Conclusion: the “Penalty of Failure”?1

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Conclusion: The “Penalty of Failure”?1

With Nkrumah’s overthrow, the NLC announced that Ghana had been freed forever from the former regime and that the new government would not follow in the footsteps of the deposed president. Accra would collabo- rate with those same governments Nkrumah had threatened in former years. Immediately after the coup, backed by Western powers, the NLC launched an anti-Nkrumah campaign in order to legitimize their putsch and counteract any residual influence of the former government in Africa. This operation began with an exposure of Nkrumah’s subversive activities, the evidence of which was presented in the two booklets Nkrumah’s Subversion in Africa and Nkrumah’s Deception of Africa. The publications—both produced in 1966 and based mostly on the papers of the BAA—presented Nkrumah’s Pan-African project as a way of concealing his real plans of ruling the entire continent.2 Nkrumah’s Pan-African policy was described as contradictory, especially since the Ghanaian president had strongly opposed the OAU, the only organization that could actually embody Pan-Africanism. According to the NLC, the worst crime of Nkrumah’s regime had been to work against the governments of other independent African states, thereby threatening their newly gained independence.

1 “The Penalty of Failure” is the title of the concluding chapter of Thompson’s Ghana’s Foreign Policy and it is a quotation of a writing of Adu to Thompson himself. 2 NLC, Nkrumah’s subversion, p. iii.

Both publications focused especially on the activities of the Bureau of African Affairs, the African Affairs Centre, and the Kwame Nkrumah Institute, presenting them as the most effective instruments of Nkrumah’s subversive plans in Africa. Few references were made to Nkrumah’s support to African liberation movements, and when the question was dis- cussed, the work of the BAA was described as counter-productive if not detrimental. Quoting from Nkrumah’s Subversion in Africa:

The arrogance that Nkrumah himself displayed towards other Africans was closely reflected in the Bureau’s attitude towards refugees from dependent and independent countries. People who had come to Ghana for help were so provoked as to become openly hostile. […] As a result of this kind of treatment, by 1963 few leading African nationalists remained in Ghana. Most of those who did stay on were opportunists tied to Nkrumah by dependence on him for small handouts of cash and occasional gifts.3

A few years later, Thompson supported these views by quoting from an interview he had conducted with Ofori-Bah, the last director of the Bureau. According to the latter:

None of them took him [Nkrumah] seriously. They came here, shouted slogans about Nkrumaism and union government, picked up their checks, gave their duty speech in praise of Nkrumah elsewhere – so that he could see that he was getting his money’s worth – and then they just did the Highlife. In the last years even the most apparently devoted followers, like Mokhehle, had seen through him.4

In contrast with the accounts quotated above, I argue that African nationalists in Accra cannot be reduced to mere opportunists and mer- cenaries. The anti-Nkrumah attitude in NLC publications needs no explanation, as the booklets had the exact political motive of erasing the influence of the deposed Osagyefo. Ofori-Bah’s surprisingly harsh criti- cism against the former regime can instead be understood in a post-coup context, where many Ghanaians tried—and some succeeded—in dissoci- ating themselves from the former regime. Many of the personalities interviewed by Thompson were clearly interested in polishing their image in front of the new political order and claimed that they had always openly or secretly opposed Nkrumah, Padmore and Barden.

3 Ibid., p. 3. 4 Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p. 432. CONCLUSION: THE “PENALTY OF FAILURE”? 335

Quite clearly, Thompson did not even begin to consider this possibility. As a result, narratives like that of the NLC and Thompson’s could only allow one word to define Nkrumah’s foreign policy, namely “failure”; a word that is also used by other authors when describing Nkrumah’s internal policies. Yet, historical evidence paints a different picture. The relationship between Nkrumah’s Ghana and African liberation movements at the time of the coup was far from being cold. In early 1966, the most influential liberation movements still had their offices of representation in Accra, even if their headquarters were in Dar es Salaam, Lusaka, or Léopoldville, that is, closer to the battlefields of the liberation struggles. Despite the opposition of the greater part of the African independent states, Nkrumah could still claim a solid support base among African nationalists. Even the ANC, for many years kept out of Accra due to Barden’s hostility towards it, had reopened its office in Ghana in late 1965. On the eve of the coup, the liberation movements with offices of representation in Accra—exclud- ing opposition parties and including a representation of the so-called République Populaire du Congo5—were: PAC, BCP, NNLC, MLSTP, the National Unity Democratic Organization (NUDO) of South West Africa, MPLA, PAIGC, IPGE, the All-African Convention and Unity Movement of South Africa, ANC, COREMO, BPP and ZANU.6 Paradoxically, further proof of a still strong presence of African nationalists in Ghana can be found in NLC’s Nkrumah’s Subversion in Africa. According to the book- let, at the time of the coup 136 nationalists were hosted at the AAC, a high number when compared with the maximum number ever registered at the Centre (170).7 The PAC openly accused the “mutineers” (NLC) and the West of having orchestrated the coup, for destroying the “Mecca of the African freedom- fighters” and supporting instead the “racist axis” of South Africa, Portugal

5 The République Populaire du Congo was what was left of the so-called “Simba” rebellion of 1964 which had briefly revived a Lumumbist government in the Eastern part of the country. At the time, the formation had an office of representation also in Cairo. See NAZ, FA/1/55, Letter from the Conseil Supreme de la Revolution to Kenneth Kaunda, 13 November 1965. 6 GPRL, BAA/RLAA/9, “Nationalist Organisations Representatives in Accra” undated, but referable to February 1966. Founded by Kerina and others in September 1965, the party—which mainly represented the Herero people—used the exact same symbol of the first version of the heading of VOA (see Fig. 4.1). 7 NLC, Nkrumah’s subversion, p. 4. 336 CONCLUSION: THE “PENALTY OF FAILURE”? and Southern Rhodesia.8 The influence of Nkrumah on the PAC proved to be enduring and it is evidenced in the PAC’s symbols, slogans and ideology. Similarly, other liberation movements in Southern Africa recognized and continue to recognize the links with the Pan-Africanist and socialist ideology expressed by the Ghanaian leader. This is the case, for instance, for Kenneth Kaunda’s UNIP, Ntsu Mokhehle’s BCP and Ambrose Zwane’s NNLC.9 ZANU and SWAPO, especially through their leaders Robert Mugabe and Sam Nujoma, were also very vocal in the next decades about Nkrumah’s contribution to the liberation struggle. Mugabe and Nujoma, both hosted in Ghana, not only praised Nkrumah for his practical help but included him among their main sources of ideological influence.10 This does not, however, explain away the fact that Nkrumah had not succeeded in achieving his ultimate goals in Ghana and in Africa more broadly. A continental African government did not see the light, and Nkrumah’s ideas and influence were soon challenged by strong anti- Nkrumaist campaigns, starting with Ghana. For decades, a sort of damna- tio memoriae was cast on Nkrumah’s ideas and policies and the word “failure” was constantly associated with his political experience. But can Nkrumah’s Pan-African policy be considered, tout court, as a “failure”? As this book has shown, Nkrumah’s Pan-African policy and the spread- ing of Nkrumaism left an enduring imprint among several African nationalist parties and countries. African leaders like Kaunda, Mokhehle, Zwane, Cabral, Obote, Leballo, Nujoma, Touré, Mugabe and Lumumba at different times openly praised his ideas and included him among their main sources of influence.11 The influence of Nkrumaism on African nationalism proved more enduring than Nkrumah’s adversaries and critics had antici- pated. In fact, the influence of Nkrumaism on African nationalism cannot be assessed on the number of countries (other than Ghana) that declared themselves “Nkrumaist”, since the answer is clearly “none”. Instead the question should be: how many liberation movements and independent

8 ICS/PP/SA/PAC, vol. 2, Press Statement by Potlako Leballo, “How the Coup in Ghana Will Affect African Liberation Struggle”, 14 April 1966. 9 Interview with Kaunda, 9 October 2017; Interview with Koelane, 28 September 2017; Interview with Mokitimi, 29 September and 6 October 2017; Interview with Dlamini, 22 October 2017. 10 On Nujoma see Biney, “The Legacy of Kwame Nkrumah”, p. 132. On Mugabe see Ahlman, “Road to Ghana” and Mazarire, “ZANU’s External Networks”. 11 See Ama Biney, “The Legacy of Kwame Nkrumah”, p. 132; Mazrui, Nkrumah’s Legacy, pp. 44–45. CONCLUSION: THE “PENALTY OF FAILURE”? 337 countries adapted and adopted elements of Nkrumaism in their own struggle and nation-building projects? How profound was the influence of Nkrumah’s ideas in the sense of Africanness, a continental sense of belong- ing, amongst African nationalists? How important, in many nationalist parties, were the experiences brought about by having sent members to Ghana? While it’s difficult to provide simple answers to these questions, Nkrumaism and African Nationalism provides evidence that Nkrumaism influenced the organization and political thought of several liberation movements in Africa. Even independent countries adopted and adapted solutions taken from Nkrumah’s Ghana. A sense of common purpose, a sense of being African, is also still present amongst the freedom fighters who experienced being hosted in Ghana by the Bureau, and this perception was spread in their organizations once they had returned from Accra. Going back to Allman’s “call” quoted at the opening of this book: Is it worthwhile to study a political project which was not fully successful? The answer can only be found through historicizing the period in which Nkrumah’s Pan-African ideas were spread from Ghana to the rest of Africa. In a world of competing ideologies, when African nationalism was taking shape through assimilation, imitation, trial and error, Nkrumah offered a truly African alternative to the ongoing ideological battle unleashed by the Cold War. What is more, Nkrumah did not simply sponsor his ideas on Pan-Africanism, but tried to propose concrete solutions to secure and strengthen African liberation, promote the development of the continent and show the path to its unification. He tried to set the stage for a continental transformation. These proposals were shaped after his own political experiences and successes, elevated as models for the rest of the continent. Jitendra Mohan succeeds in a few lines to describe the importance of this aspect for Nkrumah’s Pan-African policy:

Because Ghana was the first country in tropical Africa to attain independence through her own exertions, Nkrumah came to regard this priority in time as giving Ghana the status of a prototype – a road which all African territories must travel, a vanguard of “the African revolution.” There can be little doubt that “Nkrumaism” which he propagated as the ideology of the African revolution was an attempt to distill his own experiences within the Gold Coast/Ghana into a coherent doctrine for the liberation and development of dependent African territories. Because all along he saw Africa as a 338 CONCLUSION: THE “PENALTY OF FAILURE”?

single society or “a nation,” he was emboldened to regard methods and tactics which had been proved in his own corner of the continent, as appli- cable to the rest of Africa.12

Was the Ghanaian model really so successful that it deserved to be repli- cated in the rest of Africa? Was the CPP the strong nationalist instrument described by the Bureau in its propaganda? The answer is clearly in the negative. However, it is also important to assess the influence of Nkrumah’s political models over other liberation movements and independent states. Nkrumaism had a profound influence in Africa, not because it was repli- cated in the same exact form but because it provided a framework for building the basis for a political and social transformation of the independent states. Nkrumah’s Pan-African policy was not only based on a generic and idealist call for African unity, but a call for the transformation of African politics and societies. Ultimately, while many liberation movements did not share Nkrumah’s urgency to expedite the path to a united continent, they instead embraced other, more concrete aspects of his ideology, hoping to maintain their parties and their countries shelved by the hunger of Cold War powers. Nkrumaism and African Nationalism also reveals the limitations of Nkrumah’s Pan-African foreign policy. Barden’s mismanagement of the Bureau was merely one of the many reasons for Ghana’s setbacks in the struggle for African liberation and unity. This was also the product of the peculiar double nature of Nkrumah’s Ghana as a state with a system still deeply linked to the colonial past and its radical anti-colonial policies pushed forward by the Pan-African institutions. This double nature had no precedent to take experience from. As Quarm effectively underlined:

Nkrumah had the advantage – and disadvantage – of formulating Ghana’s foreign policy from scratch, unnumbered by precedent. Inspired by his clear perception of what he wanted, where he wished to go and how to get there, he felt free to pursue his objectives with single-minded determination. The disadvantage however, was that, in the absence of political precedent, there were no guide-posts which might have helped him to avoid any mistakes or excesses.13

12 Jitendra Mohan, “Ghana Parliament and Foreign Policy, 1957–60”, Economic Bulletin of Ghana 6, no. 4, 1966, quoted in Agyeman, Nkrumah’s Ghana and East Africa, pp. 27–28. 13 Quarm, Diplomatic Servant, p. 61. CONCLUSION: THE “PENALTY OF FAILURE”? 339

The conflicts within the Ghanaian foreign policy machinery were not the result of Nkrumah’s naivety but much more of his attempt to make ortho- dox and unorthodox institutions—respectively colonial-based and revolutionary—coexist in view of an ultimate transformation of Ghana into a Nkrumaist state. Nkrumah’s legacy was not only limited to the African continent, nor was it limited to the first post-colonial period. In fact, Nkrumah’s political thought, and especially his Pan-Africanist vision survived long after the coup and retains its influence to this day. For instance, Stokely Carmichael became one of the most strenuous advocates of Nkrumah’s Pan-Africanism and founded the All-African People’s Revolutionary Party (AARP) after meeting with Nkrumah in Conakry in 1968. Through Carmichael, who changed his name to Kwame Ture in honour of Nkrumah and Touré, Black nationalism and African nationalism were once again united under the banner of Pan-Africanism. In the late 1990s Gaddafi also expressed public endorsement of Nkrumah’s ideas as part of a medium- to long- term strategy to relaunch Pan-Africanism in the form of a new African Union.14 Mazrui recalled that period in his 2002 lectures in Ghana: “In the new millennium, African leaders have started discussing once again concepts like ‘continental union’ and regional integration. In October 2000, I spent three hours with Libyan leader Muammar Qaddafy [sic] in his tent in Tripoli discussing Pan-Africanism and Pan-Arabism. The ghost of Kwame Nkrumah was present in that tent in Libya.”15 These are just a few examples of the enduring influence of Nkrumah on radical Pan- Africanist and socialist thought. As a final point, this study is also aimed to be a source in itself for his- torians interested in the development of African nationalism in the early period of African independence. Thanks to the papers of the Bureau and the many files retrieved in other archives, several new sources of information on African liberation movements have emerged and many others still need to be unveiled. The ongoing debate about Nkrumah and his legacy on African affairs seems to demonstrate the importance of continuing to study and to discuss this fundamental figure of African history. The hope of the author of this book is that this type of research will be developed further in the near future.

14 The other two protagonists of the establishment of the AU were Thabo Mbeki and Olusegun Obasanjo. See Biney, “The Legacy of Kwame Nkrumah”, pp. 147–148. 15 Mazrui, Nkrumah’s Legacy, p. 11. Bibliography

Primary Sources George Padmore Research Library on African Affairs – Bureau of African Affairs Collection (Accra, Ghana). Public Records and Archive Administration Department of Ghana (former National Archives of Ghana, Accra). Historical Papers of the University of the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg, SA). National Archives of South Africa (Pretoria, SA). Archives of the South African Department of Defence (Pretoria, SA). Liberation Movements Archives (University of Fort Hare, Alice, SA). National Archives of Zambia (Lusaka, Zambia). Institute of Commonwealth Studies (London, UK). Archives of the United National Independence Party of Zambia (British Library, London, UK). Commonwealth and African Collections of the Bodleian Library (Oxford, UK). The National Archives (London, UK). Arquivo Histórico Diplomático – Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros (Lisbon, Portugal). Kwame Nkrumah papers and the Dabu Gizenga papers, Moorland-Spingarn Centre of Howard University (Washington DC, USA). National Archives and Records Administration (Washington DC, USA).

Interviews Ernest Richter (Ghana, 2011) Baffour K. Senkyire (Ghana, 2013) Kwaku Baprui Asante (Ghana, 2011 and 2012) David Bosumtwi-Sam (Ghana, 2012) Fana Malindisa (South Africa, 2017) Ezekiel Mothupi (South Africa, 2017) Pitso Koelane (Lesotho, 2017) Meshu Mohau Mokitimi (Lesotho, 2017) Francis Kaunda (Zambia, 2017) Alvit Dlamini (Swaziland, 2017)

Newspapers and Periodicals The Africanist: News and Views (PAC) Bulletin on African Affairs (BAA) The Egyptian Gazette Evening News Daily Graphic (Ghana) Daily Service Daily Telegraph Ghana Today Izwe Lethu (PAC) The Manchester Guardian The Pan-Africanist Review (BAA) The Party Chronicle The Spark (BAA) Sunday Telegraph The Times Voice of Africa (BAA) The Weekly Review (Nairobi) West Africa

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A Africa Must Unite (book), 271 Aborigines’ Rights Protection Society African Affairs Centre (AAC), 2, 4, 6, (ARPS), 36, 41, 47 16, 17, 23, 25–29, 35, 100–104, Abraham, William Emmanuel, 292 106, 107, 109–111, 118, 123, Action Group (AG), 115, 141–150, 130–132, 135, 143–145, 147, 218, 249, 258 148, 156, 169–171, 173, 174, Adamafio, Tawia, 24, 25n66, 62n170, 177, 178, 193, 194, 222–225, 78, 78n267, 130n84, 159n193, 237, 244, 249, 321, 325, 326, 167, 169, 169n16, 178, 182n61, 331, 334, 335 187, 190, 220, 220n26, 256, African Affairs Committee, 29, 113, 262, 263, 263n2 126, 151, 167, 169–172, 175, Addison, Kodwo, 123, 171, 234, 175n38, 177–179, 185, 187, 294, 296 190, 191, 205, 207, 211, 226, Adjei, Ako, 39n28, 46, 112, 112n1, 256, 321 112n6, 129, 136, 137, 145n133, African Affairs Secretariat (AAS), 3n5, 146, 168, 169, 169n16, 182n61, 16, 23, 27, 30, 168, 214, 187, 225, 237n81, 254n157 222–225, 236, 237, 240–247, Adu, A. L., 67–69, 67n202, 68n209, 259, 271, 273–275, 277, 284, 68n212, 69n217, 76, 80–82, 314, 316, 321, 324 80n277, 80n282, 81n284, 89, African Group at the UN, 89 91, 133, 134, 134n96, 137, 151, African High Command, 217, 299, 152, 154, 155, 169n16, 171n23 317, 324

1 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

Africanisation, 67–69, 204, 299 ANC Youth League (South Africa), Africanist movement of the ANC 125, 127, 196 (South Africa), 125–127, 162 Angola, 135, 194, 231, 235, 242, African National Congress (ANC, 243, 244n110, 253, 259 South Africa), 111, 125–127, Apartheid, 104, 110, 125, 133, 188, 186, 187, 194–196, 196n113, 194, 243, 288, 289, 302 198, 242, 250, 250n136, 251, Arden-Clarke, Charles Noble, 50, 56, 251n140, 254, 256, 260, 283, 67–70, 72n233, 87n315 285, 302, 305, 323, 326, 335 Armah, Kwesi, 3n5, 15n42, 25, African National Congress (ANC, 25n70, 25n71, 60n160, 66n196, Zambia), 124, 194, 286, 307 77n259, 77n264, 79n276, African personality, 13, 36, 36n9, 59, 80n282, 82n288, 92, 93n345, 60, 69, 77, 78, 88, 96, 126, 190, 134n96, 191, 203, 217n10, 218, 198, 236, 259 246, 246n120, 273, 273n39, Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity 274, 277, 277n47, 324n222, Organization (AAPSO), 96, 107, 325, 325n225, 328n244 143, 327 Arnold, Grace, 295, 295n115, 296 Afro-Shirazi Party, 235 Asante, Kwaku Baprui, 61, 61n168, Agents of the BAA, 177, 178, 222, 75, 77, 77n260, 80n281, 153, 247, 278, 283 153n166, 153n168, 153n169, Aggrey, James E. K., 36 168, 168n12, 168n13, 190, Alexander, H. T., 24, 24n66 223n34, 224, 224n38, 224n40, Algeria, 9, 10, 88, 96, 107, 132, 143, 225, 233n65, 234, 234n69, 216, 259, 272, 317, 322, 325 242n102, 245n118, 247n123, All-African People’s Conference 267n17, 268, 268n20, 271n31, (AAPC, 1958 gathering), 91, 92, 271n32, 276n43, 277n46, 94, 95, 97–100, 102, 103, 277n48, 284, 291n95, 314, 106–108, 110–119, 122–124, 314n187, 314n189, 315, 127, 128, 131–133, 135, 136, 315n190 138, 142, 143, 146, 152, Awolowo, Obafemi, 53, 116, 149, 169–171, 175, 177, 178, 181, 150, 249 186–190, 203, 229, 234, 267 Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 37, 37n17, 43, 52, All-African People’s Conference 52n111, 53, 63, 100, 115, 116, (AAPC, organization born after 149, 218, 249 the gathering), 35, 64, 104, 114, 123, 144, 170 All-African People’s Revolutionary B Party (AARP), 339 Baako, Kofi, 121, 139, 140, 161, 167, All-African Trade Union Federation 169, 169n16, 181, 233 (AATUF), 224, 224n36, 236 Bakary, Djibo, 100, 146–148, Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO), 147n143, 147n144, 147n145, 176, 203 248, 265 INDEX 357

Balkanization, 61, 216, 276 279n55, 280n59, 280n60, 284, Banda, Hastings, 20, 43, 110, 111, 284n78, 293, 293n106, 124, 175 314n188, 314n189, 315, Bandung conference, 1955, 65, 83 315n190 Barden, A. K., 7, 113, 167, 214, Botsio, Kojo, 44, 86, 91, 92, 105, 262, 334 112, 115, 123, 133, 134, 152, Basner, H. M., 27, 273n38, 320 161, 169, 169n16, 170, 179, Basutoland (in 1966 Lesotho), 104, 187, 273, 274, 284–286, 325 127, 183, 194, 196–199, 201, Brazzaville group, 213, 215–217 202, 227, 229, 243, 298, British Guyana, 84, 236 300, 301 British West African boards, 218 Basutoland Congress Party (BCP), Brockway, Fenner, 45, 46, 46n76, 52, 21, 104, 126, 127, 186, 194, 52n113, 53 196, 198, 199, 201, 202, 227, Budu-Acquah, K, 235 229, 235, 243, 243n107, 264, Bulletin on African Affairs 265, 298–303, 320, 326, 327, (publication), 179 335, 336 Bureau of African Affairs (BAA), 2, 6, Batsa, Kofi, 25, 25n67, 83n299, 250, 15, 18, 19, 23, 26, 27, 80, 102, 250n135, 251n139, 255, 256, 122, 123, 126, 128, 130, 153, 256n164, 257, 257n171, 166–169, 211, 214, 225, 237, 257n173, 257n176, 258, 294, 256, 262, 334 294n111, 296, 304n155, 325n223, 326, 326n231 Bechuanaland (in 1966 Botswana), C 140, 172, 183, 194, 196–198, Cabral, Amilcar, 10, 172, 231, 231, 235, 243, 302, 307, 327 282, 282n69 Bechuanaland People’s Party (BPP), Cameroon, 10, 112, 114, 116, 117, 21, 194, 231, 235, 264, 265, 123, 132, 135, 142–144, 183, 302, 303, 327, 335 243, 249, 255, 265, 308, Belgrade nonaligned conference, 311, 317 1961, 221 Carmichael, Stokely (Kwame Ture), 339 Black nationalism, 64, 162, 339 Casablanca conference, 217, 224n36 Black Star Line, 97 Casablanca group, 213, 215, 217, Bosumtwi-Sam, David, 20, 20n55, 25, 219, 265, 266 25n70, 58n149, 80n281, Casely-Hayford, Joseph Ephraim, 43 129n78, 152n165, 153, Central African Federation (CAF), 86, 153n166, 153n168, 153n170, 93, 97–99, 110, 111, 129, 186, 158n190, 191, 233n65, 234n67, 194, 272, 276 234n71, 242n104, 245n119, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 296 246, 247n123, 252n149, Chapman, Daniel, 88 271n31, 275–281, 277n46, China (People’s Republic of, PRC), 312 277n48, 277n49, 277n51, Chiume, Kanyama, 124, 137 358 INDEX

Chona, Mainza, 227, 306 169, 170, 174, 175, 177–180, Circle, The, 44, 49, 125 183, 199, 200, 203, 219, 220, Civil Service of Ghana, 6, 76, 77, 81, 222, 225–229, 232, 233, 236, 94, 154, 177 256, 262, 278–280, 290, 291, Cold War, 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 17, 22, 29, 293, 295, 296, 300–302, 305, 55, 65, 85, 94–100, 209, 214, 314, 317, 320, 326, 327, 330, 338 216, 254, 289, 337, 338 Coup, 18, 21, 23, 24, 27, 31, 216, Colonialism, 1, 3, 17, 39, 44, 57, 61, 258, 267, 268, 270, 323, 330, 66, 76, 87, 104, 105, 107, 118, 331, 333, 335, 339 132, 138, 167, 193, 200, 232, Cumming-Bruce, Francis, 72–75, 233, 266, 289, 291 72n234, 74n242, 78, 86, 87n316 Colonial Office, 49, 51, 52, 69–71, 73, 76 Comintern, 127 D Comité Revolucionario de Moçambique Dahomey, 101, 113, 114, 208, 311, (COREMO), 253, 335 317, 328 Committee on Youth Organization Danquah, J.B., 41n44, 63 (CYO), 49 Dawn Broadcast, 214, 223, 223n35 Commonwealth, 72, 73, 85–88, de Andrade, Mario, 253 90–92, 99, 311, 319, 330 de Freitas, Geoffrey, 296, 311 Communism, 11, 40, 41, 44, 49, 54, Debrah, E. M., 75, 271, 277 55, 98, 290, 296, 309–310 Dei-Anang, Michael, 3n5, 25, 25n71, Conakry declaration, 93, 113 65n193, 68, 69, 70n219, Conference of Independent African 71n226, 76n254, 77, 77n262, States (CIAS), 35, 85–98, 107, 78, 78n270, 80n282, 81n287, 138, 152, 189, 198, 213, 217, 82n288, 88n323, 89n325, 218, 267, 268 89n326, 89n327, 94n351, Conference of Leaders of Nationalist 95n353, 112n4, 117n21, Organisations of Dependent 117n23, 130n84, 138n109, African States (1961), 243 162n207, 166n7, 168, 168n14, Congo, 29, 30, 87, 127, 135, 167, 190, 191, 197, 220n27, 221n30, 176, 189, 194, 203–207, 209, 222, 222n32, 224, 224n38, 210, 213–215, 217–220, 223, 225n41, 225n44, 235, 241, 241–243, 259, 272, 311, 319 241n97, 245, 245n117, 246, Congo-Coordinating Committee, 205 246n121, 273, 274, 324, Consciencism (book), 292–294 324n220, 330n251 Conseil de I’Entente, 114, 215, 215n4 Democratic Congress Alliance (DCA), Constitutional discussions, 61, 105 235, 239 Convention People’s Party (CPP), 2, Diallo, Abdoulaye, 114, 123, 169, 15, 16, 18–20, 27–29, 34, 48–63, 169n16, 170, 265 58n147, 65, 74, 79, 83–86, 103, Diori, Hamani, 146, 147, 149, 317, 324 105, 112, 124–131, 141, 147, Djin, Andrew, 113, 167, 169, 169n16, 149, 150, 157, 160, 165, 166, 190, 204 INDEX 359

Dlamini, Alvit T., 303, 303n149, G 303n150, 303n151, Gaddafi, Muammar, 339 303n152, 336n9 Gaituah, A.K., 293, 293n105 Du Bois, W.E.B., 12, 25n68, 39, 41, Gandhism, 13, 59 42, 66, 228 Garba-Jahumpa, Ibrahima Mamodou, DuPlan, Edwin, 123, 169n16, 100, 239 170, 171n23, 173n32, 179, Gardiner, Robert, 94, 94n351, 160 182n61, 187 Garvey, Marcus, 38, 41 Dwabeng, R. K., 284–286 Gbedemah, Komla, 50, 91, 222 Dzirasa, Stephen, 145n133, 169n16, German, Democratic Republic (GDR), 172, 179 138, 172, 240, 295, 309 Ghana, 2, 34, 110, 166, 214, 262, 334 Ghana Builders Brigade/Ghana E Workers Brigade, 174, 236 East African Federation (EAF), 31, Ghana–Congo Union, 247 246, 272, 275–280 Ghana–Guinea–Mali Union, 216–219, Eastern Europe, 243 234, 247, 270 East, The (Cold War), 95, 96 Ghana–Guinea Union, 85–94, 112, Egypt, see United Arab Republic (UAR) 115, 149, 216 Ethiopia, 37, 38, 41, 88, 132, 138, Ghana Young Pioneers, 293, 301, 188, 259, 265, 270–272 304, 305 Evening News (newspaper), 49, 50, 62, Gizenga, Antoine, 28, 242 83, 120, 128, 200, 201, 255, 290 Gold Coast, 17, 33–34, 36, 37, 39, Ewe people, 117 44, 46, 47, 50–53, 56, 58, 59, 62, 63, 68–76, 86, 87, 105, 117, 124, 130, 141, 198, 302, 337 F Govêrno Revolucionário de Angola no Fanon, Franz, 106, 107, 189 Exílio (GRAE), 253 Farmers Council, 237 Grunitzy, Nicolas, 267 Foncha, John Ngu, 116, 122 Guevara, “Che” Ernesto, 289 Foreign service, 2, 6, 16, 29, 35, 67, Guinea, 2, 9, 35, 63, 85–94, 110, 69–73, 75–78, 80–82, 89, 111, 112–114, 118, 131, 132, 122, 129, 130, 133, 161, 168, 135–137, 143, 200, 208, 216, 169, 222, 223, 226, 246, 283, 221, 243, 248, 257, 263, 266, 284, 314, 315, 322, 323 272, 273, 282 France, 30, 113, 144, 145, 183, 208, Guinea-Bissau, 231, 259 260, 295, 308 Gwambe, Adelino, 253 Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (FRELIMO), 253, 260, 323, 326 Frente Nacional de Libertação de H Angola (FNLA), 252, 253 High Commission Territories (HCT), Front de Libération Nationale (FNL), 86, 243, 285, 286 106, 216 Hornyold, Anthony F.G., 296 360 INDEX

Houphouët-Boigny, Félix, 145, 146, Job 600, 324 215, 216, 245, 248, 268, 298, Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC), 308, 324, 325 27, 309, 310, 312, 319 Hutchinson, Alfred, 25n69, 104, 126, Juvento, 117 169n16

K I Kambona, Oscar, 283 Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial Kapwepwe, Simon, 229 (IPGE), 335 Kasavubu, Joseph, 176, 203, 215, 216 Ikoku, Samuel (Julius Sago), 25, Katanga, 204, 215 25n67, 150, 150n154, 156, Kaunda, Francis, 4n8, 124n48, 156n181, 245n116, 258, 125n53, 151n156, 227–230, 258n177, 263, 263n2, 269, 273, 228n49, 228n50, 228n51, 273n38, 292n98, 294, 294n110, 229n52, 229n53, 229n54, 315n192, 321–323, 321n210, 230n55, 232n56, 232n57, 244, 322n214, 323n218 244n111, 264, 264n6, 265, 285, Independent Labour Party (ILP), 286, 304n157, 305, 305n160, 52n113, 53 305n161, 306, 320, 336, 336n9 India, 48, 50, 72, 73, 112, 188 Kaunda, Kenneth, 16, 106, 124, 178, Indirect rule, 48, 56 227, 229, 231, 244, 285, Information Research Department 304–307, 335n5, 336 (IRD), 27, 296, 297, 313 Keita, Modibo, 200, 208, 216, 247, Intelligence, 16, 155, 177, 205, 243, 268, 273 245, 306, 309, 310, 321, 327 Kente (Ghanaian dress), 66, 200, International African Friends of 229–231 Abyssinia (IAFA), 41 Kenya African National Union International African Service Bureau (KANU), 120, 128, 235, 280 (IASB), 41, 52, 84, 102 Kenyatta, Jomo, 20, 40n37, 41, 41n44, Israel, 95, 168 43, 128, 199, 276, 280, 293 Ivory Coast, 30, 62, 101, 113–115, Kerina, Murumba, 306, 335n6 117, 135, 142, 144, 145, 245, Khrushchev, Nikita, 99, 114, 220 248, 249, 263, 264, 268, 311, Koelane, Pitso, 199, 300, 317, 324, 328 300n137, 336n9 Koinange, Peter Mbiju, 128, 167, 169n16, 175, 190, 311 J Kulungugu (bomb attack at), 260, James, C. L. R., 25n69, 38–43, 40n34, 262–265, 269, 290, 299, 315 40n38, 40n39, 41n42, 41n44, KUTV, University of the Toilers of the 41n45, 42n47, 42n52, 43n58, 52, East, 40, 233 52n110, 52n111, 53, 53n116, Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute 54n122, 54n124, 56n138, 82, (KNII), 3, 4, 6, 14, 16–19, 30, 82n289, 102, 102n371, 233n60 123, 141, 150, 157, 171, 177, INDEX 361

179, 189, 214, 226, 227, 229, Mali, 2, 114, 200, 208, 216, 247, 232–234, 238, 244n113, 263, 266, 272 245n115, 252, 254, 304 Mali Federation, 114–115, 208 Kwame Nkrumah Institute of Malindisa, Fana, 196n113, 322 Economics and Political Science Manchester 5th Pan-African Congress, (KNIEPS), 16, 238, 240, 33, 42, 44, 47, 52, 84, 114 244, 244n113, 245n115, 289, Mandela, Nelson, 231, 250, 319, 320 290, 292 Maoism, 289 Margai, Albert, 311 Margai, Milton, 308 L Markham, James, 83, 84, 113, 119, Leballo, Potlako Kitchener, 127, 187, 120, 124, 129, 140, 141, 145, 195, 251, 329, 336 146, 152, 154–156, 158, 161, Lembede, Anton, 125 168, 181, 255 Lenin, Vladimir, 38, 45, 45n71, Marx, Karl, 38, 65, 295 47, 292 Marxism, 13, 40, 45, 59, 159–161 Liberation Committee of the OAU Massaga, 292 (“Committee of Nine”), 252, Mauritania, 215n3 281, 320 Mazrui, Ali, 14, 292, 339 Liberia, 42, 62, 71, 88, 92, 93, Mboya, Tom, 16, 100, 123, 128, 144 112, 114, 117, 118, 132, 188, Mda, Ashby Solomzi, 125, 127 208, 270 Military training camps in Ghana, Lumumba, Patrice, 16, 30, 104, 106, 313, 321 127, 176, 189, 203–206, 211, Minister of Defence and External 216, 218–220, 242, 247, 336 Affairs (MDEA), 66, 77–80, 112 Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), 66, 79, 114, 122, 130, 133, 136, M 139, 168, 171, 175, 191, 223 Macmillan, Harold, 99, 291 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), Mahluza, Fanuel, 253 16, 27, 28, 77, 157, 210, 214, Mahomo, Nana, 195, 283 223, 224, 240, 252, 259, 277, Makiwane, Tennyson, 250 314, 315 Makonnen, T. Ras, 12, 16, 18, 25, Mobutu, Joseph, 206, 215 41, 43, 44, 52, 53, 59n154, 60, Mokhehle, Ntsu, 104, 127, 198, 300, 78, 83–85, 100–102, 106, 111, 301, 334, 336 113, 114, 121, 130–132, 137, Mokitimi, Meshu Mohau, 198–200, 151, 154, 156, 159, 161, 167, 202, 229, 300, 307, 320 169, 173, 174, 176, 179, Molotsi, Peter, 195, 251, 251n143 183, 190, 193, 228, 234, Mondlane, Eduardo, 231 240, 321 Monrovia group, 215, 217, 253, Malawi Congress Party (MCP), 266, 273 20, 110–111, 124, 175, 227, Morocco, 88, 125, 132, 216, 217, 259 231, 247 Mothupi, Ezekiel, 196n113 362 INDEX

Moumié, Felix, 143, 144, 144n128, 172 National Liberation Movement Mouvement National Congolais (NLM), 56 (MNC), 176, 203 National Unity Democratic Movimento Popular de Libertação de Organization (NUDO), 335 Angola (MPLA), 231, 244, 252, Negro Worker, The (publication), 253, 282, 335 37, 40, 120, 183 Mugabe, Robert, 200, 283, 336 Nehru, Pandit, 64, 72n234 Mulele, Pierre, 242n104 Neo-colonialism, 1, 3, 13n35, 17, 61, Mulemba, Humphrey, 304–308, 66, 118, 198, 200, 243, 270, 304n157, 319, 320 288, 293 Murumbi, Joseph, 100, 128 Neo-Colonialism (book), 45n71 Neto, Agostinho, 282, 282n70, 298n127 N Neto, Rosario, 253 Nairobi People’s Convention Party Ngwane National Liberatory Congress (NPCP), 128 (NNLC), 21, 194, 298, 299, Nakuru District Congress (NDC), 303, 304, 320, 327, 335, 336 120, 129 Niang, Habib, 274, 292 Nasser, Gamal Abdul, 94–97, 99, 114, Niger, 113, 117, 142, 146–149, 208, 131, 235, 318 248, 311, 317, 328 National Association for the Nigeria, 30, 52, 53, 57, 62, 91, 93, Advancement of Colored People 112, 114–117, 132, 142, 149, (NAACP), 39 150, 183, 217–219, 221, 248, National Association of Socialist 249, 258, 263, 272, 310–312 Students’ Organization (NASSO), Nkomo, Joshua, 127, 141, 200 80, 83, 180, 222 Nkrumah, Kwame, 1, 22–28, 33, 64, National Committee of Liberation 109, 165, 213, 261, 333 (NCL), 242, 283 Nkrumaism, 2–4, 12–22, 28, 59, 61, National Congress of British West 161, 165, 166, 171, 214, 220, Africa (NCBWA), 36, 43, 47 226–240, 254, 259, 261, 280, National Council for Higher 283, 289–292, 294, 297, 304, Education and Research 307, 329, 331, 334, 336–338 (NCHER), 238–240 Nkumbula, Harry, 124 National Council of Ghana Women, 236 Nonalignment, Positive Nonalignment, National Council of Nigeria and the Positive Neutrality, 29, 60, 96, Cameroons (NCNC), 53, 115, 114, 130, 183 149, 187, 218, 249 Non-violence, 2, 29, 50, 96, 105, National Democratic Party (NDP), 194 107, 188, 242 Nationalist Conference of African Northern People’s Congress (NPC), Freedom Fighters (1962), 252 115, 149 National Liberation Committee Northern Rhodesia, 57, 104, 124, (NLC), 18, 20, 21, 23, 27, 191, 183, 194, 227, 243, 285, 286, 238, 307, 330, 333–335 304, 306 INDEX 363

Nquku, John June, 303, 306 P Nuclear tests in the Sahara, 188 Padmore (Pizer), Dorothy, 43, 53, Nujoma, Sam, 231, 336 59, 163 Nyasaland African Congress (NAC), Padmore, George, 2, 11, 33, 110, see Malawi Congress Party (MCP) 165, 223, 272, 334 Nyerere, Julius, 94, 127, 130, 275, Pan-African Conferences, 39, 63 276, 280, 283, 286–288, 330 Pan-African Federation (PAF), 42, 44, 52, 84, 102 Pan-African Freedom Movement of O East and Central Africa OAU founding conference at Addis (PAFMECA), 188 Ababa (1963), 261, 265, 303 Pan-Africanism, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10–14, OAU 1964 Conference of Heads of 17–20, 22, 28–30, 33, 35–37, 40, State (Cairo), 317 43, 44, 51, 52, 57, 59, 61, OAU 1965 Conference of Heads of 63–65, 79, 90, 95, 103, 119, State (Accra), 317 122, 130, 143, 149, 157, 159, Obote, Milton, 128, 130, 276–281, 160, 166, 171, 179, 198, 225, 293, 336 228, 230, 232, 235, 236, 256, Oginga Odinga, Jaramogi, 94, 128, 258, 262, 263, 270, 272, 129, 276 281–282, 309, 314, 333, Office of the Adviser to the Prime 337, 339 Minister on African Affairs, 15, Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), 27, 29, 34, 78, 79 21, 27, 111, 125–127, 162, Ofori Bah, E., 278, 323, 326, 186, 187, 194–196, 196n113, 328, 334 198, 227, 242, 244, 250, 251, Olympio, Sylvanus, 117, 248, 256, 283, 285, 299, 303, 267, 308 313, 320–322, 327, 329, One-party state, 18, 20, 165, 219, 335, 336 290, 291, 293, 305 Parirewa, Stanley, 283 Organisation Commune d’Afrique et Partido Africano da Independência da Malgache (OCAM), 325 Guiné e Cabo Verde (PAIGC), Organisation des Nations Unies au 244, 282, 335 Congo (ONUC), 204, 206 Peczynski, J.M., 295 Organization of African Unity (OAU), Political attaches, see Agents of the BAA 22, 31, 215, 247, 248, 250, 252, Portugal, 28, 252, 286, 335 260–262, 265–268, 272–275, Positive action, 18, 29, 50, 51, 277, 279, 281, 286, 288, 289, 55, 58, 59, 61, 107, 183, 297, 298, 308, 311, 313, 317, 188, 189, 194, 214, 226, 318, 320, 323–328, 330, 333 236, 238, 302 Osagyefo, 34, 191, 198, 229, 262–264, Positive Action Conference for Peace 272, 273, 275, 281, 288, 303, and Security in Africa (PAPSA), 306, 313, 315–317, 329, 334 187–190 364 INDEX

Q Self-government, 46, 51, 57, 76, 105, Qhobela, Molapo, 300 142, 301 Quaison-Sackey, Alexander, Senghor, Leopold, 215 75, 130, 325 Senkyire, Baffour Kwaben, 80 Quarm, S. E., 25, 62, 76, 93, 107, Sharpeville massacre, 189, 195, 196, 119, 129, 204, 213–260, 338 302, 327 Shityuwete, Helao, 321 Sierra Leone, 37, 62, 91, 183, 185, R 217, 310, 311 Radio Ghana, 121, 159, 180–182, Sipalo, Munukayumbwa, 304, 304n157 254–260, 298 Sithole, Ndabaningi, 283 Rassemblement Démocratique Smith, Ian, 323, 330 Africaine (RDA), 147 Sobukwe, Robert, 126, 162, 195 The Red International of Labor Socialism, 2, 14, 29, 38, 43, 44, 55, Unions (RILU), 40 60, 64, 66, 143, 165, 220, 222, Refugees, 2, 16, 29, 35, 79, 84, 109, 223, 227, 232, 236, 239, 240, 111, 113, 118, 131–137, 141, 254, 266, 271 142, 145, 146, 150, 155, 166, Solanke, Ladipo, 41 171–174, 194–198, 202, 251, Somalia, 235, 259 292, 294, 302, 308, 310, 318, South Africa, 19, 28, 57, 88, 98, 110, 324, 325, 328, 334 111, 125–127, 162, 173, 183, Regionalism, 90, 92–94, 105, 186, 188, 189, 194–203, 227, 272, 304 242, 243, 245, 251–253, 256, Roberto, Holden, 16, 106, 111, 132, 259, 283, 286, 303, 322, 329, 335 136, 137, 252 South African Communist Party Rodionov, Georgi, 220 (SACP), 125 South African United Front (SAUF), 126, 195, 250, 251 S Southern Rhodesia, 127, 194, 243, St. Clair Drake, John Gibbs, 45, 54, 283, 312, 318, 323, 330, 336 55, 161 South Kasai (Sud-Kasai), 205, 206 Salazar, António de Oliveira, 282 South West Africa, 194, 231, 243, Saloway, R.H., 56, 68–71, 76 253, 259, 307, 335 Sanniquellie Declaration, 93 South West Africa National Union Sanwi, 117, 144–146, 150, 245, 248, (SWANU), 188, 194, 253, 306 249, 264, 308, 311, 325 South West African People’s Sawaba party, 141–150, 174, 189, Organization (SWAPO), 194, 248, 264, 265, 308, 317 231, 253, 313, 321, 336 Scholarships, 138–141, 144, 172, 178, Spark, The (publication), 120, 150, 227, 236, 309, 327 268, 278, 281, 286, 291, 292, Scott, Michael, 243 294–296, 298, 326 Selassie, Haile, 265, 266, 271 Stanleyville regime, 206 INDEX 365

Stather Hunt, D.W., 278, 297, 298 União Democrática Nacional de Subversion, 7, 16, 31, 74, 248, Moçambique (UDENAMO), for 265–268, 273, 295, 308–314, the post-1962 party, 244, 253, 317–319, 324–328 253n154 Sutherland, Bill, 189 See also Comité Revolucionario de Swaziland, 28, 183, 194, 198, 243, Moçambique (COREMO) 298, 303, 304, 307 União dos Povos de Angola (UPA), Swazi Progressive Association (SPA), 136, 252, 253 later Swazi Pogressive Party Union Afrique et Malgache (UAM), (SPP), 123, 194, 303, 306 217n14 Szamuely, Tibor, 233 Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC), 10, 141–150, 172, 188, 189, 265, 277–279, 308 T Union of African States (UAS), 61, Tambo, Oliver, 127, 285 92, 113–115, 117, 142, 149, Tanganyika, 57, 94, 183, 209, 243, 207, 208, 216, 218, 247, 262, 253, 273, 277, 278, 281, 283, 265, 266, 270, 271, 276 284, 286, 314–316 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Tanganyika African National Union (USSR), 11, 40, 41n42, 86, (TANU), 62, 127 97–99, 113, 114, 138, 162n205, Tanzania, 9, 94, 272, 279, 287, 288 213, 219, 220, 233, 240, 243, Telli, Diallo, 265 244, 288, 291, 296, 307, 309 Tettegah, John, 113, 167, 187, 190, 220 United Arab Republic (UAR), 88, Tito, Josip Broz, 220, 221 88n321, 94–99, 110, 112, Togo, 114, 117, 142, 248, 263–268, 114, 131, 132, 135, 140, 188, 270, 307, 310, 317, 324, 328 217, 221, 235, 255, 257, 259, Touré, Sékou, 90–92, 113, 114, 272, 318 126, 137, 143, 147, 149, 200, United Gold Coast Convention 208, 216, 247, 265, 266, 268, (UGCC), 46, 48, 49, 63, 126 336, 339 United Kingdom (UK), 6, 29, 30, Towards Colonial Freedom (book), 39, 44, 46, 70–72, 75, 102, 45, 97 112, 158, 183, 219, 221, 240, Tribalism, 34, 53, 56, 57, 61, 65, 304 249, 252, 252n146, 259, 260, Tshombe, Moïse, 215, 216 280, 295, 296, 308, 312, Tubman, William, 118, 208, 268, 308 313, 319 United National Independence Party (UNIP), 4, 28, 124, 188, 231 U United Nations (UN), 39, 56, 85, Uganda, 57, 128, 183, 227, 242, 243, 87–89, 94, 117, 123, 129, 246, 272, 275, 277–280 130, 138, 139, 144, 146, 166, Ugandan People’s Congress (UPC), 172, 203, 204, 206, 213, 217, 21, 128, 227 219, 311 366 INDEX

United Party (UP), 263 West African National Secretariat United States of America (USA), (WANS), 43, 44, 62, 63 11, 30, 46, 136, 206, 213, 221, West African Students’ Association 260, 295, 308, 312, 313 (WASU), 41, 43 Upper Volta, 113, 114, 247, 248, West, The (Cold War), 85 263, 264, 311, 317, 328 Wright, Richard, 44n62, 53

V Y Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch, 194 Yameogo, Maurice, 262, 263 Violence, 18, 35, 61, 88, 95, 96, 105, Youth, 21, 49, 55, 65, 117, 175, 107, 122, 189, 190, 198, 214, 198–202, 227, 298, 300, 301, 242, 243, 274 305, 319 Voice of Africa (VOA, publication), Yugoslavia (Socialist Federal Republic 120, 181–187, 255–257, 259, of), 220, 221, 240 268, 279–281, 293, 296, 298, 300, 304 Voice of UNIP (publication), 229 Z Volta River Project (VRP), 51, 183 Zambia, 4, 9, 21, 28, 188, 229, 229n53, 231, 243, 284, 286, 304, 305, 328n244 W Zambian African National Congress Wachuku, Jaja, 219 (ZANC), 124 Wallace-Johnson, I.T.A., 37, 41, 63 Zambian National Youth Service, 305 Welbeck, N.A., 167, 169, 170, Zimbabwe African National Union 176–178, 183, 187, 190, 192, (ZANU), 21, 194, 282, 283, 204, 205 320, 327, 335, 336 Welensky, Roy, 94, 97–99, 111, 291 Zwane, Ambrose, 303, 336