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Fire Managment Today

Fire Managment Today

today Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018

CONIFER MORTALITY AND FIRE RISK HOTSHOT ORIGINS FIRETEC: MODELING FIRE BEHAVIOR AND MORE …

United States Department of Agriculture Service Special issue coming up … The next issue of Fire Management Today focuses on helping communities in the wildland–urben interface adapt to wildland fre.

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Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service, an agency in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington, DC. The purpose of Fire Management Today is to share information related to wildland fre management for the beneft of the wildland fre community. No longer appearing in print, Fire Management Today is available on the World Wide Web at https://www.fs.fed.us/managing-land/fre/fre-management-today.

Victoria Christiansen, Interim Chief Kaari Carpenter, General Manager Forest Service Hutch Brown, Editor Shawna A. Legarza, Psy.D., Director Fire and Aviation Management

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On the Cover: CONTENTS Anchor Point Fulflling Our Mission ...... 4 Shawna A. Legarza, Psy.D.

Conifer Mortality in : Fire Risk and Dead Management ...... 5 Russell D. Briggs and Susan C. Cook-Patton

Wildfre and Bark Beetle Disturbance in Western U.S. : Is Intervention Needed for Vegetation Recovery? ...... 13 Russell D. Briggs

Hotshots: The Origins of the Interagency .....25 Lincoln Bramwell Conifer mortality on the Sierra National Forest in 2016. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Pacifc Southwest What is FIRETEC (and Why Should I Care)? ...... 33 Region (April 5, 2016). James H. Furman and Rodman Linn

Excess Federal Equipment Builds Capacity in Oregon ...... 37 Michael McKeen

Fire: The Great Forest Regulator ...... 40 Stephen W. Barrett

Battle of San Pasqual Staff Ride ...... 42 The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Rex Hambly Management Staff has adopted a logo refecting three central principles of wildland fre management: The “Forest Circus” Reconsidered ...... 45 • Innovation: We will respect and value Kerry Greene and Hylah Jacques thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. Exposure ...... 47 • Execution: We will do what we say we 6 Minutes for Safety will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing targets are essential to our credibility. Guidelines for Contributors ...... 48 • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Fiscal, managerial, and operational discipline are at the core of our ability to fulfll our mission.

Firefghter and public safety is our frst priority.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 3 Anchor By Shawna A. Legarza, Psy.D. Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point USDA Forest Service

FULFILLING OUR MISSION

he United States has the interface, the rising number of best and most highly trained We will work to large and devastating wildfres, Twildland frefghters in the and the steady creep of increased world. One statistic says it all: of increase fire on the fuel loadings, we must constantly the wildfres that the Forest Service landscape where respond to the need for greater decides to fght, we control 97–98 effciency and for change in the way percent during initial attack. That appropriate. we do business. phenomenal record of success goes back for decades, for as long as I can fres, reduce hazardous fuels, We will continue to analyze remember in the course of improve trails, and more. In multiple the wildland fre environment my career. regards, we lead the way in wildland accordingly, using the best available fre management. data and science. We will also work Our wildland frefghters not only to increase fre on the landscape fght fres for our agency and others As we strive to reduce exposure to where appropriate. Our overarching but also complete restoration risk and maximize effciencies, we goal is to help our agency fulfll our work on the national forests will continue to respond to various mission of sustaining the health, and grasslands. Together with challenges within the wildland fre diversity, and productivity of our communities and our partners, we environment. Given such challenges Nation’s forests and grasslands to manage smoke, conduct prescribed as the growing wildland–urban meet the needs of present and future generations. ■

Fire Management Today 4 CONIFER MORTALITY IN CALIFORNIA: FIRE RISK AND DEAD TREE MANAGEMENT

Russell D. Briggs and Susan C. Cook-Patton

he adverse effects of climate associated costs. They are also change on forest ecosystems in the Western disrupting systems that have evolved Tare many and varied (IPCC over thousands of years. Historically, 2014). In the Western United States, United States are both bark beetles and wildland drought frequency and severity dying in unprecedented fre have been important elements (both magnitude and period of in conifer systems that undergo defcit) are rising. Hot and dry numbers due to drought periodic burning. For example, conditions increase the susceptibility and beetle infestation. lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), a of trees to fre and bark beetle attack, common species in the West, will resulting in excessive mortality. not regenerate in the absence of fre. cost of fre protection is rising, in Hicke and others (2016) estimated Periodic attacks by mountain pine part because more and more people cumulative bark beetle mortality beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosa) are building in the wildland–urban in the Western United States from generate fuel loads that promote interface, making it more diffcult 1979 to 2012 at 16 million acres (6.4 fre (Lotan and Critchfeld 1990). to let fres burn and requiring more million ha), which amounted to 7.1 Low-severity fres also increase the resources to protect structures and percent of the entire forested area production of resin, allowing trees lives (Liu and others 2015; Theobald (fg. 1). to resist beetle attack (Hood and and Romme 2007). others 2015). However, trees in the

Western United States are dying More Than 100 Million Extended periods of drought affect in unprecedented numbers due Dead Trees more than fre seasons and the Increasing periods of drought also extend the duration and economic impact of fre season (Brown 2016a; Romme and others 2006). The number of wildfres exceeding $1 billion in damages (in 2011 dollars, adjusted for infation) rose from 0 in 1980–1990 to 4 in 1991–2000 and to 9 in 2001–2015 (NOAA NCDC 2016). Similarly, the Forest Service’s yearly wildfre suppression costs (in 2016 dollars) rose eightfold, from $200 million in 1984 to more than $1.7 billion in 2015 (Brown 2016a). The

Russell Briggs is a distinguished teaching professor and director of the Division of Environmental Science, SUNY College of Environmental Science and , Syracuse, NY; and Susan Cook-Patton is a scientist for The Nature Figure 1—Pine mortality (red/gray trees) due to a mountain pine beetle epidemic in Conservancy, Arlington, VA. Colorado’s Rocky Mountain National Park, March 2009. Photo: Brian Kurtz, USDA.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 5 to drought and because drought- Recent estimates by the Forest Service stressed trees are more susceptible to bark beetle infestation (Carroll suggest that California has more than and others 2006; Cullingham and 100 million dead trees. others 2011; Dahr and others 2016; Manion 1981).

Recent estimates by the Forest infestation and the potential for data from on-the-ground feld plots Service suggest that California has increased wildfre occurrence and as well as from remote-sensing more than 100 million dead trees severity has been conducted in images of beetle-infested stands. (fg. 2). Many land managers are Colorado. Literature specifc to Analyses ranged from comparison concerned that the standing dead California is rare. Here, we examine (and modeling) of prefre and trees increase the likelihood and the scientifc literature linking postfre stand composition, severity of wildfre, further increase beetle- and/or drought-killed trees morphology, and structure to fre protection costs, and threaten to wildfre likelihood and severity, assessments of fre intensity and human lives and structures due to with wildfre severity defned as the rates of spread estimated from fre and/or falling trees. In response, amount of organic matter (that is, aerial images. Governor Jerry Brown of California trees and forest foor) consumed released a Proclamation of a State of by fre (Keeley 2009). We then The level of analytical sophistication Emergency to expedite tree removal discuss the implications for and the geographic extent of in high-hazard areas and created managing the 100 million-plus dead the studies, impressive from the a Tree Mortality Task Force to trees in California. beginning, increased with each formulate management options. successive paper. The earliest Relevant Literature paper by Klutsch and others (2011) This paper addresses the question: modeled potential surface and What steps (if any) should be taken A good understanding of how bark beetles affect wildfre has only crown fre behavior for stand and to manage more than 100 million tree morphology data collected from dead trees in California? recently emerged. The most relevant refereed papers published from 170 infested and 51 uninfested plots 2011 to 2016 are listed in table 1. distributed in lodgepole pine forest Most of the research examining on the Arapaho National Forest, CO. the relationship between beetle The researchers applied a variety of analytical approaches. They collected A later paper by Meigs and others (2016) used georectifed imagery to compile a sample of 81 fres exceeding 988 acres (400 hectares) in area in mixed-conifer forests of the Pacifc Northwest east of the crest of the Cascades; these data span 14 years and include areas affected by bark beetles (Dendroctonus spp.) and western spruce budworm (Choristoneura freemani). Meigs and others (2016) measured fre severity using state-of-the-art techniques (that is, Landsat-derived index postfre relative differenced normalized burn ratio, or RdNBR) to identify the variables that have the greatest infuence on fre severity. The most recent paper (Schoennagel and others 2016) synthesized the Figure 2—Conifer mortality due to drought and bark beetle attack on the Sierra National Forest in California’s Sierra Nevada, April 2016. An estimated 100 million trees have been literature and considered the lost to drought and bark beetle attack in California. Photo: USDA Forest Service. policy implications.

Fire Management Today 6 Table 1—Summary of recent studies assessing the relationship between beetle kill and wildfre incidence and/or severity. Forest Insect Approach Study area(s) types species Conclusions Authors FFE–FVS model applied to feld Arapaho National LP MPB Uninfested plots predicted to have Klutsch and others data collected from 170 infested Forest (CO) greater potential for crown fre than (2011) and 51 un-infested plots infested plots. Literature synthesis Yellowstone LP MPB Conceptual model of fuel and Hicke and others Colorado LP/SP–F SPB fre behavior based on time since (2012) Intermountain SP–F outbreak; fres do not necessarily Central Rockies occur after beetle outbreaks; ignition and weather play a greater role than fuels. Literature synthesis Yellowstone LP MPB Beetle outbreaks do not increase Black and others Colorado LP/SP–F SPB fre risk in lodgepole pine and ES (2013) Intermountain SP–F forests under most conditions. Central Rockies ROS via photos of wildfre and Interior British BF MPB ROS in beetle-impacted stands Perrakis and others experimental burns in MPB- Columbia BS SPB averaged 2.7 times higher than (2014) impacted stands modeled as LP expected for nonimpacted stands. function of initial spread index JP Fire intensity is likely higher due to WS increased ROS. Spatial overlay of remotely Western United LP MPB Annual area burned has not Hart and others sensed data States PP increased in direct response to bark (2015) beetle activity. Prefre (reconstructed) and Northern Rockies ES MPB Fire severity was unrelated Hood and others postfre data from feld plots DF to outbreak severity with two (2015) stratifed by fre severity classes LP exceptions: increased % basal area (correlation and regression WBP with deep charring on boles and trees) SAF into crowns when fres burned in red-phase stands under extreme conditions. Prefre (reconstructed) and Southwest ES SBB Prefre beetle severity had no Andrus and others postfre data from 143 feld Colorado effect on fre severity regardless of (2016) plots stratifed by degree of burning conditions. beetle infestation and fre severity range Regression of burning likelihood Kenai Peninsula BS SBB Likelihood of burning increased Hansen and others as function of SBB occurrence (Alaska) WS with SBB outbreak for sites with (2016) for remotely sensed data intermixed BS and WS. Sequential auto regression of Pacifc Northwest DF MPB Burn severity is lower in forests Meigs and others prefre (reconstructed) and F WSBW with greater cumulative insect (2016) postfre data via georectifed SP damage. imagery Policy discussion informed by Western United Not Bark Weather and climate drive Schoennagel and literature synthesis States specifed beetles increasing fre frequency; fuel others (2016) reduction will not impact area burned; insect infestations do not necessarily make fres worse; land use planning and prescribed burning can reduce fre risk.

Note: BS = black spruce (Picea mariana); DF = Douglas-fr (Pseudotsuga menziesii); ES = Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii); F = fr (Abies spp.); FFE = fre and fuels extension; FVS = forest vegetation simulator; JP = jack pine (Pinus banksiana); LP = lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta); MPB = mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosa); PP = ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa); ROS = rate of spread; SAF = subalpine fr (Abies lasiocarpa); SBB = spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus rufpennis); SP = spruce (Picea spp.); WS = white spruce (Picea glauca); WBP = whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis); WSBW = western spruce budworm (Choristoneura freemani).

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 7 Beetle Infestation and Fire The relationship Fire severity is driven mostly by weather. Severity Through Time between beetle The relationship between beetle The literature generally shows infestation and fre severity changes infestation and fire that fre severity is driven by hot with time, passing through three severity changes and dry weather conditions rather than beetle outbreak (Bradstock sequential phases (Andrus and with time. others 2016; Harvey and others and others 2009; Reinhardt 2014). The frst phase is the “red and others 2008). Spruce bark phase,” characterized by retention beetle (Dendroctonus rufpennis) of dry, dead (typically red) needles. shown in fgure 3. As Black and outbreaks, for example, had minimal During this relatively short period, others (2013) noted, “These or no impact on fre severity in there is an elevated likelihood of empirical fndings are consistent spruce–fr forests, where infrequent crown fre; less heat is required to with modeling studies that predict severe drought drove fre behavior. ignite the crown (Jolly and others reductions in the probability of 2012a). Several authors consider this active crown fre for one to two Beetle-killed trees increase fre phase to last 1–2 years, but Hicke decades after high-severity bark severity initially but not for long. beetle outbreaks in pure stands and others (2012) suggest that it can Meigs and others (2016) reported of Engelmann spruce (Picea extend up to 4 years (fg. 3). lower burn severity in forests with engelmannii).” However, inherent greater cumulative insect damage spatial and temporal variation affects The second, the “gray phase,” occurs in the Pacifc Northwest. Several this general trend (Hicke and others after the needles fall to the forest other studies similarly reported 2012). Infested stands can contain foor. This phase lasts for 5 to 10 reduced fre severity after beetle kill patches of dead and living trees, and years, during which the absence and attributed it to loss of canopy the three phases are actually part of highly combustible fne fuels density. The studies that found more of a continuum (Jolly and others (that is, needles), combined with severe fres after insect outbreak 2012b). Some fne twigs still persist reduced canopy density, substantially examined the early years after early in the gray phase, for example, diminishes the risk of fre reaching outbreak (red and early gray phases). and needles may take anywhere from the crowns. Hood and others (2015) documented 1 to 4 years to fall. At larger spatial deep charring (the only fre severity scales and longer time scales, Eventually, the stems fall and the variable to show an impact) when however, the theoretical model “old phase” begins; the rate of decay fres occurred in the red phase under (fg. 3) is consistent with on-the- of material close to the forest foor extreme fre weather conditions. ground observations. is constrained by soil moisture Perrakis and others (2014) found (Swift and others 1979). Moisture that fre rate of spread in pine stands Insect outbreaks do not increase defcits contribute to a buildup 1–5 years after peak beetle attack the likelihood of fre occurrence. of fuels, whereas excess moisture averaged 2.7 times greater than promotes accelerated decomposition. Many papers reported that fres expected for unimpacted stands. The potential for severe crown fre are not more likely after insect Higher potential for crown fre in increases during the old phase outbreaks (Black and others 2013; the red phase was also noted by because regeneration growing into Hart and others 2015; Klutsch Jolly and others (2012b). Black the canopy provides continuity of and others 2011; Schoennagel and and others (2013) also pointed out fuels, from the decomposing stems others 2016). Only Hansen and that during the Yellowstone Fires jackstrewn about the forest foor into others (2016), the study conducted of 1988, the incidences of crown the canopy. in Alaska, contradicted this fnding: fre were higher in stands where more fammable black spruce (Picea beetle-induced mortality exceeded Summary of the Research mariana) was intermixed with 50 percent. For this study, however, beetle-affected white spruce (Picea it is diffcult to disentangle the Insect outbreaks both increase glauca), increasing the likelihood effect of stand age from the effect and decrease fuel loads over time. of fre occurrence. However, Alaska of beetle activity. Older stands had Observations of stands that burn has a 400- to 600-year fre cycle that greater beetle mortality, and older after beetle outbreaks generally differs drastically from that in the stands also had higher fuel loads support the model predictions western continental United States. that placed them at higher risk of

Fire Management Today 8 Research suggests that dead trees per se do not increase the likelihood of fire occurrence.

within the narrow time window would be challenging.

The gray phase, a period characterized by low potential fre severity preceding the old phase, opens a window for developing an Figure 3—Conceptual framework of fre behavior relative to preoutbreak conditions for action plan based on knowledge red, gray, and old (snagfall and regrowth) phases (redrawn from Hicke and others (2012)). of prevailing weather patterns. Informed consideration is important; severe fres, even in the absence of West and discusses beetle-killed removal of dead trees would beetle activity. Collectively, these stands specifcally, it is reasonable to be costly, requiring substantial studies lend support to the model extrapolate these results to the 100 subsidies (Crandall and others shown by Hicke and others (2012; million-plus dead trees in California. 2017). Both suffcient moisture and fg. 3). Empirical evidence for fre Climate change is shortening the high temperature are essential for severity in the old phase remains to fre return interval in Colorado. decomposition (A’Bear and others be gathered. With the exception of the one Alaska 2014). Although decomposition is study (Hansen and others 2016), the a continuous process that begins Length of time for substantial cited papers describe ecosystems while trees are still standing, increase in fre severity is similar to those in California (table decomposition rates are minimal uncertain. 2). Specifcally, they are ecosystems until contacts the ground and Nelson and others (2016) recently with short fre return intervals (0–35 attains 25-percent moisture content provided empirical evidence for the years and 35–100 years), where fre (Swift and others 1979). timing of increased fre severity plays a key role in regulating species associated with the end of the gray composition and stand structure. Extended periods of drought phase (fg. 3). Lodgepole pine stands, There is also no reason to expect concurrent with the old phase sampled 11 years after severe fres the cause of mortality to change would restrict decomposition in Yellowstone, were resampled patterns. Trees killed entirely by of woody material and promote 24 years after the fres. Seventy- drought will likely burn similarly fuel buildup; preemptive removal six percent of the plots sampled to trees killed by a combination of prior to stand breakup might be exhibited 1,000-hour fuel loads drought and bark beetle outbreaks. prudent. Alternatively, extended exceeding levels associated with periods of moisture would favor a high-severity surface fre potential. With respect to the dead trees in decision to leave dead trees in place; Similarly, 63 percent of the plots California, the most appropriate suffcient moisture would facilitate exceeded fuel loads associated with management action is not readily decomposition of fallen woody crown fre potential. Currently, apparent; borrowing from the debris, reducing fuel accumulation. fuels in many of the dense young medical profession, it could be However, rotten woody fuels lodgepole pine stands are suffcient described as “watchful waiting.” ignite more readily than sound to sustain fre. Removal of trees during the red fuels and can smolder for a longer phase would reduce potential fre time (Peterson and others 2015). Extrapolation to California severity. However, the probability The decision could be more fully of ignition is low; operationally, informed by research specifcally Although much of the research cited the logistics of scheduling and addressing the level of soil moisture here derives from the Intermountain completing a removal harvest Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 9 For the dead trees Northwest Regions suggests that These observations, combined with dead trees per se do not increase the postdisturbance fre severity in California, the the likelihood of fre occurrence; model proposed by Hicke and most appropriate weather and climate are primary others (2012), suggest a 10- to 20- factors infuencing fre occurrence year window of reduced potential management action is and behavior. fre severity available to execute “watchful waiting.” management plans. Beetle infestation does alter the distribution of fuels and can affect The best course of action to deal fre severity, but the impact is with the dead trees in California required to promote decomposition nuanced. Observations reported in is not clear at this point in time. of conifer stems. the literature generally support the Preemptive harvesting, typically current model of changes in fre referred to as fuel treatments, might Management Prescription: severity over time after infestation be the best choice among the active “Watchful Waiting” (fg. 3; Hicke and others 2012). The management alternatives. However, Climate change is bringing red phase, characterized by dead it might not be effective. Brown increasingly frequent and severe needles remaining on the tree, (2016b) noted that treated areas droughts to the Western United is a 1- to 4-year period of greater are sometimes bypassed when States, weakening trees and potential for crown fre. During the fre burns into untreated areas or predisposing them to attack by subsequent 5- to 10-year gray phase, when blowing embers skip past bark beetles. The combination the potential for crown fre is greatly treated areas. of increased stress and favorable reduced by absence of needles and conditions for beetle reproduction lower crown density. The potential Fuel treatments incur signifcant and development leads to trees for increased fre severity rises costs that must be weighed against dying in large numbers. California during the old phase as regeneration the benefts. Tree removal adds currently has more than 100 creates a ladder from decaying stems additional stress to an ecosystem; million dead trees, and as long as on the forest foor into the canopy. Donato and others (2006) showed climate change is not mitigated, The most recent postfre analysis that soil disturbance by postfre the rising trend in tree mortality of the 1988 Yellowstone Fire reduced regeneration by is expected to continue unabated. documents fuel loads suffcient to 71 percent. Removing standing However, research in the Forest support ground and crown fre in dead trees improves safety; falling Service’s Intermountain and Pacifc much of the forest across the area snags have caused frefghter burned (Nelson and others 2016). fatalities (Mangan 2007). Additional Table 2—Conifer species of California forests and their primary bark beetle pests. activity for contractors increases economic activity. The benefts Tree species Insect pests of fuel treatments are greater in Ponderosa pine Mountain pine beetle, western pine beetle the wildland–urban interface due Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) Jeffrey pine beetle (Dendroctonus jeffreyi) to the high value of structures Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) Mountain pine beetle relative to unimproved forest land. Considerations associated with costs Pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) Pinyon ips and benefts of tree removal may be Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri) Western pine beetle more important than the fre effects. Lodgepole pine Mountain pine beetle Douglas-fr Douglas-fr beetle, mountain pine beetle Fuel buildup is infuenced by moisture. Weather patterns in White fr (Abies concolor) Fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis) California in the winter of 2017 Red fr (Abies magnifca) Fir engraver beetle became increasingly moisture laden Incense cedar (Libocedrus Western cedar bark beetle (Phloeosinus following years of severe drought decurrens) punctatus) and well below-normal rainfall. Dry conditions constrain both regrowth Note: Although mountain pine beetles develop mostly in pines, as populations increase they (slowing live fuel buildup) and may attack most large trees in an outbreak area (Leatherman and others 2011). Amman and others (1990) note that Coulter, foxtail, whitebark, pinyon, and bristlecone pines are also decomposition (contributing to fuel attacked by mountain pine beetle. loads). Periods of excess moisture Fire Management Today 10 favor regrowth (enhancing the fuel Bradstock, R.A.; Hammill, K.A.; Collins, Hicke, J.A.; Meddens, A.J.H.; Kolden, ladder) and decomposition (reducing L.; Price, O. 2009. Effects of weather, C.A. 2016. Recent tree mortality in the fuel and terrain on fre severity in Western United States from bark beetles fuel buildup). As fuel hazards go topographically diverse landscapes of and forest fres. Forest Science. 62(2): down, the benefts of fuel removal are south-eastern Australia. Landscape 141–153. reduced. Understanding the moisture Ecology. 25(4): 607–619. Hood, S.; Sala, A.; Heyerdahl, E.K.; Boutin, impact on fuel buildup will lead to a Brown, H. 2016a. Wildland fre M. 2015. Low severity fre risk increases management and the USDA Forest tree defense against bark beetle attacks. more informed decision of whether to Service: a history. 92 p. Unpublished ■ Ecology. 96(7): 1846–1855. remove or leave dead trees. paper. On fle with: USDA Forest Service, IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Policy Analysis Staff, Washington Offce, Change). 2014. Climate change 2014: Acknowledgments Washington, DC. synthesis report. (Core Writing Team, Brown, H. 2016b. The wildfre paradox R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer, eds. The authors acknowledge the in the wildland/urban interface. 35 p. Contribution of Working Groups I, II, support of Bill Lange, former Unpublished paper. On fle with: USDA and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of Forest Service, Policy Analysis Staff, director of Policy Analysis in the the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Washington Offce, Washington, DC. Change). Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. 151 p. Forest Service’s Washington Offce, Carroll, A.L.; Régnière, J.; Logan, J.A. [and Jolly, W.M.; Parsons, R.A.; Hadlow, A.M. [and Washington, DC. When this article others]. 2006. Impacts of climate change others]. 2012a. Relationships between was written, Russell Briggs was on range expansion by the mountain moisture, chemistry, and ignition of pine beetle. Mountain Pine Beetle Init. on sabbatical leave with Policy Pinus contorta needles during the early Working Pap. 2006–14. Victoria, Canada: stages of mountain pine beetle attack. Analysis from the SUNY College Natural Resources Canada, Canadian and Management. 269: Forest Service, Pacifc Forestry Centre. of Environmental Science and 52–59. 20 p. Forestry and Susan Cook-Patton Jolly, W.M.; Parsons, R.; Varner, J.M. [and Crandall, M.S.; Adams, D.M.; Montgomery, others]. 2012b. Do mountain pine beetle was an American Association C.A.; Smith, D. 2017. The potential outbreaks change the probability of active for the Advancement of Science rural development impacts of utilizing crown fre in lodgepole pine forests? non-merchantable forest . Forest postdoctoral fellow with Policy Comment. Ecology. 93(4): 941–946. Policy and Economics. 74: 20–29. Analysis. Noteworthy reviews of this Keeley, J.D. 2009. Fire intensity, fre severity Cullingham, C.I.; Cooke, J.E.K.; Dang, S. article were made by Hutch Brown [and others]. 2011. Mountain pine beetle and burn severity: a brief review and and Bill Lange (both formerly on the host-range expansion threatens the suggested usage. International Journal of Forest Service’s Policy Analysis staff) boreal forest. Molecular Ecology. 20(10): Wildland Fire. 18: 116–126. 2157–2171. Klutsch, J.G.; Battaglia, M.A.; West, D.R. and by Elizabeth Reinhardt (a retired [and others]. 2011. Evaluating potential member of the Forest Service’s Fire Dahr, A.; Parrott, L.; Heckbert, S. 2016. Consequences of mountain pine beetle fre behavior in lodgepole pine-dominated and Aviation Management staff). outbreak on forest ecosystem services forests after a mountain pine beetle in western Canada. Canadian Journal of epidemic in north-central Colorado. Forest Research. 46(8): 987–999. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. Literature Cited Donato, D.C.; Fontaine, J.B.; Campbell, J.L. 26(3): 101–109. A’Bear, A.D.; Jones, T.H.; Kandeler, E.; [and others]. 2006. Post-wildfre logging Leatherman, D.A.; Aguayo, I.; Mehall, T.M. Boddy, L. 2014. Interactive effects hinders regeneration and increases fre 2011. Mountain pine beetle. Fact Sheet of temperature and soil moisture on risk. Science. 311(5759): 352. 5.528. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State fungal-mediated wood decomposition and Hansen, W.D.; Chapin, F.S., III; Naughton, University, Offce of Engagement, CSU extracellular enzyme activity. Soil Biology H.T. [and others]. 2016. Forest-landscape Extension. and Biochemistry. 70: 151–158. structure mediates effects of a spruce Liu, Z.; Wimberly, M.C.; Lamsal, A. [and Amman, G.D.; McGregor, M.D.; Dolph, R.E., bark beetle (Dendroctonus rufpennis) others]. 2015. Climate change and Jr. 1990 [revised for the internet 1997]. outbreak on subsequent likelihood of wildfre risk in an expanding wildland– Mountain pine beetle. Forest Insect & burning in Alaskan boreal forest. Forest urban interface: a case study from Disease Leafet 2. Portland, OR: USDA Ecology and Management. 369: 38–46. the Colorado Front Range Corridor. Forest Service, Pacifc Northwest Region. Hart, S.J.; Schoennagel, T.; Veblen, T.T.; Landscape Ecology. 30(10): 1943–1957. http://www.barkbeetles.org/mountain/ Chapman, T.B. 2015. Area burned in the Lotan, J.E.; Critchfeld, W.B. 1990. fdl2.htm. (6 July 2016). Western United States is unaffected by Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex. Andrus, R.A.; Veblen, T.T.; Harvey, B.J.; recent mountain pine beetle outbreaks. Loud.). In: Burns, R.M.; Honkala, B.H., Hart, S.J. 2016. Fire severity unaffected PNAS. 112(14): 4375–4380. tech. coords. Silvics of North America: by spruce beetle outbreak in spruce- Harvey, B.J.; Donato, D.C.; Turner, M.G. Conifers. Ag. Handbook 654. Washington, fr forests in southwestern Colorado. 2014. Recent mountain pine beetle DC: USDA Forest Service. Vol. 1. Ecological Applications. 26(3): 700–711. outbreaks, wildfre severity, and postfre Mangan, R. 2007. Wildland frefghter Black, S.H.; Kulakowski, D.; Noon, B.R.; tree regeneration in the US Northern fatalities in the United States: 1990–2006. DellaSala, D.A. 2013. Do bark beetle Rockies. PNAS. 111(42): 15120–15125. National Wildfre Coordinating Group, outbreaks increase wildfre risks in Hicke, J.A.; Johnson, M.C.; Hayes, J.L.; Safety and Health Working Team. PMS the Central U.S. Rocky Mountains? Preisler, H.K. 2012. Effects of bark beetle- 841. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, Implications from recent research. caused tree mortality on wildfre. Forest Missoula Technology and Development Natural Areas Journal. 33(1): 59–65. Ecology and Management. 271: 81–90. Center. 28 p.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 11 Manion, P.D. 1981. Tree disease concepts. Reinhardt, E.D.; Keane, R.E.; Calkin, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc. D.E.; Cohen, J.D. 2008. Objectives 399 p. and considerations for wildland fuel Meigs, G.W.; Zald, H.S.J.; Campbell, J.L. treatment in forested ecosystems of the [and others]. 2016. Do insect outbreaks interior Western United States. Forest reduce the severity of subsequent Ecology and Management. 256: 1997– forest fres? Environmental Research 2006. Letter 11(4). DOI:10.1088/1748- Romme, W.H.; Clement, J.; Hicke, J. [and 9326/11/4/045008. others]. 2006. Recent forest insect Nelson, K.N.; Turner, M.G.; Romme, W.H.; outbreaks and fre risk in Colorado Tinker, D.B. 2016. Landscape variation in forests: a brief synthesis of relevant tree regeneration and fall drive fuel research. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado loads in 24-year old post-fre lodgepole Forest Research Institute. 24 p. pine forests. Ecological Applications. Schoennagel, T.; Morgan, P.; Balch, J.K. 26(8): 2422–2436. [and others]. 2016. Insights from NOAA NCEC (National Oceanic Atmospheric wildfre science: a resource for fre policy Administration National Centers for discussions—summary. Bozeman, MT: Environmental Information). 2016. Headwaters Economics. 6 p. http:// Billion-dollar weather and climate headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp- disasters: time series. https://www.ncdc. content/uploads/wildfre-insights-paper. noaa.gov/billions/time-series. (19 June pdf. (7 July 2016). 2016). Swift, M.J.; Heal, O.W.; Anderson, J.M. 1979. Perrakis, D.D.B.; Lanoville, R.A.; Taylor, Decomposition in terrestrial systems. S.W.; Hicks, D. 2014. Modeling wildfre Berkeley, CA: University of California spread in mountain pine beetle-affected Press. 372 p. forest stands, British Columbia, Canada. Theobald, D.M.; Romme, W.H. 2007. . 10(2): 10–35. Expansion of the US wildland–urban Peterson, D.W.; Dodson, E.K.; Harrod, interface. Landscape and Urban Planning. R.J. 2015. Post-fre logging reduces 83(4): 340–354. surface woody fuels up to four decades following wildfre. Forest Ecology and Management. 338: 84–91.

Fire Management Today 12 AND BARK BEETLE DISTURBANCE IN WESTERN U.S. FORESTS: IS INTERVENTION NEEDED FOR VEGETATION RECOVERY?

Russell D. Briggs

he incidence and degree of stand disturbance (that is, Following the 1988 Yellowstone Fire, variation in Tfrom fre, insects, and disease) are driving excess tree mortality fire severity and site conditions contributed to the in the Western United States. Hot recovery of the mixed-conifer systems. and dry conditions associated with drought have stressed forests over a wide geographic area, contributing 1970s to more than 1.6 million acres follows catastrophic fre, vegetative directly to tree death (van Mantgem (650,000 ha) in the 2000s (Brown trajectory may be permanently and others 2009). 2016). The terms “mega-fre” (Adams altered. McDowell and Allen (2015) 2013) and “megadisturbance” hypothesized that drought-induced Drought conditions interacting (Millar and Stephenson 2015) megadisturbances may drive species with expanding human activity have convey a sense of the magnitude composition towards shrubby, low- increased wildfre incidence and and geographic extent of the statured plants, substantially altering severity (Balch and others 2016; impacts. Megadisturbances curtail forest structure and function. Harvey 2016). The average area an array of ecosystem services (for burned each year on the National example, , nutrient Drought is an external stress that Forest System rose steadily from cycling, sequestration, and increases the susceptibility of trees 240,000 acres (97,000 ha) in the aesthetics). When severe erosion to be attacked by bark beetles. Warmer temperatures also expand beetle elevational and latitudinal ranges (Anderegg and others 2015; Bentz and others 2010), and the impacts are refected in increasing tree death. Cumulative mortality attributed to bark beetle infestation in the Western United States from 1979 to 2012 was estimated at 16 million acres (6.5 million ha), or about 7.1 percent of the total forested area (Hicke and others 2016).The infestations have also affected Canada. Alfaro and others (2015) noted beetle-induced mortality on 49 million acres (20 million ha) of pine forest in the United States and Canada.

Russell Briggs is a distinguished teaching professor and director of the Division of Conifer mortality due to drought and bark beetle attack at Bass Lake on California’s Environmental Science, SUNY College Sierra National Forest. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Pacifc Southwest Region. of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 13 Vegetation plays a key role in the passage of time, provide an (MPB) infestation in the Western delivering many ecosystem services opportunity to assess vegetation United States and Canada. I selected (for example, , recovery. This paper examines the the most recent papers available biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and literature assessing vegetation in the literature that examined watershed functions) (Abella and response of lodgepole pine (Pinus relatively large areas (thousands of Fornwalt 2015). The increasing contorta) and mixed-conifer systems acres) with the longest available time numbers and wide geographic extent to wildfre and mountain pine beetle since disturbance (table 1). of megadisturbances, coupled with (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins)

Table 1—Select studies regarding postdisturbance vegetation development in the Western United States and Canada for two disturbance types. Year initiated Location and area affected Dominant tree species Reference(s) Wildfre 1988 Yellowstone Pinus contorta Turner and others (2003, 617,800 acres (247,120 ha) Pinus ponderosa 2016) Abies lasiocarpa Romme and others (2016) Picea engelmannii 2000, 2007 21 fres in central Idaho/ Pinus contorta Kemp and others (2016) western Montana Pinus ponderosa >400 acres Pseudotsuga menziesii (>160 ha) each Abies grandis 1999–2007 14 fres/10 national forests in Pseudotsuga menziesii Welch and others (2016) central/northern California Pinus ponderosa >10,000 acres Pinus jeffreyi (>4,000 ha) each Abies concolor Abies magnifca 2002 Cone Fire, Blacks Mt. Pinus ponderosa Knapp and Ritchie (2016) Experimental Forest, Pinus jeffreyi Ritchie and Knapp (2014) northeastern California Abies concolor Calocedrus 2,000 acres (800 ha) decurrens Beetle infestations 2009 Grande Prairie, Alberta, Pinus contorta Pec and others (2015) Canada Picea glauca 154,441 acres (61,776 ha) Abies balsamea Picea mariana Betula papyrifera Populus tremuloides Late 1970s White Mountain National Pinus contorta Pelz and Smith (2012) Forest, Colorado Picea engelmannii 190,270 acres (76,108 ha) Pseudotsuga menziesii Abies lasiocarpa Populus tremuloides 1976 Flathead Valley, interior Pinus contorta Amoroso and others British Columbia Larix occidentalis (2013) Pseudotsuga menziesii Picea glauca x engelmannii Abies lasiocarpa 1975 Chilcotin Plateau, interior Pinus contorta Alfaro and others (2015) British Columbia Picea glauca Populus tremuloides Betula papyrifera Fire Management Today 14 Climate change has expanded the mountain pine across the landscape as recruitment of new stems slows and self- beetle’s latitudinal and elevational ranges, extending of dense patches proceeds. Stand its geographic impact. function, represented by biomass accumulation and annual net primary productivity (ANPP), increased with increasing stand density (fg. 2). Unlike stand structure, Vegetation Recovery established to capture the range of the coeffcient of variation for After Wildfire variability in fre severity and abiotic biomass and ANPP declined, leading factors across the burned landscape. the authors to hypothesize that Regrowth of vegetation, which Mean 24-year postfre stem density functional convergence would occur restores infltration capacity, is of 8,797 stems per acre (range long before structural convergence. the most cost-effective means to 0–137,593) (3,560 stems/ha (range reduce overland fow of water and 0–55,682 stems/ha)) was lower than Romme and others (2016), working erosion (Elliott and Vose 2006). the 11-year mean (13,377 stems with the Yellowstone data and As vegetation develops, mean per acre (5,413 stems/ha)). More focusing on the understory, found erosion rates immediately after interesting was the variation in stand no indication of convergence of a wildfre substantially decline. structural development: 58 percent species richness and composition In general, aerial seeding has not of the plots were still gaining stems, across the burned landscape. improved vegetation establishment which was unexpected for such Richness increased rapidly during compared to adjacent unseeded areas high densities. The breakpoint at the frst 5 years, then slowed or (Robichaud and others 2006). which stem density began to decline, leveled off; only 6 percent of 227 29,137 stems per acre (11,791 stems/ species were nonnative. Wildfre Turner and others (2016), extending ha), was identifed using segmented did not appreciably alter species the time period and the level of detail regression (fg. 1). As density for composition; postfre species in their earlier paper on lessons individual patches approaches that richness patterns resembled prefre learned from the Yellowstone Fire breakpoint, the authors hypothesized patterns, a relationship referred to of 1988 (Turner and others 2003), that self-thinning could bring stand as “ecological memory.” Variation resampled 72 of 96 plots originally structure towards convergence in fre severity and site conditions

Lodgepole pine density postfire year 11 (stems/ha) Lodgepole pine stem density (stems/ha) postfire year 11

Figure 1—Net change in lodgepole pine stem density between Figure 2—Lodgepole pine aboveground net primary production postfre years 11 and 24, plotted by stem density in postfre year (ANPP) increased with stem density at postfre year 24 in stands 11 for the 1988 Yellowstone Fire. Source: Turner and others regenerating from the 1988 Yellowstone Fire. Source: Turner (2016). © 2016 by the Ecological Society of America, reprinted and others (2016). © 2016 by the Ecological Society of America, with permission. reprinted with permission.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 15 seedling densities were below Forest Service Pacifc Southwest Region stocking guidelines for 10 of 14 fres. Low seedling densities were associated with high fre severity and absence of live seed trees combined with competition from fre-following shrubs. In addition, plots with failed regeneration also had lower mean annual precipitation. The authors noted that the stocking guidelines might be excessive, given a shift in management emphasis towards a broader suite of ecosystem services than timber production alone (for example, nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and aesthetics). In addition, they pointed out Figure 3—Burn pattern from the 1988 Yellowstone Fire in Upper Geyser Basin near Old that species composition of the Faithful. Fire created a complex mosaic of burned and unburned patches. In areas of understory was dominated by crown fre (black) and severe surface fre (brown), the fres were stand replacing. Photo: shade-tolerant frs (Abies spp.), Jim Peaco, (July 24, 1989). Douglas-fr (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), all of which are contributed to the recovery of low (fg. 4). The distribution of intolerant of fre. the mixed-conifer systems (fg. high-severity burn patches (all trees 3). The authors pointed out the killed) among light- and moderate- Ritchie and Knapp (2014), studying uniqueness (in terms of geographic severity patches facilitated seedling the 2,000-acre (800-ha) Cone and temporal extent) of this 25-year establishment across the landscape; Fire in northeastern California, postfre dataset. only a small proportion of the area also reported poor regeneration; of high-severity patches was distant maximum conifer seedling density Recovery of western conifer systems from live trees that served as seed was below the 70-stems-per-acre from wildfre is not unique to sources (Kemp and others 2016). guideline for adequate stocking. Yellowstone. Large fres in dry Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) mixed-conifer forests in Idaho and There has been some postfre systems have a much shorter Montana in 2000 and 2007 provided analysis of vegetation recovery in fre return interval; large stand- additional opportunities to study California. Welch and others (2016) postfre vegetation development. assessed conifer regeneration across replacing fres are more disruptive Kemp and others (2016) distributed 14 fres (>1,000 acres (>400 ha)) on for conifer regeneration compared to 182 plots across 21 fres (>400 acres 10 national forests within the North lodgepole pine forests (which have (>160 ha)) 5–13 years following America Mediterranean Climate both serotinous and nonserotinous a fre across a 4-degree south-to- Zone (NAMCZ), where frequent cones). Although the focus of north latitudinal gradient. With the low- and moderate-severity fres their work was on , exception of lodgepole pine (which are common. Their work spanned removal of dead stems had no impact has serotinous cones that promote fve forest vegetation types: mixed on seedling density; results can be regeneration after a fre), the evergreen, moist mixed conifer, applied to revegetation in general primary control on seedling density dry mixed conifer, yellow pine, following a fre. Fire generated a was adjacency to live trees; dispersal and fr. In contrast to the prolifc suitable (bare mineral soil) seedbed, distance is a primary regeneration lodgepole pine regeneration in the but too few surviving trees remained flter. Beyond a distance of about Greater Yellowstone Area, conifer as a seed source, consistent with 310 feet (94 m), the probability of regeneration 5 to 7 years following the results reported by Welch and seedling establishment was very a fre was spotty and highly variable; others (2016).

Fire Management Today 16 Figure 4—Logistic regression model results from the Northern Rocky Mountains. Relationship between probability of seedling presence and distance to a live seed source for (a) all species (shaded region between dashed lines represents the 95-percent confdence interval for the all-species model); and (b) the four most abundant species, when all other variables in the model are held at their median values (dashed line = statistically insignifcant for that species). In (b), the dashed line indicates that the relationship between distance and seedling presence was not signifcant for that species (p > 0.05). Confdence intervals are not shown in panel (b) because they overlap for all species. Source: Kemp and others (2016). © 2016 by Elsevier, reprinted with permission.

Knapp and Ritchie (2016), focusing All of the fre-related studies cited Vegetation Recovery After on the understory noncommercial in table 1 documented recovery Beetle Kill vegetation, reported annual, following wildfre. The variability perennial, forb, graminoid, and in fre severity combined with The MPB continues to play an shrub vegetation increasing from variability in abiotic (site) features important role in the ecology of 2006 to 2010, with annuals and resulted in rapid revegetation, with western forests and “probably has been active in the ecosystem as forbs lower in 2012. The percentage a greater number of plant species long as there have been lodgepole of bare ground declined from 77 present following a fre, the majority pine trees” (Roe and Amman 1970). percent in 2006 to 28 percent in of which were native. Although Infestations, which recur every 20 to 2012, coincident with litter and duff the loss of overstory trees may be 40 years, last for 6 years on average increasing from 8 to 64 percent considered catastrophic from a (Cole and Amman 1980; Jarvis over the duration of the study. timber utilization point of view, and Kulakowski 2015). Climate Postfre understory plant recovery rapid revegetation in the absence of change has expanded the insect’s in ponderosa pine forests was also management intervention apparently latitudinal and elevational ranges, reported by Fornwalt (2010) after is keeping these systems intact extending its geographic impact. In the 2002 Hayman Fire in Colorado. following disturbance, maintaining ecosystem function. The conclusion addition, the increasing frequency Although not all ecosystem services and severity of drought reduce tree (wood and fber production, for drawn by Abella and Fornwalt (2015) from their analysis of revegetation vigor and predispose trees to attack. example) recover immediately, rapid The physical manifestations of MPB postfre revegetation rejuvenates following the Hayman Fire articulately captures this common infestation differ from those of the capacity of the soil to support wildfre, which consumes part or all the biota. The developing root thread: “Landscape-scale severe burning was catastrophic from a of the forest foor; beetle infestation systems and foliar canopy promote adds to it (Pelz and Smith 2012). water infltration, movement, and tree overstory perspective, but from an understory perspective, burning Several researchers have taken storage, minimizing soil erosion and advantage of the wide extent of supporting nutrient cycling. prompted rich and productive native understories ….” bark-beetle-fueled disturbance to advance understanding of vegetation

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 17 response. Table 1 shows papers The mortality of canopy trees following a bark that focused on response of the understory in the wider context beetle infestation releases resources, accelerating of the density and distribution of development of the understory. the surviving trees, referred to as secondary structure (Alfaro and others 2015; Amoroso and others 2013). established in each of the two stand overstory trees decline and advance types. Beetles killed about half of the regeneration is released. This is The mortality of canopy trees pine trees in both stand types (fg. consistent with Collins and others’ following an MPB infestation 5). Greater reduction in total and (2011) projection and Kayes and immediately releases resources P. contorta basal area in lodgepole Tinker’s (2012) observation that A. (light, moisture, and nutrients), pine stands promoted understory lasiocarpa would become the most profoundly accelerating development pine growth into the overstory, abundant species in MPB-infested of the understory as overstory trees which recovered to 91 percent of the lodgepole pine stands. The mixed- succumb. Pec and others (2015), preinfestation basal area before the conifer stands, which had fewer P. sampling 110 1-square-meter second infestation. Pelz and Smith contorta stems, already are moving plots along a mortality gradient (2012) suggested that P. contorta towards dominance by A. lasiocarpa across 11 mature lodgepole pine will remain dominant in the and Engelmann spruce (Picea forests in western Canada, found lodgepole pine stands in the absence engelmannii). increasing biomass as well as of management for the next 20 to 30 herbaceous species richness and years. In contrast, the pine basal area Amoroso and others (2013) sampled diversity with increasing overstory did not recover (attributed to lower 22 stands to assess forest recovery mortality; perennial herb biomass light levels) in the mixed-conifer 30 years after MPB infestation in nearly doubled across the mortality stands, where overstory mortality the southeast corner of interior gradient. Changes in herbaceous was lower and there were fewer British Columbia. The stand basal perennials were driven by the overstory P. contorta stems to area recovered by 69 percent, similar increasing availability of moisture begin with. to results reported by Pelz and and nutrients. In contrast, the Smith (2012) for lodgepole pine diversity of woody species was not The future ultimately lies in the stands in Colorado. In addition, affected. While the understory understory. Evapotranspiration the pine response was generally response reduces leaching and is largely responsible for loss of highest for sites that had high retains nutrients, the burst in moisture from soil; evaporation is mortality and lowest for sites with understory perennials could delay greatly reduced once the surface low mortality. Higher mortality seedling recruitment and forest dries. Death of large canopy trees focused existing site resources on recovery. Further study that reduces evapotranspiration and the remaining stems. Diameter incorporates tree seedling pulses nutrient uptake, reallocating growth response to release from into the mix is needed. resources, including light, to the competing overstory trees killed by understory. Seedling and sapling beetles was concentrated in trees Pelz and Smith (2012) studied density increased fvefold from 1980 with a diameter at breast height of forest recovery 25–30 years after to 2010 in lodgepole and mixed- less than 20 centimeters and was MPB infestation across 190,000 conifer stands (fg. 6). Quaking aspen most impressive for lodgepole pine acres (76,000 ha) in Colorado in the (Populus tremuloides) expanded (fg. 7). Dhar and others (2016a) early 1970s and 1980s. The area was into the subcanopy in lodgepole pine framed this response as a “reset” of subsequently reinfested in the 2010s. stands, taking advantage of increased pine development to an earlier, more The vegetative response depended light availability. Aspen growing into productive stage. The absence of on preoutbreak species composition, the overstory acts as a natural fuel dead, dying, or suppressed trees at categorized as lodgepole pine (with break. Although P. contorta in the the time of measurement, combined Pinus contorta comprising 86–100 lodgepole pine stands is expected to with a low incidence of mistletoe percent of the basal area) and mixed- maintain dominance for the next 25 and pine stem rusts or galls, was conifer stands (with P. contorta to 30 years, in the absence of fre, interpreted as evidence of vigorous, comprising 39–79 percent of the stand composition will shift toward healthy stands 30 years following basal area). Fourteen plots were subalpine fr (Abies lasiocarpa) as an infestation. Fire Management Today 18 Figure 5—Changes in overstory (≥ 12.7 cm diameter at breast height) basal area and density through time, showing mean overstory basal area (a, b) and trees ha-1 (c, d) of Pinus contorta and all other species in lodgepole pine (a, c) and mixed-conifer (b, d) stands through time. Differences in letters above bars indicate signifcant differences in total and P. contorta basal area or trees ha-1 in stands through time. Asterisks (*) indicate signifcant differences between 1980s and 2010s nonpine species basal area and density. There was a signifcant increase of nonpine species in lodgepole pine stands (a, b) but not in mixed-conifer stands. Source: Pelz and Smith (2012). © 2012 by Elsevier, reprinted with permission.

The positive growth response of MPB impacts on Canadian forests infested stands would contribute subalpine fr and white spruce (Picea have been viewed largely through to the timber supply 30 to 50 years glauca x engelmannii) advance the lens of provisioning ecosystem following an infestation. regeneration increased structural services. Long-term impact on and species diversity, expanding timber supply has been the leading Alfaro and others (2015) sampled successional pathways beyond the issue (Dhar and others 2016a); permanent plots in 11 stands pathway for single-cohort lodgepole results of research have been that had not been salvage-logged pine. Greater diversity is generally incorporated into stand stocking following infestations by MPB in associated with stronger ecosystem guidelines by the British Columbia the 1980s and again in the 2000s resistance to disturbance and higher Ministry of Forestry (n.d.). Dhar and on the Chilcotin Plateau in British productivity (Reich and others 2012). others’ (2016b) review showed that Columbia. The patterns of organisms

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 19 and organic matter (such as snags, The high degree of compositional and structural stumps, and surviving trees) that persisted after disturbance, referred diversity across the landscape contributes to to as biological legacies, infuenced recovery of these systems. vegetation recovery. Alfaro and others (2015) applied cluster analysis to postinfestation understory and No Compelling Need to on its intensity—consumes litter overstory stand data and identifed Intervene and some or all of the forest foor fve legacy types (fg. 8). (fg. 1), differs from that of MPB The interaction of wildfre and MPB infestation. The latter not only leaves infestations has shaped development Discriminant analysis was not (pun intended) the litter and forest of the mixed-conifer and lodgepole able to statistically differentiate foor intact but also adds additional pine forests of the Western United among the fve groups, which were fne and to the States and Canada. Climate change collapsed into two broader groups: surface (fg. 8). has increased the frequency and high understory stocking and high geographic extent of extreme regeneration (with an average of Physical manifestations events (Stott 2015), enhancing 1,043 seedlings and saplings per acre notwithstanding, the two and intensifying the disturbances. (422 per ha)) and low understory disturbances share common In their aftermath, knowledge of stocking and low regeneration (with features. Both generate an postdisturbance vegetation recovery an average of 134 seedlings and immediate pulse of above-ground is critical for informing management saplings per acre (54 per ha)). and below-ground resources decisions. The physical manifestation (respectively, light and nutrients), of wildfre, which—depending promoting seed germination

Figure 6—Ages and numbers of seedlings/saplings (> 0.6 m tall and > 3.8 cm diameter at breast height) ha–1 in lodgepole pine (a) and mixed-conifer (b) stands in the 2010s. Median ages of seedlings/saplings were signifcantly younger (P < 0.0001) in lodgepole pine (21 years) than in mixed-conifer stands (58 years). In lodgepole pine stands, 76 trees were age dated: 13 Pinus contorta (PICO), 18 Populus tremuloides (POTR), 40 Abies lasiocarpa (ABLA), and 5 Picea engelmannii (PIEN). In mixed-conifer stands, 84 trees were age dated: 14 Pinus contorta, 4 Populus tremuloides, 48 Abies lasiocarpa, and 18 Picea engelmannii. The graphs represent the ages of the 160 trees scaled up by species to the 2010s average trees ha-1 of each forest type. Note differences in x- and y- between graphs. Source Pelz and Smith (2012). © 2012 by Elsevier, reprinted with permission. Fire Management Today 20 and fueling development of the revegetate sites. Although conifer Both wildfre and MPB infestations understory vegetation, seedlings seedling stocking generally fell superimpose a high degree of and saplings, and any surviving below Forest Service silvicultural variability across the landscape trees. Conifer regeneration guidelines in the NAMCZ (which following disturbances, but the following wildfre, dominated by constitute only one metric for mechanisms responsible for that lodgepole pine in the Intermountain considering regeneration following a variability differ. In the case of States, has been prolifc. Conifer disturbance), the shifting emphasis wildfre, wind conditions interact regeneration in the drier NAMCZ towards a broad array of ecosystem with local topography, fuel of California has been less robust, services may make those guidelines conditions, stand structure, and relying on adjacent unburned and less important as the focus shifts composition to determine fre lightly burned areas as seed sources. from commercial species to intensity. The result is a complex However, understory species quickly revegetation of the entire understory. landscape mosaic of patches

Figure 7—Growth change percent for secondary structure (trees surviving beetle attack, currently > 7.5 cm diameter at breast height) by species and diameter at breast height at the time of the outbreak. Species codes are lodgepole pine (Pl), subalpine fr (Bl), interior spruce (Sx), Douglas-fr (Fd), and western larch (Lw). Growth change is 10-year postoutbreak minus 10-year preoutbreak radial growth expressed as a percentage of preoutbreak radial growth. Source: Amoroso and others (2013). © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 21 have been inserted into any of the papers summarized in table 1 by substituting “wildfre” for “MPB epidemic” or vice versa.

The high degree of compositional and structural diversity across the landscape is an important factor contributing to recovery of these systems. In the absence of objectives to direct regeneration in a particular path in terms of species composition, there is no compelling reason to intervene at this point in time. Ecosystem services (such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and watershed functions) are being restored in the absence of management. Alfaro and others’ (2016) statement regarding the work in British Columbia rings true for all these papers: “[F]or the next decades, forests impacted by MPB and fre, in the Chilcotin Plateau, will continue to deliver most if not all of the ecosystem services they have for the Figure 8—Remaining live legacy types in lodgepole pine forests impacted by two mountain last 100 years.” The caveat expressed pine beetle outbreaks on the Chilcotin Plateau of British Columbia. The 1980s outbreak by Kemp and others (2016) is worth occurred between 1975 and 1985 and the 2000s outbreak occurred between 2002 and 2010. noting: “… provided that seedlings Legacy types are described as follows: Small Pl regen = abundant small lodgepole pine regeneration (< 50 cm tall) and sparse pine overstory; Aspen = abundant overstory aspen survive, fre[s] do not become more and sparse pine overstory; Advance regen = abundant lodgepole pine understory and large frequent, high-severity patches do regeneration; Sparse = low-density overstory and understory and regeneration; Remnant not get signifcantly larger, and Pl = remnant lodgepole pine overstory. Source: Alfaro and others (2015). © 2015 Canadian post-fre climate conditions remain Science Publishing or its licensors, reproduced with permission. suitable for seedling establishment and survival.” varying in size and ranging from of large-diameter lodgepole pine unburned to severely burned (fg. trees killed during the infestation. That caveat is most apparent for the 3). Lodgepole pine seed dispersal Effectively, intermixed patches ponderosa pine forests that evolved following fre contributes to its of varying tree density interrupt under a regime characterized by prolifc regeneration. For other a formerly vast expanse of even- a frequent fre return interval conifers, the adjacency of lightly and aged trees, imposing habitat compared to the large stand- severely burned patches maintains discontinuity for MPB. Amoroso replacing fres in lodgepole pine seed sources and contributes to and others’ (2013) conclusion forests every 200 to 300 years. vegetation recovery. from their 30-year-postinfestation Fornwalt and others (2016) showed analysis articulately captures one that only 5 percent of polygons In the case of beetle infestation, of the common threads among the examined after the Hayman Fire the larger lodgepole pine trees are disturbance papers reviewed: “[T] retained any living trees. The usually killed, reallocating site he MPB epidemic resulted in more degree of fre severity and resources to the smaller stems that structurally and compositionally consequent mortality exceeded survive the attack. Postinfestation diverse stands leading to multiple the historical range. stand structure (referred to as successional pathways different from secondary structure) varies across those of even-age pine dominated Lodgepole pine forests have the landscape, refecting the number stands.” That conclusion could evolved with the interaction of Fire Management Today 22 bark beetles and fre, with a long Amoroso, M.M.; Coates, K.D.; Astrup, Elliott, K.J.; Vose, J.M. 2006. Fire effects disturbance return interval. As R. 2013. Stand recovery and self- on water quality: a synthesis of response organization following large-scale regulating factors among contrasting fre return intervals are reduced mountain pine beetle induced canopy ecosystems. In: Fowler, D.L. comp. and beetle ranges are expanded by mortality in northern forests. Forest Second interagency conference on climate change, the systems will Ecology and Management. 310: 300–311. research in the watersheds. Otto, continue to evolve. The analysis Anderegg, W.R.L.; Hicke, J.A.; Fisher, R.A. NC: USDA Forest Service, Southern [and others]. 2015. Tree mortality from Research Station, Coweeta Hydrological by Brown and others (2017) of the drought, insects, and their interactions Laboratory: 77–88. paleoecological record for lodgepole in a changing climate. New Phytologist. Fornwalt, P. 2010. The big comeback: pine on the Chilcotin Plateau in 208(3): 674–683. prefre understory plants return after British Columbia suggested the Balch, J.K.; Bradley, B.A.; Abatzoglou, the Hayman fre. In: Fire Science Brief: possibility that lodgepole pine will J.T. [and others]. 2016. Human-started Research supporting sound decisions. wildfres expand the fre niche across the Boise, ID: Joint Fire Science Program. 89 be replaced by arboreal and open United States. PNAS. 114(11): 2946–2951. (January): 1–5. forest communities as the climate Bentz, B.J.; Régnière, J.; Fettig, C.J. [and Fornwalt, P.J.; Huckaby, L.S.; Alton, continues to change. Long-term others]. 2010. Climate change and bark S.K. [and others]. 2016. Did the 2002 monitoring will be critical to beetles of the Western United States Hayman Fire, Colorado, USA, burn with and Canada: direct and indirect effects. uncharacteristic severity? Fire Ecology. improve our understanding of these Bioscience 60(8): 602–613. 12(3): 117–132. changes and their implications for British Columbia Ministry of Forestry. Harvey, B.J. 2016. Human-caused climate ecosystem services. ■ [N.d.]. Explanation of the forest planning change is now a key driver of forest fre and practices regulation amendments activity in the western United States. to protect secondary structure. Victoria, PNAS. 113(42): 11649–11650. Acknowledgments British Columbia, Canada: British Hicke, J.A.; Meddens, A.J.H.; Kolden, Columbia Ministry of Forestry. 10 p. C.A. 2016. Recent tree mortality in the The author acknowledges the https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/silviculture/ Western United States from bark beetles support of Bill Lange, former secondary_structure/secondary_ and forest fres. Forest Science. 62(2): director of Policy Analysis, USDA structure_reg.pdf. (9 March 2017). 141–153. Forest Service, Washington, DC. Brown, H. 2016. Wildland fre management Jarvis, D.S.; Kulakowski, D. 2015. Long- and the USDA Forest Service: a history. term history and synchrony of mountain Russell Briggs was on sabbatical 92 p. Unpublished paper. On fle with: pine beetle outbreaks in lodgepole pine leave from the SUNY College of USDA Forest Service, Policy Analysis Staff, forests. Journal of Biogeography. 42(6): Environmental Science and Forestry Washington Offce, Washington, DC. 1029–2039. and working for Policy Analysis Brown, K.J.; Hebda, N.J.; Conder, N. Kayes, L.J.; Tinker, D.B.; 2012. Forest when this paper was written. [and others]. 2017. Changing climate, structure and regeneration following vegetation, and fre disturbance in a a mountain pine beetle epidemic in Noteworthy reviews of this article sub-boreal pine-dominated forest, British southeastern Wyoming. Forest Ecology were made by Hutch Brown, Duncan Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest and Management. 263: 57–66. McKinley, and Jessica Robertson Research. 47(5): 615–627. Kemp, K.B.; Higuera, P.E.; Morgan, P. 2016. (all with the Forest Service) and by Cole, W.E.; Amman, G.D. 1980. legacies impact conifer regeneration pine beetle dynamics in lodgepole pine across environmental gradients in Ellen Holste (with the Pierce Cedar forests. Part 1: Course of an infestation. the U.S. northern Rockies. Landscape Creek Institute and Michigan State Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–89. Ogden, UT: Ecology. 31(3): 619–636. University). USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Knapp, E.E.; Ritchie, M.W. 2016. Response Research Station. 56 p. of understory vegetation to salvage Collins, B.J.; Rhoades, C.C.; Hubbard, R.M.; logging following a high-severity wildfre. Literature Cited Battaglia, M.A. 2011. Tree regeneration Ecosphere. 7(11):e01550. DOI: 10.1002/ Abella, S.R.; Fornwalt, P.J. 2015. Ten years and future stand development after bark ecs2.1550. of vegetation assembly after a North beetle infestation and harvesting in McDowell, N.G.; Allen, C.D. 2015. Darcy’s American mega fre. Global Change Colorado lodgepole pine stands. Forest Law predicts widespread forest mortality Biology. 21(2): 789–802. Ecology and Management. 261(11): under climate warming. Nature Climate 2168–2175. Change. 5: 659–672. Adams, M.A. 2013. Mega-fres, tipping Dhar, A.; Parrott, L.; Hawkins, C.D.B. Millar, C.I.; Stephenson, M.L. 2015. points and ecosystem services: managing 2016a. Aftermath of mountain pine Temperate forest health in an era of forests and woodlands in an uncertain beetle outbreak in British Columbia: emerging megadisturbance. Science. future. Forest Ecology and Management. stand dynamics, management response 349(6250): 823–826. 294: 250–261. and ecosystem resilience. Forests. 7(8): Pec, G.J.; Karst, J.; Sywenky, A.N. [and Alfaro, R.I.; Akker, L.; Hawkes, B. 2015. 171–190. others]. 2015. Rapid increases in forest Characteristics of forest legacies Dhar, A.; Parrott, L.; Heckbert, S. 2016b. understory diversity and productivity following two mountain pine beetle Consequences of mountain pine beetle following a mountain pine beetle outbreaks in British Columbia, Canada. outbreak on forest ecosystem services (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak in Canadian Journal of Forest Research. in western Canada. Canadian Journal of pine forests. PLoS ONE. 10(4): e0124691 45(10): 1387–1396. Forest Research. 46(8): 987–999. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0124691.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 23 Pelz, K.A.; Smith, F.W. 2012. Thirty year Roe, A.L.; Amman, G.D. 1970. The Turner, M.G.; Whitby, T.G.; Tinker, D.B.; change in lodgepole and lodgepole/mixed mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine Romme, W.H. 2016. Twenty-four years conifer forest structure following 1980s forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–71. Ogden, after the Yellowstone Fires: Are postfre mountain pine beetle outbreak in western UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain lodgepole pine stands converging in Colorado, USA. Forest Ecology and Research Station. 23 p. structure and function? Ecology. 97(5): Management. 280: 93–102. Romme, W.H.; Whitby, T.G.; Tinker, D.B.; 1260–1273. Reich, P.B.; Tilman, D.; Isbell, F. [and Turner, M.G. 2016. Deterministic and van Mantgem, P.J.; Stephenson, N.L.; Byrne, others]. 2012. Impacts of biodiversity stochastic processes lead to divergence J.C. [and others]. 2009. Widespread loss escalate through time as redundancy in plant communities 25 years after increase of tree mortality rates in the fades. Science. 336(6081): 589–592. the 1988 Yellowstone Fires. Ecological Western United States. Science. 323(23): Ritchie, M.W.; Knapp, E.E. 2014. Monographs. 86(3): 327–351. 521–524. Establishment of a long-term fre salvage Stott, P. 2015. How climate change affects Welch, K.R.; Safford, H.D.; Young, T.P. 2016. study in an interior ponderosa pine forest. extreme weather events. Science. Predicting conifer establishment post . 112(5): 395–400. 352(6293): 1517–1518. wildfre in mixed conifer forests of the Robichaud, P.R.; Lillybridge, T.R.; Turner, M.G.; Romme, W.H.; Tinker, D.B. North American Mediterranean-climate Wagenbrenner, J.W. 2006. Effects of 2003. Surprises and lessons from the zone. Ecosphere. 7(12): e01609. DOI: postfre seeding and fertilizing on 1988 Yellowstone Fires. Frontiers in 10.1002/ecs2.1609. hillslope erosion in north-central Ecology and the Environment. 1(7): Washington, USA. Catena 67(1): 56–67. 351–358.

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Fire Management Today 24 HOTSHOTS: THE ORIGINS OF THE INTERAGENCY HOTSHOT CREW

Lincoln Bramwell

nteragency hotshot crews (IHCs) form the backbone of the Federal IGovernment’s response to wildland fre. Their high level of physical ftness, training, self-reliance, and expertise make the IHCs the world’s elite wildland frefghters; these men and women are dispatched to the worst fres in the toughest terrain under the most life-threatening circumstances.

The Forest Service developed hotshot crews specifcally to fght fres in the rugged West. At major points, the history of the creation and maturation of the IHC program Members of the Smith River Interagency Hotshot Crew on the 2016 , Sequoia paralleled the Federal Government’s National Forest, California. Photo: Lance Cheung, USDA (August 23, 2016). aggressive policy of combating western wildland fre.

Policy of Rapid Response proper equipment; (4) a thorough organization of the fghting crew; In 1910, following devastating fres Hotshot crews, and (5) skill in attacking and fghting in the Northern Rockies that claimed now totaling 114, fres” (Graves 1910). the lives of 78 frefghters, public continue to shoulder and congressional insistence that After 25 years of fedgling the Forest Service fght all fres the responsibility for frefghting efforts by the agency, intensifed (Cook 1998; Pyne 2002). suppressing large fires. Chief Ferdinand “Gus” Silcox (1933– In the following year, Congress 39) issued a national wildland fre doubled the Forest Service’s budget directive in 1935. Known as the 10 and passed the Weeks Act, which A.M. Policy, the mandate attempted legislated permanent emergency frefghting strategies to accomplish to standardize the response to frefghting funds to make aggressive its new priority. Newly designated wildfre. The policy ordered wildland fre suppression a priority. Forest Service Chief Henry S. frefghters to control every fre by Graves (1910–20) commented on 10 a.m. on the morning after its In the decade following the the importance of using trained, frst report, making aggressive fre Northern Rockies fres, the Forest organized crews to protect forests suppression the standard response. Service experimented with various from destructive blazes. In a Forest Suppressing fres by 10 a.m. was Service bulletin from 1910, he also viewed as cost effective because wrote: “The following are of 1st managing a number of small fres, as Lincoln Bramwell is the chief historian importance: (1) Quick arrival at opposed to one large confagration, for the Forest Service, Washington Offce (detached), Fort Collins, CO. the fre; (2) an adequate force; (3) proved far less expensive (Pyne 1982).

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 25 The 40-Man Crew The Forest Service developed hotshot crews to For many years, Forest Service fight fires in the rugged West. fre wardens and management offcers desired better organized fre crews (CNF 1937; Guthrie 1939; Pyne 1982). After several disaster fres, including the 1933 Griffth wrote of the experiment’s guiding working as frefghters except as Park Fire, Congress restricted principles: “Professionalism, fre lookouts. Typically, the job drew the use of Civilian Conservation thorough organization, training, unmarried , a pattern that Corps enrollees to fght fres. This and experience incorporated not is still evident today, because their restriction led to experiments in only safety, but a commitment to responsibilities required extended economically effcient frefghting. excellence, technical expertise, time away from their duty stations. strong esprit d’corps, and a no In addition to appealing to single L.L. Colvill, assistant forest excuses ‘can-do attitude’” (Linse and foresters, the Siskiyou experiment supervisor on the Siskiyou National Edwards 1997). A colorfully attracted rural men comfortable Forest in Oregon, spent much of described the crews as “compact with physical labor in the outdoors 1938 battling the largest fres in the gangs of smoke-eating hellions in (Holbrook 1940). Pacifc Northwest. He found that which every last man is a triple poorly conditioned, trained, and threat to any fre” (Holbrook 1940). To tackle fres in the backcountry supervised fre crews simply took too where logistical support was diffcult long to reach a fre, were too worn In addition to having frefghting to arrange, each man carried enough out from the hike to fght the fre experience, potential candidates provisions to support himself for effectively, and needed considerable for 40-man crews had to be males 3 days. The supervisors from the support to live away from their base between the ages of 21 and 40. The Siskiyou National Forest estimated for several days. Colvill recognized Forest Service held to a de facto the caloric intake for each man the need for “trained crews of policy that excluded women from at 3 calories per pound per hour. physically [sic] supermen capable of sustaining themselves on the fre line for periods of several days with a minimum of [support]” (Colvill 1939). Intrigued by his suggestion, the Forest Service ordered the Siskiyou National Forest supervisor to organize a 40-man crew of “supermen” to test the idea.

Nearly all future hotshot protocol and routine came from the Siskiyou experiment. First, supervisors chose a junior forester with 10 years of fre experience to lead the new crew, basing the selection from applicants on their “physical prowess, woodsmanship, and self motivation.” Operating on the “every private a captain” principle, the supervisors wanted experienced personnel able to make decisions in critical situations (Colvill 1939). Early fre crew of Civilian Conservation Corps enrollees fghting a wildfre on the North Two recent hotshot superintendents, Rim of the Grand Canyon in Arizona. Note the lack of power and of personal Paul Linse and Larry Edwards, protective equipment. Source: National Park Service Historic Photo Collection.

Fire Management Today 26 Thus, a 180-pound man working 16-hour days for 3 days required an extraordinary 25,920 calories. For a crew that expected to work at unprecedented speeds to stop the frst run of a fre, supervisors deemed the high calorie intake as essential to high . One forester described the crew’s job: “It is man-killing work too, for the pace set is terrifc and no likes to show or to admit fatigue” (Holbrook 1940). The 40-man crew experiment on the Siskiyou National Figure 1—Early hotshot crew. Members of the Willamette Flying 20 on the McKenzie Forest was a resounding success Fire on the Willamette National Forest in Oregon in 1938. Photo: USDA Forest Service. (Cliff and Anderson 1940).

Emergence of Following World War II, 20-man crews in the 20-Man Crew southern California first used the title “hotshot.” America’s entry into World War II in December 1941 reduced the Forest Service’s manpower, necessitating a reliance on 40-man crews. During Forest developed a 20-man crew. wanted to project as they established the war, women worked on the When calls came, the frefghters themselves as the most effective frelines for the frst time, replacing gathered at prearranged points option for fghting large western large numbers of men drafted into before traveling to the fre. Dubbed fres. Streamlining as much as military service. Like most wartime the “Willamette Flying 20,” the crew possible to decrease their response occupations, women were laid had an overhead management of time to fres, the southern California off after the war to make way for one foreman and two squad bosses, crews shrank in size but maintained returning servicemen. Women did a pattern familiar to generations of effectiveness. not return to the freline for nearly hotshot crews (fg. 1). 20 years (Renzetti and Curran 1989). The development of mechanized Following World War II, the agency By 1947, following the examples fre equipment had the greatest routinely pressed nonfre employees of the Oregon Red Hats and the impact on IHC structure. The into fre crews known as “regulars” Willamette Flying 20, 20-man original 40-man crews needed 11 for local fres, but it relied on mobile, crews appeared on the chaparral- to 18 men to fell trees and clear fexible, and well-organized crews covered national forests of southern smaller vegetation. By the 1950s, to control fres by 10 a.m. on the California. Based on the San lightweight power morning after frst reported. Bernardino, Cleveland, Angeles, required only six men to accomplish and Los Padres National Forests, an equal or greater amount of After the war ended and the Forest the southern California crews frst work. Also, the helicopter increased Service permanently lost the used the title “hotshot” (Anderson hotshot crew mobility by rapidly manpower and large budgets from and others 1997; Stevenson 1997). delivering crews to critical fre New Deal programs like the Civilian The new title refected the mobile areas. In 1950, the use of helicopters Conservation Corps, experiments crews’ speed and their fearlessness so impressed a fre conference in began to reduce the 40-man crew’s as they shot into the hottest parts Ogden, UT, that it recommended size and cost. Near the Siskiyou in of the fre. The label also revealed stationing “aerial shock troops” at Oregon, the Willamette National the self-confdent image the crews critical locations throughout the

1In my personal experience on hotshot crews (“type 1” crews in fre community parlance), the Sawtooth IHC traveled with 8 chainsaws whereas the Logan IHC used 10. Traditionally, regular 20-person “type 2” hand crews carried three chainsaws into any fre assignment, requiring three sawyers and three swampers to clear the downed vegetation.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 27 Nation. Despite recent advances in mobility of the crews placed them in 1963), and the number weather prediction and observation, the same lineage as today’s rapidly grew. But within a decade, frefghting technology has not hotshot crews. hotshot crews had absorbed the changed since the introduction of interregional crew program and these two indispensable pieces of Beginning each June, an adopted its aerial mobile capabilities. mechanized equipment—chainsaws interregional crew would remain and helicopters (Johnston 1978; on call 24 hours a day, 7 days a Keys to Success Stevenson 1997; USDA Forest week. When crewmembers were A key ingredient of IHC success was Service 1950). off duty, signout sheets informed unit cohesion expressed through supervisors of their whereabouts in a sense of pride as the hotshots case of a fre call. The interregional Interregional Crews adopted unifed crew clothing and crews were advantageous because In 1961, the Forest Service trappings that served to distinguish they could reach any location in established fve interregional fre IHCs from other fre crews (fg. 2). the West within 6 to 8 hours and suppression crews based on the idea Some hotshots proudly displayed a arrive as a complete package: with proposed by the Ogden conference a distinctive shoulder patch, and the supervisors, crewmembers, tools, decade earlier (Alexander 1974). The El Cariso (California) Hotshots wore radios, bedding, and enough food delay in placing “aerial shock troops” berets during the 1960s, emulating for 48 hours (Alexander 1974). at strategic locations was due in U.S. Army Special Forces serving in The Forest Service coordinated all large part to the size of the agency’s Vietnam. By this time, hotshot crews requests for interregional crews from bureaucracy and the time needed to wore orange fame-retardant shirts, the National Fire Control Center in adjust policy. Modeled on the half- hardhats, bluejeans, and White’s Washington, DC. dozen hotshot crews operating in logging boots as their own standard California in the 1950s, interregional freline attire (Alexander 1974; By 1963, the number of interregional crews consisted of close to 20 Campbell 1997; Pyne 1982, 1994). crews had doubled to 10 (Division of members. The size, structure, and The IHC program enjoyed success in the feld and acceptance from Federal fre offcials by the 1970s. Faced with the dual challenges of a shrinking budget during an economic recession and sharply rising fuel costs for mechanized equipment and aircraft, the Forest Service searched for ways to save money (Pyne 1982). Fire management offcers pointed out the cost-effectiveness of hotshot crews: on any given fre, IHCs dug 50 percent more freline than regular Forest Service crews (Biddison 1978). Jerry Ewart, fre offcer for the Tonto National Forest in Arizona, explained that three hotshot crews on his forest had saved millions of dollars in projected suppression costs and resource losses (Ewart 1976).

Policy Modification Figure 2—Members of the Geronimo Interagency Hotshot Crew on the Big Windy Complex Fire in Oregon in August 2012. Each hotshot crew has distinctive clothing and By the end of the 1970s, forest equipment (such as the unique Geronimo hardhats), refecting unit pride and building ecology research confrmed fre’s unit cohesion. Photo: Lance Cheung, USDA.

Fire Management Today 28 Women on the Fireline Because the agency still suppressed the vast majority of fres, the job of hotshot crews on the freline changed little. One organizational aspect that did change was women becoming hotshots in the 1970s. No one knows for sure when the frst woman joined a hotshot crew, but it was after the passage of Executive Order 11246, better known as Affrmative Action.

Performance on the ground became the main criterion for acceptance into the hotshot world. The same physical standards applied to women as to men, and as more and more women performed to hotshot standards, their numbers on the crews increased. Recent generations of female hotshots have encountered Figure 3—Kim Seitzinger, a member of the Sacramento Interagency Hotshot Crew, on the Myrtle Fire in South Dakota in July 2012. Photo: Dave Cosling, USDA. growing acceptance. Women today claim their positions on the crews without any deference to traditional gender roles (fg. 3). The postwar development of mechanized fire equipment had the greatest impact on hotshot Homes in Fire-Prone crew structure. Wildlands As national fre policy changed and women joined hotshot crews, another external factor profoundly shaped the IHCs. Across the country, benefcial role in maintaining forest had other alternatives, such as developers built more homes along ecosystem health. Concurrently, allowing naturally caused fres to the edges of towns, in forests and prescribed burning gained wider run their course or initiating a cost- grasslands, and larger numbers of acceptance among policymakers and beneft analysis before extending people sought enjoyment through feld personnel as an effective to suppression efforts. outdoor recreation. This increasingly increase forest health and prevent put lives and property at risk from large confagrations (Schiff 1962). Hotshots had little to do with the wildland fres (Fuller 1991). As an 10 A.M. Policy’s modifcation, “exurban” population claimed the All these factors led to the and despite the change in policy, rural landscape and millions moved reassessment of the 10 A.M. Policy the hotshots’ job on the ground into the path of wildfres, the need at the interagency National Fire remained largely the same. With for hotshot crews that could handle Planning Meeting in July 1977. The an institutionalized mission and the technical challenge of wildland– new National Forest Manual rejected a continued national reliance urban interface fre escalated the old policy’s implicit assumption on suppression, they went on (Bramwell 2014). that all fres were bad, although it aggressively fghting fres and still mandated an aggressive initial putting themselves at risk to protect The hotshots accepted the increased attack on wildfres. If initial attack property and their reputations suppression burden. By 1982, there failed, the incident commander (Biddison 1979; Egging and Barney were 54 hotshot crews nationwide 1979; Pyne 1982). (Findley 1982). The U.S. Department Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 29 of the Interior started its own A review of the major disasters that involved hotshot crews, distributed among its agencies with responsibilities for hotshots illuminates the relationship between the wildland fre management. After the hotshot program and national policy. National Park Service organized the Arrowhead, Alpine, and Buffalo IHCs, the Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs likewise felded hotshot crews in the 1980s. understand the enemy and to attack protect themselves by reducing it aggressively” (Moore 1959). fuels between their freline and the main blaze. The backfre escaped Fatalities Ten years later, the trapped the freline, trapping four men, only As residential development pushed another crew on a hillside on one of whom survived. As a result of farther into undeveloped landscapes California’s these casualites, the Forest Service that regularly burned, hotshot and inficted major casualties. After mandated that all employees carry crews became more effcient and one hotshot crew refused to work on fre shelters while engaged in freline more numerous. Stretched to the the hillside, the El Cariso Hotshots, activities (Cook 1998; Pyne and limit to protect homes and natural possibly impelled by “the ‘can-do’ others 1996). resources, they suffered a number attitude, [and] a sense of ability of fatalities. A review of the major and invincibility” (Cooke 1998), Compromised Safety and disasters that involved hotshots accepted the assignment and placed Policy Response illuminates the relationship between themselves in a dangerous situation. the IHC program and national policy. An undetected spot fre below the The following year, the Forest crew unexpectedly raced up the Service rescinded the 10 A.M. Policy, In 1956, disaster struck an organized hillside in less than a minute, killing but the hotshot mission continued hand crew on the Inaja Fire in 12 crewmembers. to govern actions on the freline. California. Eleven frefghters died Confdence in the physical abilities while trying to escape a sudden Again, the Forest Service formed a of each hotshot, combined with a blowup on a hillside. Forest Service task force to study the Loop Fire and mission to aggressively fght fres, Chief Richard McArdle (1952–62) reassess basic frefghting training. created a character faw in the appointed a task force to study the The investigation placed a new hoshot crews’ work culture. Egos ways in which the agency could emphasis on the evaluation of fuels and unit pride impelled the hotshots strengthen its efforts to prevent and their effect on fre behavior. In to push themselves beyond what frefghter fatalities. The task force addition, the task force developed they could safely accomplish. This examined everything from fre rules against downhill freline confdence, considered a benefcial behavior to protective clothing. It construction, and the use of hand- trait as early as the 1930s, proved recommended additional training for held radios for crew communication detrimental after two fre disasters in fre crew supervisors and considered became standard. The Fire Policy the 1990s. national training courses and a fre and Procedure Review Committee research/training center meeting in February 1967 in One of them was the Dude Fire in (Pyne 1982). Washington, DC, sustained the 10 Arizona in 1990. Six frefghters were A.M. Policy and responded to the killed. The accident investigation In 1958, the agency instituted the Loop Fire by advocating for national report for the Dude Fire cautioned 10 Standard Firefghting Orders and training standards and a central (Cook 1998): 18 Watchout Situations. Standard training center. In 1967, the Forest Do not let your ego or other order number 10 read, “Fight Service stablished the National Fire people’s high expectations of fre aggressively but provide for Training Center at Marana, AZ (Cook your capabilities infuence you to safety frst.” When Chief McArdle 1998; Gleason 1994; Pyne 1982). acccept assignments with high announced the 10 standard levels of risk. Specialized fre orders, he stated that “training is In 1976, three hotshots died resources such as crews, not complete until the trainee is on the Battlement hotshot crews, and convinced that the safest, most in Colorado when frefghters are especially susceptible to this effective way to fght forest fres is to intentionally started a backfre to pressure.

Fire Management Today 30 On July 6, 1994, 14 wildland to frefghers, raising the potential Although the public’s perception frefghters lost their lives in a single for disaster to strike (Pyne and of the Forest Service’s ability, incident on Storm King Mountain others 1996). obligation, and eagerness to near Glenwood Springs, CO. One suppress all wildland fres may hotshot crew, 16 smokejumpers, and For the frst time in 60 years, a not change, the agency and the a collection of regular employees disaster that involved hotshots hotshots recognize that there are from the Forest Service, Bureau of precipitated a change in fre defnite limitations to their fre Land Management, and National suppression policy. The Secretaries suppression mission. Their tempered Park Service fought to contain a of the Interior and Agriculture aggressiveness is refected in today’s blaze as it crept downhill toward a chartered the Federal Wildland Fire National Interagency Hotshot Crew resort community. The frefghters Management Policy and Program Steering Committee’s offcial motto: worked furiously and, in the Review in 1994. As a result of the “Safety, Teamwork, Professionalism” process, ignored many of their review, the safety of frefghters (NIHCSC 2004; NWCG 1995). safety guidelines. Meanwhile, their assigned to an incident became the command structure crumbled, and number one priority. In addition, the Wildland fre is an ever-increasing warnings about a storm system changes mandated annual refresher threat in the West. The intensity moving into the area never reached training courses, an external review and frequency of fres rise each the frefghters. of frefghting culture, and the study year. As more and more people of decision-making dynamics in move into formerly rural areas, At about 4 p.m., with half the high-risk environments. Finally, the demand for fre suppression frefghters digging a freline down the report challenged the current and protection increases each year. a steep hillside covered by Gambel fre suppression policy by declaring The history of the Nation’s elite oak, the fre jumped the control that agencies and the public needed frefghters illuminates the changing line and exploded to engulf the to recognize that not all wildland nature of Federal fre policy and its entire west drainage and all those fres could or should be suppressed relationship to the men and women working in it in a wall of fame. The (NWCG 1995). ■ 14 who died on the South Canyon who carry it out. Fire included 9 members (4 of them An Enduring Mission female) of the Prineville Hotshots, Literature Cited 3 smokejumpers, and 2 helitack Hotshot crews, now totaling Adler, J. 1994. Blowup. Newsweek. July 18: personnel (Adler 1994; DeClaire and 114 (USDA Forest Service 28–31. Donohue 1995; Grey 1994; Maclean 2017), continue to shoulder the Alexander, M.E. 1974. High mobility: the 2009; Weller 1994). responsibility for suppressing large interregional fre suppression crew. Fire fres. With the public’s escalating Management Notes. 35(3): 14–17. Anderson, R.E.; Rasmussen, B.L.; Church, The Director of the Bureau of Land pressure to protect homes in the V.V. 1997. Adapting advanced principles of Management and the Forest Service wildland–urban interface, the organization and fre-line construction to Chief ordered their respective specialized skills of the hotshots CCC suppression crews. Wildfre. 6(2): 8. agencies to produce an interagency remain in high demand. Apicello, M.G. 1996. FIRE 21—fre report within 45 days of the tragedy. In light of tragedies after the management in the 21st century. Fire Management Notes. 56(3): 4–5. The South Investigation South Canyon Fire, however, fre Biddison, L. 1978. The changing role of fre Team noted the complete breakdown management has adopted the tenet, management. Fire Management Notes. in the of command but “Firefghter safety comes frst on 39(1): 19–21. concluded that the can-do attitude every fre, every time” (Apicello Biddison, L.R. 1979. Legislative and of the frefghters involved in the 1996). Still, tragedies involving economic realities: impacts on Federal agencies. In: Barney, R.J., ed. Fire control incident led to the violation of 8 of hotshots continue to occur, in the 80’s: a symposium sponsored by the 10 Standard Firefghting Orders refecting the dangerous nature of the Intermountain Fire Council and the and 13 of the 18 Watchout Situations the job. Nineteen members of the Fire Working Group, Society of American (IMRT 1995). By the 1990s, hotshots Granite Mountain IHC perished Foresters. Missoula, MT: Intermountain were typically bending and breaking Fire Council: 34–37. on June 30, 2013, in an Arizona Bramwell, L. 2014. Wilderburbs: some of the safety guidelines to burnover incident that was the communities on nature’s edge. Seattle, achieve their agencies’ suppression deadliest in IHC history (Karels and WA: University of Washington Press. goals. High expectations prompted Dudley 2013). 309 p. safety violations and increased risk Campbell, D. 1997. Dad and I and the Forest Service. Wildfre. 6(2): 24.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 31 Cliff, E.P.; Anderson, R.E. 1940. The 40-man Grey, P. 1994. To be young once and brave: Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire crew—a report on the activities of the frefghters killed battling a Colorado Center. 45 p. experimental 40-man fre suppression wildfre. Time. July 18: 32. Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: a cultural crew. Fire Control Notes. 4(2): 47–62. Guthrie, J.D. 1939. The CCC as a history of wildland and rural fre. 2nd ed. CNF (Chippewa National Forest). 1937. The frefghting unit. . Seattle: University of Washington Press. “one lick” method on the Chippewa. Fire April: 238. 654 p. Control Notes. 1(August): 301–302. Holbrook, S.H. 1940. Forty men and a fre. Pyne, S.J. 1994. Flame and fortune. Colvill, L.L. 1939. Lessons from larger fres American Forests. June: 251–253. Wildfre. 3(3): 34. on the Siskiyou. Fire Control Notes. 3(3): IMRT (Interagency Management Review Pyne, S.J. 2002. Year of the fres: the story 20–21. Team). 1995. Final report of the of the Great Fires of 1910. New York: Cook, J. 1998. Lessons learned: fatality fre Interagency Management Review Team: Penguin Books. 322 p. case studies. PMS 490. Boise, ID: National South Canyon Fire. Report prepared Pyne, S.J.; Andrews, P.L.; Laven, R.D. 1996. Wildfre Coordinating Group. [Number of for the U.S. Department of the Interior Introduction to wildland fre. 2nd ed. New pages unknown.] and U.S. Department of Agriculture. York: John Wiley and Sons. 808 p. DeClaire, J.; Donahue, B. 1995. Tragedy at Washington, DC: Government Printing Renzetti, C.M.; Curran, D.J. 1989. Women, Storm King. American Forests. 101(1–2): Offce. 66 p. men, and society: the sociology of gender. 17–22. Johnston, R.G. 1978. Helicopter use in Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 407 p. Division of Fire Control (Forest Service). forest fre suppression: 3 decades. Fire Schiff, A.L. 1962. Fire and water: scientifc 1963. The interregional suppression crew. Management Notes. 39(4): 14–16. heresy in the Forest Service. Cambridge, Fire Control Notes. 24(4): 93. Karels, J.; Dudley, M. 2013. Yarnell Hill MA: Harvard University Press. 225 p. Egging, L.T.; Barney, R.J. 1979. Fire Fire, June 30, 2013: serious accident Stevenson, S. 1997. Hotshot crews. Wildfre. management: a component of land investigation report. Phoenix, AZ: Arizona 6(2): 16. management planning. Environmental State Forestry Division. 116 p. http:// Thoele, M. 1995. Fire line: summer battles Management. 3(1): 15–20. www.iawfonline.org/Yarnell_Hill_Fire_ of the West. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Elliott, R. 1941. The Willamette Flying 20. report.pdf. (3 November 2017). Publishing. 170 p. Fire Control Notes. 5(4): 179–182. Linse, P.; Edwards, L. 1997. Beyond 2000: USDA Forest Service. 1950. Topic 3: Aerial Ewart, J. 1976. Hot shot crews pay big Will the hotshot legacy continue?” fre control. In: Servicewide meeting: fre dividends. Fire Management. 37(1): Wildfre. 6(2): 4. control, fre research, and safety. Ogden, 14–16. Maclean, J.N. 2009. Fire on the mountain: UT: USDA Forest Service: 8. Findley, R. 1982. Our national forests: the true story of the South Canyon Fire. USDA Forest Service. 2017. National problems in paradise. National New York: Harper. 275 p. Interagency Hotshot Crews (IHC). https:// Geographic. 162(3): 306–339. Moore, W.R. 1959. Training in the Ten www.fs.fed.us/fre/people/hotshots/IHC_ Fuller, M. 1991. Forest fres: an introduction Standard Fire Fighting Orders. Fire index.html. (2 November 2017). to wildland fre behavior, management, Control Notes. 20(2): 58–60. Weller, R. 1994. Portable shelters could not frefghting, and prevention. New York: NIHCSC (National IHC Steering save elite frefghters. Salt Lake Tribune. John Wiley and Sons. 238 p. Committee). 2004. Newsletter. July 8. Gleason, P. 1994. Unprepared for the worst Monument, CO. 8 p. https://www.fs.fed. case scenario: Haven’t we been here us/fre/people/hotshots/newsletters/ before? Wildfre 3(3): 23–26. IHCSC_2004_Newsletter.pdf. (3 Graves, H.S. 1910. Protection from forest November 2017). fre. Bulletin. Washington, DC: USDA NWCG (National Wildfre Coordinating Forest Service. 82 (August 12): 509–518, Group). 1995. Federal wildland fre 589–595. management policy and program review.

Fire Management Today 32 WHAT IS FIRETEC (AND WHY SHOULD I CARE)?

James H. Furman and Rodman Linn

urrent fre spread models are inadequate for predicting Cthe complex infuences of atmosphere, forest structure, and self-generating fre processes on wildland fre behavior. FIRETEC is a physics-based, three-dimensional computer code developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) to capture the constantly changing, interactive relationship between wildland fre and its environment (fg. 1; Linn 1997; Linn and others 2003). To accurately represent interactive fre processes, FIRETEC combines physics models that represent , heat transfer, Figure 1—Multiple interactive physical processes are integrated in FIRETEC aerodynamic drag, and turbulence simulations. with a computational fuid-dynamics model, HIGRAD, which represents airfow and its adjustments to FIRETEC can be used to investigate facets of terrain, vegetation, and the fre itself. wildland behavior associated with a wide range of Applications environmental influences. FIRETEC can be used to investigate facets of wildland fre behavior associated with a wide range of environmental infuences, from been applied to study basic fre designed for size scales ranging the local effects of specifc tree behavior phenomena (Cunningham from hundreds of square feet to confgurations (Linn and others and Linn 2007; Linn and others tens of square miles and with 2005; Parsons 2007; Pimont and 2007, 2010, 2012a; Pimont and resolutions on the order of feet. The others 2011), to the interaction others 2006, 2009), and it has coupled physics-based formulation between separately ignited fres begun to be used to understand of FIRETEC and its range of size (Depuy and others 2011), to the implications of simplifed fre scales allows investigation of the larger scale effects of evolving behavior model formulations interactions between ignition weather conditions. FIRETEC has (Pimont and others 2012). strategies, local meteorology, and ecosystem structure. FIRETEC can James Furman is the Forest Service liaison The applications of FIRETEC span therefore be used to investigate for the Northeastern Area State and Private ecosystems from sparse grass to fre management practices that Forestry with the Air Force Wildland Fire heavily forested woodlands on both result in successful or unsuccessful Center, Niceville, FL; and Rodman Linn is a fat terrain and in rugged topography prescribed fre operations in terms of senior scientist in the Computational Earth Sciences Division, Los Alamos National (Linn and others 2007, 2010; Pimont fre behavior or emissions transport Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM. and others 2011). FIRETEC was and fate (Cassagne and others 2011). Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 33 Figure 2—FIRETEC simulations (top—left and right) paired with photographs (bottom—left and right) of plot 1 of the International Modeling Experiment (ICFME), which took place in Canada’s Northwest Territories between 1995 and 2001. FIRETEC simulations of several of the ICFME burns produced spread rates and burn patterns that replicated the actual fres well. Photos courtesy of Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service.

Under development and refnement also for deciphering unexplained or 2. The Forest Service through the since 1995, FIRETEC has been used controversial aspects of these fres. National Fire Plan and Joint Fire for simulations of and comparisons FIRETEC has been used to study Science Program, and with both historical fres (Bossert the interaction between multiple 3. The U.S. Department of Defense’s and others 2000; Bradley 2002) lines of fre (Depuy and others Environmental Security and feld experiments such as the 2011) and the impacts of massive Technology Certifcation Program 2005 International Crown Fire insect attacks on fre behavior in (ESTCP). Modeling Experiment illustrated lodgepole pine (Hoffman and others in fgure 2 (Linn and Cunningham 2015) and pinyon–juniper (Linn and LANL’s Institutional Computing 2005; Linn and others 2005; Pimont others 2013) ecosystems. In recent Program has provided computational and others 2009; Linn and others years, the State of New Mexico used resources that have been crucial 2012b). These simulations have FIRETEC to examine the effects of for the development and use of demonstrated this model’s ability fuels management treatments near FIRETEC. The Joint Fire Science to capture realistic fre behavior in mountain communities. FIRETEC is Program and LANL’s Collaborative a variety of situations. Continued not available on desktop computers University of California/Los Alamos efforts to broaden the scope of these because it requires large amounts Research program funded the comparisons include a current of input data and a supercomputer, development and implementation of project, in collaboration with Natural but the simulations produced the spotting model within FIRETEC, Resources Canada, to simulate key by FIRETEC have far-reaching which allows the model to estimate aspects of the 2016 Fort McMurray implications and applications for probabilistic trajectories and points wildfres in Alberta, Canada. fre managers. of ignition from burning frebrands. The ESTCP funding is being used to FIRETEC has also been utilized to Funding simulate prescribed fre scenarios simulate key aspects of historical in southern pine forests in order Funding for the research and fres, including the 2012 Las to further explore FIRETEC’s development leading to FIRETEC Conchas Fire near Los Alamos, NM, capabilities and to develop training came largely from three sources: and the tragic 1949 Mann Gulch tools for fre managers. In addition, a Fire in Montana. These simulations wide range of U.S. and international 1. LANL’s Directed Research and are valuable not only for validating collaborators, such as France’s Development program, the modeled phenomenology but Institut National pour la Recherche

Fire Management Today 34 Figure 3—Top: Aerial/spot ignition fring pattern in a southeastern pine forest. Bottom: Graphic illustration of the same effects based on a preliminary FIRETEC simulation of distributed aerial ignitions. The image illustrates the infuence of the fres’ draw on one another, resulting in some fres spreading nearly perpendicular to the ambient left-to-right wind. Photo: William Bollfrass, USDA Forest Service.

Agronomique, have contributed general phenomenology, intensity, The project leverages data from inkind support for the advancement and spread rates from highly the RxCADRE experimental burns and application of this tool. instrumented experimental on Eglin Air Force Base, which burns (fg. 3). represent some of the most heavily Modeling the Essence instrumented fres in history. Although FIRETEC’s modeling Seed Project Currently in progress, the project capabilities are impressive, fre In 2011, Eglin Air Force Base funded will be described in more detail behavior results from many ever- an exploratory FIRETEC effort in terms of its design, results, and changing, interactive, and very addressing aspects of complex physical processes. Fire prescribed fre ignition behavior is sensitive to both averages techniques in southern and fuctuations of numerous pine forests (fgs. 3, 4). environmental conditions. This early “seed project” provided the proof of However, FIRETEC is based on the concept and confdence assumption that you can model the that led to the ESTCP essence of wildland fre behavior and project exploring predict the important characteristics the implications of fre behavior without knowing and phenomenology all of the fne-scale details of winds associated with a range (timing, duration, and spatial of prescribed fre arrangement of gusts) and fuels conditions and (location, shape, and orientation ignition strategies of individual needles or branches.) in southern pine. Figure 4—Proof-of-concept prescribed fre simulations Accordingly, the details of FIRETEC from the seed project sponsored by Eglin Air Force Base in southern pine forests. In these FIRETEC simulations, fre behavior simulations will not LANL worked with the image on the left represents a single ignition line match the fne-scale details of fre managers from by an all-terrain vehicle (ATV). The image on the right an experimental burn, but they Eglin Air Force Base represents four simultaneous ATV ignition lines with accurately represent macroscale fre to address specifc the same elapsed time as the image on the left. Wind is blowing from left to right. The additional upwind behavior and atmospheric response. “burning questions,” strip ignitions in the image on the right decreased the fll knowledge gaps, downwind spread rate from 80 m to 44 m compared to In layman’s terms: no model is and provide teaching a single strip, but the interactions between the lines perfect, but FIRETEC is proving tools for current and produced intense burning in some areas, as indicated by the charred canopy (black coloration). These phenomena to be robust. It captures the future fre managers. are commonly observed on the freline.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 35 implications in future issues of FL; and J. Kevin Hiers serves as a Journal of Geophysical Research. 110: Fire Management Today. To view wildland fre scientist at Tall Timbers D13107. DOI:10.1029/2004JD005597. Linn, R.R.; Winterkamp J.; Colman J.J. [and a webinar on the project hosted Research Station, Tallahassee, FL. others]. 2005. Modeling interactions by Southern Fire Exchange, go to The authors are solely responsible between fre and atmosphere in discrete https://www.youtube.com/watch?v for the accuracy of the information. element fuel beds. International Journal =TOrkny2ILik&feature=youtube. of Wildland Fire. 14(1): 37–48. Linn R.; Winterkamp, J.; Edminster, C. Literature Cited [and others]. 2007. Coupled infuences Platform for Learning Bossert, J.E.; Linn, R.R.; Reisner J.M. [and of topography and wind on wildland Since its inception in 1995, others]. 2000. Coupled atmosphere-fre fre behaviour. International Journal of behavior model sensitivity to spatial Wildland Fire. 16: 183–195. FIRETEC has demonstrated fuel characterization. In: Proceedings of Linn, R.R.; Winterkamp, J.L.; Weise, D.R.; impressive capabilities for the third symposium on fre and forest Edminster C. 2010. A numerical study capturing fre behavior and meteorology. Boston, MA: American of slope and fuel structure effects on phenomenology for a wide range of Meteorological Society: 21. coupled wildfre behaviour. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 19: 179–201. wildland fre scenarios. Although Bradley, M.M. 2002. This model can take the heat. Science and Technology Linn, R.R.; Canfeld, J.M.; Cunningham, FIRETEC’s computational and data Review. November. https://str.llnl.gov/str/ P. [and others]. 2012a. Using periodic requirements preclude its use by fre November02/Bradley.html. (3 October line fres to gain a new perspective on managers for developing individual 2017). multi-dimensional aspects of forward prescribed fre plans or incident Cassagne, N.; Pimont, F.; Depuy, J-L. [and fre spread. Agricultural and Forest others]. 2011. Using a fre propagation Meteorology. 157: 60–76. action plans, FIRETEC provides a model to assess the effciency of Linn, R.; Anderson, K.; Winterkamp, J. powerful platform for learning as prescribed burning in reducing the fre [and others]. 2012b. Incorporating feld well as a glimpse into the potential hazard. Ecological Modelling. 222(8): wind data into FIRETEC simulations of capabilities of next-generation 1502–1514. the International Crown Fire Modeling operational fre models. Cunningham, P.; Linn R.R. 2007. Numerical Experiment (ICFME): preliminary lessons simulations of grass fres using a coupled learned. Canadian Journal of Forest atmosphere-fre model: dynamics of Research. 42(5): 879–898. This article is the frst in a three- fre spread. Journal of Geophysical Linn, R.R.; Sieg, C.H.; Hoffman, C.M. [and part series. The next two articles Research. 112(D5): D05108. DOI: others]. 2013. Modeling wind felds and will delve more deeply into the 10.1029/2006JD007638. fre propagation following bark beetle outbreaks in spatially-heterogeneous design, objectives, and results Depuy, J-L.; Linn, R.R.; Konovalov, V. [and others]. 2011. Exploring three- pinyon-juniper woodland fuel complexes. from the ongoing ESTCP project, dimensional coupled fre-atmosphere Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 173: with particular emphasis on its interactions downwind of wind-driven 139–153. implications and its utility for surface fres and their infuence on Parsons, R. 2007. Spatial variability in forest wildland fre managers. ■ backfres using the HIGRAD-FIRETEC fuels: simulation modeling and effects on model. International Journal of Wildland fre behavior. Missoula, MT: University of Fire. 20(6): 734–750. Montana. 255 p. Ph.D. dissertation. Acknowledgments Hoffman, C.M.; Linn R.; Parsons, R. Pimont, F.; Linn, R.R.; Dupuy, J-L.; Morvan, [and others]. 2015. Modeling spatial D. 2006. Effects of vegetation description The authors thank Judith and temporal dynamics of wind fow parameters on forest fre behavior Winterkamp for her reviews and potential fre behavior following with FIRETEC. Forest Ecology and and edits during development a mountain pine beetle outbreak in a Management. 234S(S120). of this article and for producing lodgepole pine forest. Agricultural and Pimont, F.; Dupuy, J-L.; Linn, R.R.; Dupont, Forest Meteorology. 204: 79–93. S. 2009. Validation of FIRETEC wind- the FIRETEC visualizations that Linn, R.R. 1997. A transport model for fows over a canopy and a fuel-break. underpin this article and the prediction of wildfre behavior. Sci. Rep. International Journal of Wildland Fire. referenced research project. Judith LA13334–T. Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos 18(7): 775–790. Winterkamp is a staff scientist with National Laboratory. 212 p. Pimont, F.; Dupuy, J-L.; Linn, R.R.; Dupont, the Computational Earth Sciences Linn, R.R.; Reisner, J.M.; Edminster C.B. S. 2011. Impacts of fuel-break structure [and others]. 2003. FIRETEC—A physics- on wind-fows and fre propagation Division, Los Alamos National based wildfre model. 2003 R&D 100 simulated with FIRETEC. Annals of Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM. The Awards Joint Entry. Los Alamos, NM: Forest Science. 68(3): 523–530. authors also thank Brett Williams Los Alamos National Laboratory; USDA Pimont, F.; Dupuy, J-L.; Linn, R.R. 2012. and J. Kevin Hiers for their steadfast Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Coupled slope and wind effects on fre spread with infuences of fre size: support of this project. Brett Station. Linn, R.R.; Cunningham P. 2005. Numerical a numerical study using FIRETEC. Williams is the wildland support simulations of grass fres using a coupled International Journal of Wildland Fire. module leader, Air Force Wildland atmosphere-fre model: basic fre 21(7): 828–842. Fire Center, Eglin Air Force Base, behavior and dependence on wind speed.

Fire Management Today 36 EXCESS FEDERAL EQUIPMENT BUILDS FIREFIGHTING CAPACITY IN OREGON

Michael McKeen

hrough Federal programs dating to 1956, the Oregon The Oregon Department of Forestry TDepartment of Forestry acquires excess Federal equipment has placed almost 40 truck tractors and transfers it to State fre converted into water tenders with protection districts, rangeland associations, forest protective local fire organizations across Oregon. associations, and local fre districts. The property passes through the Forest Service’s Federal Excess Personal Property (FEPP) program truck tractor (fg. 1), originally from across Oregon. All will eventually and through the Fire Fighter the U.S. Department of Defense. This be owned by the units that operate Program (FFP) administered by the particular $166,000 Freightliner them, as long as the units comply Oregon Department of Forestry. Truck Tractor went to the North with program agreements. Local fre organizations across Douglas Rural for Oregon receive the equipment in about $1,200; the fre department The tender in fgure 1 is reflling a exchange for the cost of shipping and then paid for modifying the military type 4 wildland fre engine on loan a small State administrative fee. tractor into fre equipment. Through through the FEPP program. After the FFP, the Oregon Department of serving the Forest Service for years, A good example is a Forestry has placed almost 40 such such engines are made available built from an excess military 6-by-6 trucks with local fre organizations to local fre departments through FEPP for the serviceable life of the equipment. When the equipment is no longer serviceable, it is sold at auction, with the proceeds returned to the Federal Treasury.

Figure 2 shows an example of a converted M916A3 military truck tractor, this one operated by the Medical Spring Rural Fire Department. No doubt the best part of these trucks’ service is for the taxpayer. Medical Springs is a small rural fre department that got an additional grant to modify this truck into a tender. Very likely, the tender will remain in service to the community for the next 20 years.

Figure 1— A water tender reflling a wildland fre engine on an incident. Both pieces of Michael McKeen is the Oregon Federal equipment were acquired through Federal surplus equipment programs. Photo: Oregon Property coordinator for the Oregon Department of Forestry. Department of Forestry, Salem, OR.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 37 The Sweethome Unit of the Oregon Department of Forestry modifed one of the same excess military trucks by adding a smaller water tank (fg. 3). The smaller tank allows the truck to pull the unit’s dozer for suppression support, freeing up a wildland fre engine to remain on the freline.

Figure 4 shows a Freightline Truck Tractor before and after modifcation. In this case, the tender belongs to the Illinois Valley Rural Fire Department operating from Cave Junction in southern Oregon. The department has six stations, and it has built a truck called “The Figure 2—A water tender converted from a military truck tractor through a Federal Beast,” with another truck called surplus equipment program. Photo: Oregon Department of Forestry. “The Beauty” in construction.

These truck tractors are only one example of how Federal, State, and local partners are working together through FEPP and FFP to strengthen the “militia,” the frontline initial response organizations throughout Oregon. A new concept in rural fre protection involves the rangeland associations throughout eastern Oregon. The associations depend on excess military equipment modifed for rangeland protection.

Figure 5 shows the feet of the Silver Creek Rangeland Fire Association, Figure 3—With a smaller water tank, a modifed surplus military truck can pull a dozer. with Humvees converted into Photo: Oregon Department of Forestry. type 6 engines and a cargo truck converted into a water tender. The association also has statically placed tanks of water as well as large D7G bulldozers. The rangeland fre associations have successfully used such equipment in working for rural fre protection with the Oregon Department of Forestry, the Bureau of Land Management, and the Forest Service.

Figure 4—An original military Freightliner Truck Tractor next to a truck modifed as a water tender. Photo: Oregon Department of Forestry.

Fire Management Today 38 Since 2014, the Oregon Department of Forestry, through FEPP and FFP, has distributed type 1, type 4, and type 6 engines, along with dozers, pumps, generators, tankers, trailers, Humvees, and every other imaginable type of military vehicle. The equipment has had a total value of $7 million to $9 million per year. Through FEPP and FFP, Federal excess equipment goes to help local communities mitigate wildland fre danger across the State. ■

Figure 5—Fleet of the Silver Creek Rangeland Fire Association, with Humvees converted into type 6 engines and a cargo truck converted into a water tender. Photo: Oregon Department of Forestry.

SUCCESS STORIES WANTED!

We’d like to know how your work has been going! Let us share your success stories from your State fre program or your individual fre department. Let us know how your State Fire Assistance, Volunteer Fire Assistance, Federal Excess Personal Property, or Firefghter Property program has benefted your community. Make your piece as short as 100 words or longer than 2,000 words, whatever it takes to tell your story! Submit your stories and photographs by email or traditional mail to:

USDA Forest Service Fire Management Today 201 14th Street, SW Washington, DC 20250 Email: [email protected]

If you have questions about your submission, you can contact our FMT staff at the email address above.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 39 FIRE: THE GREAT FOREST REGULATOR

Stephen W. Barrett

Editor’s note: The 2017 fres hit the West hard. Nationwide, more than 71,499 fres burned more than 10 million acres (4 million ha), mostly in the West (NIFC 2018). The area burned was larger than in any year since 1960 with only two exceptions, both within the last 12 years: 2006 and 2015. The Northern Rockies were hit especially hard. In 2017, about 3,900 fres burned almost 1.5 million acres (0.6 million ha) (NICC 2018a). More acres burned in the Northern Rockies than in any year since 1999, almost three times the 10-year average reported in 2016 (NICC 2018b). What is going on? Here’s a scientifc perspective on the 2017 fres.

ome have wondered whether the 2017 Montana fre season was a rare apocalypse or The Sperry Chalet in Glacier National Park being destroyed by the Sprague Fire in 2017. S Source: Inciweb (2017); photo: National Park Service. whether it was simply Nature being Nature. The short answer is, some of both. Today’s forests clearly are Since about 1980, the Northern Rockies and the experiencing a highly active fre period, one of many during the past West in general have been experiencing another several thousand years. And while highly active fire period. many of the fres were natural, some occurred outside the historical range of variation. And no, fres generally don’t widespread in the early to mid- devastate wildlife because native 1700s. Presumably, the valleys were Like it or not, fre is the Great Forest fauna can readily walk, run, burrow, often choked with smoke, but lush Regulator in the West. Nothing fy, or otherwise escape from forests regenerated in the aftermath. controls and rejuvenates forests like most wildfres. In fact, many of today’s remnant large wildfres—not insects, not old-growth stands regenerated diseases, not windstorms. That’s Numerous studies during the during that time and persisted until why researchers have coined such past 4 decades provide important succumbing to fres or to logging terms as “fre-dependent forests” and perspective about Northern Rockies some 2 centuries later. Today, less “disturbance-adapted ecosystems.” fre history. In addition to lightning than 10 percent of the region’s old- fres, fres often were ignited by growth forest remains. Steve Barrett is a consulting fre ecologist American Indians to improve wildlife who has studied fre history in many parts habitat and for many other reasons. Speaking of old growth, most stands of the Northern Rockies, including in In northwestern Montana’s Flathead burned in 2017 by Glacier National Waterton–Glacier and Yellowstone Basin, for example, tree ring and fre Park’s Sprague Fire (which also National Parks. scar samples show that fres were destroyed the venerable Sperry

Fire Management Today 40 Chalet) were between about 300 Now comes the modern era. Since Forest fires will continue to 500 years old. So, statistically about 1980, the Northern Rockies speaking, it was simply their time and the West in general have been to manage us if we to be recycled by the Great Forest experiencing another highly active refuse to become a Regulator. fre period. And there’s really no end in sight, especially considering fire-adapted society. Continuing along our fre history current climatic trends. timeline, the active fre period in the 1700s was followed by generally low So what to do about the so-called Literature Cited fre activity during the cool, moist fre problem? Inciweb (Incident Information System). peak of the Little Ice Age in the 2017. Sprague Fire: photographs. early to mid-1800s. Then a warming Forest fres will continue to be https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/incident/ photograph/5510/52/72023/. (12 January trend between the late 1800s and intractable and unnecessarily 2018). early 1900s spawned large fres destructive if we refuse to become a NICC (National Interagency Coordination once again, with major fre years in fre-adapted society. Given the vast Center). 2018a. Incident Management 1889, 1910, 1919, 1929, and 1936. amount of fre-prone and relatively Situation Report: Friday, December 29, 2017. https://www.predictiveservices.nifc. As before, the lush ecosystems that inaccessible terrain in the West— gov/IMSR/2017/20171229IMSR.pdf. (12 regenerated in the aftermath formed including in national parks and January 2018). some of the best wildlife habitat in wilderness areas—removing trees NICC (National Interagency Coordination the West. simply isn’t going to work in parks Center). 2018b. Predictive services: and wilderness. A mix of creative intelligence—NICC wildland fre annual reports. https://www.predictiveservices. Subsequently, few fres occurred management strategies that include nifc.gov/intelligence/intelligence.htm. (12 between about 1940 and 1980. logging, prescribed fre, and fuel January 2018). Interestingly, that generally manipulation in and near wildland– NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center). cool-moist period coincided with urban interface areas would help 2018. Statistics: total wildland fres and increasingly effective frefghting promote society’s transition to fre acres (1960-2016). https://www.nifc.gov/ freInfo/freInfo_stats_totalFires.html. technology and know-how within adaptation. ■ (12 January 2018). the Forest Service and other land management agencies.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 41 BATTLE OF SAN PASQUAL STAFF RIDE*

Rex Hambly

he “Californio” marksman, a citizen of the Republic of TMexico, waited patiently in the cold, damp morning air. His hands were stiff, but his focus was lightning hot. He heard someone yell “Charge!” in the distance.

Long before any of the 12 advancing American dragoons (cavalry) ever him, he raised his rife and pulled the trigger. The bullet hit Captain Johnston squarely between the eyes, killing him instantly. Chaos immediately descended upon the American dragoons as they were outmaneuvered by their adversary.

Charles Waterhouse, Battle of San Pasquale. This painting, by a colonel in the U.S. This initial bout of confusion set Marine Corps Reserves, shows a scene from the battle, which took place in 1846 near the operational tempo for the entire Escondido, CA. Source: Marine Corps Recruit Depot Command Museum. Battle of San Pasqual.

The battle took place in 1846, just forces and the Californios of the outside of present-day Escondido, Republic of Mexico. Fifty men and This battle’s unintended CA. Historians often refer to this women—representing local fre staff, outcome has valuable fght as the bloodiest battle to ever U.S. Marines, and the Rio Hondo take place on Californian soil. This Wildland Fire Academy—have come lessons to offer the battle’s unintended outcome has together to explore the lessons from wildland fire service as valuable lessons to offer the wildland this historic battle. fre service as a learning culture. a learning culture. The day begins when historian Warning Order and retired U.S. Marine Colonel Stan Smith delivers his historically now in armed confict with the It is once again a cool morning, Californios/Republic of Mexico. this time in early April 2017—171 accurate and very intense “Warning Order” (fg. 1). Wearing full battle years later. We are on the same You are to reconnoiter as to ground where the Battle of San dress from 1846, he quickly grabs the participants’ attention: exact location of enemy forces Pasqual was fought between U.S. and perform action using Mounted troops of Pico’s rebellion advantages of terrain and Rex Hambly is an engineer for the U.S. Fish nighttime operations to beat up and Wildlife Service, Southern California have encamped and taken up Zone, Jamul, CA. positions in the eastern portion the enemy camp, so as to achieve of this valley with the intent of capitulation—while minimizing * The piece is adapted from a blog on the attacking and destroying coalition casualties to the extent possible. website maintained by the Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center. forces of the American Republic,

Fire Management Today 42 Figure 1—Staff ride participants listen to U.S. Marine Colonel Stan Smith. Photo: Rex Hambly, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

They have the capability of This granite promontory is located of engagement, giving time for eliminating U.S. forces available in a narrow canyon, just above the reinforcements to get into place. It for action, given their ability to battlefeld where General Steven W. also marked the “decision point” to exercise superior local frepower Kearny, the U.S. Military Governor engage the enemy. and maneuverability. They can of New Mexico, likely delivered his reinforce with organic and out-of- “leader’s intent” to the highly skilled One staff ride participant later theater assets. yet ill-fated American dragoons. compared it to the decision by the Granite Mountain Hotshots on the First Stand: Decision Rock General Kearny’s intent had 2013 to leave the tremendous tactical signifcance. relative safety of the burned ridgetop The frst stand on the Battle of San He wished Johnston’s 12 dragoons and descend toward the ranch house. Pasqual Staff Ride is Decision Rock. to initiate a controlled tempo Today, of course, with the beneft of hindsight, we have the luxury of knowing the outcomes for both the Granite Mountain Hotshots and Johnston’s dragoons.

Similarities Between Firefighting and Warfighting At this point during the staff ride, Sergeant Dan Bothwell, a U.S. Marine Scout Sniper Instructor, starts to inform the staff ride participants about modes of decisionmaking, rules of engagement, and combat effectiveness (fg. 2). He relates this historic battle to modern-day Staff ride participants hike to Decision Rock. Photo: Rex Hambly, U.S. Fish and wildland frefghting. We learn that Wildlife Service.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 43 Figure 2—Sergeant and Sniper Instructor Bothwell talks about modes of decisionmaking. Photo: Rex Hambly, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in both frefghting and warfghting, When a target of opportunity is no shortage of such questions as the enemy can often outperform our suddenly arises, we must make participants say their goodbyes in expectations. a split-second decision: follow the parking lot that day. previous instructions or seize After several hours of spirited a novel opportunity—just like “What would you have done?” discussion at Decision Rock, we Captain Johnston did 171 years ago, move across the valley to the site when he saw two enemy sentries in “Would you charge given the same of the actual engagement. Colonel the early morning fog and gave the set of circumstances?” Smith now leads a discussion on order to charge. how to value and prioritize military “Was Captain Johnston using objectives—which we relate to Of course, there are no lances, analytical or recognition-based creating frefghting objectives. swords, or guns among us, but it decisionmaking?” is a great chance to test the ideas Sergeant Bothwell talks about egress and concepts that we had studied “What would you do if the command planning and how a single casualty throughout that day. As the staff structure broke down in your unit?” can completely alter the outcome of ride formally concludes, fre cadets a mission. and staff leave the battlefeld with Sometimes, a question can be the a newfound understanding of best answer. On this day and in Tactical Exercise these historical events—and their the future, we can apply the new relevancy today. The staff ride concludes with a questions and lessons learned from the Battle of San Pasqual to brief tactical exercise held in a dry Lingering Questions riverbed. We are all given explicit our upcoming operations—both instructions to perform a very Any profound experience will always on wildland fres and on all-risk specifc task. include followup questions. There incidents. ■

Fire Management Today 44 THE “FOREST CIRCUS” RECONSIDERED

Kerry Greene and Hylah Jacques

Etching of John Bill Ricketts ver hear the Forest Service as “The Equestrian Hero,” called the “Forest Circus”? circa 1796. In 1792, Scottish trick rider John Bill Ricketts E settled in Philadelphia Calling something a circus usually and opened an equestrian paints a picture of disorganization academy. The next year, he and chaos. The impression is staged the new Nation’s frst misleading because both the circus complete circus performance and the Forest Service can teach a in his new amphitheater at 12th and Market Streets lot about discipline, physical ftness/ in Philadelphia. The year literacy, logistics, and teamwork. after this etching was made, Ricketts set sail for Europe And that is also true for the Forest after a fre destroyed his circus, and he was lost at Service’s wildland fre organization. sea. Source: Courtesy of the Historical Society of The circus originated in Europe. In Pennsylvania. European cities, the term “circus” referred to a physical building; in most cities, it was a permanent structure where the public could go to view circus acts, much like a theater for drama or a concert hall for music.

When it came to America, the circus morphed into a traveling equestrian history. The size of a and crew as they traveled across the show, the frst of its kind. American traditional circus ring is based on country, setting up highly functional circuses were itinerant productions. the circumference that a horse can and effcient tent cities wherever They traveled to widely scattered turn comfortably at speed (42 feet they went. The American military population centers, as opposed to the (13 meters)). Many of the great followed the circus, studying its public traveling to central locations ringmasters in the early American logistics. During World War I, the to see them. circus were great horsemen and Germans got their ideas for rolling had strong ties with the great feld kitchens and loading equipment Before railroads, circuses were equestrians of the day, beginning lengthwise on railroad fatcars from moved by horses, and they were with our Nation’s most distinguished Buffalo Bill’s Wild West, which primarily centered around horses and popular horseman. George toured Germany in 1891, and from and displays of horsemanship. Washington is known to have Barnum and Bailey’s Circus, which The circus is steeped in a strong had a strong friendship with and toured Germany and Austria- admiration for John Bill Ricketts Hungary in 1900–01. Kerry Greene is a public affairs specialist (1769–1800), the Father of the for the Forest Service, Fire and Aviation American Circus. Much like the tent cities that spring Management, at the Northern California Service Center, Redding, CA; and Hylah up around project fres, it takes an Jacques is a forest health specialist for the With the arrival of railroads, entire team of support personnel to Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, American circuses became expert at make the circus happen. There are Cooperative Forestry, Washington Offce, moving and supporting performers tent masters, cooks, riggers, coaches, Washington, DC.

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 45 Consider the ways in which circus performers and wildland are alike.

and costume makers, not unlike the support personnel who travel with an incident management team. Today, the Forest Service is routinely consulted as the lead agency in the development of the Incident Management System for emergency The Flying Wallendas perform their high wire act on the National Mall in July 2017. response, with logistics as a From left to right: son Alex, eldest daughter Alida, son-in-law Robin Cortes, grandson Lukas, patriarch Tino, and daughters Aurelia and Andrea. Photo: Kerry Greene, USDA key function. Forest Service.

And that’s not all that the circus has in common with the wildland balance of physical training, good far off the mark for many Forest fre organization. Consider the communication, and a preternatural Service or frefghter legacies we fnd ways in which circus performers understanding of the task at hand, in our own families. and wildland frefghters are alike. risks involved, and strengths and For example, it takes great physical weaknesses of their team members. So next time you hear someone ftness and discipline in both say “Forest Circus,” consider it a professions. Circus performers It’s true that many circus acts, compliment. Both traditions are train for hours each day, rehearsing such as the Flying Wallendas high- steeped in excellence, life-on-the- routines with their teams and wire act, are a family legacy. Many road logistics, physical ftness, and training their bodies and minds performers are literally born into teamwork—and that’s something to so they are in top shape to execute the circus and carry on the family be proud of. ■ daring feats. traditions and way of life. That’s not

Sound familiar?

It’s also worth mentioning that the element of danger is very real in both worlds. As a frefghter, you depend on your team as if your life depends on it, because it does. The type of risk and danger you face and the mettle you need are unique to a handful of professions, among them frefghting, the military, the police, and the circus.

Your crew is your family away from home and in many regards knows you in more intimate and One of the authors in clown attire as EDITH the Fire Clown. Her interest in clowning challenging ways than your kin. and circus arts has strengthened over the years through her work with Fire PALS in I think the same can be said for California’s Siskiyou County. Fire PALS comprises interagency fre and emergency response professionals who bring life and fre safety messages through characterization, a team of aerialists or high-wire clowning, and puppetry to children throughout Siskiyou County. Photo: Kerry Greene, walkers. Their very lives hang in the USDA Forest Service.

Fire Management Today 46 SMOKE EXPOSURE

6 Minutes for Safety

xposure to smoke during fre Planning Implementation operations can be a safety Smoke exposure needs to be Many techniques can help reduce concern. Research has shown E considered when planning the exposure of personnel to heavy that smoke exposure on prescribed suppression tactics and prescribed smoke, such as: fres, especially in the holding and fres. Simple actions can mitigate ignition positions, often exceeds smoke exposures, such as: • Rotating people out of the heaviest that on wildfres. There are many smoke area, possibly the single precautions that can be taken to • Altering line locations, which can most effective method. reduce personnel from exposure reduce smoke exposure. • Locating camps and incident to smoke. • Placing frelines in areas of lighter command posts in areas that are fuels or moving lines to roads or not prone to inversions. other barriers that will require • Minimizing snag falling, consistent less holding, patrol, and mopup, with safety concerns, to avoid thereby reducing smoke exposure putting heavy fuels on the ground for personnel. that will require mopup. • Using fanking attack as opposed to • Changing fring patterns and head attack (where appropriate) in preburning (blacklining) during heavy smoke situations. less severe conditions, thereby Editor’s note: The piece is adapted from 6 • Checking fre behavior forecasts reducing exposure to smoke. Minutes for Safety, a program and website managed by the 6 Minutes for Safety for smoke and inversion potential. • Using retardant, foam, or Subcommittee under the guidance of the • In heavy smoke, giving up acres to sprinklers, thereby reducing the NWCG Risk Management Committee. gain control. workload and exposure time for holding crews. ■

Volume 76 • No. 3 • 2018 47 today GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Fire Management Today Include information for photo help readability. As a general rule (FMT) is an international captions and photographer’s name of clear writing, use the active magazine for the wildland fre and affliation at the end of the voice (for example, write “Fire community. The purpose of FMT manuscript. Submit charts and managers know…” and not “It is is to share information and raise graphs along with the electronic known…”). Give spellouts for all issues related to wildland fre source fles or data needed to abbreviations. management for the beneft of reconstruct them and any special the wildland fre community. instructions for layout. Include a Tables FMT welcomes unsolicited description of each illustration at Tables should be logical and manuscripts from readers on any the end of the manuscript for use understandable without reading the subject related to wildland fre in the caption. text. Include tables at the end of the management. For all submissions, include manuscript with appropriate titles. However, FMT is not a forum the complete name(s), title(s), for airing personal grievances affliation(s), and address(es) Photographs or for marketing commercial of the author(s), illustrator(s), and Illustrations products. The Forest Service’s and photographer(s), as well igures, illustrations, and clear Fire and Aviation Management as their telephone number(s) photographs are often essential staff reserves the right to reject and email address(es). If the to the understanding of articles. submissions that do not meet the same or a similar manuscript is Clearly label all photographs purpose of FMT. being submitted for publication and illustrations (fgure 1, 2, elsewhere, include that 3; photograph A, B, C). At the Submissions information also. Authors should end of the manuscript, include submit a photograph of themselves clear, thorough fgure and photo Send electronic fles by email or or a logo for their agency, traditional mail to: captions labeled in the same way institution, or organization. as the corresponding material USDA Forest Service (fgure 1, 2, 3; photograph A, B, C). Fire Management Today Style Captions should make photographs 201 14th Street, SW Authors are responsible for using and illustrations understandable Washington, D.C. 20250 wildland fre terminology that without reading the text. For conforms to the latest standards photographs, indicate the name Email: and affliation of the photographer [email protected] set by the National Wildfre Coordinating Group under the and the year the photo was taken. Submit electronic fles in PC National Interagency Incident format. Submit manuscripts in Management System. FMT uses Release Authorization Word (.doc or .docx). Submit the spelling, capitalization, Non-Federal Government authors illustrations and photographs as hyphenation, and other styles must sign a release to allow their separate fles; do not include visual recommended in the U.S. work to be placed in the public materials (such as photographs, Government Printing Offce domain and on the World Wide maps, charts, or graphs) as Style Manual, as required by the Web. In addition, all photographs embedded illustrations in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. and illustrations created by a non- electronic manuscript fle. You Authors should use the U.S. Federal employee require a written may submit digital photographs system of weight and measure, release by the photographer or in JPEG, TIFF, EPS, or other with equivalent values in the illustrator. The author, photograph, format; they must be at high metric system. Keep titles concise and illustration release forms resolution: at least 300 dpi at a and descriptive; subheadings and are available upon request at minimum size of 4 by 7 inches. bulleted material are useful and [email protected]. Volume 76 • No. 2 • 2018 Fire Management Today 48 48

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