle takes 13-22 days and one female may lay up to 200 eggs. Control: A predacious mite (Phytoseilus sp.) has been successfully used. Sprays are not normally necessary unless there is an early build-up of the pest. Dimethoate and many other organo-phosphates are effective, although resistance can occur. Vigorous plants are normally more resistant. (Hill, 1975 p.413)
473 Appendix 2 PESTS
Thrips tabaci Undo (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) Onion Thrips
Almost worldwide pest on many crops. Nymphs and adults feed on cell sap, causing silvering, distortion and wilting of the leaves. The adult thrip is small (l mm long) and yellow-brown with dark transverse bands on the body. The eggs are laid on the leaves and stems. The nymphs are white or yellow. Pupation takes place in the soil. The life cycle can be completed in 3 weeks. Control: Malathion or diazinon if needed. (DDT and dieldrin have also been used). (Hill, 1975 p.225, Kranz et al., 1977 p.280)
Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae) Red Flour Beetle
A serious storage pest throughout the warmer parts of the world. Both adults and larvae feed on previously damaged grain. The adult beetle is flat, oblong, reddish-brown and about 3-4 mm long. The adult may live more than a year, the female laying 400-500 eggs over this time. Eggs are laid amongst the grain. The larva is yellowish-white, with 6 legs, and 2 dark terminal spines; it lives and feeds within the grain. The life cycle from egg to adult takes 35 days at 300 C. Control: Fumigation by approved operators. The shelled grain is mixed with BHC dust. (Hill, 1975 p.363, Kranz et al., 1977 p.394)
Virachola antalus (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae)
Important in Nigeria on legumes (Cowpea, Yam Bean and Common Bean). The larvae feed on the green beans. The adult butterfly is dark reddish-brown and has a wingspan of 35 mm. The hindwings have a back projection on the underside on which are spots of black and orange. The large larvae are pinkish-whlte with blue stripes. Control: None described. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 pp.77 , 90)
Xanthodes graellsi (Feisth.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) Cotton Leaf Caterpillar, Cotton Leafworm
A pest in Africa (Nigeria and Sudan). The larvae feed on and may kill seedlings; they strip the leaves of older plants. They also attack the fruits. The adult moth is yellow with paler hindwings and a dark brown margin to the forewings. The ribbed yellow eggs are laid on the underside of leaves. The larvae are dark green semi-loopers with a yellow stripe and black hairs.
474 Appendix 2 PESTS
They are about 30 mm long. Pupation takes place in the soil. There are about 6 generations a year. Control: Naturally occurring parasites mean that control measures are not usually necessary. Routine sprays against Heliothis or Whitefly are effective. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.67, Ripper and George, 1965 p.2l7)
Zonocerus variegatus L. (Orthoptera, Acrididae) Elegant Grasshopper, Stink Locust
A sporadically severe pest of many crops, especially in the seedling stage, in parts of Africa and the West Indies. Nymphs and adults eat the leaves of seedlings leaving a ragged appearance. The adults are generally dark greenish, patterned in black, yellow and orange. They are about 350 mm long. Short-winged adults which cannot fly are common. The grasshoppers have a characteristic unpleasant smell. The eggs are sausage-shaped and laid in the soil in masses of froth which hardens to form sponge-like packets. The nymphs are typical short-horned grasshoppers; they are black, their appendages ringed with yellow or white. There are 5 instars lasting 4 months altogether. There is only one generation a year. Control: Dieldrin or carbaryl sprays or aldrin or BHe baits. (Hill, 1975 p.l13)
References (Pests) Bohlen, E. (1973) Crop Pests in Tanzania and their Control, Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin. COPR (1978) Pest Control in Tropical Root Crops, PANS Manual No.4, Centre for Overseas Pest Research, Overseas Development Administration, London. Coursey, D.G. (1967) Yams, Longman, Harlow. Epenhuijsen, C.W. van (1974) Growing Native Vegetables in Nigeria, FAO, Rome. Feakin, S.D. (ed.) (1973) Pest Control in Groundnuts, PANS Manual No.2, Centre for Overseas Pest Research, Overseas Development Administration, London. Frolich, G. and Rodewald, W. (1970) Pests and Diseases of Tropical Crops and their Control, Pergamon Press, Oxford. Grubben, G.J.H. (1976) The Cultivation of Amaranth as a Tropical Leaf Vege table, Communication 67, Department of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. Hill, D. (1975) Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and their Control, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hinson, K. and Hartwig, E.E. (1977) Soybean Production in the Tropics, FAO, Rome. Kay, D.E. (1973) Root Crops, Crop and Product Digest No.2, Tropical Products Institute, London. Kay, D.E. (1979) Food Legumes, Crop and Product Digest No.3, Tropical
475 Appendix 2 PESTS Products Institute, London. Knott, J.E. and Deanon, J.R. (1967) Vegetable Production in South-east Asia, College of Agriculture, University of Philippines, Los Banos, Laguna. Kranz, J., Schmutterer, H. and Koch, W. (ed.) (1977) Diseases, Pests and Weeds in Tropical Crops, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1980) List of Approved Products and their Uses for Farmers and Growers. Agricultural Chemicals Approval Scheme, HMSO, London. Nieuwhof, M. (1969) Cole Crops, Leonard Hill, London. Onwueme, I.C. (1978) The Tropical Tuber Crops: Yams, Cassava, Sweet Potato, Cocoyams, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. PCAR (I975) The Philippines Recommends for Vegetable Crops 1975, Philip- pine Council for Agricultural Research, Los Banos, Laguna. Purseglove, J .W. (1968) Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons, Longman, Harlow. Purseglove, J.W. (1972) Tropical Crops: Monocotyledons, Longman, Harlow. Ripper, W.E. and George, L. (1965) Cotton Pests of the Sudan. Their Habits and Control, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Scott, W.O. and Aldrich, S.R. (1970) Modern Soybean Production, S. and A. Publications, Champaign, Illinois. Singh, S.R., Emden, H.F. van and Ajibola Taylor, T. (ed.) (1978) Pests of Grain Legumes: Ecology and Control, Academic Press, London. Smartt, J. (1976) Tropical Pulses, Longman, Harlow. Stanton, W.R. (1966) Grain Legumes in Africa, FAa, Rome. Whitaker, T.W. and Davis, G.N. (1962) Cucurbits, Leonard Hill, London. Wyniger, R. (1962) Pests of Crops in Warm Climates and their Control, Verlag fur Recht und Gessellschaft, Basel.
476 Appendix 2 DISEASES
DISEASES
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (E.F. Sm. and Towns) Conn. Crown Gall, Bacterial Stem Gall
The disease affects a wide range of hosts but on Yam it has only been recorded from the West Indies and Colombia. The bacteria stimulate the growth of large galls on woody parts of the stem; these typically have buds on them. Affected plants are stunted. Control: Disease·free planting material. (COPR, 1978 p.l17, Coursey, 1967 p.l2l, Kranz et al., 1977 p.53)
Albugo bUtii Powdery Mildew, White Rust
Serious in West Africa on Celosia. White pustules becoming reddish·brown develop on the underside of all leaves and chlorotic spots appear on the upper surface, seriously weakening the plant. The fungus can spread via infected seed. Control: Burning infected plants. Spraying with copper fungicides. (Epen. huijsen, 1974 p.48, Westcott, 1971 p.447)
Albugo candida (Pers.) Kuntze Powdery Mildew, White Rust
Widespread, affecting all crucifers, but not generally serious. Raised white pustules occur on the leaves (mainly on the lower surface), young stems and flowers. This can result in stunted and distorted growth. Spores are spread by wind, rain and insects and the disease is favoured by cool wet conditions. Control: Removing infected plants and crop debris. Long rotations. Spraying
477 Appendix 2 DISEASES is not usually necessary. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.316, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.306)
Albugo ipomoea-panduratae (Schw.) Swing. Common Leaf-blister, White Rust
Widely distributed but not usually serious. The rust occurs on the leaves and occasionally on the stems, usually after the vines have made their growth. light green patches on the upper leaf surface indicate small to large, circular or irregular sori of the fungus on the underside of the leaf. Spores can germinate directly or give rise to a dozen or so zoospores. Control: Not usually necessary. (Weber, 1973 pp.549, 555, Westcott 1971 p.447)
Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacco A. brassicicola (Schw.) Wiltshire Leaf Blight, Black Spot
A worldwide disease of crucifers. A seed-borne infection which causes brownish-black spots on the leaves and sometimes the death of seedlings, but more typically affects mature and senes cent leaves. The conidiospores show as a greenish-brown fur on the underside of the leaves and flourish in warm wet weather. In Cabbage the outer leaves may rot entirely, paving the way for bacterial infection. Seed production is affected. Control: Seed disinfection by hot water treatment, organo-mercuric compounds or thiram. Plants are not usually sprayed unless they are grown for seed. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.308, 389, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.140)
Alternaria cucumerina (Ell. and Ev.) Elliott Alternaria Leaf Blight, Brown Spot
Of minor sporadic importance on Musk Melon. The disease can defoliate plants and sometimes causes sunken spots on the fruit. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.153, Whitaker and Davis, 1962 p.174, USDA, 1953 p.501)
Alternaria dauci Leaf Spot, Leaf Blight
Worldwide disease of Carrot. The disease commonly occurs in association with Cercospora Leaf Spot, but usually attacks mature leaves whereas Cercospora is more severe on young leaves. Alternaria appears as irregular brown spots on the leaves with yellowish centres and haloes. In severe attacks whole fields may appear scorched. The spores are wind-borne. The fungus persists in the soil, on crop debris and in the seed.
478 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Control: Crop rotation and removal of debris. Seed disinfection with mercuric chloride. Copper and carbamate sprays give good control. (USDA, 1953 p.474)
Alternaria po"i (Ell.) Neerg. (= Macrosporium pom) Purple Blotch
A widespread disease of alliums, occurring in Egypt, southern USA, Philippines, Ivory Coast and Kenya. Small whitish sunken spots occur on the older leaves and also on the flower stalk and flower. The spots enlarge, become zonated and turn purple with a surrounding chlorotic area. Brown to black spores form in humid conditions. A semi-watery rot starts in the bulb which turns yellow to red, and dark fungal growth is visible. The diseased bulb becomes dry and papery. Control: Long rotation. Good drainage. Spraying with copper fungicides (phytotoxic to Leek), dithiocarbamates (nabam plus zinc sulphate, maneb, mancozeb) and captafol. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.205, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.262)
Alternaria solani Ki.ihn Early or Dry Blight
A worldwide disease of Potato and Tomato, of particular importance in warm dry areas. Brownish-black, usually angular, lesions with concentric ridges occur on the leaves. The pathogen secretes toxins which increase the damage. Yields may be halved. Conidia are wind-dispersed and their release is favoured by low humidity, although heavy dew or rain is necessary for their germination. Control: Destroying crop debris. Crop rotation. Carbamate and chlorotha10nil sprays are only partially effective. (AVRDC, 1978 p.117, Kay 1973, p.106, Kranz et al., 1977 p.186)
Aphanomyces raphani Kendrick Black Rot
The fungus colonizes the roots of crucifers, although only Radish shows disease symptoms. The lesions enclose oospores which after their release germinate on contact with cruciferous roots. The optimum soil temperature for the develop ment of the disease is relatively warm, 260C. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.304)
479 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Armillariella mel/ea (Yahl.) Pat. (= Armillaria mel/ea (Fr.) Quel.) Armillaria Root Rot
The disease occurs widely in temperate regions but generally only at higher altitudes in the tropics. On Yam it is only recorded from Tanzania. It causes a root rot, resulting in the death of the plant. White mycelial sheets can be seen under the epidermis, smelling of mushrooms. It can survive in the soil only on vegetation. Control: Burning infected plants including all the root system. (COPR, 1978 p.l58, Coursey, 1967 p.l22, Kranz etal., 1977 p.145)
Ascochyta abelmoschii Harter Pod Spot
Occurs in the Philippines on Okra. Dark water-soaked lesions develop on the young pods. They enlarge and turn brown. Control: Crop rotation. Good sanitation. Use of resistant cultivars. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.267, Kranz et al., 1977 p.234)
Ascochyta tabae Speg. Leaf Spot
Can be serious on Broad Bean when humid conditions accompany high tempera tures. Symptoms are similar to those of Ascochyta pisi. Infection spreads from diseased seed or plant debris. Control: Using clean seed. Removing crop debris. Zineb sprays can be used. (Kay, 1979 p.32, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.200, 391)
Ascochy ta medicaginis var. pinodella Jones Black Stem, Ascochyta Blight,Ascochyta Foot Rot
Of major economic importance in most pea-growing areas of the world, often occurring together with Ascochy ta pisi and Mycosphaerella pinodes. All aerial parts of the plant are affected. Small purplish spots on leaves and pods enlarge and may coalesce to form irregular purplish blotches. Stem lesions are elongated and may girdle and weaken the stem. The disease can attack at soil level, causing a bluish-black foot rot. High humidity favours the spread of the disease. Control: Using disease-free seed. Crop rotation of 4-5 years. Removing all debris. Seed treatment with benomyl is effective but costly. (Dixon, 1981 p.164, Kay, 1979 p.298, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.391, USDA, 1953 pp.248, 401)
480 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Ascochy ta pisi lib. Ascochyta Blight, Leaf or Pod Spot
A widespread disease of Pea, of major economic importance. Large sunken brownish lesions occur on the leaves and pods, and some .times on the peas. The disease is seed-borne but can also survive in the soil or be spread from crop debris. Control: Disease-free seed. Burning crop debris. A crop rotation of at least 3 years. Benomyl treatment of the seed. (Kay, 1979 p.298, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.194, Smartt, 1976 p.235)
Ascochyta rabiei (Pass.) Lab. (see Mycosphaerella rabiei (Pass.) Kovak)
Aspergillus flavus link ex Fr. Aflaroot Disease, Yellow Mould (of Groundnut)
Serious in India. A soil-borne fungus which causes rapid rotting of untreated seeds, especially when dry conditions delay germination. The seeds become covered with yellow or greenish spores. The cotyledons of seedlings may be attacked and these plants subsequently make poor growth. Strongly growing plants are hardly affected. However great care must be taken to prevent infection of groundnuts at harvest since some strains of the mould produce the highly toxic aflatoxin. Control: Cultural practices to promote vigorous growth. Preventing shell damage as a result of drought, digging or insects. The moisture content of nuts should be reduced to 9% as soon as possible after harvest. (Feakin, 1973 pp.8, 53,55, 177,103)
Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. Storage or Black Rot
A serious storage disease common in the tropics. On Yam it is recorded from West Africa and Brazil. The rot usually starts on damaged tubers and infection may take place in the soil or in the store. The hyphae form a thick white mat on the surface and grow into the cells feeding on the starch. Spores formed in the light serve as further sources of infection. The tissue may disintegrate into a watery mash, or simply soften or darken and crumble; the symptoms probably vary with associated secondary pathogens. Control: Avoiding mechanical damage. Removing rotten tubers. Storing at cool temperatures with adequate ventilation. Treating cut surfaces of setts with Bordeaux mixture, benomyl or thiabendazole. (COPR, 1978 p.1 S5, Kranz et ai., 1977 p.l88)
481 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Botrytis cinerea Pers. Grey Mould
A widely occurring disease. On Jerusalem Artichoke it causes a storage rot. It can also contribute to the Chocolate Spot syndrome (mainly due to Botrytis fabae) of Broad Bean. The disease is encouraged by cool humid conditions and generally enters through wounds. Control: Spraying with thiram. (Dixon, 1981 p.183, Kay 1973 p.82)
Botrytis fabae Sardinia Chocolate Spot
A widespread and serious disease of Beans. Large, circular, chocolate-coloured spots appear on the leaves especially in wet weather. Under wet conditions the spots enlarge and coalesce, resulting in serious yield losses. Control: Sprays of captan or thiram. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.199, 392, Smartt, 1976 p.260)
Bremia lactucae Regel Downy Mildew
Widespread, and serious in some areas on a wide range of crops. Pale green to yellow angular spots develop between the veins. White downy spore masses appear on the underside of leaves. Later the infected areas turn brown and often secondary infections such as Botrytis cause rotting. Seedlings may be infected before emergence. Control: Resistant cultivars. Spraying promptly with zineb or maneb. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.338, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.393, 346)
Ceratocystis jimbriata Ell. and Halst. Black Rot (on Sweet Potato)
The disease occurs in the USA, West Indies, New Zealand, Australia, Hawaii and West Africa on a wide range of plants including Cocoa, Coffee, Rubber, Tobacco and Sweet potato. The disease attacks both the plants and the stored tubers of Sweet Potato. Young plants turn yellow and the underground stem blackens. On the, tuber dark circular depressions develop as the spores form and the rot may spread throughout the tuber causing it to dry and shrivel. Infected tubers produce the toxins ipomearone and ipomeamaronol which are not removed by cooking. Control: Resistant cultivars. Disease-free planting material, vine cuttings instead of tuber pieces or pulled sprouts. Crop rotation. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.100, Onwueme, 1978 p.184)
482 Appendix 2 DISEASES Cercospora arachidicola (see Mycosphaerella arachidis)
Cercospora personata (see Mycosphaerella arachidis)
Cercospora spp. C apii Fres. (Celery), C arachidicola Hori (=Mycosphaerella arachidis) (Ground nut), C. batatae Zimmermann, C. bataticola Ciferri and Bruner (Sweet Potato), C beticola Saccardo, C brachiata Ell. and Ev. (Amaranthus), C. brasiliensis (Yam), C brassicicola P. Henn. (brassicas), C. canescens Ell. & Mart. (Cowpea), C. carbonacea (Yam), c. carotae (Pass.) Kazn. and Siem. (Carrot), c. celosiae (Celosia), c. chevalieri (Xanthosoma), c. citrullus (Fluted Pumpkin), C. cruenta (Black Gram, Cowpea), C. daizu Miura (= C sojina) (Frog-eye Leaf Spot of Soya Bean), C. duddiae Welles (Onion), c. dolichi (Hyacinth Bean), C. hibisci Tracy and Earle (Okra, Roselle), C lactucae Stevenson (=Co longissima (Cogini) Sacc.) (Lettuce), C. pachyderma (Yam), C. personata (Berk. and Curt.) Ell. and Ev. (Groundnut), C. psophocarpi (Winged Bean), C verruculosa (Xanthosoma), C viscosae Muller and Chupp (Cassava)
Leaf Spot
Most crops have at least one Cercospora sp. as a pathogen but, although wide spread in warm climates, the disease is usually of minor importance. Small yellow, brown or red-rimmed spots occur on the leaves, increasing in size and sometimes coalescing causing older leaves to fall. The centre of the spots becomes greyish as conidia form and may fallout leaving holes. The disease is spread by conidiospores from plant debris, dispersed by rain or high humidity, and infection is through the stomata. Control: Not generally necessary. In severe attacks copper salts, maneb or thiabendazole sprays can be used. (COPR, 1978 pp.100, 149, Coursey, 1967 p.120, Grubben, 1976 p.147, Kay, 1979 pp.94, 188, Kranz etal., 1977 p.191, Knott and Deanon, 1967 pp.62, 315, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.312, Smartt, 1976 pp.230, 243, Westcott, 1971 p.208, USDA, 1953 p.475)
Cercosporidium henningsii (AUesch.) Deighton Brown Leaf Spot
Widespread in all cassava-growing areas. More severe on older leaves and crops over 5 months. The brown spots affect both sides of the leaves; on the upper surface the spots are angular and have a dark border, on the lower surface the spots are less well defined and develop greyish centres as sporulation occurs. An indefmite yellow halo forms around the lesions and infected leaves become yellow and fall. Spread of the disease is favoured by warm wet conditions.
483 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Control: Not usually necessary. Resistant cultivars can be used. Reducing humidity within the crop by greater spacing. Planting so as to avoid the rainy season at a susceptible stage of growth. (COPR, 1978 p.97, Onwueme, 1978 p.141)
Choanephora cucurbitarum (Berk. and Rav.) Thaxt. Leaf and Stem Wet Rot (A maran thus) , Blossom Blight (Cotton, Cucumber, Capsicum, Pepper, Squash, Sweet Potato)
Occurs in hot countries generally. The principal disease of Amaranthus. The disease is a saprophytic mould with symptoms similar to those of Botryns. The soft rot of leaves and young stems is covered with grey sporangio phores with black heads. Young or weak plants may die, older plants may recover and produce secondary shoots. Yields may be halved and this is sometimes allowed for by close planting. The disease is most prevalent in hot, humid weather and attacks the weaker plants, particularly those damaged by insects. Control: Promoting vigorous growth. Growing less sensitive cultivars. (Grubben, 1976 pp.147, 152, Kranz et al., 1977 p.99, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.14, 153,394)
Qadosporium colocasiicola Saw. Irregular Leaf Spot
Widespread in the Caribbean on Colocasia but not serious. (Wellman, 1977 p.96)
Qadosporium fulvum (Cooke) Leaf Mould
A widespread disease of Tomato; important in West Africa and the Philippines. Attacks begin on the older leaves as yellow spots which turn brown and enlarge so that the leaf may die. On the underside a buff to purple coloured mound denotes conidia formation. The disease can also occur on petioles, flowers and stems. Infection is favoured by humid conditions and temperatures of 21-260 C. Different races of the pathogen occur. Control: Planting more resistant cultivars. Spraying with mancozeb. (AVRDC, 1978 p.115, Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.74, PCAR, 1975 p.115)
Qadosporium variabile (Cke.) de Vries (= Qadosporium macrocarpum = Heterosporium variabile) Leaf Spot
A disease of Amaranthus and Spinach, generally affecting old leaves or as a secondary infection after other Leaf Spots. Circular spots, 3-5 mm across, with a
484 Appendix 2 DISEASES yellow halo develop on the leaves. The fruiting bodies appear on the underside of the leaf as a brownish fur. Control: Spraying with maneb, mancozeb plus daconil or salycilanilide. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.22, 329, Westcott, 1971 p.248)
Cochliobolus carbon us Nelson (= Drechslera state = Helminthosporium carbonum Ullstrop) Helminthosporium Leaf Spot, Ear Rot
A minor disease of Sweet Corn in USA. Two races of the fungus are known to occur and symptoms can be confused with Cochliobolus heterostrophus. Race 1 attacks leaves and cobs, resulting in spots up to 5 mm in diameter, at first yellowish-green then reddish-tan and covered with black spores. Seedling plants may become covered with spots and die. Affected cobs turn black. Race 2 produces angular elongated light brown lesions on the leaves. Affected cobs turn black. Sporulation is not heavy. Control: Resistant cultivars. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.l05, USDA, 1953 p.382)
Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Drech.) Drech. (= Helminthosporium maydis) Southern Corn Leaf Blight, Leaf Spot
Widely distributed disease of Sweet Corn in tropical and warm temperate regions. There are 2 principal races. Race 0 causes elongated bleached spots on the leaves and rarely infects the cobs, whereas Race T attacks leaves, husks and cobs of susceptible varieties; the dark mycelial growth turns infected ears brown black. Warm, humid weather favours the disease. Control: Resistant cultivars are normally used. Burying crop debris after harvest. Fungicides are not normally necessary. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.104, USDA, 1953 p.382)
Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) Butler and Bisby Leaf Spot, Fruit Rot
Of minor importance on Yam in Malaya, Ivory Coast and Taiwan. Serious on peppers in Nigeria. Large grey areas bordered with black and dotted with black acervuli develop on the lower leaves. Control: Not generally necessary. (Coursey, 1967 p.121, COPR, 1978 p.152, Kranz et al., 1977 p.198)
485 Appendix 2 DISEASES Colletotrichum dematium f. sp. circinans (Berk.) Von Arx (= Colletotrichum circinans (Berk.) VogI.) Onion Smudge, Anthracnose
Widespread. Blackish lesions develop on the outer scales of maturing white Onions; red and yellow skinned cultivars are immune because of the phenolic compounds they contain. Sclerotia enable the fungus to survive in the soil. The optimum temperature for fungal attack is 26°C. Control: Using resistant cultivars. Immediate drying of the harvested crop prevents the disease penetrating beyond the outer scales, which can be discarded. (Messiaen and lafon, 1970 pp.246, 396, USDA, 1953 pp.171, 188,211)
Colletotrichum lagenarium (pass.) Ell. and Hals. (= Colletotrichum orbiculare) Anthracnose
An important disease of cultivated cucurbits. Serious in Florida and South Carolina and in areas with a high humidity. The fungus attacks all aerial parts of the plant at all stages of development. Symptoms usually appear first on the older leaves. The lesions are at first more or less circular and light-brown, later dark brown or red. The lesions may coalesce giving the leaf a scorched appearance. Elongated, sunken, water-soaked lesions often appear on the stems and petioles; these may turn brown or yellow. Infected fruits have small water-soaked spots; these areas become raised and then sunken, creamy to black in colour and covered with pink spores. The disease can overwinter on crop debris and can be spread on the seed. Control: Using clean seed, or alternatively soaking the seed in mercury bichloride. Planting resistant cultivars. Spraying or dusting with carbamates or carbamates plus zinc sulphate, maneb, zinc or lime-sulphur. (Whitaker and Davis, 1962 p.l65)
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. and Magn.) Br. and Cav. Anthracnose
The disease can cause serious losses of legumes during the rainy season in many areas (e.g. Nigeria, Philippines). The disease attacks all aerial parts of the plant but causes most damage on the pods. On the stem orange to reddish-brown spots elongate and become sunken. Abundant spores from these areas help spread the infection in wet weather. Leaf infections are less noticeable; the veins may turn reddish-brown to black. On the pods the small orange spots enlarge to form dark brown sunken areas typical of the disease. Infected seeds show dark patches on the testa; this is more obvious in pale varieties.
486 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Control: Using clean seed (by hand-picking or using seed grown in dry areas with irrigation). Using resistant cultivars (but rapid development of new patho gen races restricts the use of this method). (Kay, 1979 p.94, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.172, 176,397, Smartt, 1976 pp.255, 259)
Colletotrichum nigrum Ell. and Halst. Anthracnose
A widely occurring disease which can cause severe losses of Sweet Pepper. Dark sunken spots occur on the fruit. The disease is seed-borne and also dispersed by rain-splash of spores from infected fruits. It can only attack through wounds, such as those caused by Blossom-end Rot. It is prevalent in warm rainy seasons. Control: Using clean seed. Rotation. Removing infected fruits. (Purseglove, 1968 p.528, USDA, 1953 p.467)
Colletotrichum sp. Anthracnose (of Yam Bean)
Occurs in Nigeria. Sunken lesions with black spores appear on the pods. Control: None described. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.90)
Colletotrichum phomoides (Sacc.) Chester Anthracnose (of Tomato)
Serious on Tomato in USA and on Sweet Pepper in the Philippines. Dark sunken spots with concentric markings appear on the ripe fruit. Masses of salmon-pink spores occur in humid weather; their spread is favoured by warm weather. The fungus survives in the soil. Control: Rotation. Good drainage. Removing infected fruits. Seedlings can be sprayed with ziram and fruiting plants with dithiocarbamates. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.127, USDA, 1953 p.457)
Corticum rolls;; (Sacc.) (= Sclerotium rollsii Sacc.) Seedling Blight, Stem or Collar Rot, Root Rot of Beans
The disease is widely distributed in warm climates and attacks a wide range of plants. Young plants 'damp-off and die. Older plants yellow, wilt and then die. At soil level the stem and root rot and become covered in white mycelium in which white to brown sclerotia are embedded. Injuries from nematodes and insects predispose plants to infection. Control: Removing diseased plants. Deep ploughing to bury the sclerotia.
487 Appendix 2 DISEASES
(Kay, 1979 p.232, Kranz et al., 1977 p.148)
Corynespora cassicola (Berk. and Curt.) Wei. Target Leaf Spot
Attacks a wide range of crops. Serious on Tomato in Nigeria. Dark brown spots with concentric rings of darker colour occur on the leaves. Control: Spraying with mancozeb. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.235, USDA, 1953 p.241)
Diaporthe phaseolorum (Cooke and Ellis) Sacco var. caulivora Anthon and Caldwell Stem Canker, Pod and Stem Blight
A minor disease of Soya Bean which occurs in the cooler production areas, such as the Mid- West USA. Brown sunken lesions girdle the base of branches or petioles late in the season causing the plant to die. Control: Planting least susceptible cultivars. Control measures are not usually necessary. (Smartt, 1976 pp.232, 233)
Diaporthe phaseolorum (Cooke and Ellis) Sacco var. sojae (Lehman) Wehm. Pod Blight
Serious on Phaseolus lunatus in North America. The disease attacks the seed, particularly under wet conditions, causing discoloration, crackling and wrinkling. Germination is affected. Control: Using disease-free seed. (Kay, 1979 p.230, Smartt, 1976 pp.232, 233,259)
Diplodia cajani (Rayc.) Stem Canker
A minor disease of Pigeon Pea in India. A similar Collar Rot and Stem Canker is serious on perennial crops in the West Indies but the causal organism is reported to be Physalospora cajanae. (Kay, 1979 p.329)
Dip/odia macro!f{Jora Earle Dry Rot of Ear, Stalk or Cob
Widespread in warm, humid areas, affecting Sweet Corn. Infected cobs usually have bleached sheathing leaves. Early infection can rot the whole cob. The greyish white mould usually spreads upwards from the base of the cob and can be seen on the grains. The tips of the grains are discoloured.
488 Appendix 2 DISEASES Spores are released in wet weather and dispersed by wind. Cultivars with exposed ear tips and upright cobs which tend to retain water favour the disease. Control: Planting resistant cultivars. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.235, USDA, 1953 p.390)
Elsinoe batatas Jenkins and Viegas Sweet Potato Scab
Found in Australasia and Asia (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia) and in Central and South America (Puerto Rico, Mexico, Brazil). The fungus causes lesions on leaf blades, petioles, peduncles and veins. The spots are light tan to brown, oval to elongate. Abundant spores are produced in the depressed centres of the spots. Control: No effective control measures. Using cuttings from healthy vines may reduce incidence. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.62, Kranz et al., 1977 p.112, Weber, 1973 p.553)
Elsinoe canavaliae Scab (of Jack Bean)
Sometimes serious in Malaysia and the Philippines. (Kay, 1979 p.199)
Elsinoe dolichi Jenkins, Bitanc. and Cheo. Scab (of Hyacinth Bean)
Recorded from China. (Kay, 1979 p.189, Kranz et al., 1977 p.112)
Erwinia spp. E. atroseptica (van Hall) Jennison E. carotovora (L.R. Jones) Bergey et al. Bacterial Wilt, Bacterial Soft Rot, Slimy Soft Rot (on Lettuce)
A serious storage rot, attacking a wide range of plants. Widespread and common in most soils. The bacteria are soil-borne and enter the host plant mainly through wounds. They cause a rapid wet rot with a characteristic offensive odour. E. atroseptica rots the base of the stem and is the cause of Blackleg of potatoes. Control: Crop rotation. Storing only sound dry vegetables in cool conditions. (Kranz etal., 1977 p.179, USDA, 1953 p.474)
Erwinia tracheiphila (E.F. Sm.) Holland Bacterial Wilt, Soft Rot
A common and destructive disease of Cucumber, Musk Melon and to a lesser
489 Appendix 2 DISEASES extent Squash, Pumpkin and Water Melon. The leaves wilt and turn dark green. Eventually all the leaves wilt and the plant dies. Affected stems when cut ooze a white sticky viscous bacterial mass which is thought to obstruct the water flow up the plant. The bacteria over winter in adult Cucumber Beetles, Diabrotica vittata Fab. and Diabrotiea duodecimpunctata Oliv., and are spread exclusively by the feeding of these beetles on the plants. Control: Control of the beetles with diazinon or phorate granules. Some cultivars are resistant to the disease. (Dixon, 1981 p.309, Whitaker and Davis, 1962 p.166)
Erysiphe eiehoraeearum DC. Powdery Mildew (of cucurbits)
The disease is most severe in warm dry areas. Whitish powdery spots appear on the upper and lower surface of leaves, and on petioles and stems. Infection progresses from older to younger leaves. On cucurbits the infected leaves dry up; fruits ripen prematurely and lack flavour. Spread is by wind-borne spores. Control: Sulphur dust can be used on sulphur-tolerant cultivars; alternatively dinocap. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.142, PCAR, 1975 p.53, Whitaker and Davis, 1962 p.169)
Erysiphe spp. E. polygoni DC. E. umbelliferarum Powdery Mildew (of cucurbits)
A widely occurring disease which can be severe in warm climates during dry periods (e.g. Sudan, Ivory Coast, south-eastern USA and the Caribbean). Powdery areas appear, usually on the upper leaf surface only, with a typical mushroom smell. The lower leaves are affected ftrst. Seriously affected plants may die. Control: time sulphur sprays are used in the Sudan. Other sprays which are used include dinocap, thiabendazole and benomyl. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.149, 177,193,213,222,312)
Fusarium acuminatum Ell. and Ev.
An occasional storage rot of Jerusalem artichoke. (Kay, 1973 p.82)
Fusarium orthoceras Appel. and Wr. var. cieena Padwick (see Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cieeris)
490 Appendix 2 DISEASES Fusarium oxysporum Fusarium Wilt, Fusarium Yellows (of brassicas), Fusarium Bulb Rot (of Onion), Fusarium Root Rot (of Beans)
A widely distributed and serious disease of a range of crops, different strains of the fungus being specific to particular host plants. The disease is soil-borne and enters the plant through the root, often through a wound, and invades the vascular system of the plant. Toxins are produced and the xylem turns brown. Seedlings may rot before or shortly after emergence; on older plants the leaves yellow and wilt gradually and eventually the plant may die. The disease flourishes in light acid soils at relatively high soil temperatures (25-3 SOC}. Control: Crop rotation. Avoiding infested land. Using disease-free planting material. Resistant cultivars. Preventing injury and nematode damage of bulbs and tubers. Burning crop debris.
F. oxysporum f. sp. batatas (Wollenw.) Snyder and Hansen Wilt or Stem Rot of Sweet Potato, important especially in USA and Japan.
F. oxysporum f. sp. cepae (Hanazwa) Snyder and Hansen Bulb Rot of Onion, important in the Philippines. A semi-watery rot of the bulb follows die-back of the leaves.
F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceris (pdw.) Matuo and Sato A widespread disease of Chick Pea, serious in India and from time to time in Spain and Mexico.
F. oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans (Wr.) Snyder and Hansen Cabbage Yellows, important in USA, Asia and Australia.
F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum Owen Wilt of Cucumber; important in many tropical areas.
F. oxysporum f. sp.lycopersici (Sacc.) Snyder and Hansen Wilt of Tomato; important throughout the world.
F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis (Leach and Currence) Snyder and Hansen Wilts of Musk Melon; important.
F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum (E.F. Smith) Snyder and Hansen Wilt of Water Melon; important.
F. oxysporum f. sp. phaseoli Kendr. Root Rot of Phaseolus vulgaris.
491 Appendix 2 DISEASES
F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi Wilt or Near Wilt of Pea; widespread (including USA and Europe) and can be troublesome. Leaves of affected plants turn yellow and curl; growth is stunted. Different strains of the fungus occur; Race 2 occurs in USA and is responsible for Near Wilt, a less serious form of the disease since it usually attacks at a later stage of growth. Control: Resistant cultivars. (Dixon, 1981 p.169, Kay, 1979 p.299, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.192, USDA, 1953 pp.212, 406, 407, 502)
F. oxysporum f. sp. raphani Kendr. and Snyder Fusarium Yellows of Radish.
F. oxysporum f. sp. tracheiphilum (E.F. Sm.) Snyder and Hansen Cowpea Wilt
F. oxysporum f. sp. udum Butl.
F. oxysporum f. sp. voandzeiae Wilt; serious in northern Tanzania on Voandzeia subterranea. Often results in death of plants.
General references to Fusarium oxysporum: (AVRDC, 1978 p.115, Kay, 1979 pp.20, 54, 329, Kranz et al., 1977 p.209, Knott and Deanon, 1967 pp.207, 316, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.169, 304, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.142, Onwueme, 1978 p.l85, Smartt, 1975 pp.245, 258, Weber, 1973 p.559, Whitaker and Davis, 1962 p.163)
Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacco Storage Rot (of Yam)
Occurs in China, India, West Africa, Japan, Puerto Rico. Infection often accompanies nematode damage. The brown-coloured dry rot begins in the centre of the tuber and may not be visible externally. Control: Nematode control. Treating the cut surface of planting setts with lime, chalk or woodash, or dipping the setts in benomyl or thiabendazole. (COPR, 1978 p.157, Coursey, 1967 p.184, Kranz etal., 1977 p.210)
Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseoli Dry Root Rot
Widespread disease of Phaseolus vulgaris (French or Haricot Bean). Initially red streaks develop on the collar. Reddish lesions occur on the roots which subsequently die. Affected plants lack vigour and are somewhat yellow.
492 Appendix 2 DISEASES
The plants survive by putting out adventitious roots. The spores persist in the soil. Control: Long rotations with cereals, clover and alfalfa. (Kay, 1979 p.137, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.168, USDA, 1953 p.397)
Gibberella fujikuroi (Saw.) Wr. (= Fusarium moniliforme Sheld) Seedling Blight, Root, Stem and Ear Rot (of Sweet Corn)
A widely occuring disease of the vascular tissue which affects a large number of host plants. Several Fusarium spp. cause the Stem Rot syndrome of Sweet Corn, in which the foliage wilts and turns pale grey-brown, the plant senesces and the cobs hang downwards. (See general notes under Fusarium spp.) (Dixon, 1981 p.296, Kranz et al., 1977 pp.119, 210-212)
Gloeosporium melongenae Sacco Anthracnose
A disease of Egg Plant in the Philippines. The fruits turn yellow and develop suntan spots. The infected portion becomes sunken. During the dry seasons the lesions become papery. In the wet season pink spore masses occur on infected parts. Leaf spots may also occur. Control: Destroying infected crop debris. Using healthy seed. Spraying with dithiocarbamates such as zineb. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.125)
Gloeosporium pestis Massee Leaf Spot
Widespread but of minor importance. The disease causes leaf spotting and wilting of leaves and young stems. Control: Not necessary. (Coursey, 1967 p.122, COPR, 1978 p.154)
Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. and Schrenk Anthracnose (of Yam)
Occurs in East and West Africa, the Caribbean, India and the Far East. Occasion ally serious, especially in humid conditions. Small brown spots, sometimes with a yellow edge, develop on the lower leaves and stems. The spots spread causing the stems to blacken and the leaves to wither. Brown to black spores (acervuli) form in concentric rings on the spots particularly in wet weather. Susceptibility varies among Yam species. Dioscorea bulbifera and D. alata are particularly susceptible, D. esculenta less so and D. cayensis and D. rotundata almost resistant. Control: Removing crop debris. Using resistant cultivars. Spraying with
493 Appendix 2 DISEASES maneb or benomyl plus propineb (resistance to benomyl alone may build up). (COPR, 1978 p.147, Kranz et al., 1977 p.119)
Glomerella manihotis (Sacc.) Petr. Anthracnose
A widespread disease of Cassava, generally of minor importance but serious in South-east Asia, Africa and Brazil. The disease is most prevalent on young shoots after long periods of rain. Infection causes spotting, necrosis and distortion of the leaves which may result in their death. Young stems may die back and cankers form on older stems. Pinkish areas on the cankers denote spore formation. Control: Using healthy planting material. Avoiding planting during the rains. (COPR, 1978 p.104)
/sariopsis griseola Sacco Angular Leaf Spot (of Haricot Bean and other legumes)
Common in the humid tropics especially in Central Africa and Malawi, also Tanzania, the Caribbean and Colombia. The disease can cause serious defoliation. The lesions are usually small and bounded by the finer veins giving them an angular appearance. In heavy attacks the lesions coalesce and the leaves fall. The disease can be see-borne or spread from crop debris. Control: little work has been done on the control of /sariopsis but dithio carbamates have been effective in trials. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.178, Smartt, 1976 p.246)
Leptosphaeria maculans (= Phoma lingam (Tode ex Fr.) Desm.) Black Leg
A widespread disease of crucifers. The infection is seed-borne. Red-brown to black spots containing pycnidia occur on the seedling and may cause its death. On older plants pale spots with a dark margin affect the base of the stem and damage the root cortex, causing the root to decay and the plant to wither. The leaves may also show spots and the flower heads become infected. During the growing season the disease is spread by pycnidiospores dispersed in wet weather. Control: Seed disinfection by hot water treatment. Infection is less serious on seed that has been stored at least a year. (Dixon, 1981 p.123, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp31O, 406)
494 Appendix 2 DISEASES Leveillula taurica (Lev.) Am. Powdery Mildew
The disease attacks a wide range of hosts and can be serious particularly in the drier areas of central and western Asia and of the Mediterranean areas and North Africa (Sudan). Older leaves are most commonly affected, with yellow spots on the upper surface and a whitish powder on the underside. The conidia can germinate at low humidities and on Tomato outbreaks are favoured by dry conditions. Control: Growing the least susceptible cultivars. Growing young crops away from other host crops. Using overhead irrigation (on Tomato). Sulphur dusts and sprays are effective but may cause scorching in warm dry conditions. (Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.81, Kay, 1979 p.32, Kranz et al., 1977 p.123, PCAR, 1975 p.115)
Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. (= Sclerotium bataticolae Taub. = Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler) Charcoal Rot, Ashy Stem Decay
The disease attacks a wide range of crops and has a worldwide distribution, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. It can cause a root and stem rot, damping-off of seedlings and the early death of maturing plants. The roots and stems become greyish-black and en crusted with black sclerotia. The fungus is both soil- and seed-borne. Control: Crop rotation and field sanitation reduce the incidence of the disease. Soil fumigation (methyl bromide plus chloropicrin) may be used. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.217, USDA, 1953 p.449)
Monilochaetes infuscans (Ell. and Hals) Harter Scurf (of Sweet Potato)
The disease is widespread, being recorded from northern USA, South America (Brazil), Europe (the Azores), Australasia and Hawaii, Japan and Africa (Sierra Leone). Brown blotches o.ccur on the roots, tubers and other underground parts of the plant, mainly attacking the outer tissue and causing the potatoes to shrivel. Spread is by conidia on diseased planting material. Control: Planting disease-free material. Hot water treatment of planting material, e.g. 49°C for 10 minutes. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.235, Onwueme, 1978 p.184)
495 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Mycosphaerella arachidis Deighton (= Mycosphaerella arachidicola W.A. Jenkins = Cercospora arachidicola Hori.) Early Leaf Spot
Mycosphaerella berkeleyii W.AJenkins (= Cercosporidium personatum (Berk. and Curt.) Deight. = Cercospora personata Berk. and Curt.) Late Leaf Spot
Both Leaf Spots occur in all the main groundnut-producing regions of the world and can cause serious loss of quality and quantity. The perfect forms (Myco sphaerella arachidis and M. berkeleyii) are found only in North America. The Leaf Spots show first as pale spots on the leaves. M. arachidis causes relatively large (1-10 mm) reddish-brown spots generally with a narrow halo. Conidia are produced mainly on the upper leaf surface. M. berkleyii causes smaller (1.{j mm), more distinct and blackish spots. Conidia occur on the lower leaf surface in concentric rings. The lesions of both gradually coalesce and may cause defoliation. M. arachidis occurs early in the season and is the more common Leaf Spot but M. berkleyii is potentially more serious because it spreads more quickly. Control: Crop rotation. Removing crop debris. Ensuring vigorous plants by adequate nutrition. Dusting with sulphur and/or copper. Spraying with benomyl or chlorothalonil. (Fe akin , 1973 p.21, Kranz et al., 1977 p.127, Smartt, 1976 p.235)
Mycosphaerella pinodes (Berk. and Blox.) Stone Blight, Leaf or Pod Spot ( of Peas)
Widespread. Numerous tiny irregular shaped purplish-black spots develop on all parts of the plant. The disease is seed-borne. Control: Using disease-free seed. Three-year rotations and deep ploughing of crop debris reduce infection. (Kay, 1979 p.298, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.93)
Mycosphaerella rabiei (Pass.) Kovach (= A scochyta rabiei (Pass.) Lab. = Phyllosticta rabiei (Pass.) Trott.) Chickpea Blight
Widespread; serious in India. A seed-borne disease, favoured by cool wet weather. Control: Using disease-free seed. Burning plant debris. Mixed cropping. Resistant cultivars. Spraying with zineb can be effective. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.234, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.200, Smartt, 1976 p.259)
496 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Myrothecium roridum Tode ex Tr. Leaf Spot, Necrotic Spot or Shot Hole
Occurs in South-east Asia. Causes a Leaf Spot on numerous economic host plants. (Feakin, 1973 p.76, Kranz et al., 1977 pp.235, 236)
Oidium spp. Powdery Mildew (of cucurbits and many other crops)
The two maior Powdery Mildews are Erysiphe cichoracearum and Sphaerotheca [uliginea, which are closely related if not synonymous. However usually only the asexual Oidium stage is found, making precise identification difficult. (Dixon, 1981 p.311) (See Erysiphe cichoracearum)
Oidium manihotis Henn. Cassava Ash Disease
Worldwide and endemic in most Cassava plantations but not usually of economic significance. A white mycelial growth develops on the leaves. Indefinite yellow lesions form where the leaf tissue is penetrated. The disease is most prevalent during the dry season in warmer regions and affects mainly the mature leaves. Control: Not usually necessary. Resistant cultivars should be planted. (COPR, 1978 p.103)
Operculella padwickii Foot Rot
An occasional disease of Chick Pea. (Kay, 1979 p.54)
Peronospora destructor (Berk.) Casp. (= P. schleideni Ung.) Downy Mildew (affecting a wide range of crops)
Necrotic spots appear near leaf tips in mid-season and a bluish-grey mildew develops in humid conditions. The tops die back, growth of bulbs is reduced and keeping quality is impaired. The disease flourishes in cool humid conditions and where drainage is poor. The spores are wind-dispersed. Control: Removing crop debris. Using clean seed. Using a 4-year crop rotation. Spraying with nabam plus zinc sulphate, maneb or zineb. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.207, USDA, 1953 p.431)
497 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Peronospora parasitica (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. Downy Mildew
Worldwide occurrence, infecting a wide range of crops. The mildew attacks seedlings particularly; the cotyledons drop prematurely and the plant may die. Young plants show irregular yellowish-white or brown spots and, in humid weather, a white mycelium is seen on the lower surface. In cabbages a black discoloration may be caused within the head. Black spots on the flower heads affect seed production. Infection can begin from spores in the soil or on plant debris and spreads under relatively cool (8-16°C) moist conditions. Control: Spraying with Bordeaux mixture, copper oxychloride or dithio carbamates. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.315, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.138)
Phoma cajani Collar Rot and Stem Canker
Reported from Puerto Rico on Pigeon Pea. Symptoms are very similar to those ascribed to Physalospora cajanae in the West Indies (which see) and Diplodia cajani in India. (Kay, 1979 p.329)
Phoma lingam (see Leptosphaeria maculans)
Phomopsis vexans (Sacc. and Syd.) Harter (= Diaporthe vexans) Phomopsis Rot
Widespread. The disease causes a blight and canker of stems, leaves and fruits of many crops. Control: Using resistant cultivars. Long rotations. Spraying with maneb or zineb. (Kranz et al., 1977 pp.110, 237)
Phylleutypa dioscoreae (Wake f.) Petr. Witch's Broom
The disease is recorded as a disease of Yam from several West Mrican countries but is not common. The symptoms are distortion, emaciation and dwarfing of stems and branches. Control: None necessary. (Coursey, 1967 p.121, COPR, 1978 p.155)
498 Appendix 2 DISEASES Phyllosticta spp. P. colocasiae von Hoehnel (on Colocasia) P. colocasiicola von Hoehnel (on Colocasia) P. dioscorea (Cooke) Cooke (on Dioscoreacea) P. dioscoricola P. Brun. (on Dioscoreaceae) Leaf Spot
P. colocasiae is recorded from the West Indies, Panama and Brazil; P. dioscorea from West Africa, USA and Taiwan; P. dioscoricola from the Ivory Coast. The spots on the leaves are oval to irregular and vary in size up to 5 mm or more. They are at first yellowish, becoming dark brown with the centres often falling away. Brown to black pycnidia are produced on the darkened dead tissue in the rainy season. Often there is secondary infection by other fungi. Control: Not generally necessary. (Weber, 1973, COPR, 1978 p.153)
Physalospora cajanae Collar Rot, Stem Canker (of Pigeon Pea)
Serious in the West Indies. A similar disease in Puerto Rico is ascribed to Phoma cajani, and in India to Diplodia cajani. Small grey lesions with dark edges develop on the stems and branches. Usually the plant is girdled and dies. The disease is more serious on perennial crops. It persists in the soil on organic debris. Control: Rotation. Removing crop debris. Ensuring a vigorous crop with adequate soil fertility. (Kay, 1979 p.329)
Physoderma zeamaydis Brown Spot
Widespread, particularly in southern USA and West Africa, but relatively un important. (Martin et al., 1976 p.371)
Phytophthora cajani Stem Blight
Minor disease of Pigeon Pea in India. (Kay, 1979 p.329)
Phytophthora colocasiae Rac. Leaf Blight
The disease causes considerable losses of Colocasia in the Solomon Islands; it also occurs in the Philippines and Puerto Rico. Purplish-brown water-soaked spots, up to 20 mm, appear on the leaves. The lesions coalesce until the leaf collapses, and up to 40% of the crop may be lost.
499 Appendix 2 DISEASES The lesions extend to the petiole and to the corm, initiating storage rots. Control: Hygiene measures. Planting in new areas. Spraying with copper fungicides. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.299, Kranz et al., 1977 p.89, Weber, 1973 p.237, Wellman, 1977 p.97)
Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary late Blight
Widespread and serious disease of Potato. Necrotic spots develop on the leaves and rapidly enlarge. They turn brown and water-soaked, causing early defoliation. On the underside of the spots the white downy fruiting bodies appear. The disease is favoured by cool humid weather when it can rapidly reach epidemic proportions. Infected tubers develop wet or dry rots depending upon the severity of infection, environmental conditions and secondary pathogens. Infected tomatoes develop large green brown water-soaked blotches. Control: Using semi-resistant cultivars. Destroying infected tops. Spraying with copper fungicides or maneb linked with forecasts of weather conditions favourable for infection. (AVRDC, 1978, p.l18, Kay, 1973 p.lOS, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.238, Messiaen and lafon, 1970 p.l06)
Phytophthora parasitica Dastur. Fruit Rot
Widespread. Serious in the Philippines, affecting mainly Egg Plant. Dark circular lesions with a water-soaked appearance occur on the fruit. Mature fruits often brown and rot within a few days. In humid weather white mycelial growth rapidly develops on crop debris and even on the soil surface. Control: Adequate spacing to avoid humid conditions within the crop. Removing infected fruits and crop debris. Spraying with copper fungicides. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.12S)
Phythophthora phaseoli Thaxt. Downy Mildew (Lima Bean)
Widespread and serious in humid areas. A white cottony growth develops in large irregular patches on the pods. The patches may have a purplish border. Badly affected pods shrivel and die. Leaves, shoots and flowers are occasionally affected. The disease is favoured by wet weather, cool nights and fairly warm days. Control: Using disease-free seed. A 2-3 year crop rotation. Spraying with copper fungicides. (Kay, 1979 p.230, USDA, 1953 p.400)
500 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Plasmodiophora brassicae Woron. Club Root (of crucifers)
The disease is a slime mould and is particularly serious in acid soils. Infection starts from resting spores in the soil. These germinate in the region of cruciferous roots and give rise to zoospores which invade the root hairs. The plant root cells react by division and enlargement so that irregular galls are formed and the root vascular tissue is damaged. Plant growth is stunted. Secondary infections may cause the root to rot. Control: liming the soil. PCNB or mercury compounds applied to the planting hole. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.299, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.143)
Plenodomus destruens Harter Foot Rot or Die-off
A major pest of Sweet Potato in subtropical USA and the West Indies. Dark spots develop on the stem just above soil level, the root collar area blackens and dries up. New sprouts are weak and discoloured. The plant gradually dies when the fungus encircles the stem. Spread is most often by pycnidiospores on plants grown from diseased seed. Control: Destroying infected plants and tubers. Rotation. Disinfecting seeds or cuttings with mercury compounds. (Frolich and Rodewald, 1970 p.178, Weber, 1973 p.556)
Pseudomonas alliicola P. cepacia Bacterial Soft Rot (of Shallot)
Infection by P. alliicola causes the inner scales to become water-soaked and soft; the bulb appears sound from the outside. With P. cepacia the outer scales become yellow and slimy whereas the inner scales remain unaffected. (USDA, 1953 p.818)
Pseudomonas g/ycinea Coerper Bacterial Blight
Prevalent in cooler soya bean-producing areas of north-eastern Asia and USA. Small angular lesions with water-soaked margins develop mainly on the leaves but also on the stems, petioles and pods, particularly in cool wet weather. The disease is seed-borne. Control: Hygiene measures such as using clean seed, removing crop debris. Resistant cultivars are not practical as there are numerous races of the bacterium. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.54, Scott and Aldrich, 1970 p.129, Smartt, 1976 p.230)
501 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Pseudomonas phaseolicola (Burkholder) Dowson Halo Blight (of Beans)
Serious in cool, wet bean-growing areas of the world. Can be troublesome in parts of USA and East Africa. The symptoms resemble those for Xanthomonas phaseoli and Bacterial Wilt, but the small brown spots which develop on the leaves are characterized by a surrounding chlorotic halo. The spots may enlarge to form dried brown areas. Moist reddish zones occur at the base of the stem; later they are slightly sunken and black and the stem may break. Small moist spots surrounded by a brown or reddish ring occur on the pods. In serious cases most of the seed is shrivelled. Cool wet weather favours infection, and the bacteria enter the plant through stomata or wounds. Control: Use of healthy seed (grown in drier areas.) Crop rotation. (Kay, 1979 p.138, Kranz et al., 1977 pp.57, 69)
Pseudomonas pisi Bacterial Blight (of Pea)
Can be serious in the USA, East and South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Aregntina, Uruguay, Colombia, Nepal, Japan, Europe and the USSR. Symptoms are most obvious on the leaves, stems and pods. Small irregular water-soaked spots turn golden brown. The leaves wither and become papery. Stem lesions elongate and may remain water-soaked or turn brown. The disease is carried in the seed or on the seed surface. Spread of infection is through stomata or wounds and favoured by wet weather. Control: Using disease-free seed. Long rotations help. (Kay, 1979 p.300, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.193, USDA, 1953 pp.407, 820)
Pseudomonas solanacearum (E.F. Smith) Dowson Bacterial Wilt
Widespread in Africa, Asia, America and the West Indies. A serious disease of the Solanaceae; only certain strains affect Groundnut. A soil-inhabiting pathogen which infects the plants through the roots and invades the vascular tissue. Affected plants are usually stunted and susceptible to water stress. The xylem is discoloured. Potato tubers develop a rot with a characteristic offensive smell. Warm, wet weather favours the disease. Control: Rotation with non-susceptible crops. Resistant cultivars. (AVRDC, 1978 p.113, Feakin, 1973 p.63, Kranz et al., 1977 p.58, Smartt, 1976 p.240)
502 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. and Curt.) Rost. Downy Mildew
A widely distributed disease of cucurbits, especially Cucumber and Melon in warm and humid areas, including all Africa (except the driest regions), southern parts of Asia and Europe, Australia, South, Central and North America. Distri bution on Water Melon is mainly limited to hot countries. Bright yellow spots develop on the upper surface of leaves, and on the lower surface a greyish-black down is visible. The spots become necrotic and turn brown from the centre outwards. The affected leaves dry up but do not fall. Fruit set and flavour is impaired. In warm moist climates the spread is from older to younger plants. Masses of purplish spores form on the lower leaf surface. These are mainly wind-dispersed, favoured by moderate humidity. These sporangia release zoospores which need water to germinate. Infection is through the stomata. Control: Removing crop debris. Not growing old and young plants in close proximity. Reducing the humidity within the crop, e.g. by spacing. Growing resistant cultivars, although many have undesirable traits. Spraying with nabam and zineb (copper and sulphur can be phytotoxic). (Kranz et al., 1977 p.90, PCAR, 1975 p.53)
Puccinia allii (= Puccinia pom (Sow.) Wint.) Rust (of alliums)
Worldwide distribution; serious on Garlic in Tanzania, Israel and Chile. Chlorotic spots develop on the leaves followed by orange pustules. The fungus is favoured by high humidity, moderate to low temperatures, dense planting, excessive nitrogen and deficiencies of potassium. Control: Long rotation. Sprays of benodanil or maneb/macozeb are helpful. (Dixon, 1981 p.28l)
Puccinia menthae Rust (of Mentha spp.)
Widespread. Yellow or brown pustules develop on stems, leaves and petioles and later turn dark brown. Oil production is reduced and leaves may die. Peppermint, once considered resistant, is now susceptible to new races of the disease. Control: Early cutting of affected crops. Dusting with sulphur or spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Dithiocarbamates decompose during distillation to give toxic products. (USDA, 1953 p.866)
503 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Puccinia polysora Underw. Maize Rust
Widespread in the tropical regions of America, Asia, Africa and Australasia. Numerous pustules occur on the leaves and occasionally also on the leaf sheaths, giving a rough feel to the surface. These rupture to release yellow-orange spores which are wind-dispersed. Control: Using resistant cultivars. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.164)
Puccinia sorghi Schw. Maize Rust
Found in all regions of the world where Maize is grown; not serious. Long or oblong pustules form on the leaves. These rupture releasing deep brown spore masses (uredospores); later spores (teleospores) are black. The spores are wind-dispersed. Control: Resistant cultivars. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.164)
Pyrenochaeta terrestris (Hansen) Gorenz. Pink Root (of Onion)
Serious in parts of southern USA. A soil-borne fungus which can attack from the seedling stage onwards, the optimum soil temperature for the fungus being 260 C. Affected roots turn pink, shrivel and die; the leaves subsequently yellow. Although plants are not normally killed, bulb formation is impaired. Black spores form on diseased roots but infection is mainly from mycelium in the soil. Control: Resistant cultivars. (Me"ssiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.247, USDA, 1953 p.433)
Py thium spp. P. aphanidermatum, P. arrhenomones, P. but/en, P. debaryanum, P. deliense, P. mynotylum, P. ultimum. Damping-Qff of Seedlings
Pythium spp. occur in virtually all cultivated soils and attack a wide range of plants, chiefly at the seedling stage. The seedlings appear water-soaked at ground level and topple over, often with the leaves still green. Under conditions favouring the disease, such as high humidity and overcrowding of plants, it spreads rapidly in widening circles. Pythium spp. (e.g. P. mynoty/um) contribute to a soft corm rot and root decay of Taro, causing plants to wilt and collapse in the field. Pythium spp. also cause a mottle necrosis of Sweet Potato. Slightly sunken areas develop on small roots and an internal decay begins. The decay is described as soft and light-
504 Appendix 2 DISEASES coloured with a rough appearance. Spread is by conidia and oospores. Control: Ensuring a good start by using quality seed and planting material. Planting under optimum conditions for rapid growth. Avoiding overcrowding and overwatering of plants. Seed dressing with captan, chloronil or thiram. Soil disinfection. (COPR, 1978 p.181, Grubben, 1976 p.147, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.326, Kranzetal., 1977 pp.93, 96, Westcott, 1971 p.347)
Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Bud. (see Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid)
Rhizopus nigricans Ehrenberg Soft Rot
A widespread and serious storage rot of Sweet Potato. The rot develops after harvest on injured tubers. The coarse whiskery mycelial growth rapidly invades the injured surface, causing a soft, wet, mouldy decay with a pleasant odour. Abundant black spores form on the mould. The disease is spread by contact. Control: Using resistant cultivars. Curing the tubers before storage (27-300 C for 10-14 days) to allow corky growth to develop over any wounds. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.62, Westcott, 1971 p.350)
Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrenberg ex Fr.) Undo Rhizopus Soft Rot
A storage rot of Sweet Potatoes which normally only attacks injured tubers. A soft watery rot is caused; the tuber becomes soft and stringy and water exudes readily when the skin is broken. The tissues tum brownish and a mild odour is noticeable. As the skin is broken the greyish fungal growth can be seen. Sporangia form on uninjured parts; they are white, becoming black. Control: Avoiding damage to the tubers. Curing the tubers before storage to allow wounds to heal. Destroying infected tubers. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.99, Onwueme, 1978 p.l85,PCAR, 1975 p.l02)
Rigidosporus lignosus (Klotsch) Imzeki (= Fornes lignosus Klotsch) White Root, White Thread Disease
The most serious root rot of Cassava in Africa, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand; also in Brazil and Mexico after forest clearance. A white mycelial mat forms under the bark of diseased roots, and also coats the surface. The roots dry and smell of rotting wood. Young plants may suddenly wilt and lose their leaves. Outbreaks are patchy, probably because infection only results from direct contact with diseased roots. The disease is
505 Appendix 2 DISEASES
common where Cassava is planted after clearance of forest or following after susceptible crops such as rubber. Control: Removing affected plants and their roots. (COPR, 1978 p.1lO, Kranz et al., 1977 p.171)
Sclerospora philippinensis Weston Downy Mildew (of Sweet Corn)
Of great importance in the Philippines, southern Asia, South Africa, southern Europe and southern USA. Pale yellow streaks on the upper leaves are followed by the development of downy mildew, necrosis and browning, suckering and stunted growth. The grain may fail to develop. Seedlings are more susceptible than older plants. Control: No satisfactory control is recorded. Helpful measures include removing affected plants, growing the least susceptible cultivars and planting so as to avoid rain at sensitive stages. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.259, Kranz et al., p.99)
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Ub.) de By. Cottony Rot, White Mould
In the tropics the disease is mainly restricted to high altitudes. It attacks a wide range of hosts. The fungus causes a storage rot of Jerusalem Artichoke, and of Bean pods. The rot is soft, watery and odourless. It becomes covered in a white cottony growth in which black sclerotia are embedded. Control: Using disease-free planting material. Burning or deep ploughing of crop residues. Rotating with cereals. Flooding kills sclerotia in the soil after 3 weeks. (Kay, 1979 p.l37, Kranz et al., 1977 p.138)
Sclerotinia tnloUorum Erikss var .fahae Keay Crown and Stem Rot
Occasionally serious, especially in wet soils. This strain is specific to Broad Bean. It attacks the plant collar, covering it with mycelium and sclerotia. Control: Rotation. Deep cultivation to bury sclerotia. (Kay, 1979, p.32, Messiaen and lafon, 1970 pp.199, 414, USDA, 1953 p.250)
Sclerotium spp. S. rollsii Sacco (= Corticium rollsii (Sacc.) Curzi) S. cepivorum Berk.
Seedling Blight (of Sweet Potato), Root Rot (of Jerusalem Artichoke), Root and
506 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Stem Wilt or Rot (of Groundnut), Wilt (of Xanthosoma, Long-fruited Jute), Leaf Spot or Neck Rot (Dioscoreaceae), Storage Rot (of Cocoyam), Southern Blight or Collar Rot (of Tomato) and White Rot or Bulb Rot (of Onion), Crown Rot (of French Bean)
An important and virulent disease of many plants, widely distributed in the warm parts of the world. The disease causes a damping-off of seedlings and a collar rot of older plants. Young plants die quickly, older plants yellow, wilt and then die. Affected parts then become covered with white mycelial strands in which white to brown conidia are embedded. The sclerotia remain viable for long periods on plant debris. The disease flourishes in light soils which are moist. Infection usually follows damage by insects and nematodes although healthy tissue can be attacked. On Yam it is an important foliar and neck rot disease although species vary in their susceptibility; leaf spots are spread by rain-dispersed sclerotia and may be up to 20 mm across with a yellow halo surrounding a purple-brown area and a grey centre. Control: Removing infected plants and crop debris. Ploughing in the topsoil since sclerotia cannot germinate at depth. Growing resistant cultivars (Dioscorea ceae). AVRDC, 1978 p.118, Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.75, COPR, 1978 p.150, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.205, Kranz et al., 1977 p.148, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.237, Smartt, 1976 p.240)
Septoria apii-graveolentis Dorogin Leaf or Late Blight (of Celery)
Small yellow spots occur on the lower outside leaves and petioles. These darken as the black fruiting bodies form in the centre. The leaves become chlorotic. Control: Crop rotation. Hot water treatment of seed (30 minutes at 48°C). Using 2-3 year old seed on which the fungus has lost some viability. Dusting the seed with thiram. Spraying with zineb or nabam plus zinc sulphate on seedlings, maneb on older plants. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.327)
Septoria lactucae Pass. Leaf Spot (of Lettuce)
Occasionally serious in tropical climates (Ivory Coast, Antilles, northern Australia). Symptoms may be of 2 types; necrotic spots up to 10 mm across on which the pycnidia develop; or a progressive yellowing of the leaf with sporulation occurring all over the leaf. Control: Spraying with maneb is suggested. Hot water treatment of seeds (30 minutes at 48°C) has proved effective in Australia. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 pp.354,415)
507 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Septoria Iycopersici Spez. Septoria Leaf Spot (of Tomato)
Worldwide distribution. The first symptoms appear on the oldest leaves as circular water-soaked spots with grey centres and black borders. Later a distinct yellow halo surrounds the spots. Under favourable conditions (22-26°C) pychidia are formed and spores are spread by rain-splash. Defoliation allows sunscald of the fruit. Control: Spraying with maneb or zineb. (AVRDC, 1978 p.117, Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.74, Kranz et al., 1977 p.226)
Setosphaerica turcica (Luttrell) Leo. and Sugg. (= Trichometaspaerica turcica = Drecholera turcica Helminthosporium turcicum) Northern Corn Leaf Blight (of Sweet Corn)
The disease has a worldwide distribution but is found particularly in cool, humid areas. In the tropics therefore it tends to occur at high altitude or during cool seasons in the lowlands. The disease affects the leaves, and occasionally the leaf sheaths and husks, causing elongated grey-tan spots often with concentric zones. Spores form on the lower surface particularly in wet weather. Control: Resistant cultivars are normally used. Removing crop debris. Fungicides can be used on high value crops. (Kranz et aI., 1977 p .140)
Sphacelotheca reiliana (Kuhn.) Clint. Head Smut (of Sweet Corn)
Occurs widely; Africa, Asia, AustralaSia, Europe, North and South America. Occasionally serious but normally relatively few plants are affected. The disease affects the tassels and ears which become completely or partly converted into smut galls. The galls are covered with a membrane which ruptures to expose a mass of tan to black chlamydospores and strands of connective tissue. The spores survive in the soil or seed. The fungus develops within the tissue of the young plant; new outbreaks do not occur during the growing season. Control: Seed treatment and rotation. (Kranz et al., 1977 p.176, USDA, 1953 p.387)
Sphaerotheca voandzeiae
Not generally serious. (Kay, 1979 p.20)
508 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Stemphylium solani Weber Grey Leaf Spot
A common and serious disease of Tomato in the warm moist tropics and subtropics. Irregular brown to black spots with greyish centres occur on the leaves and occasionally on the stems but not on the fruit. The leaves yellow and fall prema turely, markedly reducing yields of fruit. The conidia are air-borne. Two other Stemphylium spp., S. floridanum and S. botryosum, cause similar symptoms and are almost indistinguishable. Control: Using resistant cultivars. Spraying the seedbed with maneb or other dithiocarbamates. (AVRDC, 1978 p.116, Epenhuijsen, 1974 p.74, Kranz et al., 1977 p.228)
Streptomyces scabies Thaxter Scab
Commonly occurs on Potato grown in the tropics, and in alkaline soils in temperate regions. A soil-borne infection which causes raised corky areas on the tubers. Control: Improving soil moisture content by adding humus or by irrigation. Planting healthy tubers and using resistant cultivars. (Kay, 1973 p.106, USDA, 1953 p.437)
Synchytrium psophocarpi (Racib.) Gaum. Orange Gall, False Rust (of Winged Bean)
A major disease in Papua New Guinea, which also occurs in other parts of Asia and in West Africa. Minute, light green, water-soaked pimples appear on the younger leaves, mainly on the lower surface and along the veins, occasionally also on the petioles, vines and pods. The galls turn orange as the spores are formed. Control: Burning affected plants. Spraying with copper fungicides (maneb, ferbam, thiram, zineb, ziram). (Kay, 1979 p.402, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.93)
Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk (= Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn = Corticium solani = Pellicularia filamentosa) Damping-off, Stem Rot (of Cauliflower and Celery), Black Scurf and Stem Rot (of Potato), Bottom Rot (of Lettuce), Leaf Blight and Tuber Soft Rot (of Yam)
Widespread and persistent in cultivated soils. The disease attacks a wide range of vegetables. like Pythium it causes a damping-off of seedlings. It can be distinguished
509 Appendix 2 DISEASES
from Pythium by the presence of a brown superficial mycelium and small black spores on dead leaves. It also causes root rots (e.g. of Dioscoreaceae, Xanthosoma and Cowpea) resulting in leaf blight and defoliation. On Cocoyam it attacks the petiole base of older plants, causing collapse although it is generally unimportant. On Potato it attacks both stem and tubers, reducing tuber size and quantity. On Celery, reddish-brown lesions develop near the base of petioles; these may spread to cause a rot. On Lettuce, it affects the leaves on the soil as the head matures; sunken brown spots develop on the midrib and petioles and the leaves succumb to a slimy rot. Control: Burning crop debris. Long rotations. Ensuring good drainage and avoiding deep planting. Seed treatment with mercury-based chemicals. (COPR, 1978 p.152, Coursey, 1967 p.122, Kay, 1973 p.l06, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p338, Kranz et al., 1977 p.l78, Nieuwhof, 1969 p.139)
Uredo cajani Syd. Rust
Troublesome on Pigeon Peas in the West Indies. (Kay, 1979 p329, Kranz et al., 1977 p.171)
Uromyces appendiculatus (see Uromyces phaseoli)
Uromyces [abae (pers.) de Bary Broad Bean Rust
Causes crop losses in Peru, Egypt, Tunisia, Iran and Lebanon. Fawn-coloured pustules develop on both sides of the leaves. It usually appears late and so is not normally serious except in some Mediterranean countries. Control: Not usually necessary. (Kay, 1979 p32, Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.200)
Uromyces manihotis P. Henn. Rust
Several Uromyces species are recorded on Cassava in South America, U. manihotis being the most widespread. They are not generally serious. Typical rust pustules develop on leaves and stems. Optimum weather condi tions for spread of infection vary with species. Control: Not normally necessary. The mycoparasite Darluca filum restricts sporulation in some species. (COPR, 1978 p.l06)
510 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Uromyces phaseoli Arthur (= U. appendiculatus) Rust (of Phaseolus vulgaris)
Widespread; particularly serious in Colombia. The leaves show brown pustules (uredospores), often surrounded by a yellow halo; later black pustules form (teleutospores). The leaves wither prematurely. Climbing varieties are more susceptible because of their longer growing season and more abundant foliage. The spores are wind-dispersed. Control: Numerous races of the rust make selection of resistant cultivars difficult. Sulphur and Bordeaux mixture are used but can be phytotoxic. Dithio carbamates (particularly maneb) and oxycarboxine are effective. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.177, Smartt, 1976 p.246)
Uromyces spp. Pea Rust U. pisi (DC.) Otth. U. viciae-craccae Constant. U. viciae-fabae (Pers.) Schlecht.
At least these 3 species of rust are found on Peas but because they occur late in the season damage is seldom important. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.195)
Ustilago maydis (DC) Cda. Corn Smut
The most widespread and serious disease of Maize. Irregular white galls form which grow to a large size before bursting to release a mass of black, thick-walled chlamydospores. The galls may occur on any part of the plant above ground but are particularly serious on the ears. The spores can survive on crop debris in the soil. Factors favouring the disease are not fully understood; heavy manuring seems to encourage outbreaks. Control: Avoiding susceptible cultivars. (USDA, 1953 p.386)
Verticillium albo-atrum Rke. and Berth. Verticillium Wilt Disease
A widely occurring disease which occasionally attacks Chick Pea. The disease persists in the soil. It is favoured by lower temperatures than Fusarium Wilt and therefore predominates only in temperate and subtropical regions, particularly in badly structured soils. It differs from Fusarium Wilt in that the internal discoloration of the stem is greyish-brown rather than tan brown. Diseased plants are stunted with small leaves which may be distorted and dark green.
511 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Control: Similar to the control of Fusarium, namely avoiding infected land; crop rotation; disease-free planting material; resistant cultivars. (Dixon, 1981 p.362, Kranz etal., 1977 p.206, 229, USDA, 1953 p.437)
Xanthomonas cajani Bacterial Leaf Spot and Stem Canker
Common on Pigeon Pea in eastern India in summer with high temperatures and relative humidity. (Kay, 1979 p.329)
Xanthomonas campestris (pam.) Dows. Black Rot, Bacteriosis, Brown Rot or Leaf Blight (of brassicas, particularly Cauliflower)
Of worldwide occurrence, serious particularly in warm wet climates (West Indies, Philippines) . The pathogen is a bacterial disease of the vascular tissue. Infection begins at the leaf vein endings and spreads down the plant. The vascular tissue is blackened and the leaves marked with yellow V-shaped spots. Infection can spread during storage. The disease is seed-borne, although it can also survive up to 3 years in the soil. It is spread in humid conditions. Control: Seed disinfection. Crop rotation and removal of diseased plants. Growing crops in the cool season as far as possible. (Messiaen and Lafon, 1970 p.304, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.180)
Xanthomonas cyamopsidis Bacterial Blight
The most serious disease of Cluster Bean. The disease can attack the plant at all stages of growth. Large angular lesions at the tops of the leaves cause defoliation. The stem becomes black-streaked and infected plants often die. The pathogen is seed-borne and can be spread by irrigation water. Control: Resistant cultivars. Immersing the seeds in water at 500 C for 10 minutes. (Kay, 1979 p.76)
Xanthomonas manihotis (Arthaud-Berthet and Bondar) Starr Cassava Bacterial Blight
The most serious disease of Cassava, particularly in wet seasons. Widely distri buted (Central and South America, Africa, India, South-east Asia). When infected planting material is used the developing shoots wilt and die back. The gummy bacterial exudate is spread mainly by rain-splash. Plants infected during the growing season show angular leaf spotting followed by
512 Appendix 2 DISEASES blight, defoliation, wilting and die-back. Affected leaves roll and dry up before falling. A gummy exudate collects in droplets especially along veins on the lower leaf surface. The young stems are more seriously affected than old ones. Suscept ible cultivars may develop a root rot. Spread is checked by dry spells. The bacteria infect through stomata or wounds. Control: Using resistant cultivars. Planting clean material. Some control is achieved by cutting out diseased shoots. Leaving a 6-month gap between successive crops. Disinfecting knives to avoid mechanical spread. (COPR, 1978 pp.45, 113)
Xanthomonas phaseoli (E.P. Smith) Dows. Bacterial Leaf Pustule
The disease occurs worldwide and can cause serious yield reduction in Hyacinth Bean. Small brown spots occur on leaves, stalks, pods and seeds. The leaf tears and becomes ragged as the leaf tissue dies. Infection usually begins later in the season than Bacterial Blight (Pseudomonas glycinea) and under warmer conditions. The bacteria are seed-borne. Control: Using clean seed. Resistant cultivars are available. (Kay, 1979 p.188, Kranz etal., 1977 p.68, Smartt, 1976 pp.230, 231, 248,259)
Xanthomonas vesicatoria (Doidge) Dowson Bacterial Spot
Increasingly widespread and important on Tomato. Serious on Sweet Pepper in the Philippines. Small, dark, greasy spots occur on the leaves and stems of young plants. Spots also occur on the flowers and young fruits often wither and fall. Ripe fruit is not attacked but on green fruit small dark water-soaked spots occur, making it unmarketable. The bacteria are seed-borne but survive on crop debris and probably on solanaceous weeds and in the soil. Control: Treating the seed (hot water at 500 C for 25 minutes), which should be dusted with thiram at planting. Crop rotation. If necessary, spraying with copper. Overhead irrigation of infected crops should not be practised. (Kranz etal., 1977 p.71)
513 Appendix 2 DISEASES
VIRUSES
VIRUS DISEASES OF CASSAVA African Mosaic Virus African Mosaic occurs in Africa and India, but not in America. Typical mosaic symptoms develop - chlorotic areas on young leaves and leaf distortion. In severe cases the leaves are small, mis-shapen and have bright yellow patches surrounded by nonnal green tissue. Transmission is by whitefly (Bemisia spp.). The virus can be controlled by using disease-free planting material, rogueing infected plants and the use of resistant cultivars.
Cassava Brown Streak Virus An uncommon disease, occurring only on the East African coast at low altitude (below 1000 m). The virus often occurs in conjunction with Mosaic Virus. Symptoms include leaf chlorosis and necrosis of the roots in storage which can result in considerable losses. The virus is spread by mechanical transmission. Control is by the use of disease-free planting material and by rogueing.
Other virus diseases of Cassava include: Cassava Common Mosaic Virus, Cassava Leaf Vein Mosaic Disease and Witches' Broom. (COPR, 1978 p.1l8)
VIRUS DISEASES OF COWPEA Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus Unifoliate leaves show a reddish-brown marking. Trifoliate leaves show vein clearing followed by characteristic chlorotic blotches. The pods may also be affected.
Southern Bean Mosaic Virus Chlorotic spots on the primary leaves are followed by vein-clearing and mottling of the leaves. The main veins show banding. The leaves become distorted.
Bean Yellow Mosaic Virus The primary leaves become slightly chlorotic and develop purple tinged areas.
514 Appendix 2 DISEASES The finer veins tum yellow and sometimes show banding. Mottling of the leaves shows as dull yellow patches with normal green and paler green patches. The symptoms vary with cultivar.
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (Cowpea Strain) Slightly purple areas may appear on the primary leaves. Vein-clearing is temporary and the mild mottle usually disappears within 2 weeks. The virus is seed-transmitted.
Other viruses affecting Cowpea include: Tobacco Mosaic Virus (Cowpea Strain) and Cowpea Yellow Mosaic Virus. (Smartt, 1976 p.243)
VIRUS DISEASES OF CUCURBITS Cucumber Mosaic Virus Cucumber Mosaic is caused by a group of virus strains which also infect a number of other plants. Infected Cucumber plants show a mottled leaf pattern of yellow and green leaf areas, 1I\0st conspicuous in young leaves. Fruits are mottled in a green and yellow pattern and often become distorted, malformed and sometimes completely white. The virus can be transmitted by aphids (Melon Aphid and Green Peach Aphid). It is not seed-borne. Control is therefore by aphid control and the use of resistant cultivars.
Water Melon Mosaic Virus Water Melon Mosaic like that of Cucumber is caused by a group of virus strains with a fairly wide host range apart from Cucumber. Transmission is by the Peach and Melon Aphids and not through the seed. Symptoms are a characteristic yellow and green mottling, particularly of the terminal leaves. The leaves may become distorted and curled and the margins sharply indented. Flowers of infected plants are often deformed and may fail to set fruit. Young fruits may show a mild mosaic pattern which disappears as the fruit ripens. (Frolich and Rodewald, 1970 p.161, Whitaker and Davis, 1962 p.171)
Musk Melon Mosaic Virus A serious disease of Musk Melon in California which also infects Gherkin, Pumpkin, Squash and, to a lesser extent, Cucumber. The virus is carried in the seed and spread by aphids. The symptoms include an initial vein-banding followed by mottling of the leaves. Many leaves develop a serrated edge and some become distorted. Flowers often fail to set fruit. Control is by the use of clean seed. Resistant cultivars are being developed. (USDA, 19S3 p.49l)
VIRUS DISEASES OF GROUNDNUT Groundnut Rosette Virus The virus is widespread in Africa south of the Sahara; it has also been recorded but not confirmed in India, Argentina and Fiji. The virus is transmitted by
SIS Appendix 2 DISEASES Aphis craccivora and is not seed-borne. Poorly established crops are more susceptible to attack possibly because the aphids are attracted to widely spaced stands. Symptoms are variable but a type called 'chlorotic rosette' predominates in East and Central Africa, whereas 'green rosette' is more common in West Africa. Chlorotic rosette begins as a faint mottling of the younger leaves; later leaves are chlorotic and distorted. Growth of the central stem stops, causing the rosette symptom. Yields are seriously reduced by early infection. Green rosette causes serious stunting if early infection occurs, but the leaves remain green. Control is by removal of diseased plants, ensuring early planting, close spacing and adequate nutrition and water, by the use of resistant cultivars and by the control of Aphis craccivora. (Feakin, 1973 p.65, Kranz et al., 1977 p.l9, Smartt, 1976 p.238)
VIRUS DISEASES OF JACK BEAN Mosaic Virus affects Jack Beans. (Kay, 1979 p.l99)
VIRUS DISEASE OF LETTUCE Lettuce Mosaic Virus The virus is seed-borne and spread by aphids. Young affected plants are stunted and have mottled leaves or occasionally are uniformly pale yellowy green. The leaves may be distorted and more lax. Plants affected when hearting may show symptoms on one side only, causing uneven growth. Some weeds (e.g. sowthistle and groundsel) harbour the virus. Control is by using disease-free seed, aphid and weed control and the use of resistant cultivars. (USDA, 1953 pA20)
VIRUS DISEASES OF LIMA BEAN Golden Yellow Mosaic A serious disease in Puerto Rico, and similar symptoms occur in the Caribbean, South America and India. Affected plants fail to set seed. The virus can be transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) and in India thrips and aphids are vectors.
Cucumber Mosaic Virus A CMV strain is reported to affect small-seeded cultivars in USA. (Kay, 1979 p.23l)
VIRUS DISEASES OF MUNG BEAN Leaf Crinkle Virus and Yellow Mosaic Virus Control is by rogueing and the use of resistant cultivars (in the USA these include M-238 and M-330). (Kay, 1979 p.278)
VIRUS DISEASE OF ONION Onion Yellow Dwarf Virus Occurs in most countries where Onion and Shallot are grown. Aphid-
516 Appendix 2 DISEASES transmitted, it is not thought to be seed-borne. Yellow streaks develop on the leaves which become crinkled and flattened and eventually collapse. Flower stalks are twisted and dwarfed. Bulbs from infected plants are small. Control is by the use of virus-free stock and by rogueing. (Dixon, 1981 p.297)
VIRUS DISEASES OF PHASEOLUS VULGARIS Common Bean Mosaic Virus The more serious of the 2 common viruses since it is seed-transmitted. Initial symptoms on young plants are chlorotic leaves and stunted growth; older plants develop mottled and distorted leaves. Early infection results in much reduced yields. The virus can be spread in the pollen and by vectors such as aphids, leaf-eating beetles and whiteflies. Control is by the use of resistant cultivars.
Bean Yellow Mosaic Virus The symptoms are similar to those of Common Bean Mosaic Virus but the yellow coloration is more vivid. The plants are usually bushy and have a drooping form. The virus is not seed-borne but since its host range includes some wild plants and forage legumes these can act as a source of infection. Some selections are fairly tolerant of the virus but so far no resistant cultivars have been found. (Smartt, 1976 p.252)
VIRUS DISEASES OF PIGEON PEA A Mosaic Virus which results in totally sterile plants has been recorded in India and Burma. An eriophid mite was thought to transmit the virus but it is possible that the vector is a nematode. No specific control measures have so far been found.
Cowpea Mosaic Virus This virus is reported to affect Pigeon Pea in the West Indies. (Kay, 1979 p.330)
VIRUS DISEASES OF POTATO Rugose Mosaic Virus (Synonymous with Severe Mosaic, Leaf Drop Mosaic, Potato Virus Y and Potato Banding Virus). A serious and widely occurring infection causing serious yield loss and sometimes death of the plant. Transmission is by aphids. Some American cultivars have limited resistance. Symptoms include a mottling and wrinkling of the leaves and small brown-black spots on the lower leaf surface, along the veins and on petioles and stems.
Leafroll Virus A serious and widespread virus disease. Infected plants are often stunted and light green. The upper leaves may curl. Numbers and size of the tubers are much
517 Appendix 2 DISEASES reduced. Transmission is by insects (including Myzus persicae).
Mild Mosaic Symptoms include a chlorotic mottling of the leaves which are often also crinkled. Yields are reduced. (Kay, 1973 p.106, Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.240)
VIRUS DISEASE OF SOYA BEAN Soya Bean Mosaic and Yellow Mosaic Virus These two diseases are probably seed-borne. Plants infected with Soya Bean Mosaic are stunted and have distorted leaves, puckered along the veins and turning down at the edges. Yield is reduced. Resistant cultivars are not known. (Scott and Aldrich, 1970 p.129, Smartt, 1976 p.232)
VIRUS DISEASES OF SWEET CORN Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus is a strain of the Sugar Cane Mosaic Virus. Symptoms are pale greenish-yellow streaks, particularly on young leaves. Growth is stunted if infection occurs early on. The virus is transmitted by aphids. Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass) is an alternative host.
Streak Virus Streak Virus occurs in Africa south of the Sahara, Mauritius, Madagascar and India but not in America. The vectors are leaf-hoppers (Cicadulina spp.). Narrow chlorotic streaks occur on young leaves. (Dixon, 1981 p.300)
VIRUS DISEASES OF SWEET PEPPER Tobacco Mosaic Virus The leaves develop a greenish-yellow mottling and become distorted. Affected areas may turn brown and die. The fruits are often mottled and, if the plants are attacked at an early stage, yields are reduced.
Cucumber Mosaic Virus The virus causes a similar but more marked mottling of the leaves and fruit. The leaves become elongated. Control is by removing affected plants, growing crops away from alternative host plants and by spraying the aphid vectors. (Knott and Deanon, 1967 p.130)
VIRUS DISEASES OF SWEET POTATO Mosaic Virus Mosaic is a serious disease in the USA and increasingly in Africa. It is caused by a strain of Tobacco Mosaic Virus. Infected plants have small mottled malformed leaves, reduced internodes and yield little or no tuber. Only a few plants are infected in anyone field; the disease does not appear to spread readily from plant to plant. The control is to rogue out and burn infected plants.
518 Appendix 2 DISEASES (Onwueme, 1978 p.185).
Feathery Mottle Complex Feathery Mottle is apparently caused by 3 viruses: Internal Cork Virus; Leaf Spot Virus; and a whitefly-transmitted Yellow Dwarf Virus. The whiteflies concerned are Bemisia and Trialeurodes. When present together the viruses cause severe symptoms: dwarfing of plants, yellowing of veins in young leaves and yellowish spotting in older leaves. The internodes are short and the tubers usually small. Control is by removing and burning affected plants and by controlling the whitefly.
Internal Cork Internal Cork is caused by a virus or a complex of viruses. Corky areas develop within the tuber. These areas remain distinct after cooking and are bitter. Tubers appear normal externally. Symptoms on the plant include chlorotic leaf-spotting, vein clearing and purple ring spotting of the leaves. Yields are not much reduced but the market value is low. Infection is by aphids. Control is by crop rotation and the use of resistant cultivars (although some resistant cultivars are symptomless carriers and may spread the disease).
Leaf Spot Virus A non-persistent virus which causes leaf spotting, vein clearing, vein banding and purple ring spots on the leaves. Yields are only slightly reduced. The virus is aphid-transmitted. In most situations no control measures are needed.
Russet Crack Virus This virus causes a discoloration and cracking of the tuber. Spotting of the leaves may also occur. Transmission is probably by a whitefly (Trialeurodes abutilorea). (Onwueme, 1978 pp.l85, 186)
VIRUS DISEASES OF TOMATO CUcumber Mosaic Virus On Tomato this virus causes a light mosaic and a narrowing of the leaves ('fern leaf' sYt11ptom). It is mainly aphid-transmitted.
Tomato Double Virus Streak Infection by a combination of Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Potato Virus X cause a mosaic and necrosis on the leaves, streaking of the stem and petioles, leaf fall, distorted fruits and stunted growth.
Tomato Bunchy Top Virus This virus causes extreme bunching of the terminal leaves iUld is mechanically transmitted.
519 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Tobacco Mosaic Virus On Tomato the virus causes a mottling with raised dark green areas and some distortion of young leaves; growth is stunted. Transmission is mechanical.
Tobacco Leaf-Curl Virus On Tomato the leaf margins roll upwards.
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus A worldwide and serious disease which can affect a wide range of crops. On Tomato symptoms are a bronze coloration and curling of the leaves, most severe in young plants and sometimes causing death. Green fruits have necrotic, sometimes sunken, markings and ripe fruits are discoloured. Yields are reduced even when plants appear to recover. Transmission is mechanical or by thrips (FranklinieUa spp. and Thrips tabaci). Seed-borne infection is a possibility. Control is by growing the crop away from other host plants, by controlling the thrip vectors and by the use of locally resistant cultivars. (AVRDC, 1978 p.124, Kranz etal., 1977 pp.35, 37-39)
VIRUS DISEASE OF YAM Mosaic-type Virus Mosaic-type symptoms have been recorded from West Africa and the Caribbean. Outbreaks probably occur worldwide but are usually isolated and not generally serious. The range of symptoms includes leaf mottling, vein clearing, stunted growth and bushiness. Species and cultivars vary in susceptibility. The virus (or possibly virus complex) can be transmitted mechanically and by aphids. Control is by using disease-free planting material and by rogueing. (COPR, 1978 p.158)
VIRUS DISEASE OF YAM BEAN Mosaic Virus Affects yields in some areas of south-east Asia but no data are available.
References (Diseases)
AVRDC (1978) Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Tropical Tomato, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taiwan. COPR (1978) Pest Control in Tropical Root Crops, PANS Manual No.4, Centre for Overseas Pest Research, Overseas Development Administration, London. Coursey, D.G. (1967) Yams, Longman, Harlow. Dixon, G.R. (1981) Vegetable Crop Diseases, Macmillan, Basingstoke. Epenhuijsen, C.W. van (1974) Growing Native Vegetables in Nigeria, FAO, Rome. Feakin, S.D. (ed.) (1973) Pest Control in Groundnuts, PANS Manual No.2,
520 Appendix 2 DISEASES
Centre for Overseas Pest Research, Overseas Development Administration, London. Frolich, G. and Rodewald, W. (1970) Pests and Diseases of Tropical Crops and their Control, Pergamon Press, Oxford. Grubben, G.J.H. (1976) The Cultivation of Amaranth as a Tropical Leaf Vege ta ble, Communication 67, Department of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. Kay, D.E. (1973) Root Crops, Tropical Products Institute, London. Kay, D.E. (1979) Food Legumes, Tropical Products Institute, London. Knott, J.E. and Deanon, J.R. (1967) Vegetable Production in South-east Asia, College of Agriculture, University of Philippines, Los Banos, Laguna. j Kranz, J., Schmutterer, H. and Koch, W. (ed.) (1977) Diseases, Pests and Weeds in Tropical Crops, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Martin, J.H., Leonard, W.H. and Stamp, D.L. (1976) Principles of Field Crop Production, Macmillan, Basingstoke. Messiaen, C.M. and Lafon, R. (1970) Les Maladies des Plantes Maraicheres, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Paris. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1980) List of Approved Products and their Uses for Farmers and Growers. Agricultural Chemicals Approval Scheme, HMSO, London. Nieu whof, M. (1969) Cole Crops, Leonard Hill, London. Onwueme, I.C. (1978) The Tropical Tuber Crops: Yams, Cassava, Sweet Potato, Cocoyams, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. PCAR (1975) The Philippines Recommends for Vegetable Crops 1975, Philip- pine Council for Agricultural Research, Los Banos, Laguna. Purseglove, J.W. (1968) Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons, Longman, Harlow. Purseglove, J.W. (1972) Tropical Crops: Monocotyledons, Longman, Harlow. Scott, W.O. and Aldrich, S.R. (1970) Modern Soybean Production, S. and A. Publications, Champaign, Illinois. Smartt, J. (1976) Tropical Pulses, Longman, Harlow. Weber, G.F. (1973) Bacterial and Fungal Diseases of Plants in the Tropics, University of Florida, Gainesville. Wellman, F.L. (1977) Dictionary of Tropical A merican Crops and their Diseases, Scaregrow, New Jersey. Westcott, C. (1971) Plant Disease Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Whitaker, T.W. and Davis, G.N. (1962) Cucurbits, Leonard Hill, London. USDA (1953) Plant Diseases. The Yearbook of Agriculture 1953, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington DC.
521 Index of Species
Abelmoschus esculentus (syn.) 325 Apium dulce (syn.) 399 Abelmoschus manihot (syn.) 328 Apium graveolens var. dulce 399 Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum 14 Arachis hypogaea 250 Allium ascalonicum (syn.) 16 Armoracia lapathi/olia (syn.) 138 Allium cepa var. aggregatum 16 Armoracia rusticana 138 Allium cepa var. ascalonicum (syn.) Arracacia esculenta (syn.) 402 16 Arracacia xanthorrhiza 402 Allium cepa var. cepa 19 Asparagus o//icinalis 322 Allium cepa var. muitiplicans (syn.) 16 Basella alba 67 Allium cepa var. solaninum (syn.) 16 Basella cordi/olia (syn.) 67 Allium /istulosum 23 Basella rubra (syn.) 67 Allium porrum (syn.) 14 Basella rubra var. alba (syn.) 67 Allium sativum 27 Batatas edulis (syn.) 100 Allium schoenoprasum 29 Benincasa ceri/era (syn.) 147 Allium tuberosum 30 Benincasa hispida 147 Alocasia macrorrhiza 49 Beta vulgaris var. cicla 74 Amaranthus blitum (syn.) 38 Beta vulgaris var. rubra (syn.) 75 Amaranthus caudatus 36,37 Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris 75 Amaranthus cruentus 36,37 Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris (syn.) 74 Amaranthus dubius 36,37 Brassica alba 138 Amaranthus gangeticus (syn.) 38 Brassica alboglabra (syn.) 116 Amaranthus hybridus subsp. cruentus Brassica campestris (syn.) 110 (syn.) 37 Brassica campestris var. rapa (syn.) Amaranthus hypochondriacus 36, 38 129 Amaranthus leucocarpus (syn.) 37,38 Brassica campestris var. rapi/era (syn.) Amaranthus lividus var. oleraceus 36, 129 38 Brassica caulorapa (syn.) 123 Amaranthus oleraceus (syn.) 37,38 Brassica cernua (syn.) 113 Amaranthus paniculatus (syn.) 37 Brassica chinensis 110 Amaranthus tricolor 36, 38 Brassica hirta (syn.) 138 Amorphophallus campanulatus 50 Brassica juncea 113 Anethum graveolens 398 Brassica juncea var. rugosa (syn.) 113 Apeveoa esculenta (syn.) 56 Brassica lanceolata (syn.) 113
522 Index SPECIES
Brassica napus vaT. chinensis (syn.) Chayota edulis (syn.) 182 110 Chenopodium quinoa 78 Brassica oleracea var. acephala 116 Cicer arietinum 261 Brassica oleracea var. acephala f. Cichorium endivia 82 sabellica (syn.) 116 Cichorium endivia vaT. crispa (syn.) Brassica oleracea var. acephala f. 82 viridis (syn.) 116 Citrullus lanatus 150 Brassica oleracea var. albif/ora (syn.) Citrullus lanatus var.fistulosus 152 116 Citrullus vulgaris (syn.) 150 Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra (syn.) Citrullus vulgaris var. fistulosus (syn.) 116 152 Brassica oleracea var. botrytis 118 Coccinia cordifolia 152 Brassica oleracea var. botrytis sub-vaT. Coccinia indica (syn.) 152 cymosa (syn.) 126 Coccinia grandis (syn.) 152 Brassica oleracea var. capitata 120 Cochlearia armoracia (syn.) 138 Brassica oleracea vaT. caulorapa (syn.) Coleus amboinicus 239 123 Coleus aromaticus (syn.) 239 Brassica oleracea vaT. caulorapa Coleus carnosus (syn.) 239 communis (syn.) 123 Coleus dazo (syn.) 241 Brassica oleracea vaT. gongylodes 123 Coleus dysentericus (syn.) 243 Brassica oleracea vaT. italica 126 Coleus esculentus (syn.) 241 Brassica oleracea vaT. viridis (syn.) Coleus parvifiorus 240 116 Coleus parvifiorus (syn.) 243 Brassica pekinensis (syn.) 110 Coleus rotundifolius (syn.) 243 Brassica petsai (syn.) 110 Coleus tuberosus (syn.) 240 Brassica rapa 129 Colocasia antiquorum (syn.) 52 Brassica rapa var. rapa (syn.) 129 Colocasia antiquorum var. esculenta (syn.) 52 Cajanus cajan 254 Colocasia esculenta 52 Cajanus indicus (syn.) 254 Colocasia esculenta var. globulifera Canavalia ensiformis 257 (syn.) 52 Canavalia gladiata 259 Colocynthis citrullus (syn.) 150 Capsicum annuum 347 Convolvulus reptans (syn.) 97 Capsicum annuum var. acuminatum Corchorus olitorius 392 (syn.) 347 Coriandrum sativum 404 Capsicum annuum vaT. cerasiforme Crassocephalum biafrae 84 (syn.) 347 Cucumis anguria 154 Capsicum annuum var. longum (syn.) Cucumis anguria vaT. anguria (syn.) 347 154 Capsicum anriuum var.grossum (syn.) Cucumis melD 156 347 Cucumis melD var. conomon 159 Capsicum baccatum (syn.) 352 Cucumis sativus 159 Capsicum frutescens 352 Cucurbita ficifolia 161 Capsicum minimum (syn.) 352 Cucurbita maxima 162 Carum petroselinum (syn.) 411 Cucurbita mixta 164 Celosia argentea 42 Cucurbita moschata 166 Celosia trigyna 45 Cucurbita pepo 168 Cephalandra indica (syn.) 152 Cyamopsis psoralioides (syn.) 263
523 Index SPECIES Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 263 Dolichos unguiculatus (syn.) 296 Cyclanthera pedata (syn.) 170 Cyclanthera pedata var. edulis 170 Eleocharis dulcis 198 Cyrtosperma chamissonis 56 Eleocharis tuberosa (syn.) 198 Cyrtosperma edule (syn.) 56 Cyrtosperma merkusii (syn.) 56 Faba vulgaris (syn.) 291 Foeniculum dulce (syn.) 409 Daucus carota subsp. sativus 406 Foeniculum officinale (syn.) 409 Dioscorea aculeata (syn.) 213 Foeniculum vulgare 409 Dioscorea alata 203 Dioscorea atropurpurea (syn.) 203 Glycine hispida (syn.) 265 Dioscorea batatas (syn.) 216 Glycine max 265 Dioscorea brasiliana (syn.) 219 Glycine soja (syn.) 265 Dioscorea braziliensis (syn.) 219 Dioscorea bulbifera 207 Helianthus tuberosus 86 Dioscorea cayenensis 210 Helianthus tuberosus var. fusiformis Dioscorea cayenensis (syn.) 217 (syn.) 86 Dioscorea colocasiifolia (syn.) 210 Helmia bulbifera (syn.) 207 Dioscorea crispata (syn.) 207 Hibiscus esculentus 325 Dioscorea daemona (syn.) 212 Hibiscus manihot 328 Dioscorea digitata (syn.) 216 Hibiscus sabdariffa var. sabdariffa 331 Dioscorea dumetorum 212 Dioscorea esculenta 213 Ipomoea aquatica 97 Dioscorea fasciculata (syn.) 213 Ipomoea batatas 100 Dioscorea globosa (syn.) 203 Ipomoea repens (syn.) 97 Dioscorea heterophylla (syn.) 207 Ipomoea rep tans (syn.) 97 Dioscorea javanica (syn.) 203 Dioscorea latifolia (syn.) 207 Kerstingiella geocarpa 267 Dioscorea nummularia 216 Dioscorea occidentalis (syn.) 217 Lablab niger 268 Dioscorea opposita 216 Lablab purpureus (syn.) 268 Dioscorea oppositifolia (syn.) 207 Lablab vulgaris (syn.) 268 Dioscorea pentaphylla 216 Lactuca amurensis (syn.) 88 Dioscorea pulchella (syn.) 207 Lactuca indica 88 Dioscorea purpurea (syn.) 203 Lactuca laciniata (syn.) 88 Dioscorea rotundata 217 Lactuca saligna (syn.) 88 Dioscorea sativa (syn.) 210 Lactuca sativa 89 Dioscorea sylvestris (syn.) 207 Lagenaria leucantha (syn.) 171 Dioscorea trifida 219 Lagenaria siceraria 171 Dioscorea triphylla (syn.) 212 Lagenaria vulgaris (syn.) 171 Dioscorea tunga (syn.) 207 Luffa acutangula 173 Dioscorea violacea (syn.) 207 Luffa aegyptiaca (syn.) 176 Dioscorea vulgaris (syn.) 203 Luffa cylindrica 176 Dolichos catjang (syn.) 296 Lycopersicon esculentum (syn.) 354 Dolichos erosus (syn.) 272 Lycopersicon lycopersicum 354 Dolichos lablab (syn.) 268 Dolichos sinensis (syn.) 296 Majorana hortensis (syn.) 248 Dolichos stenocarpa (syn.) 290 Manihot aipi (syn.) 225
524 Index SPECIES
Manihot dulcis (syn.) 225 Pisum sativum subsp. hortense 284 Manihot esculenta 225 Plectranthus esculentus 241 Manihot palmata (syn.) 225 Plectranthus floribundus (syn.) 241 Manihot utilissima (syn.) 225 Polymnia edulis (syn.) 92 Mentha javanica 245 Polymnia sonchifolia 92 Mentha piperita 245 Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 286 Mentha rotundifolia 245 Mentha spicata 245 Raphanus caudatus 138 Mentha spicata var. rotundifolia (syn.) Raphanus raphinastrum var. sativus 245 (syn.) 133 Mentha viridis (syn.) 245 Raphanus sativus 133 Momordica charantia 179 Raphanus sativus var. hortensis (syn.) Momordica cochinchinensis 181 133,135 Momordica muricata (syn.) 179 Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus 135 Nasturtium officinale 131 Rheum hybridum (syn.) 338 Rheum rhabarbarum (syn.) 338 Ocimum americanum (syn.) 247 Rheum rhaponticum 338 Ocimum basilicum 247 Rorippa nasturtium (syn.) 131 Onchus esculentus (syn.) 213 Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (syn.) Origanum majorana 248 131 Rosmarinus officinalis 248 Pachyrrhizus angulatus (syn.) 272 Pachyrrhizus bulbosus (syn.) 272 Salvia officinalis 249 Pachyrrhizus erosus 272 Scirpus tuberosus (syn.) 198 Pachy"hizus tuberosus 272 Sechium edule 182 Petroselinum crispum 411 Senecio biafrae (syn.) 84 Petroselinum hortense (syn.) 411 Sicana blumei (syn.) 184 Petroselinum vulgare (syn.) 411 Sicana odorifera 184 Peucedanum graveolens (syn.) 398 Sinapis alba (syn.) 138 Phaseolus aureus (syn.) 294 Soja max (syn.) 265 Phaseolus calcaratus 274 Solanum esculentum (syn.) 365 Phaseolus coccineus 276 Solanum incanum 360 Phaseolus cylindricus (syn.) 296 Solanum intrusum 361 Phaseolus inamoenus (syn.) 277 Solanum lycopersicum (syn.) 354 Phaseoluslimensis (syn.) 277 Solanum macrocarpon 363 Phaseoluslunatus 277 Solanum melongena 365 Phaseolus multiflorus (syn.) 276 Solanum muricatum 369 Phaseolus mungo (syn.) 292 Solanum nigrum 370 Phaseolus trinervius 281 Solanum nigrum var. guineense (syn.) Phaseolus vulgaris 281 361 Physalis peruviana var. edulis 359 Solanum nodiflorum (syn.) 361 Physalis pruinosa (syn.) 359 Solanum oleraceum (syn.) 361 Pisum arvense (syn.) 284 Solanum quitoense 371 Pisum arvense subsp. arvense (syn.) Solanum tuberosum 372 284 Solenostemon rotundifolius 243 Pisum hortense (syn.) 284 Sphenostylis stenocarpa 290 Pisum sativum 284 Synapis juncea (syn.) 113
525 Index SPECIES
Synapis ramosa (syn.) 113 Vigna ornata (syn.) 290 Vigna radiata 294 Talinum racemosum (syn.) 342 Vigna sesquipedalis 296 Talinum triangulare 342 Vigna sesquipedalis (syn.) 296 Teljairia occidentalis 184 Vigna sinensis 296 Teljairia pedata 186 Vigna sinensis var. cylindricus (syn.) Tetragonia expansa (syn.) 388 296 Tetragonia tetragonioides 388 Vigna sinensis var. sesquipedalis (syn.) Thymus vulgaris 249 296 Trichosanthes anguina (syn.) 187 Vigna unguiculata 296 Trichosanthes cucumerina 187 Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis Trichosanthes cucumerina var. anguina 296 (syn.) 187 Voandzeia geocarpa (syn.) 267 Trichosanthes dioica 189 Voandzeia poissoni (syn.) 267,299 Voandzeia subterranea 299 Ullucus tuberosus 71 Xanthosoma sagittijolium 58 Vicia jaba 291 Xanthosoma violaceum (syn.) 58 Vigna aureus (syn.) 294 Vigna catjang (syn.) 296 Zea mays var. rugosa (syn.) 232 Vigna cylindrica (syn.) 296 Zea mays var. saccharata 232 Vigna mungo 292
526 Aerial Yam: Dioscorea bulbifera 207 subterranea 299 African Bitter Yam: Dioscorea dume Beetroot: Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris torum 212 75 African Spinach : A maran th us Bell Pepper: Capsicum annuum 347 caudatus 37 Bengal Gram: Cicer arietinum 261 : A maranthus Bird Chilli: Capsicum frutescens 352 cruentus 37 Birdseye Pepper: Capsicum frutescens African Yam Bean: Sphenostylis 352 stenocarpa 290 Bitter Cucumber: Momordica Aibika: Hibiscus manihot 328 charantia 179 Air Potato: Dioscorea bulbifera 207 Bitter Gourd: Momordica charantia Amaranth: Amaranthus spp. 36 179 Angled Gourd: Luffa acutangula 173 Bitter Melon: Momordica charantia Angled Loofah: Luffa acutangula 179 173 Bitter Tomato: Solanum incanum Angola Pea: Cajanus cajan 254 360 Anguria Cucumber: Cucumis anguria Bitter Yam: Dioscorea dumetorum 154 212 Arracha: Arracacia xanthorrhiza 402 Black Gram: Vigna mungo 292 Arracacha: Arracacia xanthorrhiza Black Nightshade: Solanum intrusum 402 361 Asiatic Yam Dioscorea alata 203 Bo1ogi: Crassocephalum biafrae 84 Dioscorea esculenta Bo1ogi Spinach: Talinum triangulare 213 342 Asparagus: Asparagus officinalis 322 Bonavist Bean: Lablab niger 268 Asparagus Bean: Vigna unguiculata Boreco1e: Brassica oleracea var. subsp. sesquipedalis 296 acephala 116 Asparagus Broccoli: Brassica oleracea Bottle Gourd: Lagenaria siceraria 171 var. italica 126 Brinja1: Solanum melongena 365 Aubergine: Solanum melongena 365 Broad Bean: Vicia faba 291 Broccoli: Brassica oleracea var. Balsam Pear: Momordica charantia botrytis 118 179 Buck Yam: Dioscorea pentaphylla Bambar(r)a Groundnut: Voandzeia 216
527 Index COMMON NAMES Bulb Onion: Allium cepa var. cepa 19 Chinese Pea: Pisum sativum 284 Bu1bil-bearing Yam: Dioscorea Chinese Potato: Dioscorea opposita bulbifera 207 216 Bunching Onion: Allium [istulosum Chinese Pumpkin: Cucurbita maxima 23 162 Burma Bean: Phaseolus lunatus 277 Chinese Radish: Raphanus sativus var. Bush Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 longipinnatus 135 Bush Greens: Amaranthus spp. 36 Chinese Spinach: Amaranthus tricolor Bush Okra: Corchorus olitorius 392 36,38 Butter Bean: Phaseolus lunatus 277 Chinese Water Chestnut: Eleocharis dulcis 198 Cabbage: Brassica oleracea var. Chinese White Cucumber: Cucumis capitata 120 melD var. conomon 159 Calabash Gourd: Lagenaria siceraria Chinese Yam: Dioscorea esculenta 171 213 Calabrese: Brassica oleracea var. Dioscorea opposita italica 126 216 Cantaloupe: Cucumis melD 156 Chives: Allium schoenoprasum 29 Cape Gooseberry: Physalis peruviana Cho-cho: Sechium edule 182 var. edulis 359 Choko: Sechium edule 182 Capsicum: Capsicum annuum 347 Choyote: Sechium edule 182 Carrot: Daucus carota subsp. sativus Christophine: Sechium edule 182 406 Cinnamon Vine: Dioscorea opposita Cassava: Manihot esculenta 225 216 Cauliflower: Brassica oleracea var. Club Gourd: Trichosanthes cucum botrytis 118 erina 187 Cayenne Pepper: Capsicum annuum Cluster Bean: Cyamopsis tetragono 347 loba 263 Celery: Apium graveolens var. dulce Cluster Yam: Dioscorea dumetorum 399 212 Celery Cabbage: Brassica chinensis Cock's Comb: Celosia argentea 42 110 Cocoyam: Colocasia esculenta 52 Ceylon Spinach : Basella alba 67 Coleus Potato: Solenostemon rotundi- Talinum triangulare folius 243 342 Collard: Brassica oleracea var. Chefoo Cabbage: Brassica chinensis acephala 116 110 Common Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris Cherry Pepper: Capsicum annuum 281 347 Common Onion: Allium cepa var. Chick Pea: Cicer arietinum 261 cepa 19 Chil(1)i: Capsicum annuum 347 Common Yam: Dioscorea rotundata Chinese Cabbage: Brassica chinensis 217 110 Congo Bean: Cajanus cajan 254 Chinese Chives: Allium tuberosum 30 Congo Pea: Cajanus cajan 254 Chinese Kale: Brassica oleracea var. Coriander: Coriandrum sativum 404 acephala 116 Corn: Zea mays var. saccharata 232 Chinese Leek: Allium tuberosum 30 Country Potato: Solenostemon Chinese Mustard: Brassica juncea 113 rotundifolius 243
528 Index COMMON NAMES Courgette: Cucurbita pepo 168 Four-angled Bean: Psophocarpus Crookneck Squash: Cucurbita tetragonolobus 286 maxima 162 French Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 Cucumber: Cucumis sativus 159 Curly Greens: Brassica oleracea var. Gambian Spinach: Basella alba 67 acephala 116 Garden Beet: Beta vulgaris subsp. Curly Kale: Brassica oleracea var. vulgaris 75 acephala 116 Garden Egg: Solanum melongena 365 Cush-cush Yam: Dioscorea trifida Garden Pea: Pisum sativum 284 219 Garlic: Allium sativum 27 Cut-eye Bean: Canavalia ensiformis Geocarpa Groundnut: Kerstingiella 257 geocarpa 267 Gherkin: Cucumis sativus 159 Dasheen: Colocasia esculenta 52 Giant Alocasia: Alocasia macro"hiza Dill: Anethum graveolens 398 49 Dolichos Bean: Lablab niger 268 Giant Taro : Alocasia macrorrhiza 49 Dish-cloth Gourd: Luffa cylindrica Cyrtosperma chamis 176 sonis 56 Earth Nut: Arachis hypogaea 250 Goa Bean: Psophocarpus tetragono : Voandzeia subte"anea lobus 286 299 Goat Pepper: Capsicum frutescens Efodu: Solanum nigrum 370 352 Egg Plant: Solanum melongena 365 Golden Gram: Vigna radiata 294 Egyptian Bean: Lablab niger 268 Grain Amaranth: Amaranthus hypo- Eight Months Yam: Dioscorea chondriacus 38 rotundata 217 Gram: Cicer arietinum 261 Elephant Foot Yam: Amorphophallus Greater Yam: Dioscorea alata 203 campanulatus 50 Green Bunching Onion: Allium Elephant Yam: Amorphophallus fistulosum 23 campanulatus 50 Green Cabbage: Brassica oleracea var. Elephant's Ear: Xanthosoma sagitti acephala 116 folium 58 Green Gram: Vigna radiata 294 Endive: Cichorium endivia 82 Green Leaf: Amaranthus spp. 36 English Potato: Solanum tuberosum Green Soko: Celosia argentea 42 372 Ground Bean: Kerstingiella geocarpa Escarolle: Cichorium endivia 82 267 Voandzeia subte"anea Fennel: Foeniculum vulgare 409 299 Field Bean: Vicia faba 291 Ground Cherry: Physalis peruviana Field Pumpkin: Cucurbita pepo 168 var. edulis 359 Fig-leaved Gourd: Cucurbita ficifolia Ground Tomato: Physalis peruviana 161 var. edulis 359 Flowering Cabbage: Brassica chinensis Groundnut: Arachis hypogaea 250 110 Guar: Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 263 Fluted Gourd: Telfairia occidentalis Guinea Yam Dioscorea cayenensis 184 210 Fluted Pumpkin: Telfairia Dioscorea rotundata occidentalis 184 217
529 Index COMMON NAMES
Gumbo: Hibiscus esculentus 325 Jiquima: Polymnia sonchifolia 92 Jute Mallow: Corchorus olitorius 392 Haricot Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 Hausa Groundnut: Kerstingiella Kaffir Pea: Voandzeia subterranea geocarpa 267 299 Hausa Potato: Coleus parvif!orus 240 Kaffir Potato: Plectranthus esculentus Plectranthus esculentus 241 241 Kale: Brassica oleracea var. acephala Solenostemon rotundi- 116 foUus 243 Kang Kong: Ipomoea aquatica 97 Honeydew Melon: Cucumis melD 156 Kersting's Groundnut: Kerstingiella Horse Bean: Canavalia ensiformis 257 geocarpa 267 : Vi cia faba 291 Kidney Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 Horse Radish: Armoracia rusticana Kno1-kohl: Brassica oleracea var. 138 gongylodes 123 Hot Pepper: Capsicum frutescens 352 Kohlrabi: Brassica oleracea var. Husk Tomato: Physalis peruviana var. gongylodes 123 edulis 359 Korila: Cyclanthera pedata var. Hyacinth Bean: Lablab niger 268 edulis 170 Inca Wheat: Amaranthus caudatus 37 India Yam: Dioscorea trijida 219 Lablab Bean: Lablab niger 268 Indian Bean: Lablab niger 268 Lady's Finger: Hibiscus esculentus Indian Borage: Coleus amboinicus 325 239 Lagos Bologi: Talinum triangulare Indian Gram: Cicer arietinum 261 342 Indian Lettuce: Lactuca indica 88 Leaf Beet: Beta vulgaris var. cicla 74 Indian Mustard: Brassica juncea 113 Leaf Mustard: Brassica juncea 113 Indian Sorrel: Hibiscus sabdariffa var. Leek: Allium ampeloprasum var. sabdariffa 331 porrum 14 Indian Spinach: Amaranthus spp. 36 Lesser Asiatic Yam: Dioscorea : Basella alba 67 esculenta 213 Irish Potato: Solanum tuberosum Lesser Yam: Dioscorea esculenta 213 372 Lettuce: Lactuca sativa 89 Ivy Gourd: Coccinia cordifolia 152 Lima Bean: Phaseolus lunatus 277 Livingstone Potato: Plectranthus Jack Bean: CanavaUa ensijormis 257 esculentus 241 Jamaican Sorrel: Hibiscus sabdariffa Local Garden Egg: Solanum incanum var. sabdariffa 331 360 Japanese Bunching Onion: Allium Solanum macro- fistulosum 23 carpon 363 Japanese Radish: Raphanus sativus Long Bean: Vigna unguiculata subs. var. longipinnatus 135 sesquipedalis 296 Jerusalem Artichoke: Helianthus Long Pepper: Capsicum annuum 347 tuberosus 86 Long-fruited Jute: Corchorus olitorius Jerusalem Pea: Phaseolus trinervius 392 281 Louisiana Yam: Ipomoea batatas 100 Jew's Mallow: Corchorus olitorius Love Apple: Lycopersicon lycoper 392 sicum 354
530 Index COMMON NAMES
Lu1o: Solanum quitoense 371 Oyster Nut: Telfairia pedata 186 Lulu: Solanum quitoense 371 Paak-ts'oi: Brassica chinensis 110 Madagascar Bean: Phaseolus lunatus Paprika: Capsicum annuum 347 277 Pea: Pisum sativum 284 Madagascar Groundnut: Voandzeia Peanut: Arachis hypogaea 250 subterranea 299 Parsley: Petroselinum crispum 411 Madagascar Potato: Coleus parviflorus Pekin Cabbage: Brassica chinensis 240 110 Maize: Zea mays var. saccharata 232 Peppermint: Mentha piperita 245 Malabar Gourd: Cucurbita ficifolia Peruvian Carrot: Arracacia xanthor 161 rhiza 402 Malabar Spinach: Basella alba 67 Peruvian Cherry: Physalis peruviana Manihot: Manihot esculenta 225 var. edulis 359 Manila Bean: Psophocarpus tetra- Peruvian Parsnip: Arracacia xanthor gonolobus 286 rhiza 402 Manioc: Manihot esculenta 225 Pe-tsai: Brassica chinensis 110 Marrow: Cucurbita pepo 168 Philippine Spinach: Talinum Matai: Eleocharis dulcis 198 triangulare 342 Mealies: Zea mays var. saccharata Pigeon Pea: Cajanus cajan 254 232 Pimento: Capsicum annuum 347 Me1ocoton: Sicana odorifera 184 Pointed Gourd: Trichosanthes dioica Melon: Cucumis melD 156 189 Melon Pear: Solanum muricatum 369 Pole Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 Mint: Mentha javanica 245 Potato: Solanum tuberosum 372 Monkeynut: Arachis hypogaea 250 Potato Bean: Pachyrrhizus erosus Mung: Vigna radiata 294 272 Mung Bean: Vigna mungo 292 Potato Yam: Dioscorea bulbifera 207 Mungo Bean: Vigna radiata 294 Pumpkin: Cucurbita maxima 162 Musk Melon: Cucumis melD 156 Cucurbita mixta 164 Mustard Greens: Brassica juncea 113 Cucurbita moschata 166
Naranjilla: Solanum quitoense 371 Quinoa: Amaranthus caudatus 37 Navy Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 Chenopodium quinoa 78 New Zealand Spinach: Tetragonia tetragonioides 388 Radish: Raphanus sativus 133 Ochro: Hibiscus esculentus 325 Rag Gourd: Luffa cylindrica 176 Odu: Solanum nigrum 370 Rangoon Bean: Phaseolus lunatus Okra: Hibiscus esculentus 325 277 Okro: Hibiscus esculentus 325 Rat-tailed Radish: Raphanus caudatus Onion: Allium cepa var. cepa 19 138 Oriental Pickling Melon: Cucumis Red Bean: Phaseolus calcaratus 274 melD var. conomon 159 Red Gram: Cajanus cajan 254 Oriental Radish: Raphanus sativus Red Pepper: Capsicum annuum 347 vaT. longipinnatus 135 : Capsicum frutescens Overlook Bean: Canavalia ensiformis 352 257 Red Soko: Celosia argentea 42
531 Index COMMON NAMES
Red Sorrel: Hibiscus sabdariffa var. cochinchinensis 181 sabdariffa 331 Sponge Gourd: Luffa cylindrica 176 Rhubarb: Rheum rhaponticum 338 Spoon Cabbage: Brassica chinensis Rice Bean: Phaseolus calcaratus 274 110 Ridged Gourd: Luffa acutangula 173 Spring Onion: Allium fistulosum 23 Roselle: Hibiscus sabdariffa var. Sprouting Broccoli: Brassica oleracea sabdariffa 331 var. italica 126 Rosemary: Rosmarinus officinalis Spur Pepper: Capsicum frutescens 248 352 Round Melon: Citrullus lanatus var. Squash Gourd: Cucurbita maxima fistulosus 152 162 Round-leaved Mint: Mentha rotundi String Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 folia 245 : Vigna unguiculata subsp. Runner Bean: Phaseolus coccineus sesquipedalis 296 276 Sudan Potato: Coleus parvif/orus 240 Sugar Pea: Pisum sativum 284 Sage: Salvia officinalis 249 Summer Squash: Cucurbita pepo 168 Scarlet Runner Bean: Phaseolus Sunberry: Solanum intrusum 361 coccineus 276 Sunroot: Helianthus tuberosus 86 Seakale Beet: Beta vulgaris var. cic/a Sunset Hibiscus: Hibiscus manihot 74 328 Shallot: Allium cepa var. aggregatum Swamp Cabbage: Ipomoea aquatica 16 97 Shantung Cabbage: Brassica chinensis Swamp Taro: Cyrtosperma chamis 110 sonis 56 Sierra Leone Bologi: Crassocephalum Sweet Basil: Ocimum basilicum 247 biafrae 84 Sweet Corn: Zea mays var. saccharata Sieva Bean: Phaseolus lunatus 277 232 Silk Gourd: Luiia acutangula 173 Sweet Marjoram: Origanum majorana Silver Beet: Beta vulgaris var. cic/a 74 248 Silver Spinach: Celosia trigyna 45 Sweet Melon: Cucumis melD 156 Small Gourd: Coccinia cordifolia 152 Sweet Pepper: Capsicum annuum Smooth Loofah: Luffa cylindrica 347 176 Sweet Potato: Ipomoea batatas 100 Snake Bean: Vigna unguiculata subsp. Sweet Yam: Amorphophallus sesquipedalis 296 campanulatus 50 Snake Gourd: Trichosanthes cucum- Swiss Chard: Beta vulgaris var. cic/a erina 187 74 Snap Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 281 Sword Bean: Canavalia gladiata 259 Sou-sou: Sechium edule 182 Soya Bean: Glycine max 265 Tabasco Pepper: Capsicum frutescens Soybean: Glycine max 265 352 Spanish Potato: Ipomoea batatas 100 Tampala: Amaranthus tricolor 36, 38 Spearmint: Mentha spicata 245 Tan(n)ia: Xanthosoma sagittifolium Spinach: Amaranthus spp. 36 58 Spinach Beet: Beta vulgaris var. cic/a Tannier: Xanthosoma sagittifolium 74 58 Spiny Bitter Cucumber: Momordica Tapioca: Manihot esculenta 225
532 Index COMMON NAMES Taro: Colocasia esculenta 52 West Indian Gherkin: Cucumis Telfairia Nut: Telfairia occidentalis anguria 154 184 West Indian Gourd: Cucumis anguria Ten Month Yam: Dioscorea alata 203 154 Three-leaved Yam: Dioscorea dume- White Cabbage: Brassica chinensis torum 212 110 Thyme: Thymus vulgaris 249 Brassica oleracea var. Tick Bean: Vicia faba 291 capitata 120 Tinda: Citrullus lanatus var./istulosus White Gourd: Benincasa hispida 147 152 White Guinea Yam: Dioscorea rotun- Tomato: Lycopersicon lycopersicum data 217 354 White Mustard: Brassica alba 138 Tossa Jute: Corchorus olitorius 392 White Soko: Celosia argentea 42 Trifoliate Yam: Dioscorea dume White Yam: Dioseorea rotundata 217 torum 212 White-flowered Gourd: Lagenaria Trumpet Gourd: Lagenaria siceraria siceraria 171 171 Wild Cucumber: Cyclanthera pedata Turban Squash: Cucurbita maxima var. edulis 170 162 Wild Yam Bean: Sphenostylis steno Turnip: Brassica rapa 129 carpa 290 Turnip-rooted Cabbage: Brassica Windsor Bean: Vieia faba 291 oleracea var. gongylodes 123 Winged Bean: Psophocarpus tetra Twelve Months Yam: Dioscorea gonolobus 286 cayenensis 210 Winged Pea: Psophocarpus tetragono Ulluco: Wlucus tuberosus 71 lobus 286 Umbondive: PIe ctranthus seculentus Winged Yam: Dioscorea alata 203 241 Winter Squash: Cucurbita maxima Urd: Vigna mungo 292 162 Vegetable Cowpea: Vigna unguiculata Cucurbita mixta 164 subsp. sesquipedalis 296 Cucurbita moschata Vegetable Marrow: Cucurbita pepo 166 168 Wonderberry: Solanum intrusum 361 Vegetable Sponge: Luffa cylindrica Worowo: Crassocephalum biafrae 84 176 Vine Spinach: Basella alba 67 Yacon: Polymnia sonchifolia 92 Water Convolvulus: Ipomoea aquatica Yam Bean: Paehyrrhizus erosus 272 97 Yams: see Araceae 50-6 Water Spinach: Ipomoea aquatica 97 Dioscoreaceae 201-24 Water Yam: Dioscorea alata 203 Yard10ng Bean: Vigna unguiculata Watercress: Nasturtium officinale subsp. sesquipedalis 296 131 Yautia: Xanthosoma sagittifolium, 58 Waterleaf: Talinum triangulare 342 Ycam: Dioscorea bulbifera 207 Watermelon: Citrullus lanatus 150 Yellow Guinea Yam: Dioscorea Waternut: Eleocharis dulcis 198 cayenensis 210 Wax Gourd: Benincasa hispida 147 Yellow Yam: Dioscorea cayenensis Welsh Onion: Allium /istulosum 23 210 West African Sorrel: Corchorus Zanzibar Oil Vine: Telfairia pedata olitorius 392 186
533 Macmillan International College Edition
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