REPOR TRESU M E S

ED 013 010 46 FL 000 50? THE TEACHING OF ITALIAN IN THE UNITEDSTATES, A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY. BY- FUCILLA, JOSEPHG. AMERICAN ASSN. OFTEACHERS OF ITALIAN REPORT NUMBER BR...5.-12711 PUB DATE CONTRACT OEC.5...44-334 EORS PRICE 10.41.25 Mt-S12.09 302P.

DESCRIPTORS-. *HISTORICALREVIEWS, *ITALIAN:*LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION, *LANGUAGE ENROLLMENT, *UNITED STATESHISTORY, COLLEGE LANGUAGE PROGRAMS, FLES PROGRAMS,PRIVATE SCHOOLS, PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS,SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING, SECONDARY SCHOOLS,SPECIAL PROGRAMS, STUDYABROAD,

THIS STUDY IS DESIGNEDTO GIVE A WELL- ROUNDEDAND CONTINUOUS HISTORY OFTHE TEACHING OF ITALIANIN THE UNITED STATES. AFTER PRESENTING A BRIEF PICTURE OFEARLY BRITISH INTEREST IN ITALY AND ITALIAN, THEREPORT TRACES THE CONSEQUENT DEVELOPMENTOF THE STUDY OFITALIAN IN THE STATES FROM THE COLONIAL PERIOD TO THE PRESENTDAY. AREAS DISCUSSED IN OUTLINING THIS HISTORICALDEVELOPMENT ARE (1, LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE AND STUDYDURING THE COLONIALPERIOD, (2) PRIVATE INSTRUCTION FROM1775 TO 1861, 13) THE19TH CENTURY ITALOPHILIA OF THE AMERICAN INTELLECTUALELITE, AND (4) THE STUDY CF ITALIAN IN ACADEMIES FROM1820 TO 1850. MORE THOROUGH DESCRIPTIONS OF ITALIAN STUDYAT THE ELEMENTARY AND PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL LEVELS AND IN THECOLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES INCLUDE LISTS Of SCHOOLS ORINSTITUTIONS WHERE STUDENTS HAVE BEEN REGISTERED IN ITALIANCOURSES. AMONG THE ITEMS THAT CONCLUDE THE DOCUMENT AREACCOUNTS Of FOUR PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS FOR ITALIANTEACHERS, Too SPECIAL COURSES IN THE LANGUAGE, AND OPPORTUNITIESFOR STUDY IN ITALY. THIS DOCUMENT IS AVAILABLE FOR$4.00' FROM PROFESSOR JOSEPH LAGGINIs SECRETARY - TREASURER OFTHE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS OF ITALIAN, RUTGERSUNIVERSITY, NEW ORUNSWICki N.J. 049030CAW el TEACHING OF ITALIAN IN THE U1441TED STATES

A DOCIM,ENTARY HISTORY

By JOSEPH G. FUCILIA

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS OF ITALIAN NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY 1967 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface .

Chapter

I. The English Background . 8 IL Informal Knowledge of Italian and Study of the Language in the Private Schools during the Colonial Period. . . . 19

III. Private Teachers from 1775 to 1861 . sft IV. ItalophiliaoftheAmericanIntellectualEliteduringthe Nineteenth Century . . .

V. Italian in the Colleges and Universities. . . 77

VI. The Study of Italian in the Academies (1810186o). . . 194 VII. The Study of Italian in the Public Schools and the Grades

i. High Schools . . . . 2_ g2 A. Elementary Schools(including private and religious

schools) . . . . 'rg,- VIII. Miscellanea

1. The American Association of Teachers of Italian. . *88

a. The Italian Teachers Association . . . 267 3. The Modern Language Association . . . . *8g 4. The National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations . . . 191 5. Italian in the Schools of Music . *93 6. Special NonCredit Courses . . . . . *94 7. Commercial Language Schools . *95 8. The Study of Italian in Italy. . 297 PREFACE

The first of the histories ofmodern languages in thiscountry is Professor Charles HartHandschin's The Teaching of Modern Languages in the UnitedStates, whichwas published by the U.S. Bureau of Education(Washington, D.C., 1913). It isa brief but original piece ofresearch whichconcentrates on French and German, saysvery little about Spanish andeven less about Italian. In other words, thetitleis a misnomer. Amore appropriate name for the studyshould have been A Historyof the Teaching of Frenchand German. Itwas followed by Professor E.W. Bagster-Collins'History of Modern Language Teaching in the United States(New York, 1930), which avowedly draws a good deal from Handschinbut extends the discussion to 1930. As might be expected, in it,too, what can be learned about Italian is slight. Muchmore informative is the 63-page Historical Section (i77g-1934)sin Bruno Rose Ili's Italian Yesterday and Today (Boston,1935). On the colleges he gives adequate details for Columbia,New York University, Harvard, Brown, Bowdoin, Yale, Santa Clara,but is sketchy and lacunose as to other institutions of higher learning. Thoughquite a few of the dates on theyear 'of the introduction of the language in a given college are in need of rectification, ProfessorRoselli has been able to establish thecorrect date for the majority of those he lists. It is his most importantcontribution to his book. He barely dwells upon the study ofItalian in the early secondary schools and as to theirrecent history gives us littlemore than can be learned from the Reports of the ItalianTeachers' Association. What he hasto say on the teaching of elementary Italian in the religiousschoolsisbrief but useful. The educational material in GiovanniSchiavo's Four Centuries of Italian American History (NewYork, 1954) has been helpful for some details on schools establishedby Italian immigrants. Among the studies on the teaching ofItalian during the late eighteenth and the first half ofthe nineteenth centurya number of fine contributions havebeen made by Professor

5 Emilio Goggio and Professor Howard R.Marraro, of which I have availed myself in several sections ofthis monograph. The Annual Reports of the Italian Teachers'Association have been Invaluable for the period betweenigss and 1938. Other materials that have been utilizedare MO al Licles by Prof.Miche- le D.; Filippa cm Italianat the University of California, Professor Goggio'sarticle on theUniversity of Toronto, Professor Herbert H. Golden's sketch ofLa scuola italiana di Middlebury, Professor J. ChesleyMathews' data onsome of the notable American writers whohave studied Italian, Mrs. Pimirillo's manuscript noteson the history of Italian at the University of California andsome news notes that have appeared in Italica from time to time. Though these studies andcomments deserve our warm appreciation they, ofcourse, could not if pieced together result in a well-rounded and continuoushistory of the teaching of Italian in the United States. Thisis what I have attempted to do and it explains why I havegone to primary sources of information for the great bulk ofmy subject matter. I have done a very substantialamount of personal investigation, but in view of the extensive geographicaland chronologicalrange of my study, I have hadto call upon numerous individuals for assistancea veritable legion of.college archivists, curators, registrars, librarians and reference librariansin college, state, citylibraries and historicalsocieties.Most of them have responded graciouslyto my requests,sometimesrepeated requests, for data. Among my colleagues Paul F. Bosco,Joseph M.Carriere,SalvatoreCastiglione, FlorindoCerreta,Mrs. Catherine Feucht, Anthony Gisolfi, EmilioGuerra, Robert A. Hall, Jr., Nancy Jo Harrison, NicolaeIliescu, A.B. Masella, RobertMelzi,ElizabethNissen,JosephineBrunoPane, Angelina Pietrangeli, Olga Ragusa,Cecilia Ross and Aldo Scaglione have given precious time searchingfor information ontheschoolswithwhichtheyareconnected,and in severalcases on the educational institutions in the cities and states in which they reside. Specialthanks are due to my wife, Reba Ann, for herassistance in reading the proofs and in typingmy manuscript in its various drafts and in its final

6 .111111111111.111.11010110.M.wwwil

form, and to Miss Marjorie Carpenter, inter-library loan librarian at Northwestern University, for theunfailing solicitude with which she handled my numerous requests for loans of books, theses and microfilms. The critics that have read my manuscript have been Vincent Cioffari, A. Michael De Luca, Emilio Goggio, Herbert H. Golden, Archibald T. MacAllister, Howard R. Marraro, Antonio Pace and Joseph Rossi. Their suggestions have beenextremely worth while and where feasible a number of them have been incorporated into this study. They and all the other collaborators deserve their share of credit and my gratitude in helping to mould my history in the form in which it is here presented. Finally, by means of the huge mosaic of facts that I have put together, I hope that I haveconvinced even the most skeptical that, as a modern foreign language, the studyof Italian has had a very honorable place in the educationalhistory of our country, a place whichlovers of Italian culture can view with considerable satisfaction.* JOSEPH G. FUCILLA Northwestern University

* Note: This history is the result of a decision made atthe Annual Business Meeting of the American Association of Teachers of Italianin Dec. 1963 during the presidency of Professor Alfred Iacuzzi.The project was submitted to and and approved by Professor Donald D. Walsh,Director of the MLA Foreign Language Program. The research reported herein was performed pursuant to a contract with the United States Department of Health, Education, andWelfare, Office of Education, under provisions of Title VI, Public Law85-864, as amended, Section Sat.

7 CHAFFER I

THE ENGLISHBACKGROUND

Since Chaucer there hasalways been a strong proItalian tradition in England. Thisnaturally re-appeared inthe old Anglo-American Colonies andcontinued to conditionthe responses of the cultivated Americanpublic throughouta considerable part of the nineteenthcentury. Starting with the period of theRenaissance,letusseebriefly whatthis background was. It is generally concededthat from the standpointof its impact on society Castiglione'sCortegiano (150) isone of the greatest books ever written. TheItalian uomo di virtu,the French honnete homme,the English gentleman andthe Spanish caballero, all of themare patterned after the ideal courtier meticulously described in it.In chapter XXVII of BookII Castiglione advises the courtierto acquire the knowledge of different languages, ° especiallySpanish and French,* thetwo most important languages of thetime in addition to Italian,to be used at court andas a means of cultivating closer international amity and understanding. This was one of the earliestand most influentialstatements favoring the learning ofmodern languagesas an essential part of the education ofan individual. The treatise not only providedthe needed stimulus for learning the moderntongues, but outside of Italy it also served as a language text. " For generations TheCourtier was, so tosay, the classic of the courtier'slife. It was a book for whichit was worth while for the nobleto learn Italian. Many probably have learned what they knew ofItalian from its perusal.* 2 Insuch cases the language was learned bya comparison of the original with the translation. Forexample, Thomas Hoby'stranslation was used either separatelyor in the tri-lingual edition in Italian, French and English also preparedby Hoby and published in

Cf. Foster Watson. TheBeginnings of the Teaching ofModern Subjects in England. London,1909, 458.

8 1588. Later, in 1727,an A.P. Castiglione, a self-styled descendent of Baldesar, produced in Londona parallel translation in English and Italian. It happened that thenew modern language vogue coincided with a long period of violent religiouspersecution on the continent which broughtto England alarge number of Protestant refugees from France, the Lowlands and Italy,many of whom were enabledto earn their livelihood as teachers of French, Italian or both. Among the prominentItalians who settled in the island-kingdom after the establishmentof the Inquisition in Italy in1542 was Michael Angelo Florio, who became pastor and preacher in the Italian Churchin London in 155o or 1551. There, as Roger Ascham notes in his Scholemaster (157o) gathered a number of Italianate-Englishmenwho " cum thither to heare the Italiantongue naturally spoke, not to heare God's doctrine trewly preached." Two of MichaelAngelo Flazio's pupils were the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey(who was beheaded in 1554 because she had takenpart in the rebellion against Mary Tudor's Spanish marriage), and thegreat literary patron of the day, the Earl of Leicester. Liberal religious opinions may also explain the English residence of Petruccio Ubaldini, the Florentine historian.He was in the country from 1545 to 1553 in the service of young Edward VI, probably as his tutor. When the king died in1553 he went to Venice, but in 1582 hewas back in England, " married an Englishwife,taughtItalian,wrotepoetry, illuminated andtranslatedmanuscripts,composedseveral accounts of historical events, published the first Italian book to be printed in England, and lived in comparativepoverty and good reputation almost as longas the Queen herself." 2 The real establishment of the teaching of Italian in England was, however, accomplished by Michael Angelo's son John. He entered Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1581 and is said to have taught Italian there. " He [John Florio]was in all respects one of the most learned and prodigious scholars of the Renaissance. We need only glance at his contemporary reputation in order 2 See John L. Lievsay. The Elizabethan Image of Italy. Ithaca, N.Y., 1964, 7.

9 to judge in what high esteem he was held. He was patronized by the Earls of Leicester and Southampton; he was an official Groom of the Privy Chamber,' reader in Italian to Prince Henry and tutor to Princess Elizabeth, afterwards Queen of Bohemia; he numbered Sir Edward Dyer, Fulke Stephen Gosson among his pupils; his words were prefaced withcommendatory poems by such m-.11 as SamuelDaniel, John Thorius, and Matthew Gwinne; he was a friend of Ben Jonson, Nicholas Breton, Richard Hakluyt, Theodore Diodati, Gabriel Harvey, Edmund Spencer and Giordano Bruno. This imposing list of great Elizabethans may serve to indicate theconspicuous place Florio occupied in the intellectual circles of his day." 8 John Florio's first printed text was His firste Fruites: which yeelde familiar speech, merie Proverbs, wittie Sentences, and golden sayings (London, 1578). It is a series of dialogues dealing with daily lifein London leavened with a good deal of moralizing. It was followed by the Second Frutes, To be gathered of twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome tastes to the tongues of Italians and Englishmen. To which is annexed his Gardine of Recreations, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs, Ital. and Eng. (London, 1591). It was intended to appeal primarily to the intellectuals and in content and treatment belongs to the courtier literature that was flourishing at the time. Shakespeare, like so many of his contemporaries, must have learned the languages he knew from manuals of the type produced by Florio, which he indirectly utilized in his plays. " Thereisconvincingevidence...thatShakespearewas particularly influenced by the First Fruites and Second Frutes of John Florio. He remembered their conversational techniques, the method of using proverbs in colloquial speech, their witty sayings, syllogism!, philosophical reasonings, and their author's opinions on various subjects. Shakespeare's knowledge of Florio's language books is reflected in his works in many ways; his knowledge of other dialogue manuals is not as evident in as many specificinstances,buttheyprobablyhadsimilar 3 Quoted from R.C. Simonini,Jr. Italian Scholarship in Renaissance England. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1952,55-56. See also A. Lytton Sells. The Italian Influence in English Poetry.Bloomington, Ind., 1955, 92-95.

10 inSuences." Somewhat clearer and more concrete is the influence of these two booksupon Florio's friend, Ben Jonson.' The last of Florio's publicationsis A World. of Wordes: most copious and exact Dictionarie in Italian and English (London, 1598), a work which contains 46,000 definitions that on account of the fullness of their treatments constitute an encyclopedia as well as a dictionary. In 1611 under the tide Queen Anna's New World of Wordsthe number of definitions was augmented to 74,000. Though a very recent study by Prof. De Witt T. Starnes,di John Florio Revisited,* in theTexas StudiesinLiterature and Language,VI (n965), 408-12, has shown that the dictionary is not quite as original as has been supposed, it nevertheless stands as a monumental undertaking. As a writer of Italian language texts Florio had several predecessors. The first of them was William Thomas who in 155o published the PrincipalRules of the Italian Grammar,with a Dictionarie for the better understandynge of Boccace, Petrarcha, and Dante(second and third editions, 1561, 1567). The seeming archaism shown by Thomas in his choice of models mirrors the situation in Italy where he lived for five years at a time when a new vernacular humanism was beginning to emerge with the recognition of Italian as an independent literary language on parity with Greek and Latin. In the disputes onthe Question. della linguaBembo and the purists had won the contest. The Cardinal had published in 1525 theProse della volgar lingua, one of the very earliest grammars compiled in accordance with the new literary tastes in which the language of Petrarch and Boccaccio was set up as the standard language to be used in writing. Florio's grammar is,incidentally, modelled on the Prose. Dante was added as a model by Thomas because he appears prominently in the earliest dictionaries of Italian by

4 Simonini, zo3. I See Simonini, op. cit., 103-og. "Though Leon Battista Alberti had preceded Bembo, thelatter of apparently did not utilize him in his Prose, nor does it appear that the Alberti treatise was known to others. See La prima grammatica della lingua voltare. La grantrnatichetta vaticana. (Cod. Vat. Reg. Lat.37o). A curs dl Cecil Grayson. Bologna, ig64.

11 Accarisio and Alunnowhich he sources. Thomas acknowledgesas two of is also theauthor of his of Italy(154g), a remarkably unquestionablythe best fine History foreignnationwritten Englishaccount ofany before theseventeenth most extensivestudyon this colorful century. The * Unitalianistanel figure isby Sergio Cinquecento:William Rossi XL (1966),281-314. Thomas *Asvum, Anotherearly Italian Granthan's text byan Englishman translationof Lentulo's is Henry notice di Latingrammar, La M.S. Lentulo...(London, gram- prepared forthe 1575, and ed.1587), which daughters ofLord he DavidRowland is Berkeleywhom he the translatorof A tutored. Scholirrs, fullof varietyof ComfortableAyds for author, sentences,gathered (intitledSpecchio de out ofan Italian In its la linguaLatina) Preface hestates: (London,1578). Onceeveryone knew Latin Italianwas learned, Latin andfrom andnow Italian is Moreimportantand as widelyspread.* Hollyband more activeas a teacher or De Sainliensor it Sancto was Claude Huguenot Vinculo,a French refugee whosettleddown in he taughtlanguages London in1564, where formore thanforty his Italianmanuals years. Beforewriting Littleton Hollybandhadcomposed (London,1566) and The French (London,1575), both The French of whichwent through Schoolmaister Hismethod of numerous editions. combininggrammar and importantinnovationin the dialoguewas an was applied field ofmodern by himin hisThe Pretie languages andit Arndt andLucinda, and WittigHistory of with certainrules set of th'Italiantong (London, foorth forthe learner the 1575) andin the contents of revision inwhich History...are reversed.A third the Campodi Fiori manual byhim, or else TheFlourie Languages.For the Field ofFowere French, furtheranceof thelearners of English,but chiefle of the the Latine, 1583),was intended Italiantongue (London, of to appealto the rather individualsduring the large polyglotschool had catered Elizabethanperiod. to thearistocracy WhereasFlorio speech, in hisattempt to Hollybandappealedto the teach courtly colloquialexpression. rouses in hisstress of A contemporaryand friendof Hollyband isAlexander 12 Citolini, philosopher and poet, mentioned by Giordano Bruno Inla cena dells ceneribecause in 1583 he had been set upon and wounded by a London mob. He is the author ofa well known letter in defense of Italian (Rome,154o andTipoconnia o it mondo ridotto ad un luogo solo(Venice, 1361). Citolini had been forced to leave his native Italyon account of his heretical opinions. After some residence in Germany he settled down in England where he taught Italian andwrote a pretentious Grammatica Rolland.*Hollyband in the preface of hisThe Pude andWittie History of Amen and Lucindasuggests that anyone wishing to acquire a more perfect knowledge of Italian 48 should regale to a Grammar set fourth by Alexander Citolini, where he may see as in full sea, the full and whole skill anduse of the same tongue and all the difficulties and points of thesame plainly strewed and taught." The only evidence of the existence of the grammar is the manuscript in the British Museum, which has led to the conclusion that it was never published. However, since Hollyband refers to it as material accessible to the public it is certain that though traces of it have disappeared, it must have circulated in print at this time, c. 1575. Religious unorthodoxy accounts also for the presence in England of Giacomo Castelvetro, neew of the famous dramatic theorist Ludovico. Having left his native Modena in 1564, he was in England in 1574, and the following year accompanied John, the eldest son of Sir Roger North of Kirtling in Crunbridgeshire, on a two year tour in Italy as travelling tutor. Since there were family matters in Modena that required his presence he did not return with his ward. However, in 158o he was in London, where he made the acquaintance of the printer, John Wolfe, the most important producer of Italian books in Elizabethan London, for whom he edited at least eight books, among them Taco's A minta and Guarino's Pastor fido. The deaths of his intimate friends and patrons, Sir Philip Sidney, Sir Francis Waisington and Sir Christopher Hatton must have had a considerable influence on his decision to leave London in I See L. Feeds. a Alessandro Citolini auk italiitno in Inghilterri, con doctunenti inedid.s Reisdiconti del Reale Istitsao Lomberdo dl Scienxe e Lettere, LXXIII (1959-4o), st3-43.

13 Ina. Accordingly, he solicited andobtained the favor of James VI of Scotland to become his and the Queen'sSchoolmaster for the Italian 'Tongue.' He was still in Edinburgh in 1594. Venice became his residence for a while possibly as early as isgg and there he taught Italian to members of the English Embassy headed by Sir Henry Wotton and their English guests. In sets he was back in England and in the Spring of that year was already functioning as tutor in Italian at Cambridge University. In his teaching he used his own conversation manuals of which incomplete drafts have been preserved in Trinity College Library. In 1614 he had moved to Oxford and back to London where he died in1616. The late Kathleen Teresa Blake Butler concludes her rather extensive study of this Italian, " Giacomo Castelvetro:1546-1616. Italian Studies, V (Iwo, 39-40), as follows:" He andFloriowerecontemporaries,though Castelvetro was the senior by seven years. Different as they were in most respects, they were both much more than mere language teachers, though it was no doubt largely through their Italian teaching that they helped to spread a knowledge of Italian customs, thought and literature in England.Florio was an anglicized Italian, whose English prose bears comparison with that of the best of his contemporaries. Castelvetro who travelled far and wide in the intervals of his long residences in England, always thought of hisbella et civile Italia' as his real home, and perhaps knew too many languagesFrench, German, Spanish and English as well as Greek and Latinto write any but his own really well... Yet when one considers his many-sided interestsliteraryandlinguistic,political,historicaland theological, semi-scientific and practical; when one remembers too his activity, not only in distributing Italian booksin England, but also in editing and publishing some of them in London, one feels that just as Oxford has every reason to take pride in her first recorded teacher of Italian, John Florio, so Cambridgeto put it as temperately as possiblehas no cause to think poorly of hers. For Castelvetro was the first inCambridge about whom we have any information. Of a predecessor: the Italian Maister ' who in 158o was giving lessons to Gabriel Harvey and his little brother and who from playne John,' re-

14 christened the young pupil into91 mio Battista,'not even the piccolo Giovanni name hascome downto us.' At thethreshold ofthe new centuryJohn Sanford Sandford,student,chaplain and or ItalianGrammar tutor at Oxford,wrote an (London,16o6), which basedupon authorities has thevirtue of being on Italiangrammar, Ludovico and others.Benvenuto Ita Dolce liano,very likelya religious refugee teacher,soon followedwith The series of Passenger (London,161s), a dialoguesintended bothfor the Italy andfor trainingin * the English travellerto A more courtlygraces.* significantcontributorto the diffusion culture inEnglandwas Giovanni of Italian work is Torriano whosefirst published a small volumeentitled New Attaining the and EasieDirections for ThuscanItalian4Tongue consisting ofrules on (London, 1639),primarily pronunciationand accentuation. followed in1640 bya grammar-dialogue It was Tutoror a New and manual: TheItalian most CompleatItalian ProfessorSimonini,op. cit. 77, has Grammar. As developed here observed, *The method marksa significantadvance in in theRenaissance.For the first Italian pedagogy relate the time wesee an effort made principles ofgrammar to the to [the second practice ofthe dialogues part of the book].It became modern language customary insubsequent text-booksto correlate readings with exercises and particularlessons of short technique has grammar. Sucha learning proven so successfulthat its is stillconsidered employmenttoday sound languagepedagogy.* In published DellaLingua 1657 Torriano to the Italian Thoscana-Romana. Or,An introduction Tongue... alsoA new choice Dialogues store Houseof properand Most Usefulfor such part, and intend as desire thespeaking to travel intoItaly with the or the Levant.As business Levant hadnow assumeda major role commerce itwas advantageous in British to learnItalian, the franca of theMediterranean.* lingua Followinga period ofstudy in England, mostlytutoring, ' It will be remembered thatthe noted had dredgedLeghorn and engineer SirRobert Dudley turned it intoa great seaport colony of sucha considerable size with an English that an Englishtraveller, Francis on stopping therein 1658was led to declare Mortoft, thatthe Marchants...have

15 many of those interested in Italian in the sixteenth centurywent to Italy to complete their education either by attending her institutions of learningBologna and Paduaorby indepen- dently absorbing her cultural treasures. Like thegreat Thomas Linacre who had studied there from 1487to 1498 they, too, considered Italy as the 6 alma mater studiorum.6Even after Italy by mid-seventeenth century had surrendered herliterary hegemony to France, her artistic and archeological appealand still unchallenged scientific supremacy continuedto draw a steady flood of Englishmen. Soon thereafter the Grand Tour became fashionablein England with Italy as the highlight of the extended journey.For most of the tourists it was primarily a pleasure trip but in the classic land south of the Alps pastime didnot preclude a lively interest in cultural matters. Joseph Addison in the Prefaceof the most popular of thescores of travel-books then in circulation, his Remarks on Several Parts of Italy lac. In the Yearszmr, 1702, 17.03 (London) enumerates for his countrymen the various benefits they might expect to derive froman Italian sojourn. There is certainly no place in the world wherea man may travel with greater pleasure and advantage than in Italy.One finds something more particular in the face of thecountry, and more astonishing in the works of nature, than can be met with in any part of Europe. It is thegreat school of music and painting and contains in it all the noblest productions ofstatuary and architecture, both ancient and modern. It abounds with cabinets of curiosities, and vast collections of all kindsof antiquities. No other country in the world has sucha variety of governments, that are so different in their constitutions andso refined in their politics. There isscarce any part of the nation that is not famous in history,nor so much as a mountain or river that has not been thescene of some extraordinary action.** New generations of tutors now replac'ecl the old andnew a very convenient place to meete in, where one shal hardly meete with any but English men.* Quotation comes from Francis Mortoft:His book. (Letts edition, London, Igs5, p. 48). ' In connection with travel in Italy at this timesee the informative book by P.F. Kirby. The Grand Tour in Italy: 170o-180o. New York,1955.

16 textbooks were madeavailableto the travellers. lyricist PaoloRol li The famous (1687-1763),who livedin England to 1744, gainedfameas a private from 1715 pupils the teacher countingamong his children ofGeorge II nobility. He andmany members ofthe was followedby Giuseppe painterReynolds, the Baretti, friendof the actor Garrickand intimate Johnson. Rolli didnot publish of Samuel the other any textbooksbut Baretti,on hand, providedthe Britisher: the extremely with severalof them: popularDictionaryof the Italian which isadded Language. To an Italian andEnglish A Grammar Grammar(London, 176o), of the ItalianLanguage with moralsentences. To a copious praxisof which isaddedan English of the Italians Grammar foruse (London, 1762),Easy Phraseology Young ladies,who intend for theuse of Italian to learn theColloquialpart of the Language. Witha preface by 1775). Preceding Samuel Johnson(London, theseare two worksby Ferdinando Dizionarioitaliano inglese Altieria the Italian (London, 1716),and a Grammar Language(London, of eighteenth 1755, 3rd ed. 1777).Among other century Italiantexts issued in be mentioned England thatmight is EvangelistaPalermo's The of the ItalianLanguage AmusingPractice 4 The first (London, 1779)which informsus that part containsa choice collection bon mots, of humorous smart reparteesand both in stories, second part Italian andEnglish. The containssome stories in to translate Italian onlyfor learners into English.The third very pretty novels part containsonlysome in Englishonly to be It happens translated intoItalian.* to be the firstreader in the United States,New York, language printedin the James Rivington,1782. Interestingly,Italian the seems sometimesto have penetrated English-speakingworld inthe wake French, hence of theubiquitous it isnot a surpriseto note that Italiangrammars written a number of by Frenchmenwere also utilized Great Britainand America, in in particularGiovanni Maitre italien(1708), which Veneroni's by 1778hadgone through its fifteenth edition.Its authorwas a native of Verdun in1642, who had France bornat acquired sucha fluent knowledge Italian thathe was ableto deceive of His everyone as to his surname hadoriginally been nationality. Vigneron, butwhen hecame

17

2 to Paris he Italianizedit, passed himself taught the off as a Florentineand language withphenomenal succeu. For those who wished to learnItalian in Italy,Lord Chesterfield ina letter to hisson under the date 1749, suggests the of Dec. i6, application of theageless trial-and-error in learninghow to speak method it. g Speak Italianright orwrong to everybody, and ifyou do but laugh at yourself first foryour bad Italian, nobodywill laugh at you for it. Thatis the onlyway to speak it perfectlywhich Iam sure you will do, sure you may before because Iam you leave Rome...*The letter endsin Italian: * Midica anchese la lingua italiana parla facilmente, va bene, e se la ma in ogni caso bisognaparlarlasetup_ re per poter alla fineparlarla bene e pulito. Le donnel'insegnano meglio assai delmaestri...* 22 Perhaps the sketchthat we have an idea of the given will sufficeto give remarkable efflorescenceof interest inItaly and Italian on thepart of Britishers livingoverseas. The way isnow dear forus to deal directlywith our subject on the American as it has appeared scene from the colonialepoch toour times. "See Bioraphie universelle, Vol.43,to-11. " Taken fromThe Lettersof Philip Donner Stanhope, Earlof Chesterfield (London,18gs, Vol. I,29110).

18 CHAPTER II

INFORMAL KNOWLEDGE OF ITALIAN AND STUDY OF THE LANGUAGE IN THE PRIVATESCHOOLS DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD

The first distinguished colonist with an intimateknowledge of Italy, its language and its people was George Sandys.He came to America in 16s1 when he wasappointed Colonial Treasurer of the Virginia Company and stayed there until1631. Having spent some months in Italy in 1610-11,he has left us with an account of his experiences in aRelation of a Journey begun An: Dorn: zdzo. Foure Books Containing a description ofthe Turkish Empire, of Egypt, of the Holy Land, of the RemoteParts of Italy and Islands Adjoining (London, 1615).1John Winthrop Jr., another Englishman with previous residence inItaly, arrived in New England in 1631. In 1635 he wasappointed governor of the colony of Connecticut. There he wasassociated in various enterprises with Dr. Robert Child, ex-student ofmedicine at the University of Padua. Like Child anumber of seventeenth century colonial physicians mustlikewise have been Padua- trained.* Nathaniel Eaton, first master of HarvardCollege, and Henry Saltonstall, a member of the firstgraduating class at Harvard, were among the New Englanderswho studied at the renowned medical center. William Penn issaid to have had a thorough knowledgeof Italian,8 while his intimate friend and associate, the well-known pietist,Francis Daniel Pastorius, also came to America after a period ofresidence in Italy. John Clapp, merchant, planter and a minorfigure in New York

'For more detailed information on Sandys, see achapter in A. Lytton Sells. The Paradise of Travellers: The ItalianInfluence on Englishmen in the z7th Century (Bloomington, Ind., 1964,169-184). As Dr. W.B. Blanton remarks in his Medicinein Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (Richmond, igso, 8o) aSome of the earlier ones (i.e. the physicians) had doubtless touched elbowswith Harvey at Padua under the tutelage of Fabricius of Acquapendente." 3 See Foster Watson, op. cit., 524.

19 politics, may have learned the languageas a young man while accompanying his fatheror uncle who were captains in the English merchant marine doing tradewith the Levant. In his New York Almanack for 1697 hequotes and translates lines zoi-os of Canto XXIV of Dante's Paradiso inthe course of his discussion of eclipses. The Englishingof these Dante verses is the first bit of translation from theDivine Comedy appearing in America, while the quotation inItalian marks at thesame time the first words in Italian printedin this country.4 We know that in the 175o's Catholicsfrom Maryland were attending Catholic colleges in France andItaly.8 One Marylander, Father John Carroll, who in 1789became the first American Catholic bishop, spent abouta year in Rome and Naples in the early 7o's. The Diary ofa Tour to Europe: 1736-37 written by Benjamin Pollard, atone time sheriff of Suffolk County, Mass., furnishes evidence that colonial Americanshad already begun to tour Italy for pleasure.4 By the middle ofthe century wealthy American families, particularly thosewhose sons had been sent to England to complete their studies, had alsobegun to send them down to Italyon the Grand Tour. The most notable individual in this groupwas Dr. John Morgan, founder of the first American Medical School andlater Director General of Hospitals and Physician in Chief ofthe Revolutionary Army. A Journal records his experiences duringhis five months' trip to Italy in 3164. John Smibertwas the first known Anglo- American painter who lived in Italy(1717-1720). He was followed by Benjamin West in 1760, HenryBenbridge in 1768, John Singleton Copley in 1774-75 andcirca 1775 by Ralph Izard of Charleston, South Carolina. Sandys, John Winthrop Jr. andother early American colonial residents must have broughtwith them from England See J.G. Fucilla." The First Fragment of a Translation of the Divine Comedy Printed in America."Italica, XXV (1948), 2-4. 5 See Maryland Gazette, Mar.21, 1754. In the Winslowpapers,of the Massachusetts HistoricalSociety. Reference comes from Paul R. Baker.The Fortunate Pilgrims: Americans in Italy, i800-186o. (Cambridge,Mass. 1964, 16-17).

20 a certain number of Italian books. We have not been able to ascertain what books in the language were in the largest of colonialprivatelibraries,thatof Rev. John Cotton. His descendant, Cotton Mather, mentions in his writings works by Machiavelli, Diodati, Boccalini. Peter Martyr, which probably formed part of his personal library. Giovanni Schiavo in Italians in America Before the Civil War (Chicago, 1934, 7) in referring to the collections of the period states:" It is revealing how many Italian books were found 4n the libraries of the New England divines or in Harvard." In Virginia, one Captain William Brocas, a member of the Council before 1655, left at his death " a parcel of old torn books most of them Spanish, Italian and Latin valued at loo lbs.of tobacco." 7In the eighteeenth century the biggest library in America was owned by James Logan, the most learned man of the country at that time. That he knew Italian can be inferred from the books in this language that formed part of his collection, which later became the nucleus of The Loganian, the first free public library in America outside of Boston.8 His books have been catalogued under thetitle Catalogus Bibliotecae Loganinae: Being a Choice Collection of Books, as Well in the Oriental, Greek and Latin, as in the English, Italian, Spanish, French and Other Languages. Given by the Late James Logan, Esq. of Philadelphia for the Use of the Publick (Philadelphia, 176o). Among those who did not go to Italy but who are, neverthe- less, known to have studied Italian is Benjamin Franklin. In his Autobiography he describes the curious device he employed in learning it:" I had begun in 1733 to study languages; I soon made myself so much a Master of the French as to be able to read the Books with Ease. I then undertook the Italian. An Acquaintance, who was also learning it, us'd often to tempt me to play Chess with him. Finding this took too much of the Time I had to spare for Study, I at length refus'd to play any more, unless on this condition, that the Victor in everyGame, should have the Right to impose a Task, either in Parts of the 7 Virginia Historical Magazine, 1894, 421-22. See E. Gordon Alderfer." The PoliticalCareer of a Colonial Scholar." Pennsylvania History, XXIV (1957), 33-54.

21 Grammar to be got by heart, or in Translation, Soc., which Task the Vanquish'd was to perform upon Honour before thenext Meeting. As we play'd pretty equallywe thus beat one another into that language." Another odd idea that he advocated later with reference to both Italian and Frenchwas that they should be used to achieve a mastery of Latin rather than viceversa. Franklin was familiar with Machiavelli's Discourseson Livy, read and used the Prince as wellas the works of Campa- nella, and shows a slight acquaintance with Dante, Petrarch and Ariosto. He perused with pleasure and profit Giambattista Beccaria's Dell'elettricismo naturale e artificiale (Turin, 1753), corresponded extensively with this great Italian scientist, with the eminent Neapolitan political thinker, Gaetano Filangieri, and many other Italians who had become his ardent admirers in the course of the Eighteenth Century. He contributeda new word of Italian coinage to the English language by namingone of his inventions the " armonica." Franklin's abilityto speak and write Italian was never more thanmeagre, but he did not experience any real difficulty in reading it. Suchas it was he managed to attain a command of the language second onlyto his Latin and French.° Data on the teaching of Italian in the coloniesare quite scanty in part because printed or manuscript materials have either been lost or are extremely difficult ofaccess. Some idea of the task involved can be gained from Robert Francis Seybolt's The Private Schools in Colonial Boston (Cambridge, Mass., 1935), who in going through some thirtynewspaper files be- tween 1706 and 1776 has been able to pick up barely a dozen instances on the teaching of French, the most popular of modern foreign languages in eighteenth century America. Nevertheless, there is enough evidence to show that therewas a fair demand for Italian in most of the original thirteen coloaies. In his " Notes on the Curriculum of Colonial America." Journal of Educational Research, XII (1925), 373, Professor Seyboltstatesinthe closing paragraph ofhissection on 9 Most of this information has been drawn from Prof. Antonio Pace's magnificentstudy:Benjamin Franklin and Italy(Philadelphia,1959), chapters 1, 3 and 7.

22 4 Bookkeeping," The usual commercialcourse of the period (Le. the first half of the 17oo'sj included mercantile arithmetic,' bookkeeping, and penmanship. For those whowere preparing to enter the employ of merchants engaged in foreign trade, the schools offered instruction in French, Italian, Portuguese, Span- ish and foreign exchange.* E.W. Bagster-Collins informsus in his History of the Modern Languages in the United States,op. cit., 8, that in addition to French, " Italian, Spanish andeven German were also objects of study in the thriving coasttowns * in the pre- Revolutionary days. Professor George E. Watts in The Teaching of French in the United States. French Review, XXXVII (1963),p. 3o, has noted that the South Carolina Gazette from 1750 to 1775 lists Italian among the wide range of subjects that Schoolmasters offered to teach. First in the meagre list of known teachers thatwe have been able to assemble is the name of Onorio Razzolini, whowas the tutor of Benedict Swingate, illegitimate son of Charles Calvert II, Fifth Earl of Baltimore. In view of his nationality and the vogue of Italian at the time he must have given the boy lessons in that language when he came to America in 1731or 1731. Incidentally, he later held the important post of Armourer and Keeper of the Stores of Maryland.'" The earliest advertisement of a teacher of Italian that has come to our notice is the one placed by Augustus Vaughan, probably a Britisher, in the New York Post Boy for Oct. s6, 1747 which announces the opening of a school " where English, Latin, French, Spanish and Italian are correctly and expedi- tiously taught.* 11 About 1750 John Mathias Kramer, a German, openeda school in French, Italian and German " for gentlemen and ladies * in Philadelphia. In 1753 the authorities of the Public Academy then under the presidency of Benjamin Franklinwere " See Giovanni Schiavo. Four Centuries of ItalianArnerican History (New York, 1954, no). " The first of several who cite this notice is Seybolt, « Notes on the Curriculum of Colonial America," op. cit., 277.

23 checking on the ability of Mr. Creamer[Kramer] " a gentleman from Germany " to teach French,Italian and German. Hewas appointed to teach only French in1754 and was dismissed the next year. Our Kramer was probably theson or grandson of Mathias Kramer who prepareda number of Italian textbooks for the German schools between1674 and 17ss. It is likely that the Rev. ArthurEmmerson, who was an Usher in the Grammar School ofWilliam and Mary College in 176145, didsome tutoring in Italian there sincewe find that in 1785 he openeda Classical School in Nansemond County, which offered instruction in Latin,Greek, French and Italian?' One of the most successful of theprivate teachers in New York just before the RevolutionaryWar must have been Antony Fiva if weare to judge from the number of advertise- ments that he placed in variousnewspapers from 177s to 1775. He claimed to be ableto teach theFrench, Italian and Spanish languages in theirgreatest purity,* as well as * to enable his pupils ina short time to carry on an epistolary correspondence so usefulparticularly to youngpersons in business.* 1$ Rivington's New York Gazeteer forMay 5, 1774 carried the announcement thatthree gentlemen lately arrived from London * had opened K A New Academyfor Teaching Musick, Dancing and the Italian and FrenchLanguages.* Joseph Cozani was to be the language teacher. Subscriptionon the part of K twelve scholars * wasnecessary to insure its opening. On June 16 Mr. Cozanigave notice in Rivington's that he had moved from Deck St. in New Yorkto Wall St. where he was continuing to instruct in French and Italian. Thesame paper carried advertisements from July 1774to April 1775 and perhaps later to the effect that Mrs. Cozani (lately from London)had set

" See a University of Virginia thesis for193s, Legislation Affecting Secondary Education in Virginia from z6z8to 2845, by Calvin H. Fhippins, P. 331 " New York Journal or General Advertiser,Dec. 10, 177s. For further details on Fiva, Gozani and several otherteachers, see H.R. Marraro. " The Teaching of Italianin America inthe Eighteenth Century.' Modern Language Journal, XXVI (194o), zoo-a8.

24 up a French Boarding School,to educate or complete the education of young ladies where will be taught theEnglish, French and Italian languages grammatically, also towrite and translate any language into the other, geography with aknow- ledge of history, to draw and paint upon silk embroidery, tambour, Dresden plain work, blond lace and severalother genteel and fashionable works. A particular attentionwill be paid to the morals and conduct of the ladies in everyparticular which may prove beneficial to themselves andsatisfactory to their parents.* We should like to observe parentheticallythat it is likely that other Italian teachers of vocal music,who had begun to come to this country in increasing numbers, directly or through their associates must have provided somesome instruction in Italian for their students throughout thelatter half of the eighteenth century. Another resident of New York, a Mr. C., whodescribes himself as a « gentleman lately arrived from Paris *told the readers of the New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury onSept. 26, 1774 that he was prepared to teachFrench and Italian grammatically and how to write them * withelegance and propriety. * 24 Francis Vaidale of Tours, whose last namealso appears as Vandal le and Vandale, had advertised theestablishment of a French school in Boston in the early monthsof 1774. During the same year in three notices in theNewport Rhode Island MercuryOct. 3, io and 17he announced himself as ateacher of Italian as well as French. He was in NewYork in 1775 and again in Boston in 1776. Later in 1779-80 heserved as a tutor in French at Harvard. In view of hisavowed knowledge of Italian it may be taken for granted that he wasavailable for instruction in that language from the time ofhis arrival in America to the end of his teaching career."

14 See Marraro, op. cit., Isl. is See Seybolt. The Private Schools of ColonialBoston, op. cit. 70-77.

25 CHAPTER III

PRIVATE TEACHERSFROM 1775TO 1861

Our discussion of the privateteachers of the period ranging Italian during from the Warof Independence War is chiefly to the Civil restricted to thefour mostimportant Eastern cities, New York,Philadelphia. Baltimore and Washington,D.C. and to NewEngland. Theseareas obviously sections with the represent the heaviest concentrationof interestin the languageon the part of thegeneral public.

NEW YORK In New York City instructionin Italiancontinued to be available despitedifficulties createdby the Revolution. instance, in the For New York DailyAdvertiser for May a tutor who does s8-31, 1778, not reveal hisname announced thathe would teach Italian andFrenchgrammatically, the prospective at the lodgings of students." Tenyears later, in 1788, the newspaper carried the same following notice inthe Mar. 17 andother issues: * AGentleman of theItalian Nation the Italian language proposes teaching grammatically. Ashis method ofteaching is judiciousand easy, he flatters himself that afterthree or four months of studythe scholars willacquire a sufficient of that elegant knowledge and soft languageto converse with and understand Italians.* to From 1790 to 1797 the Italiantextbooks which York bookdealer, the New James Rivington,regularly offeredfor sale through the Advertiser,furnish indirect both of students evidence of thepresence and teachersof the languageat that time.' This bringsus close to theyear of the arrival in of Lorenzo Da the city Ponte, the famouslibrettist of Mozart's di Figaro, Don Le nozze Giovanni andCosi fantutte. Readers of his See KR. Marraro. The Teachingof Italian in Eighteenth Century.*op. cit. us. America in the See Marraro,op. cit. 126.

26 itlemorie (1st ed. New York, 1827, and ed. id. 182g) will recall that he came to this country in June of 1805 in order to escape the importunities of his London creditors for the payment of the notes which he had endorsed for William Taylor the unscrupulous impresario of the Drury Lane Theater in London. In New York he opened a little grocery store, but soon an epidemic of yellow fever broke out in the city which caused him to move with his family to Elizabeth, N.J. Since the new grocery business he had set up in the New jersey town turned out to be a financial failure he decided to return to New York in 18o7 with the intention of establishing himself there as a teacher of lan- guages. In a bookstore owned by a Mr. Riley he chanced to meet a talented young man, Clement Clarke Moore, and asthe result of their conversation an Italian class of four was started at the house of Clement's father, Bishop Benjamin Moore, then Pres ident of Columbia College. Besides Clement the three others were Ms cousin Nathaniel Moore, John McVickar,and E. Pendleton. Clement Moore later became professor of Oriental and Greek literature at the General Theological Seminary and a pioneer of Hebrew lexicography in the United States.He is still remembered as the author of the popular poemTiwas the Night Before Christmas,* which he wrote for his own children. Nathaniel Moore became a lawyer, then professor of Greek and Latin at Columbia and late in the thirties President of the College. John McVickar taught philosophy also at Columbia. E. Pendleton has remained unidentified. The example of these 11 incomparable * young men proved to be contagious so that in less than a month Da Ponte had twenty-four students in his class. In 1808 he founded the first of a number of private institutes, the Manhattan Academy for Young Gentlemen. At the same time Mrs. Da Ponte started her Manhattan Academy for Young Ladies. French and Italian were taught in both schools. Day and evening assemblies were organizedK in which no other language than Italian was spoken,where the most beautiful passages of our orators and poets were read aloud or recited from memory and where we performed little comedies or operas composed by me for the mostdignified and respected young ladies in the city. The effect of such exercises was truly

....amas11111 marvelous. They added the delight ofamusement to the flame of general enthusiasm for the study ofthis beautiful language, and :erred at the same time to facilitatethe acquisition and the practice of it. We one gaveon a little stage I set up inmy own house, the Mirra of the great Alfieri. Ouraudience was made up of one hundred and fiftypersons who had all been introduced by me to the study of theItalian language within a space of three years. The delight occasioned bythat divine production, and the general approbationof itis not to be described. I was obliged torepeat it in the following eveningto greater applause and before a greater number ofspectators.* $ He had now been ableto accumulate a fair amount of money which he invested in a distilleryrun by him and another man. The collapse of the enterprise coupled witha momentary diminution of the number of his studentsdiscouraged him. At this juncture the receipt ofa letter from Mrs. Da Ponte's relatives at Sunbury, Pa., whichdepicted the business opportu- nities in the town in glowingterms, caused him to decide to move there with his family. The generalstore that he opened prospered to suchan extent that he was even able to devote some of his leisure time to teaching Italianto the young ladies of Sunbury and nearby Northumberland.Unfortunately, he was too generous in the extension of creditto his customers and this led to eventual disaster. In i 8 tg, after a lapse ofseven years, he was back teaching in New York. In his Della linguae letteratura italiana in New York (18s7) he writes thatsoon thereafter, that is, by the end of March i8si, he had already fromfiftyto sixty bright studentesse che in men di due anni leggevano,sciivevano e assaporavano le park del nostro idioms, e dellenostre grandi opere unto in prosa che in verso. * However, their speaking ability left something to be desired.Hence in order to remedy the flaw he tookon a few of his pupils as boarders, which made it possible for themto speak Italian fluently within a few months. This was the beginning ofa new * institute * called Ann Da Ponte's Boarding House,which continued to flourish

4 See Memoirs (Livingston ed.), Philadelphia,19/9, 305-06.

28 for almost twentyyears. One of the boarderswas Henry James Anderson who marriedFanny, Da Ponte's daughter, in1831. He subsequently becameprofessor of mathematicsat Columbia and distinguished himselfas an astronomer. Another boarder was the brilliant politician, GulianVerplanck, who stayed at the Da Fontes duringthe time he wasa Congressman. The professorship ofItalian literature at Columbia, which was officially tendered Da Ponte in1815, is discuued in the University section. In November of thatyear Manuel Garcia arrived in New York with histroupe for the performance ofa number of Italian operas, opening theseries with Rossini's Barbieri! di Siviglia. Da Ponte becameat once an enthusiastic supporter. 6 I dearly foresaw,* he writesin his Memoirs (op. cit. 448), the manyenormous advantages our literature would derive from it and how it wouldtend to propagateour language through the attractiveness of theItalian Opera, which in the eyes of every cultivated nation in the worldis the noblest and most pleasurable of all themany spectacles the human intelli- gence ever invented, and to the perfecting of whichthe noblest arts have vied with one another in contributing.*He was influential in getting thecompany to include Don Giovanni in its repertoire and, in additionto his own financial backing obtained funds from his friends andpupils in order topay for the singer to play thepart of Ottavio. The operaticseason was successful. Later when the Montresor andRiva-Finoli companies performed hegot himself financially involved with ruinous results. Referring especiallyto the Riva-Finoli fiasco he bitterly laments in his* Frottola per ridere (1835):" sunk in this enterprise all I had savedfor my decrepit days, and I was rewarded with ingratitudeby everybody! * 4 Though he was not quite as decrepitas he pictures himself, old age had inevitably taken itstoll. He had lost most of the dynamic qualities that had made him suchan effective and inspiring teacher. The anguished expression ofhis sad plight in the

4 Quoted by Joseph Louis Russo in LorenzoDa Ponte: Poet and Adven- turer. New York, 19sa, 153.

29 same pamphletis extremely touching: *Eighteen passed sinceI hada single pupil. months have language in I, thecreator of the America, theteacher of Italian persons whose more thantwo thousand progress astoundedItaly!... After years of hardlabor, I have twenty-seven no longera pupil! Nearly years old, I haveno more bread ninety Despite this in America.** pathetic finale,there isno question he easilystands outas the most but that teacher of prominent andsuccessfulprivate Italian thatthiscountry has an even ever had. Buthe left more enduringimpress inwhat he Americanculture. This accomplishedfor is summedup in anote by Professor Livingston inhis editionof the is nodoubt at Memoirs (op.cit., 363):* there allthat this[starting with importantmoment for the i8o8)was an Europe, American mind.Da Ponte poetry, painting,music, the made a creative classical artistic spirit,classical lore, education, liveformany important as no one Iventure had done Americans Da Ponte before.* tries to giveus the impression that he in hisMemorie functionedvirtually aloneas a teacher New York.This, however, of Italianin tells is contradictedby what us in Dellalinguae letteratura he himself (18s7) inwhich he italiana inNew York states that whenhe returned 1819 afteran unhappy to the city in stay at Sunbury,Pa. he found several of hiscompatriots had that of Italian establishedthemselvesas teachers there. Amongthemwere his friends, later asuccessful Antonio Rapallo, lawyer, OrazioDe Attellis, gelo,* ex-soldier Marchese diSantan- in Napoleon'sarmy and a Mezzara,a Padovani a Jacobin,a Ferrari, fu per and an Aloisi, ksedicente mold mesaMaestro di Fiorentino che Moth,* andwhom he contempt. Otherunnamed held in stori che competitors hedescribes vantandosioriundi di as 6 impo- tendo Firenzee di Roma,o promet- d'insegnaruna lingua in36, in zioni,trovaron sul fatto s4, e fino indied le- degli avventori,che in giorni pert)revertebantur quattro o sei percutientespectorasua * (op. cit., 31). In thefirst editionof the against still Memoirs heinveighs at length another teacher,a Marco Antonio Cant', alsoliving See Russo,op. cit. 133. See alsosection on the academies: NewYork.

30 in New York. The aforementioned Aloisi, incidentally, boasted in an advertisement in the New York American for May6, 1854 that he had resided ina number of different countries, and that as his recommendations he could submit testimonials from " Lady Abercromby, Lady Dunstan, and Professors Jardine and Walker of Glasgow College and othermost respectable characters. * Though Lorenzo L., Da Ponte's son, was directly associated with his father in his teaching enterprises, hemust also have devoted himself to private instructionon his own account. Professor Livingston in a note in his edition of the Memoirs (op. cit. 43o) states that in the interval between his teachingat Washington College in Chestertown, Md., and his appointment to the professorship of Italian at New York University, that is, between 18$7 and 183*, he taught Italian privately. Sauveur Bonfils (Salvatore Bonfiglio), a native Italian speaker from Corsica and a graduate of the University of Pisa, who came to America in 1817, does not figure in the list of Da Ponte either as a friend or enemy, but he, too,was already busily engaged in teaching Italian in the city in1855. Likewise unmentioned are two men who placed notices in the American, a Mr. Fiorilli, (April $9, 1855), and the Sicilian political refugee, Ferdinando Massa (Oct. $3, 184). F. De Gelone's surname could pass either as Italianor as French. At any rate, through the New York Commercial Advertiser for April 11, 185o, he offered instruction in Greek, Latin, French, Italian and Spanish. An unidentified individual, evidently a man of some culture, who had been in New York for a time, placed the following advertisement in the same paper on January 6, 1831. " Private Tutor. A gentleman wishes a position as Tutor ina private family; he is a good Classic as well as thoroughly acquainted with the English, French, Italian and Spanish Languages, the two former of which he speaks fluently having resided in Paris for several years. He is a member of three learned societies in Europe and was the sole editor of a Literary Periodical of considerable reputation there. He would have no objection to go to any part of the Union. *

31 On Nov. 21, 1832 J. Livingston Van Doren announcedin the New York Observer that he had resignedfrom the Brooklyn Collegiate Institute in order toengage in private instruction, specifically in English, French, Italian and Latin. Piero Maroncelli (1795-1846)was a musician, poet, ardent carbonaro and intimate friend of Silvio Pellico.With him and other Italian political prisoners he had enduredthe horrors of the Spielberg fortress from As*to 183o. In 1828 he developed a tumor in his left knee which became festered and resulted in the amputation of his legsome months later. Very soon after he was released, in order toescape from the rigorous police surveillance in Italy he left for France where helived from 1831 to 1833. At first Louis Philippe welcomedhim and his fellow refugees but before long succumbingto heavy pressure from Metternich, who feared that theywere plotting insurrec- tions against his government, hetoo placed them under the surveillance of his gendarmerie. This plus the failureof his Addizioni to Pellico's Le mie prigioni both inthe original and in French (1835) prompted himto come to America with his new German bride, the talented singer, Amalia Schneider. She was contracted as a contralto and he as instructor and chorus director in Riva-Finoli's operacompany that opened its season in New York on November 18, 1833. During the brief life-span of thecompany, the inadequate remuneration received by the pair made itnecessary for them to give concerts and music and language lessons in orderto insure a decent livelihood for themselves. Maroncellibenefited from the fact that he was alreadya familiar name thanks to the moving pages on hire in Pellico's autobiographywhich American readers had read either in the London translation of the work by Roscoeor in its New York reprint, both of which appeared i.11833. However, this did not help him materially when he attempted to supplement his earnings with the publication of the Addizioni, translated by Catherine Maria Sedgwick and printed with Mrs. Andrews Norton's versionof Le mie prigioni. In 1841 he was recommended for the Chair of Modern Languages at the University of Virginia butwas not fortunate

32 enoughto receivethe both he appointment. Atabout the and E. FelixForesti same time at New York were nominatedto fill the Universitywhich had post been leftvacant following the deathof LorenzoL. Da Ponte. professorship. Forestiwas offered the Maroncelli'sfailing eyesightand poor were undoubtedlyfactors that health affected thesedecisions. Hewas, nevertheless,able tocontinue teaching least until music andlanguages at 1845. Hedied onAugust 1, and admirer, 1846.7 Hiswarm friend Edgar AllanPoe, in his the Literati sketchon Maroncelli in has remarked:" His love unbounded, for hiscountry is and he isquite enthusiastic circulate in in hisendeavorto America theliterature of Just after Italy." 8 Felice Forestiarrived in 26, 1836, New Yorkon October Maroncelliprocureda number of We donot know how students for him.° long hecontinuedto instruct but heprobably didso for some privately biographers, years. Accordingto her Richards andElliot, JuliaWard Howe with Foresti.More about read Dante him can belearned in the devoted toNew York sections University andColumbia. An advertisementin the New 11, 1838 informed York Observerfor August the publicthat " AYoung Lady New England,wishes to native of instruct inNew YorkCity in French, Spanish andItalian." In the New YorkDaily Tribunefor Jan. 14, 1843 " AGentleman from time in the Europe who hasresided forsome United States,"offerLd to German, Italian teach Latin,Greek, and Spanish.In 1844an English lady, C.C., livingin New York, a Miss advertised inthe Washington Intelligencer forAug. 22 making National known thatshe desired teach in theSouth. " She to professes toinstruct in theusual branches ofEnglish withthe French and Italianlanguage, drawing andpianoforte. Sheis a lady of superiorintelligence Those who desirefuller details biography by can find them inthe authoritative Angeline H.Lograsso: Piero Complete Works Maroncelli (Roma,1958). of Poe. XV:Literati. New Felice York, 1902,44. Foresti. Lettereinedite. Nozze Letter datedNew York, Gostoli-Dalle Vacche,i899. Oct. 26, 1836addressed to Mattuelli ofFerrara. Signora BettinaBrenta

33

3 and with much experience in teaching. The highest references can be offered." Before founding his newspaper, Eco d'Italia, in New York in 1849, the brilliant pioneer Italian journalist, G.F. Secchi de' Casa li, earned his living for several years as a teacher of Italian, French and other subjects. For a time he taught in a private school where he states that he worked seventeen hours a day for $3.00 a week.1° In 1852 roving Charles Kraitsir, ex-professor of Modern Languages at the University of Virginia, including Italian, announced his availability as instructor in the " Languages and History " in the New York Daily Tribune, Oct. 2o. Private instruction in French, Italian, Spanish, German, Chaldaic and Arabic offered by Jules Delaunay from Paris, was announced in the New York Observer for Sept. 29, 1853. A Dr. A. Stamm gave noticeinthe New York Times forOct.18,1854 that he,A Doctor of the Berlin University," is" desirous of giving lessons at Universities, Collegesor in private families inpolitical economy, mathematics, Greek, Italian,History, Geography, German Literature and Elocution." The New York Independent for June 4, 1857 spoke of J. Lowendahl of Brooklyn as " an accomplished teacher of French, German and Italian." In an advertisement in the Daily Tribune for Aug. 31, 1857, a French lady, " a Graduated Teacher,* listed herself as a teacher of French, German, Italian and Spanish. More names appear in the Times and other New York papers between 1855 and 186o. We shall omit these and further names of private teachers of Italian in the city excepting for that of the outstanding figure of Luigi Palma di Cesnola. He taught languages for a living when he first arrived in New York in 186o. When the Civil War broke out his military training and experience in the Italian army made his services invaluable and won for him the rank of Brigadier-general of the Volunteers. While acting as American consul at Cyprus for eleven years (1865-76), he took a keen interest in archeology and made 10 A biographical detail in Eco d'Italia, June 28-29, i883. Noted by G. Schiavo:Four Centuriesof Italian-American History (New York, 1954), 266.

34 notable contributionsin this field. From 1879to 1904 he was director of the MetropolitanArt Museum." rn Outside of New YorkCity " a gentleman educatedin France,* witha P.O. address at Sioatsburg, advertisedin the Intelligencer for Dec.s, 18:3, that he was seeking a positionas a teacher of Greek, Latin,French, Italian and English. Headds that he * has beenengaged as Professor of Languagesin colleges and private families ofthe first respectability.* In Albanyand Troy in the early 18so'sa Mr. S. Pinistri taught Italian and drawing." By 183o Pinistrihad moved to Washington,D.C. where he continuedto instruct in these two subjects. We learn that he was in the capitalthrough an announcement in the National Intelligenceron Mrs. Henderson's Female Academy, which notes that hegave lessons in thawing at the school twice a week. In the fifties an F. Cantoni," Professor of Languages,* was also teaching the " idioma gentile* in the New York capital (see Albany Journal, Nov.'9, 1834

PHILADELPHIA

Francis Johnson,a Philadelphian and self-styled a professor of languages * announcedin the Pennsylvania EveningPost for Nov. 27, 1778 ag to the curiousand the learned,* that hecould teach his pupils either Frenchor Italian in the space of four months." A fewyears later Peter Du Ponceau, whowas appointed interpreter for theEnglish, French, Spanish and Italian languages bythe honorable SupremeCouncil of the Commonwealth *[i.e. Pennsylvania],very likely had omasion to teach these languages privately."

" See F.d,oardo Marolla.Brigadier General Luigi Palma di Ceanola." Atlantica, XIII (im),aog-10. " See H.R. Marraro. Pioneer Italian Teachers of Italianin the United States.* Modern LanguageJournal, XXVIII (iw), 58*. " Mentioned by I.R. MarraroinThe Teaching of Italian... op. eat., Isl. "See Freeman's Journalor North American Intelligencer, Feb. i6, 1785.

35

.1111....4 WON.. inauelens .16.6,11Mgrin#10.14101.1.10100.118001/11.1.010010../. James Philip Puglia, an Its. lo-Swiss who had studied in Savona and was one of the most active members of the Federalist party in support of which he wrote the Federal Politician (1795), pamphlets, articles, three plays, a diatribe against William Cobbett, dubbed Peter Porcupine, an Englishman who lived in America from '794 to i800. In Spanish he published El desen- gafio del hombre and El derecho del hombre, the latter being a translation of Paine's The Rights of Man. After his name on the title-page of the Federal Politician appear the words: * Teacher of the Spanish and Italian Languages." Since he was already in the United States in 1794 he must have begun to teach languages at that time. Like other tutors he doubtless regularly ran newspaper advertisements. Two which we have seen appeared inClaypool and Dunlop's American Daily Advertiser (Sept. ss, 1795), and Aurora. General Advertiser (Aug. *5, 1797). Philadelphia Gazette and Daily Advertiser notices reveal the names of several more pioneer teachers of Italian. One who chose anonymity offered .1 private instruction in the French, German, Spanish and Italian languages(Jan. i8, 18os). He may be the same nameless person who advertised privatelessons for gentlemen * in the same languages a few months later (May ii). When, onFeb. 18, 18o6,FrancisTraveiliplacedhis announcement under the heading of " Italian Language," he was confronted with the scarcity of available texts. This led him to add the following N.B.: " A liberal price will be given for a few of Veneroni's English and Italian grammars either new or second handed." Samuel Torres, who advertised himself as a teacher of the " Spanish and Italian Languages," reserved his academy for instruction in his native tongue but preferred to teach Italian " to ladies at their residences(Sept. so, 18o9). On July g, 1811 an A.B. with a Post Office address announced his services as instructor in Italian, French, German and Spanish in colleges or as a tutor in a private family. In a letter to an unknown person dated New York, Nov. 7, 1844, which is preserved in the Manuscript Department of the New York Public Library, Lorenzo Da Ponte mentions that he had sent" aprofessorto Baltimore and another to Philadelphia * to teach the Italian language." Already in the city at the timewas a Mr. Togno who through the National Gazette and Literary Register (Sept.is, 1814) offered " tuition in French and Italian.* Here he claims that a His mode of instruction unites all the iprovements made within these 25 years. He believes the best method isto explain every difficulty at thecommencement of each lesson, and thus the progress of the learner is greatly facilitated. Moreover, by simply learning 4o terminations the pupil will possess a dictionary (sic) equal at least to two thirds of these languages. The verbs likewise whichare so difficult in all languages have been so simplifiedas to be learnt with very little trouble. The pronunciation of these languages has till now been acquired with great di.culty for want of method, but by his mode of teaching it obviates all difficulees, and will enable his pupils in four lessons topronounce well with cer- tainty and to the pupils no small satisfactionto be able to correct themselves. He can produce abundant proof to satisfy the most sceptic on this interesting subject.* Addressing himself to Italian he continues: " The Italian Language which has at all times been that of music and of love, rich in historical and scientific works and unrivalled in poetry, has beentoo much neglected in this city, whilst in the Northern States thereare very few ladies having any pretensions to a liberal education who have not enriched and embellished their minds with various productions of this language. A beautiful description of which Lord Byron put in the mouth of Dante, the patriarch of Italian literature and one of the noblest poets: But Z will make another tongue arise...* Togno was quick to turn to hisown advantage the public enthusiasm that had been aroused by the prospect of the coming performances of Italian operas in Phila- delphia. Hence he tacked this a N.B." on to his advertisement in the Mar. '4, 1816 issue of the Gazette: The arrival of the Italian Opera will be, no doubt, an epoch in the literary annals

is The letter is reproduced in full in J.L. Russo, L rrenzo De Ponta... op. cit. 141-43.

37 of the country. It must produce at first arevolution in musical taste and then render thestudy of the Italian language a necessary branch ofeducation as it is in all Europe, and the benefit derived from the study of such alanguage as the Italian every well informed many mayeasily see and predict.* He was still teaching in 1848. Francis Varin was another early teacher. A notice in Poulson's American Daily Advertiser for April 0,1818 reads as follows: aThanking his friends for the patronage he has received 13 years past, he informs his friends andthe public that he still continues to teach the Latin,French, German and Italian Languages.* The eminent naturalist, Constantine SamuelRafinesque, also spent a good deal of time teaching modernlanguages. In 1815, at the beginning of his second sojournin America, he was engaged as tutor inItalian, botany and drawing for the three daughters of the wealthy Livingston family atits country residence near Clermont-on-the-Hudson, a hundredmiles north of New York. He taught French, Italian andSpanish privately at Lexington, Kentucky, uponhis arrival at the town in 181g and during the years he served as professor atTransylvania College,i8 so-s5. One announcement that appeared inthe Kentucky Reporter, Jan 15,1811, informed the public that Prof. Rafinesque Teaches the French, Italian andSpanish Languages in the University, and gives also privatelessons to the ladies in town.* Another announcement inthe Reporter during the Spring of the same year tells us thatProfessor Rafinesque will begin to deliver his Course of Botany as soon as a class shall be formed:he invites those who are willing to attend it to apply to him immediately. Hecontinues to give private instruction in the French k Italian Languages etc.Also in several branches of other knowledge.* From 1815 to the date of his death in 184oPhiladelphia was his home most of thetime. Since in at least two of his volumesGenius and Spirit of the Hebrew Bible(Philadelphia, 1838) and The Good Book and Amenities of Nature orAnnals of Historical and Natural Sciences (Philadelphia,1840), he describeshimselfas« Professorof NaturalSciences and

38 Languages,* it is certain that hecontinued to tutor in French, Italian and Spanish during the intervalsthat he was not away doing field work. More about thispicturesque personality can be found in the University SectionTransylvaniaCollege. Mrs. Santangelo, director of Mrs.Santangelo's Lyceum, announced in the National Gazette... (Aug.a8,18a7) that Pupils in Italian and Singingcan be taken at this time.' In his Componimenti poetici d'un italianoprofugo in America (Philadelphia. i8s9), Giacomo Sega informsus that he is aLaureato in ambe leggifrom the University of Pavia and aMaestro delle lingue italianae spegnuola.' He had arrived in New York from Italy in 18s5 and earnedor tried to earn a living by giving lessons on the guitarafter the method of the celebrated Professor F. Caru lli(see Nev, York American, Sept. 14). In 18s7 he was teaching Italian and Spanishin Boston (see New England Galaxy, April 6). Inasmuch,too, as he taught Italian at the High School attachedto Franklin Institute and the High School of Philadelphia,we know that he must have resided in the latter city formost of 181g. In the National Gazette for April 6, 18s9 Segagave a whimsical if not a poetical touch to his announcement when he declared that heproposes to attend a class at an early hour in the morning, especially for those who feel disposed toaccompany the rejoicing of the creation atsunrise with the lectures of Dante, Petrarca, Tasso, etc.' Da Ponte in his Memoirs (Livingston ed.,op. cit. 451) refers to him as apoetasterand to his verse asdoggerel.* He is certainly justified in using both characterizations.Even so, there is a ring of sincerity in the Romantic melancholythat informs the Sega compositions in the slender volume ofthe Componi- inenti poetici, which he dedicatedto Edward Everett, governor of Massachusetts, a Quale retribution degliatti vostri cortesi. In 183o Sep published twomore books: An Essay on the Practice of Duelling (Philadelphia) anda treatise on What is True Civilization or Means to Suppress the Practiceof Duelling (Boston). It was in 18*g when Lorenzo Da Ponte and hisson, Lorenzo L. came to the city. In this connection thereis preserved in the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia a letter from Henry J. Anderson to John Vaughan, librarian of the moiety, written from New York on Sept. is, 18*g. It reads as follows: Dear Sir It gives me great pleasure to make known to each other, two gentlemen so remarkable for the possession, in the advance of life, of all the best faculties of younger men, as yourself and Mr. Lorenzo des Ponte of this city. Mr. Da Ponte is so well known in the literary world that I hardly think it necessary to speak to you of his professional qualifications. It is suilkient to say that he holds the highest rank among the literary men of Italy, altho* so much of his life has been spent out of his native country. As an experienced and now veteran instructor he still enjoys the honorable reputation of standing foremost alike in extent of literary acquirement and in ardent devotedness to the cause of letters. His son Lorenzo proposes to make Philadelphia the field of the same enterprise as has gained his father so many laurels in this city, and what the venerable Apostle of thebeU'idioma * has now most at heartisthe success of the young missionary who goes commhsioned to awaken your unconverted City to a sense of the power and beauty of Italian literature. Such facilities as may fall in your way to furnish them, will I am sure be worthily bestowed and gratefully remembered..."

The senior Da Ponte lost no time in placing an announce- ment in the National Gazette and Literary Register (Oct. 1) in which he offered his services as a teacher to the residents of the Pennsylvania metropolis. Edmond Pratt made known in the Mar. *6, 183* issue of the Gazette that he stood ready to give lessons in academies or in private families in Latin, French and Italian. In his Story Incredible but True (New York, 1833) our Mozart librettist denounces still another of the roving Italians, a. Strozzi, who was at the time teaching in Philadelphia. He had evidently taken up residence in the city after a stay in Salem, Mass. We can also identify him with the William A. Strozzi who instructed in Italian in 184g50 at Jackson College in Columbia, Tenn., and who in 1854 (Sept. so) placed an advertisement in the Lexington, Kentucky Observer captioned " I am indebted to Prof. A. Pace for a copy of this letter.

40 * Teacher of French and Italian * and inwhich he declares that he was permanently located in that city. In the thirties in the City of Brotherly Love, FilippoMan- cinelli also gave lessons in Italian. We shall also haveoccasion to mention him as a teacher in severalprivate schools between 1833 and 1837. It is reported that he published an ItalianReader there for the use of his pupils." In a letter by PieroMaroncelli written to his wife in Philadelphia on April *3, 1834,mention is made of Mancinelli along with two other refugees,Martorelli and Paggi, * braviuimi giovani,* who mightalso have been engaged in teaching." Pietro Borsieri, described by Foscolo as ar giovane di prontissimo ingegno,* and who was an outstandingleader during the Risorgimento period and co-founderwith Pellico, Porro Lambertenghi, Federico Confalonieriand Lodovico da Breme of the liberal Conciliators, taught Italianprivately in 1836 and 1837 at Philadelphia and Princeton.The poor man was very much like theproverbial lost sheep; he was totally incapable of adjusting himself tohis new environment." Incidentally, Borsieri is the translator of some ofWalter Scott's novels into Italian. Gallenga in his Episodes of My Second Life(London,1884, 311-1a) reports that in Philadelphia in 1838he had seen Bor. alai in the company of another privateteacher, Interdonato, N Roman, the handsomest youth that ever cameout of Italy, a learned youth,highly accomplished, all our ladies and young ladies running after him.* In an announcement in the WashingtonNational Intel li- gencer for Sept. 14, 184*Richard S. Evans, the new principal of the Rockville Institute in MontgomeryCounty, Md., laid a special stress on his linguistic proficiency byciting testimonials

" See a note in T.W. Koch's * Dante in America *in the Fifteenth Annual Report of the Dante Society ,18g6, p. 17. " See Angeline H. Lograsso. Piero Maroncelli, op.cit.i80. " See an interesting letter published by Prof.McKenzie under the title:* An Exile in Princeton." The Princeton Weekly,XXXIX (im), 337, 342.

41 from his former teachers inPhiladelphia. Two relateto his instructors in Italian, Joseph Bertolaand J. De Tivoli. Between 1844 and 1847 LuigiRoberti, ex-instructorat Yale, had established himself inPhiladelphia teachingFrench and Italian on his ownaccount and in several of theprivate schools." From 1848to at least 1859 Francis JosephSurault, formerly at Harvard, tutored inseveral languages including Italian. Carlo Go la,a music teacher, gave lessons in hisnative tongue." In the North American for Sept.8, 1849 under the caption: it French, German and ItalianLanguages,' we read "Classes during the day and lessonsat private dwelling. Mons. Richard ex-professor from the Academyof Paris, advantageouslyknown by his new system under thetitle Cours simultani deslangues vivantes begs to inform his publicthat he will give lessons in the above languages in hisRoom or private houses.'In the same paper for Sept. s6, 185s Mrs.Maria De Korponayco- director with her husband,Col. G. De Korponay, ofa School of Music announced thatinstruction was given in herschool in it Piano music and the Frenchand Italian languages.' Twomore teachers advertising Italianin the North American(Sept. s and Nov. 119, 1859)were M. Artoni and Carlo Moroni. The only record that apparentlyremains of E.T. Samba lino's activity as a language teacheris the listing of hisname in Mc Elroy's Philadelphia CityDirectory for 186o.

BALTIMORE

Giacomo Sega has alreadybeen mentionedas a private teacher of Italian in Philadelphia,1829. He must have settled down briefly in Baltimoresometime in 1828. Thenames of some others are supplied byannouncements in the Baltimore Sun. Among themwas Sig. Carlo Gola, a music teacher,who had also come from Philadelphiaand who offered supplementary

vo 64 See North American andDaily Advertiser, Sept. 8, 1844 andU.S. Gazette, Sept. 9, 1846. '1 See North American... Sept.16. 1848.

42 Fuld, aTeacherof in1849.50.Salomon 1849. On instructionin Italian advertised onSept. *6, includingItalian, teachingGerman, Languages,* Ambslerproposed of a a new 1851 Dr.L Latin bymeans March so, Danishand Italian,* English,Italian, Frenchand French, Under thecaption a Etienne PracticalMethod.' issue thata Mons. and the Sept.1,1851 languages we aretold in FrenchandItalian professorof the Collegeand lAnaberts,late NewYork,Literary in and inGeneva, begs tooffer hisservices in Buffalo seminaries, method and Baltimore.His severalacademies thecitizens of languages to adopted intheUniversities theaforesaid analytic one students to technicaland his being the satisfactoryenabling and will provevery and withthe true of Europe saidlanguages ordinary way read andwritecorrectly superior tothe beingmuch Startingwith nativepronunciation, generallyadopted.' saidlanguages by[Louis]Adamoli, ofteaching advertisements repeat Aug. x8,185x,various and LatinLanguages,' of theFrench,Italian of theprincipal *Professor practice insome Fifteen yearsofsuccessful toinsure success that a himconfidently of these ofEuropeenables andknowledge capitals time intheacquirement and for an in theshortest commercialpursuits necessaryin the who areready languages-4o ladies andgentlemen educationto after themostapproved accomplished application, 1854 the necessary onAug. 18, togive them announcement of method. "In the ImperialAcademy progressive Graduateof the before that heis a a ladies'academy he adds formerly ayoung Milan,having Brera, Ardisson readsthatMr. hisexile.* 3,1856 thehonor CardonSept. and has K A pastpatronage that hewill hisfriendsfor their general thanks and tothepublic in 8 inst., tothem lessons onMonday toannounce private Ardisson hisclassesand andDrawing.* resume French,Italian 1856,Leone including asheretofore Sept. 3, in 1858.Also, on lessonsin advertising resumehis wasstill that hea will He begsto Rabilloncommunicated week ofSeptember. of a Italianthe first dispose Frenchand that he can Principals atInstitutions he wasengaged to informthe Inasmuch as themorning." fewhours in 43 instxuct in French at Johns Hopkinsin 1876, itseems plain that he moat have continuedto teach Italian privately and in the secondary schools at least until thatyear.

WASHINGTON, D.C. In the Nation's Capital Charles Kraitsir,later at the University of Virginia and still lateras a private teacher in Boston and New York,ran the following announcement in the National Intelligencer for Sept.14, 1859: " French, Italian and German Languages, Mathematics, Drawing.Dr. Charles Kraitsir, graduate of the University of Vienna,intends to inform the citizens of the District that he intendsto give private lessons in any of the above branches ofknowledge." With reference to the modern languages he stated that" His system will be found effective in enabling pupilsto speak these languages.* Among the other private teachers thatinserted announcements in the Intelligencerare the following: Jan. 4, 1841: " A single gentleman (graduate ofa Prussian University) * who identified himself as A.W. Smedding of Canonsburg,Pa., stated that he wished to teach French, Italian,Spanish and German inone of the academiesor as tutor in college or in a private family. Oct.I a,184s:" Mr. E. Bronowski, recently from Boston, Massachusetts, has determinedto open a class for teaching the French. Italian and German languages.He has a new system that will enable the pupilto speak those languages in three months; his instructionisentirely new." Oct.11,1843: A Polish exile, W.S.S.I. Rawicz Gawronski,offered lessons in " guitar, singing, English, French, Italian andSpanish." A number of years later, accordingto the same paper, he was teaching modern languages and musicat the Govanstown Female Academy in Maryland. Aug.14, 1844: Under the caption " French and Italian Languages " Mons.Charton stated inter alia that " The Italian will be taught ifrequired through the medium of the Frenchor the French through the medium of the Italian." He is the author ofthe Chartonian System or Methode Naturelle Thiorisee, describedin the issue of Sept. 1, 1845, as a course of practical pronunciation and conversational

44 language for learners.Dec. 23, 1854: A D.D. Planeasserted that he did his teachingof French, Italian and Spanishbased " on the best method." April3, 1855: a " Gentleman * stated that he was availablefor instruction in" French, Spanish, Italian, German andother languages." Presumably,Battista Lorino, who hadcome from New York State to Washington in search ofnew teaching opportunities, (see Intelligencer,Nov. 8, 1855), engaged in privatetutoring, instruction insome academy or both duringthe interval between his arrivalat the Nation's Capital and hisappointment in 1859as Professor of Modern Languagesat Maryland Agricultural College. OnSept. 19,1854the Daily Union (Washington,D.C.) carried an announcement totheeffectthat" A French, Italian and Drawing Teacher desiringemployment in an academyor school or willingto divide his time among several will do himself the pleasure of attendingthe notices and applications of persons wishingto employ such teacher in obedienceto any call addressed to A.B., Washington,D.C."

NEW ENGLAND We have already mentionedFrancis Vaidale of Tours who had offered himselfas teacher of French and Italian in the Newport, Rhode Island Mercuryfor Oct. 3, 10, 17, 1774. Some years later (1789) another Frenchman,a Monsieur l'Abbe de la Poterie, announced in the BostonGazette and Country Journal for July is that he would takepupils in French, Latin and Italian.22 When the modern languagevogue began to spread in the nineteenth century the usual methodon the part of the schools was to employ as teachers individuals alreadyestablished as private instructors in their vicinity.Such was the case of Charles Folsom when he was appointedto give instruction in Italian to Harvard ,tudents in 1822. We donot know when he settled down in the Bostonarea, but it must have been someyears prior to 1822, which would makehim one of the first known teachers of the language in NewEngland at the time.

23 See H.R. Marraro, " The Teachingof Italian..." op. cit.122.

45 Folsom had several forgotten competitors who also deserve to be remembered. One of them wasDavid Tyler who placed a notice in the New England Palladium for June 15, 1820 in which he offered " his respectful services to the Gentlemen of the Law, those of other Professions, and the Public in general as Professor and Translator of Modern Languages," that is, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. Another was a Mr. Palioni, who advertised in the Boston Columbian Centinel for at least four months starting with Jan. 6, 1821. The advertisement addressed " To the Public " brings out that " Mr. Palioni, a nativeof Rome, but educated in Florence, from whirl place he has re- cently come, and where he practised the law for a number of years, has the honor to inform the inhabitantsof Boston that he will commence giving lessons in the Italian language on the 8th of January at his residence in Marlboro Row, entrance No. 1, Milk, St. Mr. P. flatters himself that he will be able to give a perfect knowledge ofthat beautiful languagetothose who will particularly attend his instructions. Private lessons will be given to those who desire them at extra hours. For conditions please apply to Mr. P.and in referenrp to his merits to Rev. Dr. Jarvis, Boston St." During the same month theCentinelcarriedseveral advertisements by N. Ciditira who "espectfully announces that he will give instruction in the Ancient and Modern Greek and intheItalian Language. Unquestionable testimony of his qualifications can be given..." On July 14, 1821 the Centinel announced tutoring in French and Italian by Mrs. Mary Brooks. Somewhat later in the year a Mr. Artiquenave offered lessonsinFrench and addedthathe was availablefor translations from the Italian, Spanish and Portuguese languages as well as French, which impliesthat he also tutored in them. On Sept. 28 of the next year the Centinel printed the following notice:" Mr. Christopher Salinas, educated in one ofthe most eminent universitiesofItaly,begs leaveto offer his services in teaching his native language to the ladies and gentlemen of Boston and the neighborhood and hopes to give perfect satisfaction. On Sept. 23, 1823 the paper printed a

46 notice byA gentleman of classical education and literary habits * and a graduate of Harvard,who took it upon himself to impart instruction in French, Spanish and Italian. Still another announcement in the Centinel, Oct. g, 1824, advised that F. Fales and his friends were offering, together with Frenchand Spanish, tuition in Italian and Portuguese. Between 1823 and 1817 Donato Gherardi taught Italian privately at Boston and Cambridge. Hewas the historian Bancroft's teacher, whose sister, Jane, he married in1825, and was engaged by his future brother-in-law in 1824to teach languages at the famous Round School in Northampton,Mass. Gherardi may have continuedto teach in Louisiana where he settled down with his family in 1827. It was in 1817 that Giacomo Sega (later in Philadelphia and Baltimore) advertised himselfas a private teacher of Italian and Spanish in the New England Galaxy for April 6. Since Pietro Bachi's teachingcareer is discussed in detail in the section on Harvard University,we shall only add here that besides instructing in Italian in several of the private schools, he alsotaughtprivatelyasbrought outin an advertisement in the Columbian Centinel for Jan.ig, 1828. As to several of Bachi's comrades in exile who hadcome to America contemporaneously with him,we learn about them in a report made by the Director General of the Police of Palermo to General Marchese delle Favere on eighteen letters which had arrived from Boston onSept. 15, 1823. The document unexpectedlyrevealsthe names of two of theseSicilian revolutionaries who besides Bachi (Batolo)were earning their living in the area as private teachers, Serretta and Attinelli. Gli anzidetti profughi ed ancora it profugo Massa, vivono non motto felicemente in diversi Paesi d'America, doe Batolo in Boston, Serretta ed Attinelli in Salem,e Massa in un'altra dui. Si ricava the i primi siprocurano stentatamente la su- stinenza dando studio in lingua italiana.*2* In 1842 Attinelli was living in New York where hewas a " See S. Eugene Scalia. « Filmes of the Rixagimento in America: Ignacio Batolo, Alias Pietro Bach! and Pietro D'Alessandro.s rca, XLII (ig6).

47 teacher in a free Italianschool directed Mauini, Scritti by Prof.Foresti editi edinediti, Imola, (see As for Massa 1917, vol. [Ferdinando], XXIV, 23-26). city much he hadtakenup residence earlier earninghis livelihood in that and Italian as a teacter of French (see NewYork American " A Card for Oct.23, 1826). in theBoston Daily May23, 183s reveals Advertiserand Patriotfor that " Mr.Bianchini, and properlyqualified by a native ofItaly, educationoffers the Italianlanguage. to give lessonsin Being equallywell-versed and SpanishLanguages, he in thtFrench is equallywell-qualified instruction ineither. Hewill attend to give Between 1833 his pupilsat their houses.* and 1845hewas a language U.S. NavalSchoolsat Norfolk instructor inthe The and Boston. followingannouncement Transcript for appeared inthe Boston Sept.3, 1833: 6Private of anEnglish Tuition.°H.B. Graduate Universityshowed himself receiving to be 6 a few pupilsfor instruction desireous of Classics, in the Greek Mathematics bythe most and Latin French and approvedsystem, the English, ItalianLanguages, education." Drawing andgeneralroutine It was on March 16,1833 thatthe Pietro young poet andpatriot D'Alessandrodisembarkedat Boston friend with where "Althoughno beating heartwas there to reverentlyto kiss the welcomeme, I stooped land ofliberty, and that I,too, wasa man,* felt for thefirst time as he states ina letter that soon afterlanding, which was written in the happensto be one of December184s Southern five published English LiteraryMessenger in translation bythe Italophile, an under thetitle " Letters Henry T.Tuckerman, of AnItalian Exile.* D'Alessandrohadcome from probably born, Palermowhere hewas and hadbeen amember of youths knownas " l'ardita a group ofpatriotic falange."When he Massachusettscapital he reached the was it oras years old, Romantic figure,full of a typical melancholy andennui and of Foscolo,whose Jacopo a worshipper Ortis heemulated by usingexileas a means of at thismoment in his expressing hisaversion to homeland.Unlike other tyranny expatriates hearrived withsome 48 knowledge of English,a language that as the resultof the Anglomania which hadswept the continent in thetwenties and thirties, was enjoyinga period of greatvogue in Sicily. It tooka year before hewas able to earn a decent living, but thereafter hewas able to do so well thatit was possible for him to return to his native city in1835 and several times thereafter. This came about when hesupplemented hismeagre earnings asa private teacher of Italianby engaging in the brokerage business. Hefinally left the UnitedStates for good after a residenceof ten years. He had continuedhis contacts with* i'ardita falange," and when inconsequence of the insurrectionof 1848 at Palermo four of its members,Amari, Castig lia,Mariano Stabile and Francesco Perez, were elected to the Sicilian Houseof Commons D'Alessandro became acapo ripartimento * in theMinistry of Foreign Affairs.However, the citywas compelled to surrender to the Bourbon forces within a few months and the leadersof the insurrection eitherfled or were arrested.It was doubtless because D'Aiessandrohad taken part in thepatriot movement in a mildsort of way that he hadremained unpunished. Nevertheless, he chosevoluntary exile in April1849. He died at Malta in 1855. Perhaps a wordmore should be added abouthis poem, Monte Auburno, publishedin Cambridge in11333 and written to commemorate theconsecration asa cemetery of a beautiful woodland tract justacross the Charles River knownas 6 Sweet Auburn.* It is inspiredby and showsstrong traces of Foscolo's Sepolcri. It is the firstlong piece of originalpoetry in Italian (319 lines in blankverse) to be printed inAmerica. One of its readers who reviewed it in the New EnglandMagazine, VIII (1835) refers to thepoet's K delicate sensibility,to his moral associations and the tenderreflections belongingto the sacred spot..." K The verse flowsalong with beautifulharmony," according to the reviewerand the descriptionsK are wrought up with strict truth tonature and an exquisite selectionof picturesque parts.* Andhe continues sayingthat lovers of the beautiful would enjoythis " touching tributeto the unrivaled

49

4 charms of a spot, already consecrated to the holiest associations of the human heart. "" Francis -Maria JosephSuraulthadbeenappointedby Ticknor to handle instruction in the French languageat Harvard. He had appointed Bachi toan instructorship in Italian at the same time. In 1835 Surault published an Easy Grammar of the French Language for Use of Schools and Colleges, whichwas followed by a companion-volume bearing the tide: An Easy Grammar of the Italian Language for Use of Schools and Colleges (Cambridge, Mass., Boston, 1835 reprinted, Boston, 1841). In his* Advertisement '1he announces that he has tried *to present in a clear and concise form, and to illustrate by sufficient examples, all the rules, which are required to be learned by the student, in order to master the language, and gainaccess to its literary treasures.* The book is a massive assemblage of phrases and short sentences illustrative of thegrammar rules. The imperfect knowledge of Italian that it displays caused his colleague Bachi to print a sharply critical review in the New England Magazine for June 1835 consisting of fifteenpages. Surault ineffectively tried to defend himself ina sixty-page pamphlet captioned Grammatical Dissertation of the Italian Language (Boston, 1835), where he not only refusedto admit that he had made many mistakes, but also launcheda violent personal attack against Bachi. The latter's rebuttal consisting of thirty-five pages was printed in the October number of the New England Magazine." Despite its obvious deficiencies it has been surprising to see it indicated inso many school catalogs of the forties,fifties and even sixties as the basic text in elementary Italian. It was, of course, also utilized by its author for his own instruction. Surault proved to be unsatisfactoryas instructor in French at Harvard and was forced to resign in

' Another book ofverse: Romanze, was published in Boston in 488, while his Poemetti di Moore e Coleridgewere printed in Genoa in 1861. For an extensive treatment of D'Alessandro's life,see Scalia, op. cit. u Angelina La Piana inher La culture americana e Torino, 1938, 101-02,providesfurther details.

50 1838. From 1848to 1859 we find him in Philadelphiateaching several languages,among them Italian." Levina Buoncore (laterMrs. S.R. Urbino)was unquestion- ably one of themost accomplishedwomen in New England during the nineteenth century. The Boston Directory andCity Record lists heras a language teacher in the cityfrom 1835 to 185s, which doubtlessrepresents only a segment of her teaching career. Thefollowing books registeredunder her name in the Library ofCongress Catalogue willconvey some idea of her versatility: Sunshinein the Palace and Cottageor Bright Extremes in Human Life(Boston, 1854); BiographicalSketches of Eminent MusicComposers (Boston, 186o); ArtRecreations: Being a Complete Guideto Pencil Drawings, Oil Paintings, Mass Work, Papier Macho,Wax Work, Shell Work,Enamel Painting etc., Splendidlyillustrated (Boston, 1860);L'instructeur de l'Enfance:a First Book for Children by L.Boncoeur (New York, 1864); under thename of Cuore an Italian Conversation Grammar (Boston, 1865),a text widely used in our schools, and An American Woman inEurope. The Journal ofTwo and a Half Years of Sojournin Germany, Switzerland,France and Italy (Boston, 1869).An announcement in theDaily Evening Transcript for Nov.a 1, 1840 reveals that Miss Buoncorehad a " School at No. a Temple * inwhich she instructedyoung ladies " in all the branchesof the English language.*The story of her life deserves furtherinvestigation." Antonio Gallenga (LuigiMariotti) has leftus with a most interesting account of hisresidence in thiscountry, his Episodes of My Second Life. Vol.I. American Experiences(London, 1884). He was born in 1811 inParma. While in attendanceat the University of Parma he tookpart in the Risorgimentomovement. He was active during theinsurrection of the Emilianprovinces in 1830 as a conspiratorand combatant. Followingthe failure

Surault advertised rather regularlyin the American and U.S. Gazette and other Philadelphiapapers from 1848 on. "'though in the advertisementof the Boston ° Foreign Bookstore" appearing in the Transcript in 1867an initial is lacking, there is a strong likelihood that itsowner, S. Urbino, is the sameperson as S.R. Urbino, her husband.

51 of the uprising he went into exile in France, Corsica and Switzerland for several years, smuggled himself back into Italy under the assumed name of Luigi Mariotti, embarked at Naples for Malta, where he pent eight months, and from there went to Morocco where he spent a year.While in that country John Madison Leib, United States Minister in Tangier, on learning that he wished to come to America gave him letters of introduction to Edward Everett, Governor of Massachusetts, and Josiah Quincy, President of Harvard, where Leib stated that he knew that at the University they were a anxious to create a professorship of Italian literature '1(op. cit. 18). When he arrived in Boston in 1836 he was told thatLeib had misinformed him since Bachi was already teaching there. However, he remained in the area as a private teacher of Italian in Charlestown, Boston and IC the neighboring towns of Salem, Lowell etc. to which I travelled almost every day in theweek, either by rail or horseback, or, as winter set in, bysledge, my great delight being to ride or drive thoseincomparable long- legged New England Trotters, warranted to carry me atthe rate of twelve miles an hour(p. 138). Among his pupils were Governor Everett and his two daughters. In the Boston Evening Transcript for Sept. 5, 1837 we see him advertising as Mr. L. Dc Mariott whofrom Italy offers himself to the public as Teacher of Italian and French and Spanish in schoolsand private classes. Mr. De Mariott is permitted to refer toHon. Edward Everett his former employers and Hon. JosiahQuincy, President of Harvard University." With the supportof such outstanding public figures there is scarcely any doubt abouthis being able to attract a goodly number of pupils. For a brief period he was " Professor of Modern Languages * at the Harvard Young Ladies Academy inCambridge. He also gave a series of lectures at theCambridge Town Hall, which were later repeated at New Haven,Providence and Springfield, Mass. " They aroused such enthusiasm * he tells us 6 that Ihad more applications for private lessons than Icould attend to (p. s94). He also wrote several articles for the NorthAmerican Review and Christian Examiner at this time. Tired of tutoring, teaching in the academies, writing and lecturing, he decided he

52 would like an appointment at Girard College in Philadelphia, and so, armed with a letter of recommendation from Governor Everett, he presented himself to Nicholas Biddle, one of the trustees. He was curtly rebuffed. Within a fortnight he was back in Boston and environs where he resumed his private teaching. A trip to the West as far as Nashville on the advice of his mentor, Governor Everett, was disappointing, and once more we find him back in Boston, but only for a few months. He returned to Europe by way of England in May 1839. He died in 1895. Besides the Episodes... Gallenga wrote a score of books poetry, short stories, history and travel,all of which were published in London between 1841 and 1884. In the course of his teaching in the United States he prepared Mariotti's Italian Grammar (and. ed. Boston, 1858) which was adopted as a text in many of our colleges and secondary schools. Gaetano Lanza, father of the famous scientist, Gaetano Lanza, who taught mechanical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for many years, appears in the Boston directories and newspaper announcements as a teacher of French and Italian from 1840 to 1858. He tutored at his home and was engaged to teach in several private schools. In 1858 he was appointed instructor of Italian at the University of Virginia and stayed at that rank until 1861. He must have continued to live in Charlottesville very likely earning his livelihood as a private teacher, since in 1867-68 his name re-appears in the curriculum announcement of the University as a Licentiate, that is, tutor. In the Transcript for Nov. io, 1847, a u Young lady who for several years has been a successful teacher "offers her services in u English, French, elements of Italian, musk..." Luigi Monti, immortalized by Longfellow in his Tales of the Wayside Inn, taught Italian as a private teacher in Boston and vicinity and in New York, in the private schools of Greater Boston and at Harvard University (1850-1859).28 One of a series

2 More details on Monti appear in the section on Harvard and the one on the secondary schools in Massachusetts.

53 of announcements which heplaced in ing withSept. theTranscript 13, 1854, iscaptioned K commenc- 1 and Classin Dante," Instruction a rare ifnot a unique in Italian Otherprivate instructorswho combination. were P.A.Lujin, « A advertisedin the as a reference, Spanish Transcript and who Gentleman,"who used Italian It offeredto teach Longfellow by themost simple French,Spanish to his methodin which and pupilsa veryrapid he willinsure pronunciationof the improvementand languagesthey a truenative Mr. D.E.Lara, with may learn* (Aug. to give experiencein the 23, 1853); lessons in Liverpoolschools, French,Spanish, offered (Nov.9, 1853);J.B. Italianand Fontana,who Portuguese advertisementsin the taughtonlyItalian, Abecasis paper from1854 ran advertisedinstruction through1857; M. 30, 1854);to French in Frenchand andItalian, Italian(Aug. fromVienna,added Dr. AntonFuster, 7, 1854); « German,Russian, formerly Professoru A.G. Greek andLatin(Nov. Italian, Alexanderoffered Spanishand to teachFrench, Hartknock German(Aug.15, solicited K 1859);MlleMarie Italian Privatepupilsin French, (Oct.5, 1859). Germanand From1855through 1867 theBoston Record listsa C. Landeyt Directoryand City A clipping as a teacherof Italian. in theEssex Salem Institutefrom paper publishedin 1831, an unidentified Strozzi hadset himself revealsthat G. Italian up in thetown as [William] andSpanish. a teacherof French, handbill Alsodepositedat the or school Instituteisa which prospectusdatedSalem, HermannErilsi,a former Jan.15, 186o,in GermanyandEngland instructorin States, in with sixyears of Switzerland, which the residence inthe United " School advertiser ofModern announcedtheopening of French and Languagesoffering a Italian. courses inGerman. In Lowellthere was M. L.De himselfas a teacher Bonnevillewho of French,Italian and announced Courier forMar.14, 1839. Spanish inthe Lowell One ofthe privateteachers urbanelyintroduced in nearbyRhode Daily himselfto the Island Journalfor Sept. readers ofthe 27, 1844 inthe following Providence terms: "Signor 54 Gaetano Achille Biundi presents his compliments to his friends and the public in Providence and would announce than he proposes to take a few pupils in the Italian and Spanish languages, also on the guitar." The American stay of Gaetano Castiglia (De Castillia), another political exile, was limited to three years, 1836-39, after which he returned to his native Italy. There is a letter in the Pennsylvania Historical Society archives dated New Haven, Feb. 1o, 1837, addressed to his friend, Theodore Dwight then living in New York, which informs him that he was teaching one private class in Italian in New Haven, another in the collegio Apthorp * and that he was expecting to have two more. He later became a Senator in the Italian Parliament. In Connecticut before Castiglia we find Joseph De Novis who supplemented his private teaching by functioning as instructor in French, Italian and Spanish at Washington (later Trinity) College in Hartford. In the New Haven Palladium for Sept. 21, 1847 Luigi Roberti announced under the caption " French and Italian * that he " having returned to New Haven (i.e. from Philadelphia) to resume the duties of his profession will give instruction in the above languages both in schools and privately."

ELSEWHERE

In Virginia a Mr. Cavidali was teaching architecture at Norfolk in 1816. Some years later he shifted to the teaching of Italian and French. In Richmond, at about the same time, Ferdinando Iosovazzi and Carlo Deharo were giving instruction inFrench,Italianand Spanish." As announcedinthe Washington National Intelligencer for July 19,1828, a Mrs. James Thornton of Thornton Gap, Culpeper County, seventy miles from Washington, states that she " will receive four or five boys as boarders " and that a Mr. Smith, educated at Harvard " will prepare young gentlemen to admission to any

21 On these three individuals see G. Schiavo, Four Centuries of Italian- American History, op. cit. 266.

55 seminary. Mr. Smith,* the notice continues, a is alsoacquainted with and teaches the French, Italian and Spanishlanguages.' Isadore Guil let, who had been a resident of thecity at least since 1841, placed the following bit ofnews in the Richmond Enquirer for Oct. i 1, 1847: « Mr. Isadore Guillethas returned to Richmond where he will resume his dutiesas instructor in the French, Italian, Spanish and German languages."After resigning from his Princeton professorship in 1843,Benedict Jaeger took up residence at Alexandria,at which time he announced himself as a private teacher of French,German and Italian in the Alexandria Gazette and Virginia Advertiserfor Aug. 29. In Virginia's southern neighbor, North Carolina,Mr. and Mrs. Sambourne, teachers of music in Raleigh, advertisedin the Raleigh Minerva for Nov. 26, 1807, that theywere prepared a to instruct a few Young Ladies who have finishedtheir Education at the Academy in allor any of the ornamental branches of Education,* which included French and Italian. On Dec. 14, 1808 they gave notice in the Raleigh Register that a If desired, Mrs. S. will instruct a few pupils in French, Italian and Drawing." In the North Carolina Standard for Mar.13, 1835 Mr. A. Hart of Windsor, an " English Gentleman," offered to teach French, German, Italian and Spanish in addition to Greek and Latin. At least as early as 1824 a Mr. Carvidaly began to teach French and Italian at Charleston, South Carolina. Ina Charleston Evening Mercury notice for Jan.13, 1825 he identified himself as " formerly professor of the French and Italian Languages for ten years in the Lyceum and member of the School of Public Instruction in Bordeaux." He further declared that " in his mode of instruction he will rigidly adhere to the original purity and grammatical construction of the languages andto the most fashionable and improved standards." Hisname is evidently a misprint for Cavidaly, which would make himthe same person has the one who had previously taught privatelyat Norfolk, Va. He was still giving instructionto Charlestonians in 1835. Col. Colonna D'Ornano advertised in theColumbia Telescope for

56 Jan.13,1826, that he was readyto furnish to residents of Columbia instruction in French, Italian and Spanish.Another established resident of Charlestonwas P. Menard who in the Mercury for April2, 1829 announced that he was available to " young gentlemen *as a teacher of English, French, Italian and Spanish. At thesame time he made known to his future patrons that " From his mode of instruction and the experience he has acquired bya long course of practice, he flatters himself that he has it within hispower to enable an intelligent scholar to read, write and translate tolerablyany of the preceding languages in three months,even the French, which he considers the most difficult." Both Cavidalyand Menard had some competition froma " Ladywho advertised tuition in French, German and Italian (Mercury, May 16, 1834). Christopher Salinas, whomwe have already met as far back as 1822 as a teacher in Boston, had takenup residence in Charleston in 1841 and there became theorganizer of one of the congreghe of the Giovane Italia." Presumablyhe continued to be engaged in private teaching. I_ater, in the Charleston Courier for Jan. 1, 1859, another Italian, Giulio Posi,announced that he " willresumehisprivateclassesinItalian,theClassics, Mathematics &c on Monday the 3d inst." In Savannah, Georgia, in the Deep South,Miss Victorie Boudet, tutoress, was giving lessons in singing,French, Italian and English as early as 1820." H. Masson, alsofrom Savannah, combined teaching in the academies with privateinstruction." FromNatchez,Mississippi,twoteachersadvertised instruction in the language in the Natchez Semi-WeeklyCourier for 1850Mme Angela Cykoski (Oct.i 1), and Isadore Guillet, who had been in Richmond, and whonow announced that he was to be permanently located in the city (Dec. 20, 1850). Mention hasalreadybeen made inthesectionon

3° Cf. Mazzini. Scritti editi e inediti. Imola,1923. Vol. XX, 104. " See HaywoodS.Bowden. Two Hundred YearsofEducation: Bicentennial: 1733.1933. Savannah, Chatham County, Georgia (Richmond, Va., 1932). 32 Cf. the Daily Morning News, Oct. 29, 1855.

57 Philadelphia of the privateteaching in Lexington,Kentucky, on the part of Samuel. ConstantineRafinesque between 1819 and 045 and of WilliamStrozzi who instructed inthe language for an indefinite periodstarting with 1854. Betweenthese two men there was at leastone other private teacher of Italianin Lexington. Hewas Professor Cardello, "an artist and classical scholar, late from the cityof Rome, Italy," whostated that he was " prepared to give instructionsin the Italian andFrench languages, and drawingand painting, in oil andwater colors, every afternoon in the week" (cf. Lexington Intelligencer,Oct. 30, 1835). With respectto Cleveland, the Sept.s, 1853 issue of the Plain Dealer carriedthe followingannouncement:" Rare occasion to become acquaintedwith several EuropeanLanguages without greatexpense. The undersigned (i.e. F.Lombardini) obliged to leave his nativecountry to avoid persecution from the despoticgovernment of Italy and who hasbecome acquainted with the English languagefrom his late residence inCleveland, desirous to geta situation is willing to make himselfgenerally useful in anyway within his power and give ifwanted instruction in the Italian, French,German and Dutch languages.* One of the privateteachers at Columbus, Ohio,was Carlo De Haro. The languageshe taughtwere Italian, French and Spanish (see Ohio StateJournal and ColumbusGazette, Jan. 5, 1833).Later, another teacher-residentof Columbus, George Willie, offered instructionin Greek, Latin,French, German and Italian (id. Aug.15, 1848). Finally, whenwe move over the Rockiesto California, we find thatas early as 185o Italianwas taught in San Francisco together with Spanish,French and English byM. Rodriguez Palmer, a fact which hasbeen noted by JuliaAltrocchi in her The Spectacular SanFranciscans (New York,1949, p. 64). * * *

In estimating the numberof early private teachers ofItalian one should, in addition to thenames cited above, also take into account the names of uncitedlanguage instructors in thecolleges

58 :11.1114.0.."1

and secondary schools, most of whom engagedin tutoring to supplement the inadequate stipends that they werereceiving. Once this is done it will become apparent thatprivate teaching of Italian at this time was a rather lucrativeenterprise that had a spread covering aconsiderable part of the United States. It is a concrete demonstrationof the fact that where the language was available and wasunhampered by the formality of academic requirements, there were plenty of culture-minded personswho freely chose to study it.

59

.41.44.11.1141 CHAPTER IV

ITALOPHILIA OF THE AMERICANINTELLECTUAL ELITE DURING THE NINETEENTHCENTURY

The attraction of eminentmen and women to a foreign language often reflects the cultural value ofthat language in the intellectual clime of their times. In thecase of Italian this value had already begun to become evidentin the last half of the Eighteenth century. One of the first to showa keen interest in it was Thomas Jefferson. In a paragraph in her Jefferson:The Road to Glory, 1743-1776. New York, 1943, Marie Kimballnotes that " The earliest books we definitely know Jeffersonto have owned, aside from the forty-odd he inherited from his father,are those whose purchase is listed in the daybook of the VirginiaGazette... As always, they reflect what was preoccupying himat the moment. In the early days of 1764 heseems to have been deep in the study of Italian. On February4 he bought Baretti's Italian- English Dictionary, Della Istoria d'Italia [Guicciardini]in two volumes, Davila's Guerre civili di Francia, theOpere di Machia- velli, likewise in two volumes. Apparently heput the books to good use, if we may judge from the remarksto Philip Mazzei, the Italian doctor who came to Virginia in December,1773, in an attempt to introduce the cultivation of the grape and the olive in the colony.Jefferson knew the Italian language very well,'Mazzeisays, but he had never hearditspoken. Nevertheless, speaking withmy men (Tuscan vignerons) he understood them and they understood him. Iwas impressed by their demonstrations of joy at the circumstance.' (p. 107). Since in 1764 Jeffersonwas attending the College of William and Mary, it would not be unlikelyto conjecture that he was tutored in Italian bya member of the college faculty. Among his boyhood notebooks thereare copies of poems by Metastasio and snatchfrom Tasso's Gerwalemme and the Aminta. The ca g of the library he took with him to Europe in

60 the spring of 1783, consistingof *640 volumes, doesnot list any in Spanish or German, onlyin French, Italian, Greek andLatin aside from books in English. During the time hewas American minister at Versailles he was led to make some curiousstatements about anyone's ability to speak foreign languages correctly.In a letter to Thomas Mann Randolph, datedParis, July 6, 1787, he writes:K These three languages [i.e. French,Spanish and Italian] being all degenerations from the Latin[the current theory at the time] resemble one anotherso much that I doubt the possibility of keeping in the heada distinct knowledge of them all. Isuppose that he who learns them willspeak a compound of thethree and neither perfectly."In another letter herepeats the same opinion with an additionalobservation on Spanish. «1. Italian. I fear the learning of thislanguage will confoundyour French and Spanish. Being all of themdegenerate dialects of the Latin, they are apt to mix in conversation.I have never seena person speaking the three languageswho did not mix them. It isa delightful language, but lateevents having rendered Spanish more useful, lay it aside to prosecute that." Ofcourse, the great man'sexpressedpreferenceforSpanishstemsfroma utilitarianism that wasso characteristic of him at this time. That he exempted himself from thisadvice becomes clear froma perusal of the lists of books thatformed his library, which show that his own personal interest inItalian never waned. Inveterate lover of books that hewas he could not be expected to refrain from purchasing some during his tripto Italy in 1787,s and he must have continued to buy nota few thereafter. One that can be dated is Mengotti's Ii colbertismo,which won the prize of the Accademia de' Giorgiofili in1791. The title appears among the books offered to the Library of Congressafter it was burned by

The Writings of Thomas Jefferson. Vol.IV (1783.1787). New York, 1894, 405418- ' Op. cit. 08. Memoranda Taken on a Journey from Paris into the SouthernParts of France and Northern Part of Italy in theYear 1787. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson. Washington, D.C., tgo6. Vol.XVII, 133-236.

61 the British in 1814.4 Incidentally, out ofa total of some 4,9oo volumes listed in it there are 111 Italian titles. Theseare from his first great library. Many other titlescan be found in his second library,' and in his third, the largest, assembledat the expense of the University of Virginia! Jefferson'sattachmenttothingsItalianisnotonly demonstrated by the books he owned and read. Hewas instrumental in having Charles Bellini appointed first professor of Modern Languages, including Italian, in 1779,at the College of William and Mary. His beautiful mansion, Monticello, whose surrounding gardens he tended with the aid of Italian treatises, isbuilt in Palladian Doric. He adorned itsinterior with specimens of Italian art. His high regard for Italian craftsmen resulted in Washington's public sculpture being controlled bya few Italian immigrants until 183s when Horatio Greenough, incidentally, a pupil of Thorwaldsen in Rome, became the first American sculptor to be givena public commission by an act of Congress. When Pierre L'Enfantwas planning the District of Columbia, Jefferson lent him the street plans of Turinand Milan which he had purchased in these cities. His collection of Italian music was extensive. He took violin lessons for several years under Francis Alberti. As a member of an informal music group he played Core lli, Tartini, Vivaldi and perhaps Bocche- rini at Governor Fauquier's residenceas Eleanor Davidson

See Catalogue of the Library of the United States. To which is annexed a copious index, alphabetically arranged. Washington. Printed by Jonathan Elliot, 1815. s See A Catalogue of the Extensive Library of the Late President Jefferson. Washington, 181g. Cr. William Peden, * Some Notes Concerning Thomas Jefferson's Libraries.* William and Mary Quarterly. Vol. I, 3rdser., July, 1944, 265-7s. In the Princeton University Library, incidentally, isa large correspon- dence in Italian from men who wrote in that languageto him, such as Mazzei and Bellini. A fl.ctor which further stimulated the great president's interest in Italian was his romance with the beautiful and talented Anglo-Italian, Maria Cosway, which began in 1786. See My Head and My Heart: A Little History to of Thomas Jefferson and Maria Cosway by Helen Duprey Bullock (New York), 1945.

62 1410101M8sortittlemerrom.

Berman brings out in her Thomas Jefferson Among the Arts: An Essay in Early American Esthetics. New York, 1%7, 177, no doubt performing on his Amati violin. In his ardent enthusiasm for whatever was Italian he was certainly the most complete American Italianate of his time. JOHN ADAMS: John Adams began to take an interest in Italian in 1778 when he went to Paris to represent Congress at the Court of France. He used as his grammar Veneroni's well- known Le maitre italien and also acquired the Dictionnaire italien-francaisetfrangais-italien by the same author. The presence of his good friend Philip Mazzei in the French capital in 1780 proved to be a further stimulus. From him at the time he probably borrowed the Vocabolario della Crusca and Baretti's Dictionary of the English and Italian Languages. In 1787 he proudly announced to Jefferson that he was doing his reading exclusively in Italian. This was the period when he was preparing his A Defence of the Constitution of the Government of the United States of America for which he used a large number of Italian studies that already formed a part of his library. The knowledge of Italian that he had gained was good, but as in the case of French it had its deficiences.7 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS: When John Adams went to Europe he was accompanied by his oldest son, John Quincy, and it may well be that the precocious boy studied Italian in the course of his stay there. His reading of Ariosto's Orlando furioso some twenty years later furnishes proof of a broad acquaintance with the language.'

/ For fuller information see Alfred lama:Lies informative John Adams holar. New York, 1954, pp. 12-18, 5418, 94-155. ' Cf. Samuel Flagg Bemis: John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of the American Foreign Policy. New York, 1949. Vol. V, 87. Incidentally, the pro-Italian link established by John Adams remained in the illustrious family for at least two more generations. John Quincy's son, Charles Francis, lived for a time in Italy and as editor of the Defence... shows that he knew enough Italian to correct its imperfections. Young Henry Adams, who visited the country in 1859 summarized the meaning the trip had for him in these words: u Further on these lines, one could not go. It hadbut one defectthat of attainment. Life had no richerimpression to give; it

63 There were, ofcourse, other highly-placedpolitical figures who were conversant withItalian among themEdward Everett, governor of Massachusetts, J. L.Chamberlain,governor of Maine, Charles Pinckney and Edward Rutledge,governors of South Carolina andSenator Charles Sumner. These personageswere soon joined byan increasing number of eminentmen in other fields, especiallyduring the first half of the nineteenthcentury when Italy had takenon a more pronounced significanceforthe Americanpeople.Italian architecture, painting,sculpture, music andliterature then became the objects oftheir passionateadmiration and withit came a keen desire to forge a more intimate link withItalian culture through study ofthe Italian language.Many learned their Italian during prolonged sojourns inItaly whilemany others were ableto study it as a regularor optional course in the colleges and secondaryschools or under nativeand American tutors. We have mentioned Longfellow, Oliver WendellHolmes, James Russell Lowell,David Thoreau andEdward Everett Hale in connection withour accounts on Bowdoin andHarvard. The list can now be extended here to include Emerson,Hawthorne, Margaret Fuller, HarrietBeecher Stowe, JuliaWard Howe, Prescott, Bancroft inNew England, WilliamCullen Bryant, Washington Irving, FitzgreeneHalleck in New Yorkand Edgar Allan Poe and WilliamGilmore Simms inthe South. In discussing themwe shall here and there adda few details on their study of Italianand give other informationthat may seem pertinent. EMERSON: Ralph LeslieRusk in his edition ofThe Letters of Ralph WaldoEmerson. New York,ig39. Vol. I, xlvi, gif, 864, is inclined to believe that Emerson" had some guidance inthe study of Italian beforehe sailed on his firstvoyage to Europe, that is in December1832, and suggestsfurther that his lessons in Italian may date back to his undergraduatedays. " At any rate, it is clear." Mr.Rusk continuesthat by the time he arrived offers barely half-a-dozensuch, and the intervals Paul R. Baker: The seem long. (Quoted in Fortunate Pilgrims.Americans in Italy,a800-a86o, Cambridge, Mass., 1964,3.

64 in Sicily about February23, 1833, he had learn the made an effortto spoken language."He was primarily and has given attracted to Dante us the first completetranslation of the in English,He had read Vita nuova the Prornessisposi and any other novelof that preferred itto " Emerson period.i° FranklinB. Newmanin and Buonarroti."New England (1952),524-25, shows that Quarterly, XXV Michael Angelomade a deep impressionon him as revealedin the his essayon the Italian comments of hisJournals, genius, fourversions of his common interest in sonnets, their Neo-Platonism andMichelangelo's upon " TheProblem." As influence regards otherItalian writers chronologicalrange of his reading the and his opinions though continuouswas narrow on them havea limited critical HAWTHORNE: value." Sophia Peabodybecame engaged NathanielHawthorne in to 1839 or 1840.Theywere married in 1842. She hadstudied Italianin 1828 to Hawthorne, his or shortly thereafter.As son makes it clearthat he already language by1857 since knew the at that time bothhis fatherand mother studied it inpreparation fora prolonged 1859). He showed stay in Italy (1858- some knowledge ofDante as early and, if he hadno acquaintance as 1835, of the languagethen, he might have acquired ita short time later as the result of theinterest taken in it byMrs. Hawthorneand his many contacts withthe members of theItalianategroup in Boston direct productof his Italian and vicinity."A residence inthe Marble whichhedraws Faun, for extensivelyonhisItalian " Hawthorne'srealpurpose in writing Notebook. the novel,"says John A. ' See J. ChesleyMathews. Emerson's Knowledgeof Dante." University ofTexas Studiesin English, The Emerson's Knowledge 1942,especially" A Noteon of Italian,"pp. 196-98. Prof. Library Bulletin,XI (1957), Mathews in Harvard 208-36s, has editedthe Vita introduction. Anew annotated edition nuova with a fine him for the University of the translationwas prepared by of CaliforniaPress, 196o. " See JohnT. Flanagan." Emersonas Philological Quarterly, aCriticofFiction.* XV (1936),30-45. " See EmilioGoggio." Emerson's Literature." Italica, InterestinItaly and Italian XVII (1940),97-103. 12 Cf. J.Chesley Mathews." Hawthorne's University of Texas Knowledge ofDante." Studies in English(1940), 157-165.

65 Huzzard in " Hawthorne's Marble Faun." Italica,XXXV (1958), 12o, was to re-create for his readers,many of whom hadnever been to Europe andwere not likely ever togo, the profound impression that Italy hadmade on him; he hopedto immortalize his own personal journey through this modernParadiso, which had affected himso strangely and so unexpectedly,and which had aroused his creativefaculties,after a long periodof sterility. * PRESCOTT: William Hickling Prescott(1796-1859) was one of the foremost historians of histime. His works, allof them outstanding, are the Historyof the Reign of Ferdinandand Isabella (1837), Historyof the Conquest ofMexico (1843), Conquest of Peru (1847),History of the Reignof Philip II (unfinished). With their heavystress on the dramaticaspects of history they still enjoya considerable popular appeal. Hi3friend, George Ticknor, has givenus a detailed biography of theman in his Life of WilliamHick ling Prescott. Boston,1864. Here we are told that Prescott enteredthe Dummer Academyrun by Dr. Gardiner, Rector ofthe Trinity Church inBoston. There, together with his chum,William H. Gardiner,son of the Doctor he took private lessons ofother teachers [that is,teachers other than Dr. Gardiner, whogave instruction only in Greek,Latin and English] in arithmeticand writing; but madesmall progress in either. They played,too, with French, Italian andSpanish, but accomplished little;for they cared nothingabout these studies, which theyaccounted superfluous, andwhich they pursued only to please theirfriends... They learnt, indeed,the slight and easy lessonsset them, but were carefulto do no more, and made no realprogress " (op. cit. 1o). Prescott spent part of 1816in Italy. In theautumn of 1823 he began to give seriousattention to Italian, readingwidely and taking copiousnotes. " At different times heeven thought of devotinga large part of this life to its study;and, excepting what he has done in relationto Spanish history, nothing of all he has published isso mature and satisfactoryas two articles in the North AmericanReview, oneon " Italian Narrative Poetry," published in October1824, and anotheron Italian Poetry and Romance," published in the Review in July 1831.11 Thearticles are excellent and show with a few cautious qualifications that Prescott had a great admiration for Italy and Italian culture. Nevertheless, " Italian Narrative Poetry " aroused the wrath of Lorenzo Da Ponte who publishedan eighty-page diatribe against itina pamphlet entitled Alcune osseruazionisull'articolo pubblicato nel North American Review itmese di ottobre 1'824. New York, 1825. Prescott answered courteously and effectively refuted in detail the animadversions of Da Ponte who " had not understood or had not been willing to understand many pages " of the study. Speaking of the autumn of 1824 and the spring of 1825, Ticknor reports that " an accomplished Italian exile [Bashi]was in Boston, and, partly to give him occupation,- and partly for the pleasure and improvement to be obtained from it, I invited the unfortunate scholar to come three or four timesa week and read to me from the principal poets of his country... Prescott joined me in it regularly, and sometimes we hadone or two friends with us. In this way we went over large portions of the Divina commedia, and the whole of the Gerusalemme liberata, part of Ariosto's Orlando furioso and several plays of Alfieri. The setting was very agreeable, sometimes protracted to two or three hours, and we not only had earnest and amusing, if not always very profitable, discussions about what we heard, but sometimes we followed them up afterwards withcareful inquiries. The pleasure of the meetings, however,was their great attraction. The Italian scholar read well, and we enjoyed it very much " (op. cit. 71). Nevertheless, the new interest that Prescott took in Italian did not last very long. It was superseded by his studies in Spanish and Spanish-American history, on which he spent the remainder of his life. BANCROFT: Another historian of note attracted to Italian was George Bancroft, author of the monumental History of the United States From the Discovery of the American Continent.

" This essay had actually been written at about the same time as the other article and was to have been printed in an English periodical. See Ticknor, op. cit. 133.

67 He spent nine months in Italy between October 1821 and June 1822, and during his stay learned enough Italian to be able to converse in it." On his return to America he became tutor of Greek at his alma mater, Harvard, and with J. G. Cogswell, established the famous Round Hill School at Northampton, Mass. in 1824. This coincides with the year that, according to Lorenzo Da Ponte,aFlorentinepoliticalrefugee, Donato Gherardi became Bancroft's Italian tutor. Gherardi also taught at Round Hill." In 18)(5 he married Fanny, the future historian's sister. MARGARET FULLER: Margaret Fuller, a close friend of many famous literary men of her day, Emerson, Channing, Thoreau, Hawthorne, etc., was the chief feminine apostle of transcendental thought and the most outstanding American woman of her time. She already knew Italian fairly well in 1825 while she was in attendance at the school run by the Misses Prescott at Groton, and regularly spent two afternoon hours reading in the language." While teaching courses at Bronson Alcott's Temple School in Boston in1836-37, she was also engaged in teaching French, German and Italian to private classes. Pietro Bachi, instructor at Harvard, was to give the Italian pupils instruction in Italian pronunciation, which never materialized, but the class reading' which included parts of Tasso, Petrarch, Ariosto, Alfieri ; 'tie whole of the Divine Comedy, indicates that considerable progress was made." It is to be presumed that when she taught at the Greene St. Academy in Providence in 1837 she continued to give instruction in these languages. Though she had had a hand in bringing about the German vogue in America, her heart and soul were Italian. While in Paris during her Wanderjahre in 1847 she wrote: " My French teacher says I speak like an Italian, and I hope in Italy I shall

14 Cf. M.A. De Wolfe Howe. The Life and Letters of George Bancroft. New York, 1908. Vol. I, 15o. 15 See Storia della linguae letteratura italiana in New York. New York, 1827, p. 15. " See T.W. Higginson. Margaret Fuller Ossoli. Boston,1884. 2nd ed., 23. 11 See Higginson, op. cit. 76-77.

68 find myself more at home." le She did, indeed, feelmore at home in Italy during her residence there from 1847to 1830, where she actively aided the fight for Italian independence, andwas happily married to Marquis Giovanni Angelo Ouo li. Most unfort nately, just as she was about to landon the American shore she was drowned with her husband andson off Fire Island, New York on July tfi, 1830. HARRIET BEECHER STOWE: Even before shewent to teach in her sister Catherine's school. the Hartford Female Seminary, Harriet Beecher (the famous Harriet Beecher Stowe of Uncle Tom's Cabin) had been instructed in French and Italian by a Miss Degan pegenl, an Italian born in Italy, who taught in the seminary. At the time she went thereas a teacher of rhetoric, late in 1817, Miss Degan was her roommate forsome months. In a letter written in 1813 she states that among theteachers and scholars " who exerted an influence over her characterwas the cultural Italian lady, * whose constant occupation it isto make others laugh." She adds in the same letter: " My plan of study is to read rhetoric and prepare exercises formy class the first half hour in the evening; after that the rest of the evening is divided between French and Italian." She visited Italy twice, in 1846 and in 1839. JULIA WARD HOWE: Julia Ward Howe, the famous author of al The Battle Hymn of the Republic,"was sent to a private school in Boston at theage of nine. " Hearing a class reciting an Italian lesson she was enchanted with the musical sound of the language, listened and marked day after day and presently handed the amazed principala note correctly written in Italian begging permission to join the class."In 1836 while in New York, she took lessons from Lorenzo L Da Ponte,son of the famous librettist. Shewas in Italy in 1843. If she read Dante with Felice Forests as reported by her biographers,"it se Quoted from Mason Wade. Margaret Fuller Whetstoote of Gentsu. New York. tw. 141. "See Charles Edward Stowe. Life of Harriet Beecher Stowe. New 1891. Pp. 31 41, 43.46. " In Laura A. Richards and Maude Rows ItIliott. Julie Ward N... (ztrtozo). Boston, tate. Vol. I. p. p. "Op. cit. 304.

69 date of between 1843and 458, the ust havetaken place a Dante Italy. Many yearslater in an essay on Foresti's return to Polite? and included in hervolumeIs Society and Beatrice acknowledges theabiding Boston.1895, she Other Essays. her. a My firststudies of influence ofDante'smasterpiece upon time pastantedating eventhe the great poet arein the long the startingpoint of new middle term oflife whichfor him was that no partof my life sincethat inspiration. Yetit seems to me echo of theDivine Comedyin reading hasbeen without some re-visited Italyin ,878-79 and my mind(op. cit. 18). She sentimental tributeof Julia Ward again in 1884.A beautiful be seen in the devotion to allthings Italian may Howe's deep Florence. In daughters, JuliaRoman* and namesof her two of the thriving Boston in Iwoshe was oneof the chief sponsors Circolo Italian. Washington Irving verylikely WASHINGTONIRVING: part ofhis equipmentfor his began his studyof Italian as When he arrivedin Genoa Italian journey,JanuaryApril 2805. half of eachnight on thelanguage." he workedfor some days with an of 1823, heresumed study In D Aldenin the Spring journals that he and mentionsin his English lady,Mrs. Foster, Demetrius and time thePastor fido,Metastasio's read at the and April 1825while Dante. BetweenAugust 17, 1813 a part of Storrow in Parishe took sixty at thehome of Mrs.Thomas W. lists amonghis readingsMetastasio's Italianlessons, and iiforestiers.At Boccacdo andLa pittura a Themistocks, found amagnificent the autumnof 1825 he Bordeaux during librarywhich served collection ofItalian booksin Guestler's on hisItalian readingsfrom Dante, as astimulus to concentrate Della Casa,Sannazaro,Politian, Tetrarch,Passavanti, Lippi, Foscolo." Irvingust havefelt that Moira, Tasso,Alfieri and of the Italianlanguage andliterature anextensive knowledge New York. The Life ofWashington Irving. " See StanleyT. Williams. do. 435. Vol. I, p. be found bailie Goplo: " Interestingsupplementary details can and Romeosie xxt(1990). * WashingtonIrving and Italy.* Knurl** ofDante.* in j. MaleyMathews' Washington Irving's American Zagreb"X (499), 4A04S.

70 was needed to widen his cultural horizon.He appareatly succeeded in hispurpose. FITZGREENE HALLECK: Halleck'sknowledge of Italian though probably inferiorto his familiarity with French was yet sufficient for an appreciation ofthe literature, which he is said to have loved. His teacher in the languagewas Lorenzo Da Ponte, who becamean intimate friend of the poet. Ha neck had at least a passing acquaintance with theworks of Ariosto, Dante, Taw, part of whose JerusalemDelivered he knew by heart, and Dante, who he once declared hadnever been fairly translated." WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT:Upon his arrival in New York early in 1815 WilliamCullen Bryant tookup the study of Italian. There he met LorenzoDa Ponte whom hecame to know quite well, and it is perhapsto him that he owed his Introduction to the Divine Comedy,parts of which he memorized and was able to repeateven in the last years of his long life. His biographer, P. Godwin, relatesan anecdote originally told by John C. Zachos,curator of the Cooper Institute in New York. Bryant had attendeda lecture on Burrs on the evening of January so. 1875. During thepost-lecture reception at the home of Mr. Peter Cooper 6 theconversation fell upon the sonorous capacity and beauty of various languages. Professor Zachos upheld the superiority of the modernGreek. but Mr. Bryant was of the opinion that itwas excelled by the Italian. As a test of the respective merits of the two, he proposed that Professor Zachos should recite something inGreek, while he should repeat a passage froman Italian poet. The Professor complied, and, as soonas he was done, Mr. Bryant, selecting Dante, declaimed a long extractwith a power,' says the Professor, ' enthusiasm, and fire that electrifiedhis hearers."" Bryant acquired a fluent speaking knowledgeof the language and enjoyed talking in it with his children.He visited Italy in 1858. With Thomas Parsons and JohnGreenleaf Whittier he vigorously defended theItalians in their fight for independence. MOM Ka. Nels©n Frederick Adkins. Ms Greene Hawk:An Early Knickerbocker Wit gni Poet. New Haven,mop, 157. " Cited in Vol. U, op. tit., p. adg. dee also 3.Cheeky MAthews. * Bryant's 'nowt** of Dante." Mika, XVI (1gee),115.119.

71 EDGAR ALLAN POE: Edgar Allan Poewas aember of one of the first Italian classes taught by Prof. Blaettermann at the University of Virginia. Prof. Wertenbaker,a member of the same class OM) recalls many years later that " on one occasion Prof. Blaettermann requested his Italian classto render into English verse a portion of the lesson in Tauo, which he assigned them for the next lecture. He did not require this of themas a regular exercise, but recommended itas one from which he thought the student might derive benefit. At thenext lecture on Italian that Professor stated from his chair thatMr. Poe' was the only member of the class who had responded to his suggestion, and paid a very high compliment to his performance. If, as Mr. Wertenbaker adds, hewas also " tolerably regular in his attendance and a successful student,* itmay be presumed that he learned Italian sufficiently well to retaina fair reading knowledge for the remainder of his life." Of Dante he read only the Inferno, which may have been in translation rather than in the original." One critic notes resemblances between Poe's * The City in the Sea * and Dante's City of Dis." Numerous parallels between * The Masque of the Red Death * and the Promessi *xi have been seen by Cortell Ring Holsappel." The American poet had reviewed the Manzonl novel in the Southern Literary Messenger in 1833, but may have read the masterpieceas early as 183s. Dame Una Pope-Hennessey in her book on Poe," thinks that Prince Prospero " comes straight out of the Decameron " and [that] the apartments are reminiscent of theseven coloured palaces of the Princes of Serandip whose adventures Poemay have come across as a boy, namely Molly. Voyages et aventures des :rob princes de Serendip, based upon Cristoforo Armeno's Peregritsaggio di ere giovani figliuoli del Re Serendippo Ow), which has been published in an English translation in 1863 by

" Cited in several biographies, one of them being John P. Ingram. Edgar Allan Poe, His Life, Letters and Opinions. London, apt, pp. 40-41. " See J. Chesley Mathew'sDid Poe Read Dante?University of Texas Studies in English. No. 17, tg38, 1ag-36. " Sea H.M. Belden article in dowries* Literature, VII (1Q55), 33o-54. " See TOM Studies in English. No. 17, 1955, iso. H London, ilk,140-41. the Oklahoma University Press. As to the Decameron, Poe in having the members of his Folio Club telltheir stories in rotation follows the tradition established by Boccaccio. WILLIAM GILMORE SIMMS: All that we know about William Gilmore Simms, the best of the southern poets, is that he studied some Italian before 1845.1 LESSER FIGURES: It y be worth while to mention a few other students of Italian whose reputation has faded a bit today, but who were, nonetheless, notable literary personalities in their day. One of the first of the once prominent literary men who belongs to our group is Richard Alsop (1761-1815), a Hartford wit. He translated the Enchanted Lady of Morgan from Berni's rifacimento of the Orlando innamorato, Monti's Aristodemus, Ignatius Molina's Geographical and Natural His'ory of Chile, several of the arias of Metastasio, and the story of Ugolino from Dante." Another American who might be called a pioneer in the study of Italian is the versatile and prolific William Dunlop (1766-1839), who in 1791 made a translation of the Ugolino episode * thrown into English heroic verse." " Andrews Norton, now remembered principally for hisUnitariantheological writings, was a zealous champion of the Italian Risorgimento and translator of an abridged version of Manzoni's Promessi sposi (1834). Catherine Maria Sedgwick, one of the most popular novelists of the last century, translated Maroncelli's Addizioni alle mit prigioni (Cambridge, 1836). Mrs. Elizabeth Fries Lummis Ellet, poet and novelist, published a translation of Silvio Pellico's Eufemio da Messina in 1835 and has given us the first English translationof Foscolo's Sepolcri. Thomas William Parsons learned Italian chiefly through residence in Italy in 1836 and 1847. He devoted most of his life to a translation of the Divine

See Letters of William Gilmore Simms. Columbia. S.C., ig58.Vol. II (1845-1849). IL IS. " See J.G. a An Early American Translation of the Omit Ugolino Episode." Modern Language Quarterly, XI (ig6o), 4So-S6. " See J.G. " The First Fragment of a Trandation of the Divine Comedy Printed in America." Baca, VIII OW, 4o-41.

73 Comedy, which he never completed." As ProfeuorMathews has shown in his * Dantean Influence in the Poemsof T. W. Parsons,* Italica, XLII 0965), 13548, his idolatryof Dante appears in numerous passages of his originalpoems. Henry Theodore Tuckerrnan, critic, eua)ist,poet, lived in Italy in 1833-34 and 1836-38. Be published The Italian Sketchbookin 1835 and Isabel of Sicily, a Pilgrimage in 1839. His Poems(1851) show his fascination with the historic and literaryassociations of Italy. The King of Italy honored him a' in recognitionof his labFs on behalf of Italian exiles in the United States.*Richard Henry Wilde, poet andex-congreuman from the state of Georgia, lived in Italy during most of his Europeansojourn, 1835-40. He contributed to the discovery of Giotto'sfamous Dante fresco in the Barge llo in Florence, publishedConjectures and Researches Concerning the Love, Madness andimprisonment of Torquato Tasso. New York, 1841," andsome unedited translations,SpecimensoftheLyricWaitersofItaly,a manuscript now in the Library of Congress." NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW AMERICAN QUAR- TERLY REVIEW: Special mention should be madeof the contributors to the North American Review.3nd American Quarterly Review, two of the foremost -tfour early periodicals. Besides Edward Everetti-PrekCitt, Longfellow andTicknor, who have been discussed elsewhere, the other Italianisantswho wrote for them are Jared Sparks, Edward Tyrrell Channing,Alexander Everett, Caleb Cushing, Francis C. Gray, Gray I.Chapman, Frances ErskineInglis,Nathaniel Greene, William Tudor, several of whom later achieved distinction either indiplomacy or scholarship, or in both. As Professor Angelina La Plana has observed in Dante's American Pilgrimage,op. cit. is-13: * The North American Review from theyear it was founded (1815) to

" Fuller details may be found in Angelina La Plana'sDante's American Pilgrimage. New Haven, 340, esp.pp. 7449. " In part appearing in an article, a Secret History of Two,'Knicker- bocker Magazine, VIII (de). " See Chandler B. Beall. Us italofiloglatriCall0di centianni fa: Rkhard Henry Wilde. Con milord inedite di poemsitatiani. Bergamo, 1939.

74 .4111112111Mwommumem

185o and the American Quarterly Review during theten years of its existence (18s7-37), publishedmore essays, articles and notes on Italian literature, art and history than those of France, Germany or any other Europeancountry except England.* This is concrete proof ofan intense interest in Italian culture at the time. TRAVELLERS: Virtually all of thesemen and women and thousands of other Americans flockedtoThe Paradise of Travellers * in ever-increasing numbers.Both in the travel books written for the publiceye, and in letters meant for private communication, in the straight-forward personal records of daily journals and in the often cryptic comments ofsecret diaries, nineteenth century Americans revealed time and time again that Italy was the most interesting, the most meaningful place they had ever visited.' ST Between 1848 and 185o Rome alone had 88s registered American visitors of whom 78, incidentally, are included in the Dictionary of American Biography." It, as well as Florence and Venice, were huge international Meccas where it was possible to meet the greatest celebrities of the period. Among them, to limit ourselves only to the literati,were Englishmen like Byron, Shelley, Keats, Southey, Moore, Leigh Hunt, Wordsworth, Hazlitt, Arnold, the Brownings, Macaulay, Dickens, Frenchmen like Stendhal (Stendhal milanais), Musset, George Sand, Chateaubriand, La Martine, Mme de Stal, Flaubert, Dumas pore, Edmond and Jules Goncourt, Renan, Quhlet, Germans like Jean Paul Richter, Heine, Tieck, E.T.A. Hoffmann, Platen, Leasing, Friederich Schlegel, Eichendorff, Holderlin. By no means all the American visitors learned Italian while in residence in Italy but many of them did, including James Fenimore Cooper, who resided there during 18s8 and 185o. In

" Paul R. Baker. The Fortunate Pilgrims: Americans in Italy, i3oo-1863. Cambridge, Mass., 1964, p. 3. " See Howard IL Marraro. * American Travellers in Rome, 1843-183o.* Catholic Historical Review, XXIX (1944),470-509. See also Giuseppe Presto. linl. Come gli americorni scoprirono (zy yo-x8 5o). Milano, 1933, and Van Wyck Brooks. The Dream of Arcadia: American Writers and Artists in Italy, 1760 -1915. New York. 19513.

75 Florence he procured an Italian master forhis children." He fell so in love with the country that heonce declared: I' If there is any country outside of myown in which I would wish to live, itisItaly. There is no place wheremere living is such a luxury.' 4° Among the American writers whowere later in Italy for extended sojourns are William Dean Howells,American consul in Venice (1861-1865), Henry James, whospent most of his second year abroad (1887) in Italy. Hewrote his Roderick Hudson in Florence, one of the works thatbelongs to the fruitful and important « Italian Phaseof his career. In his Italian Hours. Boston,agog, 5os-o3, James states that he had found ItalyThick with the sense of history and thevery taste of time.* The novelist, Francis Marion Crawford,lived most of his life there. And, in closing, letus not forget Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot, Italianists who have playeda major role in shaping our contemporary poetry and criticism. * *

The Nineteenth century and particularly the periodbetween 1815 and 1861 was the Golden Age in the study of Italianin the United States.41 The fact that the languagewas able to attract so many of our best minds was surely no accident. Itwas then realized, as it never has been beforeor since in the history of our country, that it and the civilization of which it isa symbol constituted an essential part of the education ofan individual which was bound to result ina substantial enrichment of one's cultural life.

a' Cf. The Letters and Journals of James Fenimore Cooper.James FrAnklin Beard, ed. Cambridge, Mass, 1980. Vol. I,345. 4Quoted by Robert E. Spiller. James Fenimore Cooper, Critic of his Times. New York, 1931, p. 148. " With reference to the status of the idioma gentile between these dates, G. Palfrey wrote in the North American Review, XLVII(1838), p. ao8: N Few modern languages are more generally studied than the Italian... All persons who have any pretentionto learning have more or less had something to do with Italian.' See also Emilio Goggio. " The Dawn of Italian Culture in America.* Romanic Review, X (1919), s50-6s.

76 ITALIAN IN THE COLLEGES ANDUNIVERSITIES

We should like to preface our historical surveyof Italian in the colleges and universities by stating that it, aswell as the other modern foreign languages, was oftenavailable to students some years (at times many years) before itacquired official status as a course. For instance, Professor C.H.Handschin in his The Teaching of Modern Languagesis the United States (Washington, D.C., 1913, p. 37) notes withreference to Princeton that a The Modern Languages seem tohave been taught even in the Revolutionary days at PrincetonUniversity. The curriculum of the period has noticesInstruction in the French, Spanish, German and Italian languages isgiven at the option of the student.' * A number of years later FrancisWalker Gilmer in a letter dated Richmond, Oct. 28,1818, written to his nephew Thomas Walker Gilmer,' adviseshim as follows: 6 Go to Cambridge or West Point. Ishould prefer the first. You must not imagine because you go on prettywell among your neighbors that you have done everything. You haveI hope done very well, but when you reach one of these greatuniversities where boys are assembled from the whole U. States youwill find boys of your age reading Greek, Latin,French & Italian with ease and elegance.** The writer may bereferring either to the extra curricularoffering of Italian at both West Point and Harvard or to the study of thelanguage under private tutors or in the secondary schoolsof the time. In any case his remark is significant. At Middlebury CollegeProfessor Patton conducted classes in Italian several years beforeits catalog specifically announced any course. A similarsituation must have prevailed in a number of other colleges up tothe period of the Civil War and even a decade or so beyondit. As for individual colleges and universities, weshall restrict our discussion 1) to acertain number of schools which have Later Secretary of the Navy under PresidentTyler. 2 See Tyler's Quarterly Magazine, VI (1924-25), 242. been pioneers in the teaching ofItalian in the United States and a) to schools which introducedthe language in the last decades of the pastcentury and which since that timehave become imr Jrtantcenters of Italian culture. These andother institutions will alsoappear in a separate list arranged in chronological order accordingto the first year Italianappears in their curriculum eitheras an optional or as a regularcourse insofar as we have been ableto directly ascertain it through official sources. Deeming itjust as essentialto know something about the individuals whohave been engaged in instructingthe language as it is to knowwhen and where it has beenoffered, we have added in the firstpart biographical detailson many of the teachers bearingon their scholarship, teaching, miscellaneous attainments and, occasionally,on their idiosyncrasies. The schools discussed are those thatwe consider to be thehistorical highlights of this chapter.Our pattern has necessarilyand regrettably had to exclude collegesand universities that have only recentlycome to the forefront as centers of Italianstudies, among them the University of Arizona,Brooklyn College, University of Buffalo, Universityof Colorado, Gonzaga Univer- sity, Queens College, RutgersUniversity, St. John's University. The Italiancourses offered in them in as wellas in a number of the other schoolsare in charge of capable scholars and teachers who, needlessto say, compare most favorably withtheir contemporaries mentioned in thehistorical section;some of them are, indeed, alreadyoutstanding figures. They will playa prominent part in thesupplement to this monographwhich will follow a fewyears from now.

William and Mary College

In his Autobiography Jeffersonstates that on June 1, 1779, at a meeting of the College of Williamand Mary Board of Visitors, of which hewas a member, approval was given toa drastic change in the organizationof the school. This involved the substitution of professorshipsin modern languages, law, anatomy and chemistry for the chairs ofreligion and classical languages, which had existedup to this time. Jefferson writes

78 that he selected Carlo Be llini for the modern language post. In so doing he established the first Chair of Modern Languages in this country. However, in two letters written early in Aug. in 1778 Belliniannouncesthat he had already been offeredthe professorship by the " governor s'of Virginia.' The governor in 1778 was Patrick Henry. In any case, there can be no doubt that Jefferson was influential in effecting the appointment. Carlo Bellini was born in Florence in 1735 and took a classical course at the University. His liberal political ideas forced him to leave Tuscany before graduation. During his exile he taught languages in Paris and London. He arrived at Jamestown in November 1774. We have no documents on what he did during the initial phase of his Virginia residence. It is hardly credible that he should come to Albemarle County to help Philip Mazzei, friend of Jefferson, " tointroduce the culture of the grape, the olive and other fruits of Italy," as conjectured by T. Tyler in " Early Courses and Professors at William and Mary." William and Mary Quarterly, XIV (1905), 77, a statement repeated by others. In view ofhis experience as a language teacher it is morelogical to assume that like so many other educated emigres heused this means of earning a living. During the Revolutionary War he served briefly with Philip Mazzei in the Albemarle Guards. On June so, 1778, " as a gentleman possessed of therequisite Qualifications for such an Office," he was designated as " secretaryand interpreter of the French and other foreign Languages " to handle foreign correspondence for the state of Virginia. In the two letters mentioned Bellini rather pompously calls himself Secretary for Foreign Affairs." At William and Mary he taught French, Italian and Spanish until 18os when ill-health compelledhim to retire.4 He was the only memberof the college faculty to remain in Williamsburg through the Cornwallis occupation.

Cf. Antonio Pace. Another Letter of Carlo Bellini." William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. IV (1947), 330-55, and also by Prof. Pace " Further Notes on Carlo Bellini in the Year 1778," Italica, XLIII (1966), 183-89. On Bellini see also E.G. Branchi, " Carlo Bellini (In occasionedel

79 9011010110,11044.

Judge St. George Tucker, whoin 1789 had succeeded George Wythe, the famous teacherof both Jefferson andJohn Marshall, in writing of the collegein 1795 statesamong other things:" In the Modern Languages, French,Italian, Spanish and German may be acquired. Mostof the students acquire the two former." 5 It is interestingevidence on the popularity of Italian during that period. Bellini was succeeded by Hugh L.Girardin whomay not have imparted instruction in Italian.In 1829 Casimiro de la Pella islisted as" Professor of the French, Spanishand Italian Languages," which he taught " withhistorical and philosophical observations," as wellas with" the elements of philology applied to these languages."In 183o Penawas still teaching theselanguagesasrevealedin an announcement inthe Richmond Enquirer for Aug.13. Like so many of the early language instructors he,too, came from the ranks of the private teachers, probably directly fromCharleston, S.C. where he taught in 1825 (see notices for thisyear in the Charleston Mercury). Morgan J. Smead, Professor ofHumanity (1848-57), knew Italian well as disclosed by histranslations of Pellico's Le mie prigioni (1844), Giraud'sLe gelosie per equivoco (1849)and Goldoni's Un curioso accidente(1849). He may have hada hand in the Italiancourses. We say " may have had," since information at this point is deficient dueto the destruction of the early college records in the fires of 1859and 1862. An attempt isnow being made to draw conclusionsas to the character of the school's curriculum from the studenttextbooks that have been assembled through the years. Thismay shed some light on Smead's teaching program. Be this as it may, inasmuchas some of the Italian books in his own library havesurvived, and inasmuchas the College Catalogue for 1859 lists thecourse texts, we can safely assign Italian to Edwin Tagliaferro(1858-67).

sesquicentenario :1779-1929)." Italica, VI (1929), 44-46.Prof. Branchi does not specify the name of the Universitywhich Bellini attended. It was probably Pisa. s Cf. " Education in ColonialVirginia." William and Mary Quarterly, VI (1897), 183.

80 Dickinson College

Professor Sturgis E.Leavitt in his Historyof the Teaching of Spanish in theUnited States (p.310 of Reports of Surveys and Studies in theTeaching of ModernForeign Languages. Washington, D.C., :961), erroneouslystatesthatClaudius Berard, Professor of French,Spanish, Italian andGerman was teaching at DickinsonCo: lege in 1780.However, in a letter written tome by Mr. Charles C. Sellers,librarian at Dickinson, It is made clearthat Berard, whowas a member of its class in 181* but did not graduate, functionedas Professor of Modern Languages in 1814-15. In 1816Gerard E. Stackwas Professor protem of Languages.* Thoughnot actually a member of the faculty Jacob Frederick Huberwas allowed to give instruction in the languages.He was a Swiss whohad emigrated to Americain 1819. Hecame to Dickinson fresh from his study oftheology in 1816 andremained there until 1831. Since he taught Italian at WesleyanUniversity, wecan logically presume thathe also taught itat the Pennsylvania school. From 1834to 1840 Robert Emorywas the instructor. In the 1840's French,Spanish and Italianwere taught in the senior year at student request for* a small extra charge.*It was at this time that Spencer Fullerton Baird, whowas to become one of the most eminent ofour American naturalists,studied the language possibly under theman then in charge ofinstruction at the college. Ina letter written on Jan.13, 1845 to William M. Baird, which is quotedby William HealeyDail in his Spencer Fullerton Baird. 4. Biography (Philadelphia,1915,118) he states: My time is principallyoccupied with studyas follows. In the morning Italianand German.* Hemust have continued for at least anotheryear since in a subsequentletter to William L. (Nov. s4, 1845)he repeats: * Italianand German in the morning.*

University of Pittsburgh

A very importantmilestone in the historyof modern languages inour colleges has been overlookedby my fellow- historians,Handschin,Bagster-Collins,Leavitt,Watts and

81

6 Zelda. Nor is there any mention made in any other source. I refer to the University of Pittsburgh. This school, the oldest editing educational institution west of the Alleghanies, was originally chartereda1787 1111 Pittsburgh Academy. In 1819 it was reincorporated as Western University of Pennsylvania and received its present title in 1go8. At the time of the reorganiza- tion the following statement was printed in a pamphlet entitled TheSystem of Education, the Code of Discipline & the Professorships Adopted bytheTrusteesoftheWestern University of Pennsylvania aIn like manner, the Professor of modern languages willattend forthe purpose of giving instruction in English, Anglo-Saxon, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Universal Grammar.* The professor of modern languages and universal grammar was then the Remend Charles B. Maguire. Transylvania College Likewise over-looked has been one of the earliestof modern language teachers In the whole Ohio Valley, the distinguished naturalist, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque. Rafinesque was born at Galata, a suburb of Constantinople, in 1785. His father was a French merchant from Marseilles and his mother a woman of German extraction. He lived for a brief part of his early childhood in the French port-city, but in 179s his mother took him, his two brothers and one sister to Leghorn in order to escape the Reign of Terror. They remained there until 1796, after which Constantine's residence varied for several years between Genoa, Pisa and Marseilles and back to Leghorn. He was extremely precocious as a child, quickly acquired an absorbing interest in botany and read widely and avidly. Referring to his education in the mid-teens he writes in ALife of Travels(Philadzlphia, 1836, 8-9):a I never was in a regular college, nor lost my time on dead languages; but I spent it in learning alone and by mere reading ten times more than is taught in Schools. I have undertaken to learn the Latin and Greek, as well as the Hebrew, Sanscrit, Chinese and fifty other languages, as Ifeltthe need or inclination to study them.*

82 In illoa he decided upon a business career inAmerica, which he mixed with botanizing until the end of 1804.Then he went back to Italy, making Sicily his home for the next ten years. There he continued to engagein mercantile pursuits and to carry on an intensive scientificresearch. His second trip to the United States began in 1815. In 1818 he journeyed overthe Alleghanies and down the Ohio stopping atHenderson, Kentucky, to see John J. Audubon, the famousornithologist. His visit is recorded in a very popular humoroussketch by Audubon titled * The Eccentric Naturalist,"which appears in his Ornithological Biography (Philadelphia, 1831,vol. I, 455-8o). It deals with an M. de T. understood tobe none other than Raflnesque. In the part that relates to what tookplace during one of the eveningsAudubon writes: * We had all retired to rest. Every person I imagined wasin deep slumber, save myself, when of a sudden I heard a great uproarin the naturalist's room. I got up, reached theplace in a few moments, and opened the door, when, to my astonishment, I saw my guestrunning about the room naked, holding the handleof my favorite violin, the body of which he had battered to piecesagainst the walls in attempting to kill the bats, which hadentered by the open window, probably attracted by the insectsflying around his candle. I stood amazed, but he continuedrunning around and around, until he was fairly exhausted: whenhe begged me to procure one of theanimals for him, as he felt convinced they belonged to anew species.' AlthoughI was convinced to the contrary, I took up the bowof my demolished Cremona, and administering a smart tap to each of the bats asit came up, soon got specimensenough." At this time Rafinesque had nointention of becoming a resident of Kentucky, his only concernbeing to collect as many botanical and zoological specimens aspossible and to get them safely to his headquarters in Philadelphia.In the Eastern city he had previously met the well-knownKentucky geologist, John D. Clifford, and it was throughhis influence that in 181g Transylvania College in Lexington offeredhim a " Professorship of botany and natural history, withthe addition of modern languages," as he informs us in his ALife of Travels, op. cit.

83

1111.111_ 59. In exchange for his serviceshe received and casual " lodgings,boarding emoluments." Inspeaking of he tells his life inLexington us: a I continuedmy lectures hadmany scholars for on botany and the French,Italian and languages " (op.cit. 63). He Spanish must havecontinued three languagesuntil 18:5 to teach the when thehostility ofthe college administration,no doubt arousedin large absences while measure by his on frequentscientific excursio expedient for himto leave.° In the ts, made it has had in mediocre recordTransylvania the field ofmodern languages, of Constantine the colorfulpersonality Samuel Rafinesquestands aloneas the only worthy ofremembrance. one Harvard University in2816 the HarvardCorporation Ticknoras the first Smith appointedGeorge Professor ofthe French languages andProfessor of and Spanish teaching in the BellesLettres. Onbeginning active college heintroduceda lecture-course contemporary writersin the on the must have paid Romance Languagesin which he some attentionto Italian been interested literature. Hehad in thelanguageas early as 1815, long periodof study in prior to his Europe. Hisfondness for started at thistime. He had Dante also not been successfulin Boston in obtaining helpin readingthe great poet, but inGermany he had betterluck. InGottingen he Balhorn, tells us thathe hadmet Herr a tutor to membersof one of city, who the royalfamilies in the offered tointroduce him Balhorn," to the DivineCommedia. accordingto Ticknor,* knew Dante. Hewas not fully everything about occupied, buthe could he wastoo well off not be hired, to be paid inmoney. A brother of friend Mr.James Savage my had sentme from Hamburga box of very fine Havanacigars, and I read and found thatHerr Balhornwould explain Danteto me andconsider cigars so rare in Germany some of those fine a full compensation;and he On Railnesque,in additionto his A Life EllsworthCall.The Life and of Travels,lee Richard Publications. No. Writing ofRattnesque.Filson Club 10. Louisville, Ky.,1895, and T.J. A Sketch ofHis Life. With Fitzpatrick. Rafinesque: Bibliography. DesMoines, 1911.

84 continued thereading certainly Ticknor as long as the cigarslasted.*7 supplemented hisDante readingwith Herr Balhorn studying Italianat the University by of G8ttingenas he bringsout In a letterto his father:" I have and besides every day threerecitations, these study ninehours, which is as my health will as much Isuppose bear. My chiefobjects are still German,my subsidiary Greek and objects Italianand French.**In April 1817 hewas in Paris wherehe devoted most of his timestudying French andItalian withnative teachers. Summer of that Part of the Springand year he spent inItaly. While in always hada copy of Dante Europe he with him andhe continuedto read and to studyhim on hisreturn to the United started a special States. In 1831he tri-weekly lectureclass in Dante takes his place and hence not only as the firstprofessor of Italian in Americabut also literature as the first knownuniversity lecturer the Florentine.In one of his on letters hementions that hehad spent all of hissummer vacation studying many as twelve and him oftendevoting as fourteen hoursa day to his task with uninterrupted andequable pleasure.* If I amnot a betterman for it;* hewrites, " anda happier one, misused too, why I shallhave my opportunitiesscandalously,,as many better have done beforeme.* The men notes which servedin partas the skeleton of hislectures andclass-work and for a critical in partas the basis edition of theDivine Comedy, His department have beenpreserved. though notso named isour first real department of modernlanguages. Hemade the study Italian, French, of eitherGerman, Spanish orPortuguese required the choice courses. Since was left free to thestudents thelanguages voluntaries,* but were called once chosen itwas necessary to them for four continue in terms as EdwardEverett Hale of the Harvard observes in talking College of Auin his James His Friends Russell Lowelland (Boston, 189#9,is). As to college" marks * and the 'See T.W. Koch. °Dante in America.*Fifteenth Annual the Dante Society(i8g6), lg. Report of Told in Samuel M. Waxman. leGeorge Ticknor,a Pioneer Teacher of ModernLanguages." Hispania XXXII (1949), 418.More on Ticknor's Italian contactsand studiescan be found in Emilio Ticknor: the Goggio's " George Italianate," Carroccio,Jan. Igal, 61-63.

85 rank, which followed,* Hale adds,'I a modern language was worth only half a classical language.* Ticknor also introduced a system by means ofwhich students were advanced according to their proficiency. * No student of the language ispermitted to leave it until in proportion to his powers, he has learntit. Some students therefore are twice as long employed on a language, but the degree of thoroughness obtained though necessarily unequal is certainly vastly greater than was obtained under the old system of giving to all the same course and continuing them init,the same length of time.** Ticknor suggested that graduates of Harvard and other colleges might become Resident Graduates, the germ of the Harvard Graduate School which was formally organized many years later in 187*. He resigned in 1835. In the meantime Charles Folsom had begun to give instruction in the Italian language. He was not regularly appointed but from ass to1815 wgs permitted by the Corporation to teach the students who desired to study it at the time students were forbidden to attend the instruction of unauthorized teachers. In 1825 Ticknor made him an official member of his staff for the school-year 1825-26. Our information on Folsom is limited exclusively to what Andrew Peabody, at one time acting-President of Harvard, tells us in his Harvard Reminiscences (Boston, 1888,tot). Here we are informed that at different times he was tutor,instructor in Italian,librarianintheHarvardCollegeLibrary,and, commencing with 184, a proof-reader for the University Press. An author who passed through his hands,* Peabody remarks, a sometimes would hardly recognizehis own work inits improved dress. Mr. Folsom's only error was the excess of thoroughness. He would consult scores of authorities on the use of aparticle; and thereisa current myth, not without verisimilitude, that he at one time kept the press idle for several days because he could not satisfy himself whether a comma should be retained, or a semi-colon substituted.* If nothing else, Folsom must have been an exacting task-master as a teacher of

See the Ticknor Report in the Harvard archives dated Oct. *6, 1852.

86 Italian. Hewas released because of thenew plan that Ticknor put into effect, namelyto place the four languages underhis supervision in charge ofnative instructorsto teach grammar, conversation and reading,so that he might devote his timeto the teaching of literature.The nativeswere Francis-Maria Sum lt in French, FrancisSales in Spanish, CharlesFo lien in German and PietroBachi inItalian. The best of these instructors was withoutany doubt Pietro Bachi. Actually, Pietro Bachi isan assumed name. We now know that he was Ignazio Batolo, a native of Palermo,son of Salvatore Batolo, LLD, * giiprocuratore del Re presso la G[ranj gone] Cfivilej di Palermo,gran giudice della torte suprema di giustizia del Regno di Sicilia,"as his son informs us in his dedication of the Teatro scelto italiano(Cambridge, Mass., 18s9). He further states that he is a doctor of jurisprudencefrom the University of Palermo. Bachi ( Batolo)must have joined the carbonari in his student days and quicklybecame one of the local leaders of this patriotic organization.At the age of so, in 1831, hewas already accused of conspiracyagainst the regime of King Bomba [Ferdinand° II ruler of the TwoSicilies] and in orderto escape arrest was forced to leave the island early inthe following year. At any rate, hewas already in Boston in the Fall of 184 and in the Spring of 1815 whenTicknor became interested in the " accomplished Italian exile * andinvited him to read aloud to him and William H. Prescott, threeor four times a week, " partly to give him occupation andpartly for the pleasure and improvement to be obtained fromit." In 1817 the university made him an honorary M.A. whichgave him a place in the catalog of graduatesas well as in the second volume of UniversitiesandTheirSons(Boston,1899,138). When Longfellow succeeded Ticknoras Smith Professor in 1837 he kept Bachi on his staff. Meanwhile the young Sicilian continuedto serve the cause of the Italian revolution particularlyafter the decision made by Mazzini in April 1840to reactivate La Giovane Italia. At that time he was appointed Ordinatorefor Boston and proceededto organize the Italians there intoa Congrega or revolutionary action group. When Mazzini decidedto start a series of uprisings

87 in 1844 Bachi, who now temporarily resumedhis realname of Ignatio Bato lo, went to Malta withthe intentionof secretly participating in theindependencemovement in Sicily, but that spies had made found further action impossiblefor the time being. Bachi (Bato lo), therefore decided toreturn to Harvard. Hehad been indulging in drinkfor a number of harm to his teaching, years without any but now the habitbegan to affecthis effectiveness in theclassroom. Hewent further and further debt and finally into into bankruptcy. Under thedate of July 6,1846, Longfellow,his newsuperior,wroteinhisJournal: Examination in ModernLanguage: The Spanish well, the Italian classes did not so well." Bachiwas forced to resign by President EdwardEverett. After residingfor a brief period Palermo he returned in once more to Boston andtried toearn a livelihood the only way he was capable of doing,through private teaching. The lastappearance of hisname is in the Boston Directory and City Record for 1853,presumably theyear that, it is said, he diedof consumption." The high opinionthat Ticknor and,at least until 1846, Longfellow, had of his teaching abilityis borne out bythe registration figures cited in the AnnualReports from 183oto 1840, which indicatethat Italian, withan average of sixty students per term was well ahead ofSpanish at thistime. Bagster-Collins (op. cit.p. 58) gives a table which in the third shows that term of 1829-30 Frenchhad an enrollmentof 63, Spanish 33, Italian 72 and German52. In 1834 Italian hadan enrollment of 87 as compared with 8g inFrench accordingto the Annual Reportfor thatyear. Among the first of those who studiedunder Bachiwere Oliver Wendell Holmes during thethird term of hissophomore year (1826-27) and the first and secondterms of his junioryear (1827-28), and Thoreau during his fourundergraduateyears, 1834-37. The Report for July3, 1835, brings out thatEdward Everett Hale, authorof The ManWithout a Country, took 10 A fairly comprehensivediscussion on Bachi, sketch owes much, to which the above is S. Eugene Scalia's" Figures of the Risorgimentoin America :Ignazio Batolo, Alias Pietro Bachi and PietroD'Alessandro.* itatica, MI(1965), 511-24.

88 courses with him.James Russell Lowell was oneof those who was in his classes forsix terms or two years, fromDecember 1835 to December 1837.11 In 1837fourteen students took the examination in Italian after havingcompleted four terms of work, a real tributeto Bachi's powerof attracting young Harvardians. Hale, especially, felt deeplyindebted to him. In a letter to T.W. Koch quoted by thelatter in his 6 Dante in America," op. cit. 38, Hale declares:" Longfellow read the whole of Dante with us and we werewell prepared for this by what we had read with Bachi... Weall had a great regard for Bachi, and his work in the ItalianDepartment was excellent. As a critic of Dante, he hadexactly the gift which a goodteacher ought to have in interestingwide-awake young men inthis study. And I can say that when we cameto hear Longfellow lecture, we were more than preparedfor his lectures by the very thorough work which Bachi haddone in this same subjectwith us." On another occasion, onrecallinghisold Harvard instructors in his James RussellLowell and His Friends (op. cit.,128), he states:« I had but four teachers in college Charming, Longfellow, Peirce andBachi. The rest heard me recite but taught me nothing." When Bachi began to teachItalian at Harvard he found it necessary to useimported texts exclusively. In hisReport under the date of April, 1827, helists Veneroni's Syntax,Graglia's Grammar, Alfieri's Antigone, Saul,Goldoni's Pamela, Tasso, Monti and Botta. This reliance uponforeign importations created problems which could only be solvedby readily accessible texts printed in this country, animportant task which Bachi took upon himself. The firsttext which he apparentlyprepared was the Conversazione Italiana (Cambridge,Mass. & Boston, 1825),12

" On the continued interest inItalian shown by Holmes,Thoreau and Lowell beyond their student years, seethree articles by J. Chesley Mathews, " Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes andDante." Italica, XXX1V (1957), 12716;" Thoreau's Reading in Dante,"Italica, XXVII (195o),77-81; " James Russell Lowell's Interestin Dante," Italica, XXXVI (1959), 77-1oo. 32 Apud H.R. Marraro, " PioneerTeachers of Italian " in the U.S., op. cit., 569n.

89 NNW

which has as its subtitle: A collection of phrases and familiar dialogues in Italian and English. Besides exercises based on everyday occurrences such as * Rising," " With the shoemaker and the tailor,"To dine," " Going to bed," etc., there is a section on travelling describing cities of tourist interest in Italy. With some changes it could be useful as a text even today. At least three more texts followed in quick succession: A Grammar of the Italian Language, Scelta di Prose Italiane, and Teatrd Scelto Italiano. The Grammar is a massive manual of more than 55o pages. In his Preface Bachi complains that as an Italian instructor he has had the mortification to see in almost universal use the farrago of Veneroni " to the disparagement of his native language and the perplexity of those who learn it." He points out that whilethereareotherdeserving grammars likethoseof Galignani and Vergani, these are virtually unknown in America. His aim, he says, is to produce " a more complete and methodical and at the same time strictly practical treatise than now exists in English.* He draws upon the best Italian grammarians, and various English and French treatises on the Italian language. Pronunciationisthoroughly covered, verbs are given an unexampled fullness and to both regular and irregular verbs are annexed the poetical forms, which constitute no small difficulty for learners, even in reading the older writers." Syntax is exhaustively discussed with examples almost entirely taken from the falian classics. It is excellent as a reference grammar, but much too detailed to serve as a class text. In order to keep the volume from becoming over-sized Bachi published the Exercises separately. The Grammar, revised in 1885 and 1838, enjoyed considerable favor in our schools until the Civil War. The Scelta di Prose includes selections from early as well as modern writers, while the Teatro Scelto is a selection of Italian plays from the works of Goldoni, Nota, Giraud, Alfieri, Mont3 and Manzoni, with notes. The Raccolta di Favole Morali in prose and verse (Boston, 1835), was" designedtosupply young learnerswith an elementary book in the study of Italian and to serve as an introduction to the Prose Italiane and volumes in verse," which

90 form part of Bachi's series of the Corso distudio italiano. One of the interesting features of thebook is the repetition in the second part in verse form of some of the prosefables that appear in the first part " under the impressionthat, if they are read before the others in this division of the book,and after they have been previously perused in prose, thismethod might overcome in some measure the difficulty which thefrequent transposition of words and other peculiarities ofpoetical language necessarily present." Both parts are followed byinterlinear translations and explanation of the idioms. There arefifty-five prose selections which gradually increase in lengthfrom a half dozen lines to two pages. A few of thewriters represented are Cesarotti,Gozzi and Firenzuola inprose,Bertola, Algarotti, Passeroniand Crescimbeni in verse. They are ingeneral well chosen. The Quattro Poeti Italiani: Maggiori,contain selections from Tasso, Ariosto, Petrarch and from Dante'sInferno. Since Bachi received the very meagresalary or $500.00 a year for his services atHarvard he must have supplementedit in part by teaching in severalchildren's schools. Hence he prepared two othertextsdesigned for theinstruction of youngsters: TheRudiments of the Italian Language, orEasy Lessons in Spelling and Reading,with an Abridgment of the Grammar Adapted to the Capacityof Children (first printing 1828, second 1832, third 1835),and Mrs. Barbauld's Hymnsfor Children in Italian: Being a sequelto the Easy Lessonsin Reading. Announcements appearin the Conversazione Italiana (2nd ed., 1835). In 1834 President JosiahQuincy of Harvard had sounded out Longfellow asto his willingness tobecome Ticknor's successor. Heimmediately accepted since hehad become dissatisfied with the situation atBowdoin where he was then teaching.President Quincy had diplomaticallyphrased his overture with the words:" should it be your wishpreviously to your entering uponthe duties of the office to residein Europe at your own expensefor a year or eighteen monthsfor the purpose of a moreperfect attainment of theGerman, Mr. Ticknor will retain the officeuntil your return." The young man took heedof the suggestion spending mostof his time

91 studying inHeidelberg, buthe also had extended trip occasionto makean to Italy. Onestablishing himself inCambridge in November 1836he was obligedto wait for he was allowed some monthsbefore to assume hisprofessorial The institution duties. of a Dantecourse by Ticknor it easier forLongfellowto lecture perhaps made on him as hedid fromthe beginning.However,even without this precedentDantecourses would inevitablyhave becomea part of the within thenext few collegecurriculum years. " L'altissimopoeta " had become agreat idol of the already the Romanticgeneration inEurope. In English-speakingworld "Samuel Taylor largely responsible Coleridgewas for raisingDante's reputation it stilloccupies when, to the height as one of themost prestigious his day(and ours),he securely critics of divine poets...' ranked Danteamong those who areabove criticismin vulgar as they do inthesphere of sense,' moving religion.'18 UgoFoscolo then residing inEnglandwas also highly completeor partial English influential. Ahalf dozen translations ofthe DivineComedy, including thefamous versionby Henry brought the Francis Cary,had work withinthe reachof thousands English speakers.As an of cultured Americanrepresentative ofthe cult Emersonwas, in asense, merely the when he mouthpiece ofhis times wrote in one ofhis letters:" In season, we must all season and out of read Dante."14 Themanner in which Longfellowconducted hiscourse has been felicitouslydescribed by based his Professor EmilioGoggio whohas findingon a manuscriptrecord of his " Ordinarilyhiscourse would lectures. open witha discussion of merits of theCorn mediaas a literary the which it enjoyed masterpiece, thevogue and thepeculiar influence generations which it exertedfor past upon thegreatest scholars world... from allover the Longfellow readwith hisstudents all of and discussedat length the the Inferno scholarlycontributions of suchmen as Schelling, LeighHunt, Carlyle, Macaulay, anda few others.

" Quotedfrom WilliamJ. De Sua. N.C. 1964,23. Dante into English.Chapel Hill, '4 Letters(Rusk ed.), Vol. V, New York,1939, 531.

92 One of the things by which he was mostdeeply impressed in reading Dante was the poet's character, his austere nature,his indomitable will and inflexibility of purpose,his honesty and magnanimity, his indestructible faith in rightand justice... his wonderful knowledge of the human heart,his kindly attitude toward women and his strong and steadfastdevotion to his beloved Beatricewhich flowered from the sunny climeof his youth like the Gulf Stream forever wavingthrough the cold and stormy ocean of life.' *16 Longfellow's translation of the Divine Comedy,published in 1867, is in part directly connected withhis teaching under the stimulus of which he began to translatesingle lines and short passages in 1838-39. An additionalstimulus came somewhat later from his friend, Mrs. Catherine EliotNorton, who urged him to translate some cantos for her. Toher under the date of March g, 1843, he wrote: 6 I have beentranslating some Cantos of Dante for you... If there is any merit in thework it is yours.* Again in writing to her on March it 1 hespeaks of 6 the Divine Dante with which I begin the morning!and he continuesI write a few lines every day beforebreakfast. It is the first thing I dothe morning prayerthekeynote of the day.* Thus he finished sixteen cantos and then stoppedfor some ten years, except for continuing towrite small bits of translation in his interleaved copy of the poem when he wasteaching his Dante course.'" That Bachi deserves considerable creditfor much of the success of Longfellow'sDante course is apparent from our quotation from Edward Everett Hale. He haddealt thoroughly

's See « Longfellow and Dante.' Annual Reportof the Dante Society, 1944, Angelina La Plans, inDante's American Pilgrimage. New Haven, 1948, notes that Longfellow's coverage ofDante took in the whole of the Commedia in different academic periods. 1 The material on the Longfellow translationof the Divine Comedy has been drawn from « Mr. Longfellow'sDante Club by J. Chalky Mathews. Seventy Sixth Annual Report ofthe Dante Society, 1958, m3-14. On the influence of Italian writers otherthan Dante on Longfellow, see Emilio Goggio. ItalianInfluences on Longfellow's Work.'Romanic Review, XVI (1405), sto8-as, and Prof. Goggio's° The Source of Longfellow's Michael Angelo.' Rom. Rev., XXV (1954), 314-24.

93 with the linguistic problems in theCommedia in his preliminary course, which gave his superior the opportunity ofdevoting most of his lectures to interpretative andaesthetic comments. This valuable service ceased when Bachiwas dismissed in 1846. On taking over his assistant's classes forthe next sevenyears the poet was left with the difficult task of providinghis own stimulus. In 1853 he proposed the appointmentof Luigi Monti, but it was almost a year before the latter couldassume his teaching duties. Monti had come to America in 185oand had been earning his living as a language teacher inthe private schools in the Boston area. In 1851 he marriedFrances A. (Fanny) Parsons, sister of the poet Thomas WilliamParsons, who was the first American to translate the DivineComedy. Longfellow had become immediately impressed withhim when they firstmet, as he records in his Journal on August 6, 1851:* Luigi Monti, a young Palermo refugee, called witha letter from [President Jared] Sparks. A nice youth, will dowell as a teacher.* In 1857 Harvard conferred upon him thehonorary degree of Master of Arts. He remainedon the faculty until 1859 and gave instruction in Dante during the periodwhen the professorship in Modern Languages was vacant. In 1859 he andseveral other instructors lost their jobs because ofa departmental reorganization and the need to combine several of theinstructors' salaries to make the salary of a professor. The blowcame two months after Monti had been offeredan instructorship in Italian and Spanishat the University of Virginiaat a salary double what hewas receiving at Harvard. He wrote a Grammar of theItalian Language (Boston, 1855), and an Italian Reader (Boston,1855), both of whichwere used in his classes and subsequentlyin a number of other schools. In 1859 and 186o hewent back to private teaching. From 11361 to 1893 hewas United States Consul at Palermo, after which he returnedto this country. Under the pseudonym of Samuel Sampler he publishedAdventures of a Consul Abroad (Boston, 1878), and, anonymously,a novel, Leone (Boston, 188s). He translated into EnglishGuerrazzi's Beatrice Cenci, Isabella Orsini and Manfredor the Battle of Benevento, gave two series

94 in 1876 of Lowell lectures, one onModern Italian Literature and another on Dante andhis Times and Worksin i880. There Is record of his lecturing atVassar, Wellesley,Peabody Institute where he and other schools. Monti wentback to Italy in 1893 died in 1914. He is bestremembered as one ofthe lovable in which the characters in Longfellow'sTales of a Wayside inn at the most popular story,The Sicilian Talewas supposed time to have been toldby Monti himself." James Russell Lowell, aformer student ofBachi, was in appointed as Longfellow'ssuccessor tothe Smith Chair January 1855, at whichtime he, too, likehis two predecessors, be properly was advised tomake a sojourn inEurope in order to

Monti, see John vanSchaick, Jr. 6 Characters IT For fuller details on Sicilian: Luigi Monti," WaysideInn, VIIThe Young in the Tales of a Inn. IX. In TheChristian and id. lcCharacters in the Talesof aWayside Leader, April 15, 2g39- 34648and April 22, 370-71. In the Tales Longfellowdescribes him as follows: A young Sicilian, too, wasthere; In sight of Etna bornand bred. Some breath of itsvolcanic air Was glowing in his heartand brain, And, being rebellious tohis liege. After Palermo's fatalsiege. Across the western seashe fled, In good King Bomba'shappy reign. His face was like a summernight, All flooded with adusky light; His hands were small;his teeth shone white As sea-shells, whenhe smiled or spoke; His sinews suppleand strong as oak... The poets read he o'erand o'er, And most of all theImmortal Four Of Italy; and next tothose, The story-tellingbard of prose Who wrote the joyousTuscan tales Of the Decameron... Much too of music washis thought; The melodies and measuresfraught With sunshine and the openair, Of vineyards andthe singing sea Of his beloved Sicily....

95 prepared for hisnew post. He spenta little more than Germany and Italy, a year in and on hisreturn to Cambridgein 1856 began his duties teaching for sixteenconsecutiveyears until 187s and after thatirregularly until1877 when, after Minister to Spain serving as (187740) andat the Court ofSt. James (1880-85), he brieflyresumed teachingat Harvard. He primarily interested in was Dante. He is theauthor ofa famous Essay on Dante published in Among MyBooks (ad series,Boston, 1876, iss) andsubsequently printedin various editions Works. His lectures of his on the Italian poetwere extremely popular. In one of them hemade the oft-quoted Dante had statement as to how much meant to him. * If Imay be alloweda personal explanation, itwas my profound admirationof the Divina Comrnedia of Dante that has luredme into what littlelearning I possess.* On hisclass procedure inhis course for Italian, Barrett students of Wendell, who joinedit during hisjunior year at Harvard in 1876,has expressed himselfthus: * His method of teaching was all his own. The classwas smallnot above or a dozen; and he ten generally began bymaking each student translate a few lines,interruptingnow and then with suggestions of the poetic value of passages whichwere being rendered in style so exasperatingly a prosaic. Now andagain, some word some passage would or suggest to him a line ofthought.. Aftera month or two, hefound that we were not advancing fastenough. So he fell intoa way of makingus read one canto reading the to him, and next to us. If we wishedto interrupt him,we were as free to do soas he was to interrupt...So in a single college year, we read through the Divine Comedy, andthe Vita Nuova, and dipped intothe Convito andthe lesser writings of And more than Dante. one of us learnedto love them always.*1' Another sidelightinto Lowell's Danteteaching is furnished Jeremiah Curtin, by the outstandinglinguist and studentof comparative mythology.In his Memoirs(Schafer ed., Madison, Wis., 1940, 55) he cites a letterto his sister in which hestates: study Italian withLowell (i.e. in1859-60). He has invited few of us to a come to his house twicea week from 8: oo to i o:oo.

" See T.W. Koch,op. dt. 57.

96 We have just finishedDante. I havenever passed pleasanter hours: I have a goodmastery of Italian.* In a second letter Curtin states: My secondyear in college I began to study Italian with Lowell. We reada great historical novel [Promessi sposi]. The followingyear we read the Inferno " (op. cit. 59). Both the father andmother of Charles Eliot Norton, Andrews Norton and CatherineEliot Norton,were fervent lovers of Italy. He had translatedthe Prorneui Sposi in 1834and she Pellico's Le Mit Prigioniin 1836. In 185oyoung Norton paid his first visit to Italy,a second in 1856-57 and severalmore in the years that followed. Acomplete prose translation ofDante's Vita Nuova, of whichpartialtranslations had previously appeared, was published by himin 1867 with notes andtwo essays on thedate * and the N Structure ofthe Vita Nuova." To many Americans itwas their initial introduction to this charming littlemasterpiece. When hewas entrusted with Lowell's Dantecourse in 1877 we can be certain that hewas admirably prepared to deal withit. He combined it with another course on The History of the Fine Arts, whichhe had been teaching since 1873. In the beginning,from 1877 to 1886, he gave an informal voluntary courseon Dante at his house but did not actually conducta regular course until1886. He resigned from his professorship in1898 due to failing health, but continued to teacha course in Dante for severalyears to groups of picked students. His fineprose translation of the Divine Comedy falls within the periodof his professorialtenure. His qualities asa Dantist and as a teacher have been beautifully summedup by one of his former students, William Roscoe Thayer, distinguished authorand historian and devoted lover of Italy, in his articleon * Professor Charles Eliot Norton is in the Twenty Eighth AnnualReport of the Dante Society,1909, 5:" I call Mr. Norton the foremostDantist advisedly," he writes, « for I had therare privilege of being a pupil of him and of Lowell, whom Nortonhimself called his master. But Lowell was never the minuteand indefatigable searcher of texts that Norton was; and Lowellnever felt Dante as Norton et felt him... To read Dante withMr. Norton was almost an act of worship. There was in his voicesomething wonderfully stirring

97 and wholly incommunicable. As hereached a favorite passage his face became radiant and his tones moretender. He explained fully from every side, verbal, textual, literary, spiritual; and even when he did not pause tosuggest the parallel between Dante's examples and our moderninstances, he left no doubt of their pertinence to ourselves. Yet withall this there was no hint of preaching, no attempt, so common amongGerman expounders, to twist Dante's text to fit a theory. Looking back upon those hours of high instruction,I find it hard to say whether the finalimpression Mr. Norton's illumination of The Divine Comedy made upon meconcerned the spiritual significance or the supremebeauty of the poem. That one should blend into the other was,after all, what he intended, for he never divorced the spiritualfrom the beautiful... In his interpretation of Dante he had oneimmense advantage which neither Lowell nor any otherEnglish-speaking Dantist has possessed; he had a specialist's knowledgeof medieval art. So the thirteenth century lived forhim not merely in its poetry, theology, and chronicles, but in itspaintings and statues, in his churches and town halls, in its palacesand dwellings...* Two years earlier in an homage tohim in the Harvard's Graduate Magazine, Dec., 1goT, Ass,President Charles W. Eliot gave voice to theimmense debt the University owed tothis inspiring teacher:Thousands of Harvard studentsattribute to his influence lastingimprovements in their modes of thought, their intellectual and moral interests,and their ideas of success and true happiness. His work andhis training for it were both unique and are not likely to beparalleled in the future.* In the pages that have precededThe Dante Society has already been mentioned several times.Since Professor Norton was its founderit would seem apropos to say a fewwords about it at this point. It had as its precursorthe informal Dante Club whose most active members wereLowell, Norton and Longfellow. Starting with October 45, 1865 it metweekly for the purpose of criticizing and discussing the finalversion of the Longfellow translation which was waiting to bedelivered to the printer. The Club ceased to exist whenLongfellow left in 1868 for a

98 two -year sojourn inEurope." Interest in anorganized Dante group remaineddormant until 188o when membersof Norton's class upon hearing him suggest that aClub might render service in promoting Dante studies,expressed a desire to have one founded, Norton wanted Longfellow tobe President of the new society. A prospectus was sent out onDecember 6,188o announcing: itisproposedto form asocietyforthe encouragement and promotionof Dante's life and works...Mr. Longfellow has consented to acceptthe Presidency of the Society. * The first meeting took placein Longfellow's study on February i 1, 1881. On his deathin 188s, Lowell was elected President and remained in thatoffice until he died in 1891. Norton was its third President,1891-1908. Professors Sheldon, Grandgent, J.D.M. Ford, F.N.Robinson, E.H. Wilkins and George F. Gifford have followedhim. The Society has published anAnnual Report since 1881. It has had a three-fold purpose:1) the assembling of a Dante collection at Harvard, s) sponsoringthe publication of books relating to the poet, 3) offering anAnnual Dante Essay Prize to graduate and undergraduatestudents in American colleges.The best of these essays have beenprinted in the Report. In 1954 the organization wasincorporated as the Dante Societyof America." Members of the Society,especially the committee which served under Professor VincenzoCioffari, current vice-president and National Chairmanof the Dante CentenaryCelebrations, were tireless inpromoting activities throughoutthe United States and Canada. By meansof numerous lectures, panel discussions, exhibits andfestivals, the great Florentine was honored as no poet has everbeen honored before. Some appreciation of what took place canbe gained from the partial but concrete announcements onthe Dante Celebration Programs noted by Professor Paul F.Angiolillo in his AATI Newsletterinn Italica, XLII (1965), 314-17, 44o-43;XLIII (1966), 8s3 -s4. cit. " See J. Chesky Mathews,Mr. Longfellow's Dante Club," op. 23-33. " See George H. Gifford, " AHistory of the Dante Society." Seventy- Fourth Annual Report of the DanteSociety, ize, 3-x7.

99 To return nowto the teaching of Italianat Harva-d, the men that gave instruction during theLowell and Nortontenures (1866-94) were BennettH. Nash (1866-94),Edward S. Sheldon (1872-73, 1877-78, 1881-84) and George Bendelari(1878-82). They were followed by another outstandingfigure in the longand splendid Harvard Italiantradition, Charles HallGrandgent. After graduation fromHarvard in 1883 Grandgentspent three years abroad. Hereturned to his almamater in 1886 acting as tutor and instructorin modern languagesuntil 1889. For the nextseven years he was Director ofModern Languages in the Public Schools ofBoston. He then resumedteaching at Harvard, servingas Professor of Romance .Languagesfor the next thirty-six years, andas chairman of the departmentfrom 1899 to 1911. In his obituary in Italica,XVI (1939),159, Professor E. H. Wilkinswrites: " Hewas an excellent teacher, as members of this Association[AATI] can gladly testify remembering himmost vividly, perhaps,as he sat at the head of the long table in thestrange central room of the oldWarren House. His teachingwas quiet and yet completely alert.He sought and achievedexactness of understanding,no matter how difficult the text; and hestimulated his studentsto the attainment of exact understanding.His teachingwas distinguished also by his extraordinary skilland taste in theuse of words. His translations, even in theclassroom, were beautiful in theirverbal rightness. Hisutterance, in whatever language hewas speaking or reading, was simple, clear andflawless. To his students he was endlessly generous in time andhelpfulness." Professor Grandgent hasgiven us two early text-books,an Italian Grammar(Boston, 1887) later revised byE. H. Wilkins, which presents in thesmallest possiblecompass all the grammar needed to prepare the studentfor reading, a text widelyused in our colleges, and Italian Composition(revised edition, Boston, 1904). His From Latinto Italian (Cambridge, Mass.,1927) was for manyyears the standard workon the Italian language. Professor Grandgent is,however, known primarilyas a Dantist and richly does he deserveto be. His opus magnum is his edition of the Divine Comedy(1st edition, Boston,1909, revised in 1933). " Whata noble piece of work the GrandgentDante is

100 ---,superb, indeed, in its fusionof comprehensive scholarshipand literary sensitiveness! Thevery pages of the book havea distinctive dignity, thanksto the wise device of thecanto Arguments.' The text isobviously and freelya poem, and a poem approached withreverence. The occasional translations are not less than lapidary in theirimmutability * (Wilkins,op. cit. 16o). Other books of hison " it sommo poeta * are Dante (New York, 1916), The Ladiesof Dante's Lyrics (Cambridge,Mass., 1917),The Power of Dante(Boston, 1918), and Discourseson Dante (Boston, 1924). Professor Grandgentwas Secretary of the Modern Language Association from19o2 to 1911, President of the MLA in1912, President of the Dante Societyfrom1915to 193*, and Honorary President of the AATI from1924to the time of his death in 1939 There was no really seriousattempt made by the department or the administration at Harvardto replace Professor Grandgent between 1932 and1947.Between 1947 and195othe students had the great privilege ofhaving Professor Wilkinsas Visiting Lecturer. Dante studyat Harvard looked up fora while with Professor Singleton from 1948to 1957. There then followed another period of procrastinationand indecision ending in1962 with the appointmentas associate professors of Nicolae Iliescu and Dante Della Terza,two apt scholars whoare qualified to carry on thehighstandardssetup bytheirillustrious predecessors. Professor Iliescuhas published Da Dantea Nievo: Considerazioni sulromanzo italiano (Roma, 1959),a revision of his Harvard doctoral dissertation,and Il Canzoniere petrarchesco e Sant'Agostino (Roma, 1962), whileProfessor Della Terza's wide-ranging studies haveappeared in various Americanand Italian periodicals.

Middlebury College

Unofficially, Italian hadan auspicious start at Middlebury perhaps as earlyas 1822. The year previous Robert Bridges Patton, one of its language teacherssince 1818, had takena leave

111111=01101=411/1101110. of absence to study inGermany and returnedwith a Ph.D from Gottingen. It is probablethat he learned hisItalian there. At any rate, his classes in that languagemust have been flourishing to judge from a letter byLorenzo Da Ponteto an unknown person in Sunbury, Pa., datedNovember 7, 1824. Amongother things Da Ponte writes:Last week Isent fifteen grammars, as many dictionaries andsome Italian books to Mr.Patton, professor in Middlebury College, where the Italianlanguage is much studied and where theyhave a fine libraryof classical works of our authors."*1 Officially, however, Italianfirst appears in thecollege Catalog for 1827 where itis stated under " ExtraStudies," p. 15, that " Assistance islikewise furnishedto all who wish to obtain a knowledge of the Hebrew,French, German, Spanishand Italian languages. Andfor the acquisition ofany of these languages as wellas for classical and philologicalpursuits generally, great facilitiesare furnished by a freeaccess to a Philological Library [forItalian compare whatis said in the 1824 letter by Da Ponte]which is openan hour every day, under the superintendence of the Professor ofLanguages, or some other officer." The Reverend JohnHough was the languageprofessor from 1827 to 1836. No modern languagesare mentioned in the 1837-38 Catalogs, but those from1839 to 1848 list SolomonStoddard as teacher. He was followed byRensselaer D. Robbins,1848-67. Italian and Spanish then disappearfor many years, in factthe former is not regularly offered againuntil 1925. Though the waitwas an unusually longone, ample compensationcame in 1932 markinga very significant forward step for Italian. Thatyear Dean Stephen A. Freeman,Executive Directory of theMiddlebury Language Schoolsand Professor Andre Morize, Directorof the French School,decided that the time hadcome to add a Scuola Italianato the three already in

21 The letter is reproducedby Joseph L. Russo inLorenzo Da Ponte. Poet and Adventurer (New York, 1922, Appendix,141-43) from a manuscript In the New York Public Library.

102 existence--German, French and Spanish." Itwas started under the sponsorship of the French School with Professor Gabriella Bosano of the Italian Department of Wellesley Collegeas its Director. She was aided by Professor Louis A. So lano of Harvard. Fourteen resident students and four non-residentswere enrolled the first summer. The school began to function separately in 1933 and continued under Miss Bosano's direction to 1937 at which time the faculty had increased from two to five, the courses in language and literature from five to ten and the enrollment to sixty, including twenty-nine students enrolled in other language schools who took courses in Italian. Professor Bosano was followed by Professor Camillo P. Merlino of Boston University who successfully carried on for ten years to 1947, by which time the faculty had increased to six, the courses to twelve and the enrollment to fifty-six resident students. Since 1948 Professor Salvatore Castiglione has been in charge and the Scuola has been enjoying a capacity enrollment which is determined by the dormitory and dining room space available." The " Middlebury Idea," as stated in the Summer Language Schools Bulletin for 1965 is as follows: " Thorough training in the use of the foreign language is the foundation of Middlebury's reputation. These five schools [that is, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian] aim to give a mastery of the spoken and written language, and a coordinated knowledge of the life, institutions, literature, history and culture of the foreign country. The basic Middlebury rule is strictly enforcedthe segregation of students from contact with English; complete concentration upon the foreign language; exclusive use of the language in and out of the classroom; and careful attention to the individual needs of each student. Each ochool has its separate residences and dining halls and a faculty of native instructors. During the entire session, the foreign language isthe sole medium of communication in work and play. From the day of arrival, students are pledged to speak the foreign language."

32 Russian followed in 1945. For a fuller account see Herbert H. Golden. « La Scuola Italiana di Middlebury College.' Italica, XXXII (1956), 2-7.

103 In 1960 Middlebury College organized a Graduate School of Italian in Italy with headquarters in Florence. The students are prepared by a preliminary summer of study at Middlebury, Vermont, and go abroad late in September. The academicyear is spent on a program of advanced instruction involvingcourses in phonetics, literature, history, institutions, with special lectures by distinguished professors. The enrollment in1964-65 was twenty-five students, five men and twenty women, whoare graduates of eighteen different colleges. Fifteen of these obtained their M.A.'s there. The total number of degrees for the entire period since the founding of the Scuola Italiana (1933-65) isas follows: 165 M.A. degrees and seven Doctorates of Modern Languages. Sixty-one of the M.A.'s have been granted to students who have enrolled in the Graduate School in Italy. This is eloquent testimonyon the major role in the history of Italian culture that has been played by both of these Italian schools. It stands as a special tribute to their directors and particularly to Professor and Mrs. Castiglione who have devoted so much of their time and energy to their growth. Incidentally,the newly established chair ofItalianat Middlebury has just been awarded to Professor Castiglione. In additionto her contributiontothe ScuolaItaliana, Mrs. Castiglione is the author of a valuable text: Italian Phonetics. Diction and Intonation (New York, 1957), the only English handbook on the subject, and is the editor of a popular school paper, Il Giornalino, which deals in simple Italian with current information on Italy.

Columbia University In 1825 Lorenzo Da Ponte applied for and was granted permission to teach Italian at Columbia College as the University was then known. We reproduce the minutes of the Trustees from the copy made by Professor Joseph L. Russo which is printed in his Lorenzo Da Ponte. Poet and Adventurer (op. cit. 212). " May 2d, 1825. A letter from Mr. Da Ponte was received, asking permission to instruct the alumni of the College in the Italian

104 language and to make use of some part of the building for that purpose. The above letter wasreferredtothe Standing Committee.

June 6th, 18s5. (At this meeting thereport of the Standing Committee was laid on the table for further consideration).

Sept.5th,ifiss.Resolved, That aProfessorship of Italian Literature be established in this College, but that the Professor be not considered one of the Board of the College,nor subject to the provisions of the second chapter of the statutes.

Resolved, That the attendance of the studentsupon said Professor be voluntary, and that the hours of attendance be appointed by the Professor, under the direction of the President.

Resolved, That Signore Da Ponte be and is hereby appointed to the said professorship and he be allowed to receive from the students who shall attend his lecturesa reasonable compensation; but that no salary be allowed him from the College. *

As the result of this action by the trustees Da Pontewas able to start his first class with twenty-three students, who paid a fee for their course, which he accepted with great reluctance. At the same time he was also anxious to furnish the college library with Italian books. But as the fees would notcover the expense of the volumes which he intended to give he asked his friend and former student, Mr. Clement Clarke Moore,one of the Trustees, to purchase them at cost-price. The offerwas approved, two hundred and sixty-three volumes being bought for $364.05. Despite this, conditions did not improve and Da Ponte, discouraged over his failure to attract a sufficient number of students, resigned in June 1826. In 183o, in a final effort to stimulate the lagging interest in Italian, he offered to give eighty lessons at the rate of two per week to a hundred students for a tuition of $15.00 each. In addition, he promised to match the fees collected with the presentation either to the studentsor to the College of a thousand volumes of selected Italian works,a

105 propositionthattheTrusteesconsidered* inexpedient* Acceptance of the offer would, ofcourse, have involved a revision of the statutes. Since,as Da Ponte claims, his resignation in Asa was never accepted, he continuedto consider himself a member of the Columbia teachingstaff until his death in 1838. During this interval hewas a * Professor sine exemplo 11 most of the time. The next name thatappears on the records is that of the ardent patriot, Eleuterio FelixForesti, who was appointedto fill the is Pontevacancy in 1839. With Silvio Pellko he had suffered the tortures of the Austrianprison at Spielberg. He had come to New York in 1836 andwas then earning a living as a private teacher. On October 15, 1840 PresidentDuer sent the following letter to the parents of Columbiastudents:* Sir:Provision having been made for the instructionof the Students of Columbia College in the Languageand Literature of France, Italy and Spain, by the Professors ofthose branches upon whom attendance is voluntaryon the part of the Students or their ParentsI have to requestyou to Signify your wishes upon the Subject with respect toyour Son, within the course of a week after this reaches youandto Specify which of the above languages you wish him to be taught...' P.S. The charge for tuition for eachStudent is fifteen dollars for the Academicalyear, by each Professor they iattend.* " Though no names are mentionedwe can be certain that the person assigned to instruct in Italianmust have been Foresti. He kept his post at Columbia and,concurrently, at New York University, until 1856, theyear he became American consul at Genoa."

" From the Columbian Collection.Quoted by H.R. Marrero,Pioneer Italian Teachers of Italian...'op. cit. 566. " Prof. Marraro has writtenan interesting and extensive biographical study on Foresti: R Eleutaio Felice Fcrresti,*Columbia University Quarterly, XXV (1933), 3444. A translation of Foresti'sMemoirs, also by Prof. Marraro, appears in the same journal, XXIV (l93.4),44o-75. See also Marrero, N Da Ponte and Forest': The Introduction ofItalian at Columbia.* Columbia Univ. Quarterly, XXIX (l937),a3.32.

106 In 1846 Appleton of New York printed 011endorff's New Method of Learning to Read, Writs and Speak theItalian Language. Adapted for the Use of Schools and Private Teachers. Though it contains additions and corrections by Professor Forest', it essentially reproduces the material and procedureused in the other 011endorff texts that the book firm had brought out during the same year. The New Method represented a re-action against the existing grammar and dictionary method;practice came before theory. The lessons areintended to be dictated by the teacher and repeated by the student. The exercisesconsist of familiar conversations on ordinary subjects and follow aquestion and answer arrangement. Here is a typicalexample in the Forest! grammar which happens to deal with thedemonstratives and possessives. u Have you that book? No, Sir, I have not. Which book have you? I have not that of my neighbor. Have you my stick, or that of my friend? I have that of your friend. Have you my bread or the baker's? I have the baker's. I have not yours. Have you the neighbour's horse? No, Sir, I have it not. Which horse have you? I have not that of the baker...* A Key to the GrammarExercises was printed separately. The number of schools whichspecifically list the Forest' book as a text indicates that there was a strongdemand for it. The Crestonuszia Italian (New York, 1846) wasprepared for use in conjunction with 011endorff's New Method grammar. It contains a series of stories or episodes fromthe writings of Carlo Bini, Botta, Foscolo, G. Gozzi,Guerrazzi, Machiavelli, Manzoni (who occupies a major space with sixselections from the Promessi spoil), Mazzini, Taverna, Verri,Villani. Foresti defends hisselectionas follows inhisPreface:a Inits compilation, we have aimed more particularly to engagethe mind and enlist the feeling of the student;for to read without sympathy, isto acquire a distaste forlearningTo march without making progress. For this reason,principally, we have given the preference to modern authors, mostof whom are still living. We do not mean, by so doing, to dispute theuniversally acknowledged merit of the ancient Italian writersregistered in the classic catalogue approved by thedespotical dictatorship of

107 the Academy of the Crusca. They are unquestionably masters in purity of language and style; but we think that the subjects upon which they wrote are not the best calculated to inspire with sympathy and interest the youngespecially theyoung Americanmind. On the contrary, modern authors, influenced by the existing principles relative to social improvement, and by a philosophical criticism far superior to that of the ancients, write in Italy as elsewhere, with more depth and thought, freshness and vigour of style, and in a tone and spiritmore in accordance with the opinions and taste of the present day; and it is quite probable their writings will be more relished by the readers of today. The selections contained in this volume have been made from the works of eminent men, whose fame restsupon an authority of far more weight and power than that of the Cruscathe united voice of their native country.* In the book the longer passages are conveniently interrupted afterevery two Or three pages by the insertion of a glossary, which evidently marks the end of each reading assignment. A year after Foresti's departure (1857) Italian is still listed in the Columbia catalog. It disappears in 1858 and does not lly re-appear until188o, when it was offered in the Department of Modern Languages and Foreign Literatures in charge of Charles Sprague Smith. Professor Sprague Smith functioned as Instructor of Italian and Spanish and as Professor of German. A Departmentof Romance Languageswas, incidentally, not established until 1891. It was in 1884, during the tenure of Professor Sprague Smith, that Carlo Leonardo Speranza, with a degree from Padua and teaching experience abroad and at Yale, came to Columbia, remaining until his death inig II. He was chiefly concerned with teaching the language and stimulating interest in it at the undergraduate level. Statements made by Professor Speranza's colleagues as well as by his former pupils attest to the fact that he was one of the most devoted and inspiring teachers of his day. Professor Speranza was joined in 1904 by a brilliant scholar, Dino Bigongiari, who served the University for more than a half century-1904-1955. His erudition is proverbial at Columbia. In

108 his Preface to Bigongiari'sEssays on Dante and MedievalCulture (Firenze, 1965, 7) his formerstudent, Professor HenryPaolucci, writes: * Colleaguessent a stream of studentsto him annually, including from timeto time doctoral candidates badlyin need of the substance ofan unwritten book. If the rush ofwords was too great for an unretentivememory, he would not hesitate to write the wholematter out, sheet by sheet,to be carried away for restudy andeventual incorporationinadissertation.* Unfortunately, ProfessorBigongiari had a deep aversiontowards expressing himself in print.Nevertheless, as the writer of the obituary articleon him in the New York Times forSept. 8, 1965 has observed: * In spiteof his lifelong reticence,he gained an immense reputationamong scholars. His occasional dissections of works of facultyscholarship wereso surgically, and even politely, incisive, thattheir authors couldnot possibly hope to reassemble the parts. ProfessorBigongiari's pen sliced cleanly between a fact anda wrong assumption graftedto it, cleaving them foreover.* Another valuable additiontothe Columbia staffwas Professor Arthur Livingston,a Columbia University Ph.D (1911). He had hadsome previous teaching experienceat Smith (19o8-439) and Cornell (1910-i i). His tenure at Columbia lasted from1911 to 1944. Among the noted Italianpersonalities he introduced to the American publicare Pirandello, Prezzolini, Papini, Pareto and Guglielmo Ferrero. Heedited the Memoirs of LorenzoDa Ponte (Philadelphia, 1919), andwrote (with Federico Nardelli)a book on D'Annunzio, Gabrielthe Archangel (New York, 1933), to cite only two of his publications.As contributor formany years to the Book Section of the NewYork Herald Tribune he introduced scores of Italian writersand their works to American readers. In igs7 as the culmination ofintense activities on thepart of Professor Gerig and bothundergraduate and graduate students, among them PeterRicci° (Director 1957-66), theCasa Italiana at Columbiacame into being and at once becamea national center for Italian culture.Its imposing seven-story building in Florentine Renaissancestyle houses offices, classrooms, an auditorium with a seating capacity ofSoo, and the Paterno

109

AsamrBmsimesingie 1 Reference Library withmore than 25,000 volumes. Various scholarships and prizesare sponsored by the Casa including the Oldrini Travelling Fellowship awardedto a male graduate student registered at the University. TheCasa Italians Bulletin (1930-38), The Italy America Monthly(1934-35), The Casa Italiana Quarterly (1938-39), and IlGiornalino (193*-4s), have appeared under its auspices,as well as a number of translations of Italian classics,critical studies and Professor Prezzolini's monumental Repertorio Bibliografico della Storiae della Critica ltaliana: 19o2-194s (New York-Rome,1933, 1946-48, 4 volumes). The name of Giuseppe Prezzolini has justbeen mentioned. A pTo lific journalist, author, literarycritic,associated with Papini as editor of Leonardo, editor of LaVoce, two periodicals that brought to Italya new and vigorous intellectual life, he was already internationally known when hecame to Columbia in 193o as Professor of Italian and Director ofthe Casa Italiana. He had previously taught in the1923 Summer Session when the Department of Romance Languages initiatedan a experiment of inviting a corps of foreign scholarsto give a series of lectures all grouped about one central idea.* Histwo courses, K Italian Literature in the Twentieth Century" and a Italy and Italian Problems of Today,* drewa record number of graduate students to them. His The Legacy of Italy (New York, 1948),a collection of classroom lectureson the nature and uniqueness of Italian civilization, serves as a good index of his stimulatingif not always acceptable evaluation of Italian culture.It was largely due to his tireless energy, his resourcefulness, hisencyclopedic fund of knowledge and his abilityto attract and inspire graduate students that during the first half of histenure (1930-40) the study of Italian reached the highest peak in the historyof the University. Very soon, however, the animus generatedby World War II brought abouta sharp decline. In recent years Columbia has been fortunate enoughto enjoy the services of Italians who have achieveddistinction in the literary or linguistic fields and whoat various times have taught there either during the regularyear or during the Summer SessionMario Casella, Romano Guarnieri,Piero

110 Misciatelli, Bruno Migliorini, Umberto Bosco,Raffaello Spon- gano and GiuseppeUngaretti. There havealsobeenexcellentItallanistsinallied departmentsnotably Paul Oskar Kristeller(Philosophy), one of the greatest living authorities onthe Italian Humanists, Jefferson Butler Fletcher (ComparativeLiterature), translator of the Divine Comedy (New York, 1933),author of Dante (New York, 1916), and Literature of theItalian Renaissance (New York,1934),lectures given in the ComparativeLiterature Course, Henry Morgan Ayres (English),also a translator of the Divine Comedy (New York, 1949-53)and successor to Professor Preatolini as Director of the Casa Italiana (1940.48), and Mario A. Pei (Romknce Philology),author of The Italian Language (New York, 1941) and many otherbooks and articles that as a whole or in part deal with theItalian language. Among the members of theItalian faculty at present are Howard R. Marraro (1929-66), anoutstanding authority on Italian-American cultural anddiplomatic relations. He was Executive Officer from 1949 to 195s.Promising members of the younger Italian faculty areOlga Ragusa specializing inFranco- Italian literary relations and theliterature of the nineteenth century, especially Verga, onwhom she has published Verga's Milanese Tales (New York, 1964),John Charles Nelson whose field is the Renaissance (see hisRenaissance Theory of Love. The Context of GiordanoBruno's Eroici furori (NewYork, 1958), an expansion of his Ph.D.dissertation, 1954, and Luciano Rebay, whose field is contemporaryliterature (see Le origini della poesia di Giuseppe Ungaretti(Roma, 1962). To date there have been morePh.D's in Italian granted by Columbia than by any otheruniversity in the United States.

University of Virginia The study of Italian at theUniversity of Virginia coincides with its opening in 1825 underthe rectorship of Thomas Jefferson. The Board of Visitors'Minutes contain a resolution passed on April 7, 1824 inwhich it is stated that a In theSchool of Modern Languages shallbe taught French, Spanish,Italian,

111 German, and the English language in its Anglo-Saxon form; also modern history and modern geography." Thesame statement was included in the Rector's report to the State Literary Fund on October 5, 1814, and was approved by that group. Francis Walker Gilchrist was sent to England during this year to find the professors that were needed and for the modern languages secured the services of George W. Blaettermann,a young German of * profound pedantic classical learning " then living in London. It is revealed that in 183oat the time of Madison's rectorship he was tried on various charges, *not excluding the universal complaint that he taught French with a German accent. The Visitors, with Madison absent .but acquiescing, compelled him to share his work andpay with a tutor [very likely an Italian] who taught French with an Italian accent." Blaettermann re-acted to the charges by hastening to Monpellier [a place near Orange, Va.]much in the fidgets,' wrote Madison, * apprehending collision if not degradation." He was soothed and remained on the faculty until 1841 when he was dismissedfor having offended Virginia mores by cowhiding his wife in public.' " It was no doubton account of Blaettermann's unsatisfactory statusas a teacher that the Board further resolved on August 17,1837, that * Students attending the School of Modern Languages, and performing their duties in that School, shall be at libertyto receive instructions in the French language from a native of France, in Italian from a native of Italy & in Spanish froma native of Spain subject to such regulations as to time, place &expense of such instruction as the faculty may prescribe." Blaettermann was suceeded briefly by Charles Kraitsir (1841-44), a Hungarian who was graduated from the University of Vienna and who had been teaching privately in Washington, D.C., and who also had been employedas a language teacher at the Charlotte Hall Academy in nearby Annapolis. Following his resignation due to the small salary he had been earning, Willis H. Woodley, Proctor of the University of Virginia, placeda

" See Irving Brant. James Madison Commander in Chief: 1812-1836. Indianapolis, 1961, 458-59.

112 series of advertisements in the National Intelligencer (Washing ton, D.C.), starting with August 14, 1844, which read asfollows: a The chair in the school of Modern Languages of this Institution having become vacant by the resignation of Professor Charles Kraitsir the Board of Visitors will proceed at a special meeting on the loth of September next to fill the vacancy thusoccasioned. The compensation to the professor consists of a salary of $1,000. and a fee of $25. from each member of the school, besides a comfortable dwelling and garden free of rent. The languages taught are German, French, Spanish, Italian and Anglo-Saxon. Applications may be addressed to the undersigned at the University of Virginia[i.e. Mr. Wood ley]. This hitherto unknown document furnishes interesting data on the language professors of the time as well as on themethod used to secure them. It was perhaps the notice in the National Intelligencer that attracted Maximilian Sche le de Vere to apply. He was born in Wexio, Sweden, in 182o, studied at the University of Berlin where he earned a Ph.D in 1841 and soon thereafter the degree of furls utriusque doctor. When he came to Boston in 1843 he took a course in Modern Greek at Harvard. He occupied the departmental chairmanship at Virginia until 1895 or fifty-one years. He is the author of Outlines ofComparative Philology (1853), a French and Spanish grammar, studies in English, and a number of historical romances andtranslations from the French and German." From 1851 through 1857 Sche le de Vere shared his teaching duties in Italian with three assistant instructors for whom there were apparently no set qualifications. However,the Minutes of the Board for September 4, 1858 reveal that positive action was taken in this respect, namely, that 6there shall be three assistant instructors in the School of Modern Languages, one for the French, one for the German and one of the Spanish and Italian languages, whose mother tongues are French, " On Schele de Vere, see Paul Brandon Barringer et al.University of Virginia: Its History, Influence, Equipment andCharacteristics with Biographical Sketches and Portraits of Pounders, Benefactors, Officersand Alumni. New York, igoi, 355-56. German and Spanishrespectively, except that ifsuch a person, properly qualifiedcannot be fo-ind for the instructor ofSpanish and Italian,an Italian may be appointed inthat place.* The new ruling lasted only for fouryears, 1858-61, coinciding with the tenure of GaetanoLanza, an experiencedprivate teacher who had cometo Char loam/111e from Boston.Lanza sox' complained about themeagre stipend he was receiving,a matter that was takenup by the Board on February7, 186o: K Resolved that the application ofMr. Lanza for additionalcompensation with the title and positionof Professor, endorsedas it is, by Professor Schele,meets with the favorable considerationof the Board.Nevertheless, a favorabledecision was indefinitely deferred. PresumablyLanza stayed in Charlottesvilleteaching privately or inone of the academies. In i867-68 hisname re- appears in the curriculumannouncement of the Universityas K Licenciate,* tutor, and is repeated in theannouncement for 1868-69. The catalog for 1889-go shows that the School of Modern Languages was bisected withSchele in charge of Spanish,Italian and Anglo-Saxon andAdjunct Professor WilliamH. Perkinson in charge of French andGerman. In it wenote the following interesting description ofclass procedure withrespect to Spanish and Italian. K In Spanishand Italian each there isone class in which a number ofclassic and modern authorsis read, to practice pronunciation,to acquire facility inprompt rendering of the foreign idiom,and to appreciate theliterary beauties of eminent writers. A muchlarger number of works,mainly by modern authors, is assignedto be read privately. At every meetinga lecture is delivered, andto a large extent illustrated by examplesand quotations. In theselectures the Grammar and theSyntax of each idiomare discussed. The treatment is mainly historical, thewords, the sentences, and the general structure beingexhibited as they graduallydevelop themselves from the earliestefforts made by the infantnation to the highest results obtainedin its so-called Golden Age. These lecturesare accompanied by weeklyexercises, translations from thevernacular into the foreign idioms.They furnish the Professorwith evidence of the degreeof success

114 with which hehas triedto explain the rules each language. and usages of After having beencarefully marked, returned to the they are student, and thenwritten, incorrect form, on the blackboard.The Professor,as he writes there, the exerciseswith a running accompanies commentary on the variousrules that have beenviolated ormisunderstood. At stated intervals the Professorreads aloud,so as to train the ear;at others, he dictates extracts from foreignwriters for the samepurpose. After the classes have becomesomewhat familiar language, they with the are given a series oflectures treating of History of the the idiom. Its forms,its structure,and its spiritual characteristicsare carefully tracedthrough the different and minutely periods, compared witheachother.This opportunity for gives an instruction in thefundamental rules of Science of the Language, to whichmuch attention isgiven. These lectures are followed by anothercourse on the Literatureof each idiom. Thedifferent periods ofthe literature and illustrated are explained by sketches of thelives, and criticismson the works, of theprincipal writers ofeach age. The between the national parallelism growth ofa people and itsliterary proficiency is constantlypointed out.* The text-bookslisted are thestandard text-books time: Cuore's of the Grammar, Foresti'sReader, Manzoni's Sposi, Tasso's I Promessi Gerusalemme Liberata,Pellico's Le MiePrigioni, Petrarca, Dante's LaDivina Commedia. In 1895 WilliamH. Perkinsontook over instruction the next five for years, and after RichardL. Wilson became chairman of the newly established School ofRomance Languages in 1899-190o, heappears to have consistently until 192o. Except offered Italian for 1865-66 it iscontinuously listed in catalogs until that the year. Instruction becameavailable again in 1928 at which time it was resumedby the late ProfessorOreste Rinetti. Despite itslong history, itcan hardly be said that the Virginia record of teachingItalianis marked by distinction any save, perhaps, by thefact that EdgarAllan Poe studied the languageunder Blaettermann.

115 University of Maryland In an obituary notice on Lorenzo L. Da Ponte, son of the famous Lorenzo Da Ponte, which appeared in the New York Evening Post for January so, 1840, the statement is made that at the age of twenty-one he was appointed professor of rhetoric and belleslettresat Washington CollegeinChestertown, Maryland," which with St. John's College in Annapolis had combined to form the University of Maryland. Since Lorenzo L. was born in 18o3 and since the college was destroyed by fire on January 11, 1827, there is doubtless a bit of exaggeration about his age at the time. However, it is cerictin that he taught at Washington in 1826 and may even have been employed the preceding year. It cannot be proven that he taught Italian as a regular course but there is scarcely any question about his being available as an instructor on an optional basis. After the fire Lorenzo L. lived briefly in Philadelphia and then resided permanently in New York City. It will be brought out a little later that he was appointed as Professor of Italian at New York University in 1832. An advertisement in the National Intelligencer (Washing- ton, D.C.) for August 3o, 1855 on St. John's College, informs us tha- " Regular instruction in French, Spanish, German at,d, Italian will be ,;iven without charge." The instructor is not named but we know that he was German-born Rudolph L. Tafel, who had held the post of librarian at the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis. In 1863 he was appointed professor of German, French, Italian and Spanish at Washington University in St. Louis where he continued to teach until 1868 when he entered the ministry. He was a man of great learning and versatility and soon established himself as the most outstanding figure in the New (Swedenborgian) Church. In 1859 another branch of the University of Maryland, Maryland Agricultural College at College Park, announced in its first circular that Battista Lorino, LLD, was the occupant of the post of " professor of ancient and modern languages, " Noted by H.R. Marraro, " Pioneer Italian Teachers in the United States." Modern Language journal, XXXVIII (1944), 562.

116 including Latin, Greek, German, Spanishand Italian.* Lorino continues to be listed as a faculty member until1865. Thanks to an announcement inthe Intelligencer for Nov. 8, 1855, we are in a position toadd that he had emigrated to the United States in 1850. After several years ofinstruction at the New York Conference Seminary he came toWashington in search of a new job. He very likely taughtin the private Schools of the Nation's Capital up to the time he wascalled to College Park.

Bowdoin College Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, it will berecalled, was graduated from Bowdoin with the class of 1825.The School Board then offered him a professorship in themodern languages provided he would equip himself at his own expensewith a first hand knowledge of them throughresidence in Europe. During the winter of 182647 he studied Italianin Paris with a certain De'Ferranti, u guitarist to his majesty Ie Roide Beiges (Journal, Oct. 31 1846). 1828 he spent inItaly and part of the next yearin Germany, returning to the United States in 182g. Even before his Europeantrip Longfellow, in an informal way, musthave had some contact with the language as indicated by aletter written to his father on December 5, 1824, in which he states:K I want to spend one year at Cambridge for the purpose of reading historyand becoming familiar with the best writers in politeliterature, whilst at the same time I am acquiring aknowledge of the Italian language without an acquaintance with Ishall be shut out from one of the most beautiful departmentsof letters.*" It is likely that the young man taughtItalian unofficially at the college in 182g. Formalprovision for instruction was, however, not made until 183o when it togetherwith German was opened to seniors. According to the 1831 catalog 6The student may at his optionstudy the Ancient or one of the Modern Languages, Spanish, German or Italian,instead of calculus,"

" Fined Memorialsof Retry Wadsworth Longfellow(S. Longfellow ed.) Vol. I. Boston, 1881, gg.

117 an option evidently quite to the liking of those whowere weak in mathematics. Longfellow preferred touse his own grammar, the Syllabus de la grammaire italienne (Boston,1831). This was written in French for two reasons: i) Because itpresupposed a knowledge of French. a) Because he didnot want to create the impression that he was in anyway competing with his friend, G.W. Greene, who was likewise planningto write one. With respect to the second point he states ina letter to Greene dated June 1, 1831: I trust this littlegrammar will not interfere in the least with the plan youonce proposed, and I confess, one reason for writing it in Frenchwas to avoid the possibility of interfering with your proposed work.* (froma copy made by Prof. Goggio). During the same year (1831) he alsopublished his Saggi de' novellieri italiani d'ogni semi°. Trattida' celebri scrittori. Con brevi notizie intorno alla vita diciascheduno. In his preface he writes in bookish Italian:In questo benavventurato e glories° secolo decimonono, it quale a buon dritto potrebbesi il Seco lo d'Oro Belle moderne favellechiamare, sfortunato co- tut a chi tocca la sventura dinon uperne pit d'una. Quindi alla giornata sisono destati moltissimi scrittori. Grammatici eruditi, ed illustri Compilatori di Dizlonarij,di Raccolte, ed eccoli uscire al campo accintia cruda guars, clascheduno de' suoi libri fornito, e di quae di 1i ad aim voce gridando, Quest° mio Dizionarlo si debbeavere per moito migliore the alcun di quell/ the l'hanno preceduto.'Che questa Raccolta sia la pit bella e la pit importance:d'ogni aitra, ells, b veritidi cui non pub dubitarsi chiunquen'ha letup, soltanto it titolo.' Sage de' migilori Proutorie Poet/, si antichi the moderni, con *7=0 studio raccolti, per use degli studios/ ed amatoridel- l'amena Ietteratura,e secondo la capaciti de' Cominciand sposti dl modo theverranno and internarti nen° spirit° della lingua, ad impararnea conoscere l'indole ed genlo, ed a rendersela affatto famigliaresenra avvedersene.t L'altrui esempio, anziche ritirarmi impress, m'ha aggiunto nuovo coragglo d'uscir sulletruce di cotanti bene- meriti, ma senza poisuonar la tromba de' miei lodi. Non dico the sia questa scelta di Novellela migliore the d fosse mai;

118 diventare che, solo colvoltaresuoi fqgli, pub uno nemmeno dico perfetto nell'idio aond'b scrim.Ben so, e lo ' come coluishe piange edice,' lingua straniera; e ben so she adura scalal'innoltrarsi in una fatidte, e leveglie, checondu- the sono moltigli affanni, le perfezione. cono alla she questovolumetto MI giova sperare,Benign Leggitore, passi; e ragliaquestaconsiderazione a possafacilitate i tuoi pib se- B scelto dalle operede' Nave Merl renderlo gradito. di questa vaga e gnalati dellalingua Italiana.Le bellezze di giovarealquanto allapubblica dolce hyena, edit desiderio imprendere it pitt d'ognialtra coca, ad educazione, m'hanno, included areSoave, lavoro animato.*The authors tenue Grartini, Bandello,Machia- Bramieri, D.M.Manni, G. Gozzi, stories), G.Fiorentino andthe velli, Sacchetti,Boccaccio (five author ofII grassolegnaiuolo. *" anonymous Daniel R.Goodwin, who One ofLongfellow's students, 1835 to 1853has said ofhim: took over hisduties at Bowdoin interest... for themodern languages,which a He created an model teacherwith since beenequalled. He was a has never acquired, for thedepartment fitness, bothnatural and a special singularly facile organs,to arefined To a musicalvoice and of the bestEnglish, and athorough taste, aready command he taught,he the languagesand literature acquaintance with of enthusiasm, and winning manner,a warmth added an affable and aninexhaustible amagnetic power, aready sympathy, of his made his lectureroom andthe studies patience, which the time and everafterwards department a joyand a pleasure at a happymemory. * al that it was As for Italian,there is nodear indication The twoItalian instructors offered between1835 and 1840. Goodwin wereRichard Pike(1840-41) that servedunder D.R. probably Ichabod Goodwin(18421-43), who and his brother Upon his return while he wasstudying abroad. replaced him alone until hisretirement Daniel Goodwintaught the language An EarlyAmerican Textbook." " See HermannH. Thornton. /tend, VII (it),ito.ti. " Quoted byG.B. Watts, op.dt., 74.

119 in 1853. CharlesW. Everett instructed in Italianbetween 1853 (?).--1855 and 1857.It is not knownwho was in 1858-59 and 1861. charge in William J. Maltbytaught it brieflyin 186o, Joshua LawrenceChamberlain between Stephen J. Young 186s and 1864and between 1863 and1877. In 187o Young's recommendation, on Professor concurred in bythe faculty and the VisitingCommittee, theBoard had in the curriculum reversed the position hitherto held byItalian and Spanish, Italian from the moving senior to thejunior year, andSpanish from the juniorto the senior. According to Professor Young:" Many undergraduates likeItalian but fewreally care for With the exception Spanish.*" of RichardPike and WilliamMaltby, who died suddenlyin 186o andabout whom the others did we know little, not make languageteaching their occupation. All of life-time them, however,gained distinctionin other fields, Daniel R.Goodwin as President of TrinityCollege (Hartford) andProvost at theUniversity of Ichabod as Pennsylvania, a financier and politician,Charles W. Everett a theologian, J. L. as Chamberlainas President of Bowdoinand four -termgovernor of Maine. These in the Dictionary men have earned mention of AmericanBiography. As Young, he served to Stephen J. in the MaineLegislature (1878-8o) a state senator (1883-86). and was It was in 1877 that Henry Johnsonbegan his long career at Bowdoin, which teaching lasted until 1918.Italian he apparently taught intermittentlyfrom 1880-81to 1893 -g.. His reputation rests on his fine translation in blanktercets of the Divine Comedy (NewHaven, 1915).

University ofPennsylvania

The Minutes ofthe Trustees ofthe University of vania inform Pennsyl- us that Lorenzo DaPonte was madean instructor in Italianon January 5, 1830.This coincides sojourn in the city with his short in 18s9-30. Heresigned aftera semester of serviceon July 6.

Comment of BrunoRosen in Italian dt. Yesterday and Today,op.

120 There is a hiatus until 1851 when Vincent D'Amarelli (listed as one of the professors not a member of the faculty) was appointed to teach the subject. He remained until 1867. Incidentally, he also instructed at the Polytechnic College of the State of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia in the early 5o's.0 Giuseppe Mazza taught at the University from 1867 to 1869 at which time Italian could be taken as an elective with either Latin or French during the sophomore, junior or senior year. The instructor for 1870-71 is unnamed. When we consider that for most of the past century the school had rarely more than two teachers of modern languages at one time, it becomes clear that little could be done for any of the tongues, including Italian. Spanish, for example, was completely neglected from 1835 to 1870 and even then it was introduced on a fee basis. Both languages, however, became a part of the regular curriculum in 1893 when Professor Hugo A. Rennert assumed the chairmanship of the new Department of Romance Languages. Though from this time on Professor Rennert was primarily interested in Spanish and acquired fame through his Life of Lope de Vega (Philadelphia, 1904, Spanish trans., Madrid, 1919), The Spanish Stage (New York, 1909) and The Spanish Pastoral Romances (Philadelphia, 191s), he taught Italian along with Spanish for more than twenty-fiveyears.Needlesstosay, Professor Rennert was occasionally assisted by others. For example, a Dr. Cheyney taught Italian Correspondence and Poetry in 1900. In1919ProfessorDomenicoVittorinitransferredto Pennsylvania from Temple University and in the course of his tenure, which was cut short by his premature death in 1958, he developed into an outstanding scholar, the first genuine specialist in Italian that the school has ever had. He is the author of The Modern Italian Novel (Philadelphia, 1930), The Drama of Luigi Pirandello (Philadelphia-London, 1935, snd ed.,

" Gleaned from an announcement inthe NationalIntelligancer (Washington, D.C.) for Sept.14,1854. The school also advertised in a number of other newspapers.

121 New York,1957), HighPoints in the Literature (New History of Italian York, 1958), andseveral class-texts. as President of the He served AATI in 1948,as associate editor Modern Language of The Journal startingwith 1944, and editor of Symposium as associate starting with195o"

Princeton University

It has previouslybeen mentioned notices of the that the curriculum Revolutionary periodindicate thatinstruction to students in French,Italian, Spanish had at Princeton, and Germancould be then the Collegeof New Jersey, and without optionally charge.In1830the newlyformed alumni association providedfor a * professorshipin living at which time Louis languages " Hargouswas appointedto the post. In 183s BenedictJaeger is listed as * Professor ofGerman and Italian,' and from1836 to 1843 as g Professor ofModern Languages andLecturer in NaturalHistory.' " Hi well knownnot as a language became professor butas a botanist and tireless collectorof botanicaland zoological finemuseum at Princeton specimens. The owes a great dealto him. On leaving Princeton he engaged in privatelanguage teachingin Alexandria, Va. G. De Felicewas a professoron the Theological in 1843 andhe may unofficially Faculty have taughtsome Italian. Conditions for thestudy of modern could not have foreign languages been favorablefor a numberof yearsat Princeton to judgefrom astatement made by the class of an alumnus of 1853 which criticizesthe University provide adequate for failingto training in them,"and apparently,not much was done for severaldecades thereafter. continued to be French doubtlessly available most ofthe time butnot Italian and Spanish.Thus, as late as 1886-87 the schoolcatalog states: " see J.G.rucilla, In Memoriam:Domenico Vittorini." XXXV (1958),77-8x. as CI Princeton University Catalogueof All Who have'Held Received DegreesFrom the College Office ass Aga. Also General of New Jersey atPrinceton. Princeton Catalogue of PrincetonUniversity, 4464906. " Quoted byHandschin,op. cit. 37.

122 Provision will shortly be made for instructionin the Italian and Spanish languages.* Action was evidentlystill pending in 1888.89 since the catalog for that year informs usthat al Provision is now being made for instruction in theItalian and Spanish languages.* Both were finally officially introducedin 1890-91 with Professor George McLean Harper incharge. He resigned in igoo to become Professor of BellesLettres and English Language and Literature. From Igor to 1933Professor William Koren took over. Professor Harper,however, continued for years the custom ofreading Dante * with advanced students who would gather at his house, inaccordance with the Princeton tradition of those years, for informalsessions made memorable by Harper's enthusiasm for alit sommo poets " and his wide. ranging humanistic background. Another broadly oriented scholarwith a keen interest in Italian was Professor CharlesGrosvenor Osgood. Actually a member of the English Departmentand an authority on Spenser,Professor Osgood published in193o an excellent version of the Preface and BooksXIV and XV of Boccaccio's Genealogia deorum gentilium, with anilluminating introductory essay and commentary.His love and understandingof the Divine Comedy contributed greatly tothe value of his Poetry as a Means ofGrace, which appeared in 1941. However, Princeton's first realspecialist in Italian was Professor Kenneth McKenzie,called there from Illinois in 19s6. He at once inauguratedgraduate courses in Italian. Although stricken soon after hisarrival with a severe chronic illness, Professor McKenzie madePrinceton one of the country's outstanding Italian centers until hisretirement in 1938. The firstdoctoral dissertationin Italianregistered by Harvard University is hisThe Developmentof Italian Lyric Poetry Before the Rise of the DolceStil Nuovo (1898). Besides several translations and numerous articlesand reviews Professor Mc- Kenzie compiled a Concordanzadelle Rime di Francesco Pe. &arca (Oxford-New Haven,191*), edited the Noie of Antonio Pucci (Paris, 1931), has given us amodel edition of a class-text in the Vita Nuova (Boston, 192s,and ed., 1932), and, for the University of Chicago Italian Serieshe edited Pellico's Le mie

123 prigioni andFrancesca da Rimini (1914).He wasone of the founders of theAATI in1914 and its first In 1937 the elected President." brilliant linguist,Giuliano Bonfante, Princeton as Visiting came to Professor. From194o to 1950 he regular memberof the faculty. was a At presenthe holds thechair of linguisticsat the University ofTurin. Elementary Italian flourishedon the Princetoncampus in the decades justbefore WorldWar II, due and peculiar to rather involved regulations whichallowed students of a unew '1 language instead to do a year of continuingon an advanced level one thathad previouslybeen begun. to an end, however, As the thirtiescame indecisionover replacements Koren, first, and for Professor then ProfessorMcKenzie, hadits effect the quality ofthe introductory on course; enrollmentsfell from the earlier 50-60to half that number. In 1940, Professor ArchibaldT. MacAllister from Brown, was called where he hadbriefly replaced De Salvio. He the late Professor had taken hisdoctorate at Yaleand taught there from1930 to 1937. Unfortunately forthe development of theMcKenzie tradition, ProfessorMacAllister's energies were early divertedinto the reform of languageteaching and the developmentof the thenrelatively He was President new language laboratory. of the AATIin 1957. Duringthe first half of 1959 hewas given leaveto serve as interim MLA's Foreign Director of the Language Program,and divided betweenteaching and histime researchinItaliananddirection of the SterlingMorton Language Laboratory. Manyare already familiar withthe valuableand challenging on « The Preparation conferencereport of CollegeTeachers of Modern Languages," PMLA, Foreign LXXXIX (1964),2, in the drafting ofwhich Professor MacAllisterplayed a leading part." His untimelydeath

" For Prof.McKenzie's bibliography see Lewis H. Gordon," A Bibliography of theWritings of Kenneth 93-10s. This, the third McKenzie.' Italica, XV(1938), number of theyear, is an homage issue. " Colleaguesshould not missreading an document on the4 Report,' interestingsupporting a lecture by Prof.MacAllister in San Francisco reproduced in theForeign Language Calif. and MLA Newsletter of the FLAof Northern of Southern Calif.,Dec. 1963, 13-18.

124 late in 1966 is a great loss both to the MLA andto Italian culture in America.

Miami University (Oxford, Ohio) In her article 6 Miami in the Thirties * in the Alumni News Letter for March, 1937,5, Mrs. W.E. Smith states that the study of French was introduced in 1827, Spanishin 1830 and Italian and German in 1831.* Her conclusion is basedon a sentence in the school catalog for July, 1830, which reads: 6 Italian and German will be introducedat the commencement of the next school year.* Thesame catalog also lists Isaac N. Shepherd, a member of the Senior class,as * Teacher of Spanish and Italian.* His salary was $150.00per year, meagre enough even then but which was large for the school which hada total income of $6,600.00. Italian next appears in the catalog of 1833 whereitis stated thatthe French, Spanish, German and Italian languages are regularly taught and two of them at least must be studied in order to obtain a diploma.* However, the manuscript Journal of the President and Trustees of the MiamiUniversity under the date of September 30, 1835,pp. 321-22, in announcing " That no appropriation shallhereafter be made on any account for the teaching of modern languages or for anything which may be included in the regular duty ofa standing officer or instructor,* gives evidence ofa reversal of the previous policy with regard to them. It chanced thata Mr. Eckert had arrived at Oxford from Paris at this time and hewas able to prevail upon the administratorsto accept his services as a teacher of modern languages.His compensation was also $15o.00 per year. He conducteda Sophomore class in German and a Junior class in French both of which evincedvery little interest in their work resulting in the discontinuance of the courses. In his report on the fiasco President R.H. Bishop has this to say inter alia:...4' I have no doubts of the Capacity and fidelity of Mr. Eckert: he did Iam persuaded his best but he failed from the single fact thatan interest in the study of a modern Language cannot be keptup with any class more

125

V NM= than threeor four monthsat one time. A single individualwho has some definiteobject ofa practical view may study nature immediatelyin a modern languagewith vigour, completelymaster of it, but till he is to make a classin College believe is botha natural and moral do so I Despite this, impossibility." a* modern languageinstruction 1841 with thecatalog for that was resumed in year as wellas those for 184s and 1843including the statement that *instruction isgiven in French, Spanishand Italianlanguages cost." The college at the students'own then located inthe wildernessof southwestern Ohio and whichwanted to be known as theK Yale of the West,"was obviouslya long way from develop a the time itcould strong program inthe newtongues. Wesleyan University

When WesleyanUniversity (Middletown, Conn.)was orga- nized in 1831Jacob Frederick Huber got hisappointmentas Professor ofModern Languages partly onrecommendations from DickinsonCollege where, as we have alreadynoted, he had taughtfor severalyears. His tenure is temporarily from curious. Hewithdrew the facultyin 1841during the agitation. Thisoccurred when Millerite leader of the William Miller(178s-1849), Second Adventists,had decided analysis of the after a minute Bible that theworld would 1843 and in come to an end in sermons urged hishearers to for the second prepare themselves coming of Christin thatyear. The year passed without thefulfillment ofthe prediction, proclaimed that but, undaunted,he his error hadbeen dueto following Hebrew instead ofRoman chronologyand that the Octoberss, 1844. The end wouldbe EncyclopediaBritannicabiographical sketch on Miller(1911 ed.) tellsus that excitment there wasrenewed among Miller's followers:many of them left business, andin white their muslin robeson house tops andhills, awaited theepiphany." Edward Eggleston hasnovelized the " I am particularly indebted to Mr.Peter C. Flintermann, librarian, fora xerox copy of reference and the Trustees. many pages of the journalof the President

126 occurrence in his End of the World (187s). Afterthe failure of the first prediction Huberreturned to Wesleyan for the 1843-44 term when he tooka leave of absence once more in order to be prepared again for theend of the world according to Miller's revised prediction. The third periodof his tenure from 1848 to 1863was probably on a part-time fee-per-student basis. He isone of the very few teachers on recordever to make a retrogression in academicrank. In the intervals of Huber's absences hispost was filled by Henry De Koven (a non-graduate of the Class of1836), Hon. M.A.1842.In 1846-47 and 1847-48 the departmenthad an unnamedtutor of Languages. George Prenticeserved as Professor of Modern Languages from 1873to 189o. At that time Professor Oscar Kuhns, who had been teachingFrench for one year, took charge of Italian, continuing untilhis retirement in1924. He is the first productive scholarthe school has had in the Modern Language field. On ItalianliteratureProfessor Kuhns has written The Treatment of the Infinitein Dante's Divine Comedy (1897), Saint Francis of Assisi(19oo), Studies in the Poetry of Italy (19o1), The Great Poetsof Italy (19o3), new ed., (1928), The Sense of the Infinite (19o8)and a number of periodical articles. The two others who havefollowed him at Wesleyan, Professor Thomas B. Bussom andCarl A. Viggiani, have primarily been interested inFrench. A good Italian scholar, Edward Williamson, who haspreviouslytaughtat Johns Hopkins and Columbia, hasbeen with the University since 1956. In addition to periodicalarticles, he has published his dissertation, Bernardo Tasso (Roma,1951), and a text-book, Patterns of Italian Conversation(New York, 196o).

University of Alabama

John B. Sellers in his Historyof the University of Alabama (University, Ala., 1953) includes thefollowing paragraph in volume I:1818-1902, 53: " Sauveur Francois Bonfils,a native of France, anda graduate of the University of Pisa in 1815, won his election to the chair of modern languagesover two other candidates, Mr. D. Norris andMr. Beauchini. His

127

alINNIAMOIsPearimislisosmammassmosar appointment was to beginon January so,1832." Actually, Sauveur Francois Bonfilswas a Corsican, Salvatore Francesco Bonfiglio. He hadcome to America in 1817. In 1819 hemarried Lucinda Alden, descendent of JohnAlden, one of the Pilgrim Fathers immortalized by Longfellowin his Miles Standish," Though we do not know where hetaught between 1817 and 1824-25, we do know that heconducted a seminary inNew York City with Mrs. Bonfils.In 1825 hewas in Washington teaching modern languages,induding Italian, in hisown school and the nextyear at Columbia College, D.C. He movedfrom the capital to Boston and fromthere to Tuscaloosa, Alabama, the site of the University. Professor Bonfils resigned in 1836despite the fact that he was given some unusual concessions. It hadbeen a college rule to hold one class before breakfast followingthe morning prayers in the chapel. He succeededin obtaining permissionto hear all of his recitations afterthe matinal repast, but forothers the regulation continuedto remain in force evenas late as the early fifties whena group of students petitioned the privilege of omittingthepre-breakfastrecitation on Mondays. He requested andwas granted a special room asa study. In order to eke out the meagre $1,000.00 annualsalary he was receiving the trustees gave him authorizationin 1833 to " boardany number of students of his classnot exceeding six in number on such terms as he can agree upon." Heapparently taught some Italian while at Alabama since the1833 catalog for the Senior Class states: " In thedepartment of Modern Languages, one lesson a day, on the FrenchLanguage and Literature continued: and alsoon the Italian or Spanish, at the option of the student; and accompaniedby lectures." The list of " Text-books for the Italianlanguage and literature " follows, namely " Zotti's Grammar,Scelta di Prose [Bachi's edition], Tasso, Dante, Alfieri." In 1840, severalyears after his resignation, we find Bonfils running a school in Nashville.In 1845 he establishedone in St. Louis and in 1846 anotherin Lexington, Ky. In the catalog of 1847-48 we find him listedas " Professor of Modern Languages and Literature "at Transylvania College.

128 , .11*

Subsequentto Bonfils'departure the languages at chair ofmodern Alabamawas discontinuedfor a number Italiancame back briefly ofi -ars. in 1871-72with Joseph charge, whoalso taught G. Griswoldin French, Germanand Spanish. Germanwere the only French and languages availablefrom 1873to 1898, at which timeSpanish returned to the curriculum,but Italian had to waituntil1930 before re-appearing as a regularcourse. New YorkUniversity The Statutes of theUniversity ofNew York York University)for City (New 1832 stipulatethe appointmentof a professor of modernlanguages. It is Lorenzo L. Da possible thatsoon thereafter Poste, son ofLorenzo DaPonte, was to teach Italianthough the official engaged the language announcement ofcourses in did not takeplace until1835. He had law office in1823, but like openeda his father hesoon devoted himself to the teaching ofthe Classics and Italian.He wasa voluminous writer andtranslator. Priorto this time (1826-27) he hadbeen connected withWashington College, one of the Marylandstate colleges. By1836 LorenzoL. was and as the no longer with theUniversity catalogs for thenext twoyears are missing, not know howItalian fared. we do However, itwas offered in 1839-40 since at theend ofa section called le Course ofStudy,* the catalog for thatyear contains this paragraph: « Inaddition to the forernentionedStudies, instruction Spanish and in the French,Italian, German languagesis furnishedto those who desire it at theexpense of the student.* We have already discussed EleuterioFelix Forestiin the section devotedto Columbia University sincefrom 184*to 1836 he alsofunctioned as professor ofItalian there.He was given preferenceover Piero Maroncelli who had alsoapplied for the NewYork Universitypost. When Forestileft toassume the American Genoa, Vincenzo consulship in Botta joinedthe Universityfaculty and remained withit until hisdeath in 1894. come to study the He hadoriginally American educationalsystem. Perhaps this is what hewas already engaged in doing in1854 when heserved

129

9 as * instructor in French, Italianand the at the Limestone Ancient Languages Springs FemaleHigh School South Carolina. in Spartanburg, Articleson the subjectappeared in the contemporanea, Nov.1855, and the Rivista nione, for Oct. Turinnewspaper, .vopi- 15, 16, 17,18, 1856. Thefact that he thought to bea relative of Carlo was Botta, authorof the History of the Warof Independence of the UnitedStates of America, which wasvery extensively readin this the ten editions country as attestedby of the GeorgeAlexander Otis printed fromi8so to 1854, translation caused himto be well-receivedin American societycircles. The* House of the as Emersononce called his expanding doors,* home,was a frequentgathering place foreminent literaryand social its attraction personalities.Much of was due to thecharm and Botta (the former brilliance ofMrs. Anne G. Lynch),artist, poet, From themore than a dozen conversationalist. interestingpages devotedto the Botta householdby KateSanborn in her Anecdotes (New Memories and York-London,1915, 75-87), room for the quotation we shall only have of oneparagraph. « For as if thiswere the only truly years it seemed the city, because cosmopolitandrawing-room in it drew thebest from all England, France sources. Italy and and Germany,Spain, Russia, Hungary, Siam, Norway and China, Indiaand Japansent guests hither. Liberals andconservatives,peers and revolutionists, the most ancient holders of traditions, andadvocates of themost modern theoriesall foundtheir welcome,if they deserved tookaway a new it, and each respect for theposition of his But for Italianat the University opponent.* little. In the Botta was ableto accomplish literary field hehas givenus Dante as Philosopher, Patriot andPoet: With an Analysis of theDivina Commedia, Plot andEpisodes (New Its York, 1865,reissued in 1867and 1887 under the titleIntroductionto the Study of Dante). Thiswas the first extensivebiographical treatment of thesommo poets published inthe UnitedStates. After Bona'sdeath courses were announcedtwice, in 1898 and 1899.Then thelanguage was dropped until19o5 when Giuseppe Brigid*,a Doctor of Laws, taught it until191*. Dr. Thomas Pugliattireplaced him from 191sto 1914. Hissuccessor,

130 0

Dr. Vittorio Racca, assistant to the world-famoussociologist Vilfredo Pareto at the University of Fribourg,introduced an ambitiousprogram which even includeda course in Commercial Italian. Dissatisfaction with his low academicrank andpoor salary led himto tender his resignation in1919. The names ofsome of the teachers' who havetaught at New York University subsequently are Babcock,Waters, Covello, Holmes, Giacobbe, Bontempo, Rinetti, DiGiro lamo, Bor. loso, Quimby, Giuliano.Several of themare or have been good scholars as wellas good teachers, but thefact that they have followed one another in such rapidsuccession can onlymean that the school hassimply not been overlyinterested in creating a strong and stable departmentof Italian, especiallyon the undergraduate level. With Professor FloydZulli as thenew Director of Italianthe future willno doubt change for the better. A goodstart has been made inbringing Professor Franco Ferrucci fromSmith into thedepartment. On the graduate level the schoolhas had a first-rateItalian scholar, Professor Robert J.Clements (AATI presidentin 1961-62),an authority in the Renaissanceperiod and writer ofthree notable studies on Michelangelo.He has now transferredto the Comparative LiteratureProgram.

Trinity College (Conn.)

On May 16, 1823, theConnecticut State Legislaturepassed an act of incorporation of Washington College (TrinityCollege since 1849). In 1829 the Rev. SamuelFuller, Jr. servedas di Professor of ModernLanguages.* He probablydid not teach Italian. In Green's Annual Registerfor the State of Connecticutfor 1832 a Joseph De Novisappears listed t s instructor inFrench, Italian and Spanishat the schooL Since the catalogof 1835 states that students who desireditto acquire a knowledge of Modern Languages ofEurope * would be* attended bya competent teacher from the city,*we suspect that De Noviswas not on the regular faculty.Professor Glenn Weaver,who has

131 just completeda history of TrinityCollege has found in the diary of Samuel an entry Farmer Jarvis, whichis in the Connecticut State Library, to the effect that hehoped to introducethe study of Italian there.The entryvery likely was mad in incidentally, 1832. Jarvis, was professor of OrientalLiterature between and 1837 and 1828 a member of the Corporationof the College 1841 to 1851. from Inasmuch as DanielRaynes Goodwinhad taught Italian Bowdoin for at some years prior to comingto Trinity in 1854as President of theCollege and Professorof Modern we may infer that he Languages, continued to teachit there at leastuntil Leopold Simonsenwas appointed toserve as instructor of modern languages in 1857 in thenew Department of History and Literature. One of the highlights in the history ofItalian at Trinitywas the presence ofRev. Joel FooteBingham. The Report for 1895 President's notes that " The ReverendJ.H. Bingham, D.D., well knownas an accomplished scholarin Italian, and friend of the an earnest College, generouslyoffered to givea course of lectures on Italian Literature before suchmembers of the College as might desire to attend them... The opportunitywas a rare one, and the lectures were highly appreciated bythose who heard them.It is hoped thatthey may continueanother year." Apparently they were continued for severalyears to judge from the fact that in his translation of Pellico'sFrancesca da Rimini (Cambridge, Mass.,New Haven,Hartford,1897) he labels himselflecturer on Italianliterature in Trinity is also the College.* He translator of Manzoni'sThe Sacred Hymns(Grinni sacra') and the Napoleonic Ode (11cinque maggio). Withportrait, biographical preface, historical introductions,criticalnotes... (London, New York,etc. 1904). The creation of the CesareBarbieri Center ofItalian Studies, endowed by Cesare Barbieri,engineer, inventor and philanthropist, hasfirmly entrenchedItalian on the Trinity campus. For the past seven years the Centerhas published the Cesare BarbieriCourier underthe editorship of Michael R.. Campo. Professor

132 U.S. Norfolk NavalSchool Discovery that Italian was being taught at theU.S. Naval School in Norfolk,Va., hascome in a roundabout read in Mr. Sellers' way. When History of theUniversity of Alabama cit.) thatat the time Bonfils (op. was considered for themodern language professorship therein1831or1832 one of the candidateswas a Mr. Beauchini,I began to led me to grow curious. This correspond with Mrs.Mary Ella Terrill,Reference Librarian. I suggested that the hybrid-lookingname must have been Bianchini and asked ifshe perchance mightbe able to discover furtherinformationon him in the university In checking archives. on the matter she hasfound that inone of the faculty applications for theyear 1837 a Mr. L.A. Bianchinihad applied for the vacant post of Professor ofModern Languages Bonfils had left Alabama in1836. In theapplication the candidate identifies himself asan instructor at theNorfolk Naval School andgives as his qualification" my experience a teacher and attainments as of a Linguist inFrench, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, as I haveresided in each ofthev countries for severalyears. Then he adds:" My motive for seeking a change is the insufficiency ofthe pay tosupport my family.* This data has aroused furtherquestions. Were the Beauchini thatwas a candidate late in 1831or early in 1832 and L.A. Bianchini one and the same person?It is quite likelythat they were. There isscarcely any doubt,too, but that this is also the Bianchini man who was engagedin private teachingin Boston in 1832as announced in " A Card" in the Boston Daily Advertiser and Patriot,May 25th issue. Incidentally, the U.S.Naval Schoolat Norfolk wasone of a number of Naval Academiesestablished on the in each major Receiving Ship port. The Alert, the firstBritish man-of-war captured in the Warof 1812, was assignedto the Norfolk Naval Shipyard as its firstreceiving ship. Threeyears later, in 1821, the 44-gun shipGuerriere was establishedas the first school for midshipmen. The curriculum was narrowlyrestricted tocourses in mathematics to which the study oflanguages was added ina

133 few cases. Bianchinitaught at Norfolk from1835 to 1843 and at the Boston Naval Schoolfrom 1843 through1845.4* St. Louis University

Bishop Joseph Rosati(1789-1843) wasone of the co-founders of St. Louis University in 1818. Italian, however,does not appear in any of the school catalogs until 1839 whichin paragraphit of the « Abridgement of the Prospectus ofSt. Louis University* (p.15)reads: The courseofinstructionembracestwo Departments, the Classicaland Mercantile. Thestudent may apply himself to either or both. The French,German, Spanish and Italian languages are taught without additionalcharges.* This is repeated in thecatalogs for 184o, 1842and 1843. Through the 1844 catalogwe learn that the plan ofeducation of the college was then dividedinto twocourses, the Scientific, which included Theology,Law, Medicine, Philosophyand Literature with Literatureembracing the study ofGreek, Latin, English, French, Geography,History, Arithmetic,Algebra, Poetry and Rhetoric, and theMercantile Course, whichbesides English Grammar, Poetry andRhetoric, History,Geography, Mathema- tics, Chemistry andNatural Philosophyincluded the study of French, Italian, Spanish and German languages,Book-keeping and Penmanship. By1855 French, Italian,Spanish and German were made optional in eitherCourse. Therewere a few Italians who taughtat the University in the1850's in the Theology Department. One of 'thesewas Father F. Di Maria. Heand other compatriots may have been entrusted withinstruction in Italian from timeto time, which continuedthrough 1863, after which it has been allbut neglectedat the school. Historically it stands as the first collegewest of the Mississippito offer Italian. Having mentioned thename of Bishop Rosati itmay not be too out of placeto recall at this pointthat a number of Italians have beenfounders of Catholiccolleges, Father Grassi " On these Naval Schools see the Temple.University Doctor of Education Dissertation byHenry L. Burr: Educationin the Early Navy, published in Philadelphiain 1939.

134 of Georgetown, Father Nobili of Santa Clara, Father Maraschi of the University of San Francisco, Father Paresce of Woodstock College and Father Cataldo of Gonzaga University. The founding fathers of St. Bonaventure College were also Italians.

Brown University

We may open our discussion of Brown University with the first mention of Italian in its Catalogue for the year 1842-43. UndertheheadingK Modern Languages 3'thefollowing paragraph appears:K By a recent statute of the Corporation, regular instruction in the principal languages of modern Europe, is furnished to the students at a moderate additional expense, in accordance with such arrangements as the Faculty may adopt. Professor Struve has been appointed instructor in French, German, Italian and Spanish, and for the present year, will give instruction in these languages to the Senior and Junior Classes." The absence of Struve's name in subsequent catalogs seems to imply that he severed his connection with the school after teaching only one year. The catalogs for 1843-44, 1844-45, 1845-46 refer only to K modern languages " without specifying any of them. In 1846 it is likely that Charles C. Jewett, the librarian, taught Italian along with French. George Washington Greene, who had been our American Consul in Rome from 1837 to 1845, joined the faculty in 1848 at which time he must have taken care of Italian despite the fact that the language is not mentioned again in the catalog until 1850-51. Mr. Greene contributed a number of essays to periodicals, most of them to the North American Review. He terminated his services at Brown in 1852 and the next year removed to New York to engage in editorial work. He became Professor of American History at Cornell in 1872. That he retained a keen interest in the Italian language is shown in his preparation of a text for class use, Primary Lessons in Learning to Read, write and speak the Italian Language. Introductory to the Larger Grammar (i.e. the 011endorff text edited by Foresti, New York, 1865). The thoughts on learning a foreign language expressed in his review of Longfellow's

135 translation of the DivineComedy in (1867, 197), the AtlanticMonthly, XX are worthy ofattention here: that onecan acquire « It isnot by reading a perfectfamiliarity with language. Youmust have a foreign learnedto thinkin it and made a spontaneousexpression of it Its words your wants andfeelings of and idiomsmust awaken others. which the in you thesame sensations words andidiomsyour own languages pleasureas music,or as a picture, awaken: giving or a statue,or a fine building gives pleasure,not byan act of of the will,but by reflection underthe control of a an intuitiveperception under sense of thebeautiful. The the inspiration partiallyan intellectual enjoyment ofa thought is enjoyment;you may into it; butthe enjoyment even reason yourself of styleand language aestheticenjoyment, is purelyan susceptible,indeed, ofculture, but froman inbornsense of harmony. springing to a foreign To extendthis enjoyment languageyou must bring you, and formwith it those that languageclose to intimaterelations between and wordwhichyou have formed thought not only in yourown. The word suggest thethought, but must painting becomes becomea part of it,as the a part of thecanvas. It must with afamiliar sound, strikeyour ear awakeningpleasant life andrealscenes, and memories ofactual even deeprevelations, of customs, and thecircumstances manners and often,too, brief whence theysprang. Theyare formulascondensingthought into expression, witha force and its briefest not give. Not energy which fullexpression could to feel them,is notto feel the forms ofthought.* 41 most characteristic The name of TullioSuzzara Verdi mentionedas an instructor has at timesbeen in Italian.There is that heinstructed in no official record the languagewhen hewas at Brown the fifties,but hemay have done in so for a term.Later Mr. Verdi becamean eminentdoctor and of StateSeward. personal physicianof Secretary

41 For a more lengthydiscussion consult Scholarship ofGeorge Washington Emilio Goggio." The Italian XXV (1941), Greene.' Modern 328-48. Theexcerpt from the Language Journal, this study.See also Fred Atlantic Monthlyis quoted in C. Harrison." G.W. XLIII (1966),3842. Greene andDante.' Italica,

136 In 1880-81 Alonzo Williamswas assigned to teach Italian while from 1885 to 1888 GuglielmoD'Arcais, an instructor with no degree,was in charge. We now come to the best known of the teachers of Italianat the school, Courtney Langdon, whose tenure lasted from 1877to 1924. He, too, is one of our distinguished translators of the DivineComedy (Cambridge, Mass., London, 1918-1921). In his obituary notice inItalica, II (1925), 18, his fellow-colleague, Gaetano Cavicchiahas this to say:" Professor Langdon's course in the Divine Comedywas affectionately known to Brown undergraduatesasCourtney's hell course,' and although itwas an elective study, the class was always crowded. For he was an inspiring teacher anda witty speaker who won the admiration of all who knewhim on the campus and in private." One of the men who has recently hadan extended tenure at Brown is Alfonso De Salvio (1928-1939). He hadcome there from Northwestern University." 42 Another is Lewis HallGordon (1946-)with previous experience atPrinceton, Hamilton College and Cornell. He isa keen student of Dante and an authority on the literature of the early Renaissance.In 1954 he was president of the AATI.

Yale University Italian became available to students at Yale in 1842 under Luigi Roberti who remainedon the faculty for three years. In 1844-45 it was not offered butre-appears under Giuseppe Antoni (1845-47). Roberti was re-employed for the period 1847-57. Then the language was omitted until 1879 when Carlo Speranza (later at Columbia) was appointed. He stayed until 1882. Thesemen were all instructors and from now on we are faced with a long list of teachers. Evidently Yalewas long used as a sort of testing ground for instructors in Italian. The experience hasunques- tionablybenefited them personallybuthasdeprivedthe department of the sinew that onlyan extended tenure can supply. Among the men who have served for tenor more years

42 See section on Northwestern University.

137 AmewairelIMMOMO

are HenryRoseman Lang (1892-19o2,1915-1922), Kenneth Mc Kenzie (1902-1915), AngeloLipari (1925. 1948), andThomas Goddard Bergin (1925-30) and1948 to the present.Professor Lang had a thorough commandof the entire Romance fieldbut inhis publications concentrated onearlyPortuguese and Spanish. Prof. J.D.M. Ford(Harvard) in writing the Lang biographical sketch for theDictionary of AmericanBiography (XX: Supplement I, 481) statesthat « In the classroomhe stressed always the valueof extreme accuracy in thetreatment of philologicalmaterial, and despitehisinsistenceupon meticulous attention to detail,he gained the abiding goodwill of the students." We havealready dealt with ProfessorMcKenzie in our section on Princeton. In drawing ProfessorLipari away from Wisconsinin 1925 Yale certainly made thebest choire that couldhave been made at the time. Heis the author of anumber of articles and a learned volume on TheDolce Stil Nuovo According toLorenzo De' Medici (New Haven,1936). With reference tohis qualitits as a teacherhis intimate friend andcolleague, G.L. Hendrickson, professor of Latin andGreek Literature reported:" He was an eager andenthusiastic champion ofhis subject and he possessed a real genius foreliciting Italian speech notonly from his friends and moreintimate associates, butfrom the most tonguetied Anglo-Saxons whoventured into his classes.He lived with his pupils inunsurpassed de An examination with him was more than apersonal conference andconversation. Outside of the lecture orclassroom he was active ineverything looking to the interests oradvancement of Italian culture."48 In addition to teaching atYale Professor Bergin hastaught at Western Reserve(1930-35), Albany StateTeachers College (1935-41) and CornellUniversity (1941-48). In hispublications he has concentrated onthe Middle Ages(Italian and Provençal) and on late nineteenth centuryand twentieth centuryliterature. In the field of literarycriticism he has writtenGiovanni Verga (New Haven, 1931), arevised version of his doctoraldissertation written under the guidance ofProfessor Lipari, LucianoZuccoli:

" See J.G.F.,I' Angelo Lipari (1887- 1947)."Italica, XXIV (1947), 365.

138 poets umbertino(Roma,1940), and an exure elyuseful introduction to thegreatest of Italian writers:Dante(Boston, 1965). He has also givenus a number of excellent translations: The Autobiographyof Vico,in collaboration with Max Harold Fisch (Ithaca, 1944),?'he New Science ofGiambattista Vico, also in collaborationwith Prof. Fisch(Ithaca,1948),The Comedy of Dante Alighieri,in blank verse andprose (New York,1949-54),Salvatore Quasimodo: ThePoet and the Politician,with Sergio Pacifici (Carbondale,Ill., t964), Italian Sampler:An AnthologyofItalian Verse(Montreal, 1964). Last but not leastProfessor Berginisco-editor with Professor Wilkins ofThe Concordance to the DivineComedy of Dante Alighieri(Cambridge, Mass., 1965). Hewas President of the .AATI in 1947. Yale students of the fiftiesenjoyed the rare opportunity of coming in contact with thepenetrating and culturally rich mind of Prof. Erich Auerbach.Others among us have been sharing the unique experience thatwas theirs through hisMimesis (Princeton, 1953),Dante: Poet of the SecularWorld (Chicago, 1961), andStudi su Dante(Milano, 1963).

University of Michigan

Italian at the University ofMichigan had a spectacular start. In 1848 the seniors in theDepartment of Literature, Science and the Artswere permitted to elect one term in the language. The teacherwas Louis Fasquelle. The Faculty Minutes " record that sixteenseniors (exactly two thirds of the senior dais) were examinedin Italian on Decemberso, 1648, and that all butone of them passed. Such an initial burstof enthusiasm should have augureda rosy future for the language, but this was notto be. Instead, for some unexplainablereason Italian was dropped from thecurriculum and not re-admitted until 1667-68. Professor Fasquellewas a Frenchman who had been educated at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris andwho had studied Germany and had taught Frenchin England. Hecame to the United States in do In 11147he was a a p ted to the Michigan

139 *

faculty. The Michigan Alumnus, Vol.II, April, :80, relates thatit was said of him... that hewas the most accomplished linguist in the world, beingmore or less proficient in *8 languages," and that he had been" pleasant and companion- able... a noted conversationalist,quite exact and finical in pronunciation... (He was Nearly always attired in orthodox black and in winter andstormy weather wore an Immenseue cloak Drought from France. He leftthe post vacant at his death in186*. From 186748 on Italian has beenregularly offered at Michigan though from 1870to 1887 it alternated with Spanish, each being givenonce every two years. This was a fairlycommon pattern in a number of our collegesat that time. Professor George Sylvester Morriswas given the professorship in Modern Languages in 1870, but, finding philosophymore congenial to his taste, he resigned his positionin 1879 in order to devote himself entirely to it. His careful andoriginal contributions to German idealism attracted a good deal of attentionamong his .:on temporaries. When Edward Lorraine Walter tookcharge in18843 he taughtItaliantothirty-eightstudents, who, he reported, completed about half of the Cuore'sItalianConversation Grammar, and read about twenty-fivepages in Foresti's Reader. A prerequisite of ayear of French was established in 1881-8* and at the same time I promessi sposiwas substituted for the Foresti Reader as a classtext. If only *5 pages of the latter had been read previously,one wonders how much of the Manzoni masterpiece was actually covered? SinceProfessor Walter was a Dante student, he introduced a Dantecourse in *888. a year after he was made head of thenew Department of Romance Languages, which has becomea fixture since. His Rhotacism in the Old Italia» Language and theExceptions (Leipzig, 1877) is one of the very first serious studiesby an American in the field of Italian linguistics. Professor Moritz Levi taught Italianas well as French from 1885 to1923. He provided students with a much needed reading text at the time,an edition of the Pronsessi sposi (New York. 1901). Four fine Italian scholarswho were on the staff

140 during this periodare John R. Reinhard, Herbert D. Austin, George L.Hamilton and Michele De Filippis.The first coherent program of Italiancourses came with Camillo P. Merlin° (1930-37) whowas invited to take charge of all courses inthe language. Thepresent senior member isVincent Anthony Scanlo (igst) who is assisted in hiscourses by several younger colleagues."

Amherst College As early as 3816 there was considerable clamorat Amherst in favor of the modern languages because of their* commercial value. Taking cognizance of this the Trusteesset up a so-called Parallel Course. On this point the Report by PresidentH. Humphrey, signed Dec.3, 11316 reads: In the department of Languages, an entire separation is proposed, by substituting the modern for the ancient, provided, however, that in thenew course, Latin may be taken instead of the Spanish, a: the option of the student when he enters College. Thus, with the knowledge of Greek and Latin, which all whoenter will be required to bring along with them, it is thought theymay in four years so far master the French and Spanishas to read and write, and even speak them with considerable readiness and fluency. Should room hereafter be found for German,or Italian, or both, so much the better; butwe deem it inexpedient to begin upon so broad a scale.* " As can be seen French and Spanish were incorporated in the plan and Italian and German were contemplated ifthe new experiment in modern education prospered. Unfortunately, it did not and had to be abandoned in Oa before Italian had a chance toget in. We next hear of Italian at Amherst in 11131 when George Baker Jewett, Professor of Latin and Modern Languages, taught it, continuing until 1833. Jerome Schneider, laterat Tufts, "See The University of Michigan: An Encyclopedic Survey. Ann Arbor. Part IV, pp. 74.15: The Department of Romance Languages and Literatures" was written by William A. McLaughlin. " See The Substance of Two Reports of the Faculty of Amherst College I. the Seird of Trustees, with the Doings of the Board Theren. Anshast. day. 'Updated in tool by Amherst Colleip.

141 taught the language forone year,1855.56. Another member'sname that deserves faculty to be rememberedis that of William LewisMontague if only because hepreparedsome of our early Italiantextbooks: Manual of ItalianGrammar (1870, pd. ed. 1880,Introductionto Italian Literature Italian Readingsin Prose and (1875), Modern Poetry (1893).He wasassociated with the collegefor almostforty years Ma S. Fiske, (1857.1895). Ofhim Rev. a former friend andcolleague, has obituary notice written the that appearedin theAmherst Student 5, 1908: " Hewas a modest, on Oct. unassuming, carefulscholar,a faithful friendand devoutChristian. His rather than qualitieswere solid brilliant. Hemade themost of himself possible, with his that was unaggressivenature. Hewas not self-assertive for a disciplinarianor to attain the high world to which place in the his qualitiesentitle him...* University ofSanta Clara The earliest penetration ofItalian intoa college in the Far Westwas at Santa Clarain 1851, the We are glad year of its founding. to report that theschool, foundedby a group of Italian Jesuits,has offered thelanguage present time uninterruptedlyto the except for the periodof World War all the teachers IL Until 1918 were members of theJesuit Order.As a sample of its earlycourse listingswe note in the Modern 1855 catalogunder LanguagesSpanish,French, Italian that the subject and German matter of theist Class * consistedof a Syntax, Exercises, Composition,* while the subjectmatter of the a ad Classdeals with "Orthography, Etymology, Exercises,Reading and Speaking.*Presently Italianis doing well direction of Victor under the B. Vari (1954-). Another which hastaught Italian Catholic school, continuously since1850isthe Manhattanville Collegeof the Sacred Heart (Purchase,N.Y.). University of Iowa The Second Circular of theState University indicates of Iowa (1856) an Edward Bondalieas theTeacher Languages. The of Modern vaguely-wordedannouncement stabs:* The

142 in the Department are1. TheFrench, subjects to be taught Literature of these German and ItalianLanguages. s. The Languages, and thehistory of eachidiom. 3. Comparative Principles of theScience of Language.*The Philology, and the appears as moreobviously Italian nameof the instructor in the 1856-57catalog. He left theinstitution Bondeli (Bondelli) he came in 1858. All that wehave learnedabout him is that City from NewYork. to Iowa chemist, handled From 186s to 1864Gustavus Hinricks, a His successorCharles Modern Languages,including Italian. taught it startingwith :866. TheUniversity Augustus Eggert he was a Reporter, Vol. I, No.6, 1869, p. 8s,apprises us that the Universityof Berlin andthe College German trained at the history de France wherehe studiedComparative Philology, Civilization andPolitical Economy.On coming of European County, in 1859 heengaged in farmingin Delaware to America nearly three years,during Iowa. * He followedthis business for found out farming wasnot hisforte. While riding which time he and threw drawn by a yokeof oxen they ran away on a wagon which him from the wagon.All the commandof languages, possessed, was notsufficient to inducethe beasts the Professor abilities and he concludedthat whateverhis natural to stop, special genius might be, naturehad not endowedhim *with any of self-willed cowsand obstinateoxen.' for the management University he When he was firstinvited by theFaculty of the German andPolitical Economy.The Reporter- taught French, New biography ends bysaying: 8 In 1867Princeton College, him the honorarydegree of Masterof Arts, jersey, conferred on of his services and in '68 theTrustees showedtheir appreciation department on the samebasis as the otherregular by putting his is probably departments of theUniversity proper.The Professor He has thoroughly the best philologistsin our country. one of French, Dutch studied Latin,Greek, Spanish,Italian, German, those who studyunder him havethe benefit and English, and Italian was comparative philology.*At this time of much and Arts. available to seniorsin the Departmentof Literature exception of theperiod between1891 and 1901 With the consistently up tothe present Italian has beenoffered fairly

143 time. In1915 a reading knowledge of Italianwas instituted as a requirement fora Bachelor of Musicbut was eventually droppecL Until lately, thechairmen of theDepartment of Romance Languages havenot made any seriousattempt to promote the growth of Italian.They have keptcourses at the elementary level and in the hands of instructorswhose knowledgehas been restricted toa speaking fluency andwhose secondary has been Italian, interest a pattern all too frequentlyfollowed by quite a number of other schools. This situation hasbeen changed by the present chairman,Professor EdmundV. De Chasm, with a genuine a man appreciation of thevalue of Italian.He has brought in FiorindoCerreta (1g57-) a trained, specialist, an authority productive on Alessandro Piccolomini,who has already done muchto stimulate its growth.

University of Wisconsin In the establishment of a Professorship inModern Languages in 185o the University of WisconsinRegents decreed: That there should behereby constituteda Professorship of Modern Languages andLiterature, and thatit be the duty of to render stated the chair instruction in Germanand Frenchto the regular classes.* Inthe beginning,at least, Spanish and Italian were not permitted to share a place in theschool's curriculum. However, coincidingwith appointmentof Joseph C. principal of the Pickard, Madison FemaleSeminary, as Professorof Modern Languages in 1858 the catalogfor thatyear contains a note to the effect that Extra instruction willbe given, when desired, in Italianand Spanish andEnglish in its Anglo-Saxon folui.* Thenote re-appears in 185gand in abbreviated in 186o, the form, date of there-appointment of J.B.Fuchs, the original teacher ofModern Languages.There isno further reference to Italian in the catalogsuntil 188 -88 whenit was introducedas a formal course by EdwardT. Owen in alternation with the newly institutedcourse in Spanish. In the Fallterm of 1888-89 theItalian classwas made up of fifteen fair number far students, a those days. Inthe years that followedthe

144 claims of Frenchon those assignedto teach ItalianOwen, Giese, Gaytendedto restrict thecourse offerings in the latter language. Only in1920 when Angelo Lipari,who had obtained his doctorate inItalian literatureat the University of Rome, was added to the RomanceLanguage staff,was it possible for Italian to begin a period of natural,unhampered growth. He raised the number of courses fromtwo to seven. With sucha good programavailable to students,Joseph L Russo, who Lipari's as successor served from1925 to 1949, was ableto carry on with excellent results.He is the most prolificof the editors of Italiantexts among which are Elementary Italian(1927), Present Day Italian('947), Primo Corso d'Italiano Secondo Corso d'Italiano (196o), (196a), Corso Integrated'Italiano (1965), an edition ofPirandello's Cosi tse vi pare (0929) and Goldoni's Rusteghi(1954). His LorenzoDa Pante. Poet and Adventurer (New York,1922), is a revisionof his Columbia Ph.D. dissertation.Professor Russowas joined in 1929 by Joseph Rossi and in 1958by Alfred Galpinunder whom Italian attained the largest has. enrollment in thecountry, almost 1200 in the second term of1966. Roui, AATIPresident 195o, in the Risorgimento an expert and Italian-Americanrelations,is the author of The Image of America in Mazzini'sWritings (Madison, 1954); Galpin, AATIPresident 1955, hasdone Fauriel in Italy. Unpublished Correspondence(r82-x835) [Roma, 19621,and the two have collaborated on an edition and translationof essays: De Sanctis on Dante (Madison, 1958).Together with Isabella, Panzini and MarilynSchneider ProfessorGalpin has prepared the Beginning Readings in Italian (New York,1966).

University of California

In reportingon the status of Italianat the University of California in Berkeley,the university archivistand others have overlooked the Annual Reports of the StateSuperintendent of Public Instruction. In the Third BiennialReport (1868-69), under the heading of University of California,Paul Pioda, who had been teachingat the Young Ladies'Seminary in Benicia, is listedas Professor, of ModernLanguages, that is English,

148

10 French, German, Spanishand Italian. Itmay be recalled that t868 is the year when theschool, an outgrowth ofthe College of California founded in1853 at Oakland,was established in Berkeley asa coeducational institution. Thesame foreign languages also appear in the1871/* Report. The next accessibleentry with reference to Italian isin the 1881 -9* Register ofthe Berkeley school whichannounces that an introductorycourse in the language was then available Three timesa week throughout theyear. Elective, in special cases, to students havingsome preparation in Latin, Frenchor German.* F.V. Paget and hisassistants were in charge forthe first elevenyears. It is clear that the prerequisitesset up could only have the effect ofhindering normal growth,which, in fact, was what happened. Marius J.Spine to and Rocco Giorgio followed Paget fromIgo* to 1905. If any brightspot can be indicated during this interimit was the coming ofProfessor Grandgent to teach Dante duringthe 1905 summer session. Under John A. Childas many as six courseswere offered annually between1905 and 1911. New courseswere added by Goggio (1912- 1917). Goggio's successor during the next three yearswas Ottorino D. Ronchi, editor of LaVoce del Popolo of San Francisco.In the meantime, in1919, the first independent department ofItalian was created withRichard T. Holbrook (French)as acting chairman. His Ph.D. dissertation at Columbia (Igo') had beenDante and the Animal Kingdom, published in book-formby Columbia Universityduring the year of his doctorate. His Portraitsof Dante from Giottoto Raphael (London, NewYork, 1911), isa definitive study on Dante iconography. As hehad taught Italianat Bryn Mawr from 1906 to 1916 he mighteasily have resumed teachingsome of the courses he haddeveloped in the East.Instead, he left the wholeprogram inthe hands of Mr. Ronchi,whose appointment had obviouslybeen determinedon account of his easy accessibility rather thanon account of any academic qualifications he might havepossessed. Though sympathetic towards Italian, ProfessorHolbrook's war-work in Francewith the Foyers du Soldat(1916-1919) evidently caused himto prefer and stay with French tillthe dose of hiscareer in 1932. Actually,

146 despite his title as acting chairman, Holbrook was scarcely more than a supervisor. S. G. Morley, Rudolph Schevill and C.E. Hills of the Spanish Department functioned as his successors at various times until 1925. This rapid transfer of authoritycreated the ludicrous situation of having a person aschairman for only one semester as was the casewith Professor Morley (1921). Mr. Ronchi resigned in the summer of 1919 andMaria Teresa Tommasini was fortunately named to replacehim. Her winning personality inspired students to enroll heavilyin her beginning class, necessitating the formation of twosections for the first time since Italian had been offered atthe University. Had she abided by theadviceoftheacting chairman (Holbrook) to limit herselfto one class,ItalianI would probably have remained in the same stationaryposition to which it had been relegated for so long. She,however, insisted on holding on to the twosections even though it gave her an eighteen hour weekly teaching load. Enrollmentquickly increased leading to the addition of new instructors tothe staff. In 1921 the Italian poet, Raffaello Piccoli, wasbrought in to teach the advanced courses but stayed only for thefirst semester. In 1923, at long last,the administration finally arouseditself sufficiently to employ its first ranking professor in thediscipline, Herbert H. Vaughan, a Harvard Ph.D. (1906)and an authority on the Italiandialects, who had come to California from Yale. The shifting overlordship of the French andSpanish departments ceasedtoexistin1925-26withhis appointmenttothe chairmanshipofagenuinelyindependentandseparate Department of Italian. Professor Vaughan wasable to set up a full program ofGraduate Studies leading to an M.A., and Ph.D., which has remained substantiallyunchanged to the presenttime. He resignedin1926 and wastemporarily supplanted for the ensuing year by StanleyAstredo Smith of Stanford. 1928 marks the greatest event in thehistory of Italian culture in the State of California, with theestablishment of the Chair of Italian Culture at Berkeley.The campaign for it had been going on for some years withthe indefatigable and dedicated Miss Tommasini (later married toLouis M. Piccirillo,

147 an attorney) playing theleading role in promoting it." It got an auspicious start in 1911 atthe time of the presentation of the bust of Da:.te to the University by citizens of the Bay Area on the occasion of the sixth centenaryof the great poet's death, when A. P. Giannini, President of the Bank of Italy, contributed $5,0oo.00. By 1926 the endowment fund had grown to $6o,000.00 and by 1928 it had reached $15o,000.00. The money was invested in Trans-America stocks, which were donated to the school with the proviso that only the income should be used for the annual grants that were contemplated. The purpose ofthe Chair as specified in section one of the instrument drawn upon March 15, 1928 reads as follows: 1) The Regents shall establish the proposed CHAIR OF ITALIAN CULTURE, and the President and Regents of the University shall call to the CHAIR, for appropriate periods of residence in the University, to lecture in illustration and interpretation of Italian culture, the ablest and most eminent citizens of Italy whose service may be secured and who shall seembestqualifiedby reasonoftheirattainments and scholarship to occupy the CHAIR: provided however, that no oftener and for periods of not more than one year out of every four years the occupant of the CHAIR may be selected without regard to citizenship or race and with reference only to his ability, eminence and scholarship if it shall be found impossible or impracticable to call an Italiancitizen to the CHAIR." T Unfortunately, the 1929 depression with its disastrous effects on the stock market drastically reducedincome from the fund. Nevertheless,fifteeneminentItalianscholarshavebeen occupants of the Chair from 1928 to 1964:Carlo Formichi, (1928) Giovanni Vidari (1929), Emilio Cecchi (193o), Giuseppe Antonio Borgese (1931), Lionel lo Venturi (1941), CountCarlo Sforza (1942), Gaetano Salvemini (1%3), Gianfranco Contini

" See Lola Jean Simpson." The Chair: A Story of the Italian Department." California Monthly, May, 106, 404-05. 41 Quotation taken from Michele De Filippis. " The Chair of Italian Culture at the University of California." Italica, XXXV (1958),145-55. Those who desire further details on the Chair can find themin this article.

148 (1%1), Bruno Migliorini (1953), Guido Calogero (1956), Erne- stoRogers(1959), Giacomo Devoto(196o), Roberto Pane (1961), Luigi Della Piccola(1962), and Man lio Rossi-Doria (1964). It was in 1928 that Professor Rudolph Altrocchi was called to the chairmanship of the Italian Department of the Berkeley school. The language was thriving when he came and continued to flourish until World War IL Then, the resentment against Fascism was extended to the language and literature of Italy which, of count:, were completely innocent of the crimes and excesses committed by Mussolini and his clique. A drastic decline in enrollment took place, which dropped from a hitherto normal registration of more than three hundred per semester to seventy-five in 1944. Italian was, however, able to make a healthy recovery after a couple of years. What Altrocchi did for the department is thus summed up by Professor De Filippis in " Italian at the University of California.* Italica, XXVIII (1961, 44):" Under his direction and guidance, a greater impetus and more stability and definiteness of purpose were given to the upper division and graduate work in Italian. Teaching Assistantswereselectedwithmorecare,andwiththe understanding thatthey were primarily graduate students expected to work for higher degrees in Italian, and rarely, if at all, were they allowed to teach anything but lower division classes." Professor Altrocchi was primarily interested in modern Italian literature. The most important of his publications is a collection of highly readable and stylistically brilliant essays under the title of Sleuthing in the Stacks (Cambridge, Mass., 1944). As a teaching by-product on words and their ways he compiled a very handy listof Deceptive Cognates: Italian English and English Italian (Chicago, 1935), which had appeared in installments in Italica (1929-32).48 With others he has edited Italian Short Stories(Boston,1912), Giacosa'sTristi Amori " For further data on Altrocchi see Rudolph Altrocchi:Vita e miracoli " by Hilda Norman Barnard, in Italica, XXVII (195o), 59-61, and for his publications see the list prepared by J.G. Fucilla in the same issue, 62-66. This is an homage number dedicated to our distinguished colleague. York, 1929). (Chicago, 1920) andBracco's PiccoloSanto (New member of the staffsince Michele De Filippis,who had been a Altrocchi's retirementin 1928, wasappointed chairman upon the decade thathe was in charge,enrollment 1947. During the figures in Italian grewto astonishingproportions despite problems. fact that he wasfaced with a numberof very serious had killed thestudy of Italianin most of our World War II between high schoolsin the stateof California aloneit affected It was difficultunder suchconditions to thirty and forty. they were persuade students tomajor in thelanguage, indeed, the School ofEducation, openly discouragedfrom doing so by languages, there as elsewhere neververyfavorable towards culture-language likeItalian. The heavyincrease particularly a it hard to in enrollment atthe elementarycollege level made trained teachingassistants. At the sametime, obtain adequately World War II also stemmingfrom conditionscreated during American Ph.Ds inItalian and its aftermath,the number of reduced and thefew that achievedthem were not was sharply Italian was enough to meet thedemands of othercolleges where itisno longer a also materiallyexpanding. Furthermore, induce foreignscholars with anestablished simple matter to done in reputation to come tothis country toteach as has been salaries and other the past due tothe relativelyhigh university Nevertheless. advantages enjoyedby them in theirnative land. services of two youngmen De Filippis wasable to secure the Cecchetti who have sincebecome reputablescholars, Giovanni and Aldo Scaglione, aversatile and prolific (now at Stanford), book on critic, who hasgiven us, interalia, an informative Middle Ages. AnEssay Boccaccio: Nature andLove in the Late Cultural Context ofthe Decameron(Berkeley-Los Angeles, on the Orlando 1964), and hasedited for UTET inTurin Boiardo's Libri (2nd ed., 1963).Professor De Filippis Innamorato. Amorum good part was AATIPresident in 1943-44.He has devoted a topic, the literary of his research to anoriginal and interesting The riddle, on which hehas already publishedtwo volumes: Century Literary Riddle inItalian to the End ofthe Sixteenth Century (Berkeley- and The LiteraryRiddle in the Seventeenth

150 Los Angeles, 1940 and 1933).* With J.R. Reinhardhe is the editor ofNovelle /taliane Moderns(New York, 1968). The chairman succeeding De Filippis has been Arnolfo Farm lo who with the exception oftwo years, 196344 and 196443, when Aldo Scaglionewas in charge, has been directing the department. He has beenchieflyinterestedinthe Renaissance. In addition to Scaglione he is flanked bya veteran scholar Enrico De' Negri (formerly at Columbia) and several well-prepared younger mcnNicolas J. Paella, Gustavo Costa and Ruggiero Stefanini. In the Fall of 1964 the enrollment in Italian at Berkeley was 1398, indicative ofa very considerable show of interest on the part of the student body. Since the University of California at Los Angeles isan Integral part of the state school systemwe feel that it would not be inconsistent to add a brief comment on it at this point. Italian there got an abortive start in thesummer of 1914 when it was taught by Maria Teresa Tommasini then regularly teaching at Berkeley. However, it did become established in 1933 with two instructors, Charles Speroni and Franco Bruno Averardi. Student interest grew apace but dropped off sharply during World War II as was the case elsewhere. With the assation of the conflict came a strong revival bringing about new additions to the staff, Carlo L. Golino in 1946, a specialist in the Baroque period, capable translator of modern Italian poetry and editor of Carlo De' Dottori's IIParnaso(Berkeley- Los Angeles, 1937); Pier Maria Pasinetti in1949, novelist and critic of modern Italian literature. Theywere followed by Dante Della Tern (now at Harvard) and Giuseppe Velli (now at Smith), and more recently by another novelist and critic, Glose Rimanelli. Professor Speroni isa leading authority in Italian paroemiography. Among his published booksare Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases in Basile's Pentameron(1941),Charles Merbury: Proverbi Vulgari (1946), The Italian Wellerisnu to the End of the Seventeenth Century(1933), and Witand Wisdom of the Italian Renaissance (x964). Hewas AATI President in " Forfuller discussion see M. De Filippis, * Indian at the University ofCalifornla,,* Op. cit. 3211. This sketch hes been supp e i ep e a ty a and, in a kw instance', corrected.

151 1.949. He and Go lino have coauthored one of the most popular of our elementary textbooks: Basic Italian. This has been followed by a reader, Panorama, which serves as a companion volume toit.Professor Go lino has been editor of Italian Quarterly since its inception in 1957. This is an" portant review appearing entirely in English with an appeal not only to the specialists but to all those who are interested in Italian culture. The department functioned autonomously between 3955 and 3938. Between 1958 and 3940 it was placed under the chairmanship of A.P. McKinley of the Classics Department and ism 1940-41 under Henry Brush of the French Department. For the period between 1941 and 1949 it was combined with the Spanish Department, and since then has operated independently as an Italian Department under the chairmanshipof Prof. Speroni from 1949 to 1956, when he was named Director of Summer Sessions. Carlo Golino, Dante Della Terza, Franco Tido and Pier Maria Pasinetti have followed as chairmen or acting chairmen. Professor Galin became Dean of Humanities in 1964 and is now dean at the University of California at Riverside. Enrollment in Italian at Los Angeles in the Fall of 1964 had reached the conspicuous figures of 1149. Incidentally, in other colleges in the University of California systemDavis, Santa Barbara and RiversideItalian has been introduced quite recently with excellent results.

Cornell University At Cornell University, the starting point for Italian is 1868- 69 under Professor James Morgan Hart. The story of how Thomas Frederick Crane came to succeed aim as a teacher of Italian as well as French and Spanish is told by Morris Bishop in A History of Cornell (Ithaca, 1961, 109). 8 Thomas Frederick Crane, renowned in song and story asTeefy was a Princeton graduate in 186o established as an Ithaca lawyer. He filled the hours of waiting for clients in the private study of foreign languages. Since Fiske (Daniel Willard) had not returned from Egypt at the beginning of z868 Crane was pressed into service

14 as librarian and instructor in German (at a salary of n00.00). He enjoyed the experience so much that on Fiske's arrival he went abroad to learn languages. When he returned, James Morgan Hart, assistant professor of South European Languages, suggested to Crane, in the casual manner of those times, that they swap chain. This they did, two weeks before the registration day of 3870. and Crane taught French. Spanish and Italian ever after.' In the Italian field he produced two valuable source- books:ItalianPopular Tales(Boston-New York, 1885) and Italian Social Customs and Their influence on the Literature of Europe(New Haven. 1920). Among the instructors that followed were Courtney Langdon (1887-9o), translator of the DivineComedy, who moved to Brown, and Arthur Livingston (1910-11), who left Cornell for Columbia. In 1911 George L. Hamilton, one of the most outstanding scholars in the history of the department, joined the staff and remained on it to the year of his death in 1940. In his obituary notice inItalicaXVII (194o),Prof. McKenzie quotes a colleague ofhis on the impression he made as a t p er. a He communicated to young men his fondness for and his delight in books, and he held the attention of all by his interesting conversation and his art as a raconteur. In the class-room he showed himself as a man of formidable learning; having little concern for the more formal aspects of pedagogy, he taught by example rather than by precept or rule. His pupils,if at first overawed by his scholarly reputation and disconcerted by the brusqueness of his manner and informality of his methods, soon realized that his classes offered them a rare opportunity for profiting from his encyclopedic knowledge. He felt most at ease in his course in Dante which he gave every year; his intimate familiarity with the Cornell Dante Collection enriched the course, and he led his students to share his appreciation of the man and the poet. His impatience with inaccurate scholarship, his hatred of sham and hyprocrisy, often caused outbursts of righteous indignation in a boldness of terms worthy of the old Florentine himself " (188). Professor Hamilton had previously been at the University of Cincinnati, Duke and the University of Michigan. His first important publication, a revision of his Columbia doctoral

153 dissertation,was The indebtedness ofChaucer's Troilus and Criseyde to Guido dellsCo tonne's HistoriaTrojans (19o3). In addition he published many learned articles, several ofthem on Dante. He was AATIPresident in 1928. Lewis H. Gordon(Brown) stayed brieflyat Cornell (1943- 44), and Thomas G. Bergin (Yale) taughtthere between1941 and 195o. Our leading Americanauthority on the Italianlanguage. the versatile RobertA. Hall, Jr. transferredto the Ithaca School from Brown in 1946as Professor of Linguistics.Among his many publications are: Bibliographyof Italian Linguistics(Iowa City, tg4s), enlarged edition(Firenze, 1958), TheQuestions della Lingua (ChapelHill,194s),DescriptiveItalian Grammar (Ithaca, 1948). 4 ShortHistory of Italian Literature(Ithaca, 196i), two class texts, Italian for Modern Living(Ithaca. 1939), and, with Cecilia M.Bartoli, Basic ConversationalItalian (New York, 1963). Avery promising young Dandst.John Freccero who had transferred to Cornell from John Hopkinsin 1963, has now returned to Hopkins. The great pride ofthe Cornell UniversityLibrary is its extraordinarily rich collectionof Dante and Petrarchbooks, the nucleus of whichwas bequeathed to it byWillard Fiske. Theodore W. Kochhas publisheda catalog of the former (Ithaca, 1898-190o) andMary Fowlera catalog of the latter (Oxford, 1916).

Boston University

For its first Italianinstructor in 187sBoston University engaged the services ofAlbert C. Maggi,a private teacher of the languageas early as 1867 when hisname appears in the Boston Directory forthat year. Mr. Maggi'sservices, which lasted until 188o,were confined to the School ofMusic. Giovanni Battista Torricelli,Master of Arts and Jurisutriusque Doctor had been teachingSpanish in the institution'sSchool of Theology before hewas asked to teach Italian in theCollege of Liberal Arts in1873. President WilliamFairfield Warren provides us withbiographical detailson this picturesque figure

154 hi theThirteenthAnnualReport of the President of Boston Universityfor 1885-88. * He was born in Genoa, Italy, ofan ancient and honorable family, coming from thesame stock as Evangelista Torricelli, the illustrious scientist whosucceeded Galileo in his professorship andgave the barometer to the world. It is pleasant to know that in the Universityof Rome, In the person of Giacomo Torricelli,ma ematician and engineer, the same family is to-day still worthily represented, and ine line of its early tastes. As a student, as a Roman priest,as a voluntarily penniless monk of the Franciscan order,as a rising preacher, as an irrepressiblerepresentative of Young Italy,as a rebelto ecclesiastical authority,as a refugee beyond the Atlantic, as a husband andpadrein a new sense, as a teacher in a New England college resigning because he could not subscribeto the articles of faith requiredas a missionary to his poor countrymeninBoston with support from theUnitarian churches, as a teacher of private and other classes,as a student of many tongues and literatures,our friend had a wealth of experiences upon which a biographer might well delightto draw. His decease occurred Dec. sr, 1885.* L.D. Ventura, who had been associated with the New England Conservatory as a sub-director, replaced him andwas succeeded during the next year by Carlo Veneziani andsoon thereafter by Enrico Imovilli, a newspaperman who had been on the staff of the New YorkEcod'Italia.'1 The appointment of Professor James Geddes jr. in 1887 coincides with the creation of a new Department of Romance Languages under his chairmanship. His tenure lasted formore than a half century. Though also interested in French and Spanish he had a very special predilection for Italian. He collaborated in the preparation of three ofour early texbooks: Goldoni's Lalocandiera(Boston, 1901) and Unvero arnico " This refers to his teaching at Dartmouth, where he was Professor of Modern Languages between 188s and 1.889. 51 See James Geddes, Jr." Sketch of the Department of Romance Languages: 1876-igoo.'Boston University Publications.New series, No. 8, Nov. egos, io-11.

155 (Boston,egos) with F.M. Jocelyn, and the Protnessi sposi (Boston, 1911) with E. H. Wilkins, an edition consisting of the firsteight chapters." In the thirtiesProfessor Geddes was assisted by George E. Washburn. He was President of the AATI in 1913. Camillo P. Merlins" whose scholarship had been enriched by ample teaching experience at Harvard, Radcliffe, University of California, Bryn Mawr and the University of Michigan took over Professor Geddes Italian courses in 1937.The Middlebury Scuola Estiva Ita liana flourished under his direction (193747). He was President of the AATI in 194o. Mer lino's pillarsof support in Italian have been Anthony J. De Vito, aVerga specialist, presently secretary-treasurer of the Dante Society and Herbert H. Golden, AATI President for 1964-66. With Professor Seymour 0. Simches Professor Golden is the compiler of Modern Italian Language and Literature. A Bibliography of Homage Studies (Cambridge,Mass.),1939, an exhaustivelistwich constitutes an indispensable scholarly tool.

Syracuse University

CoursesinItalianwereinitiallyofferedatSyracuse University in 1871-73, a year after its founding. In the three regular programs developed the faculty, the Classical Program (Liberal Arts), leading to a B.A., the Latin Scientific Program leading to a B.Ph. and the Scientific Program leading to a B.S., Italian was included in each of them as a senior elective. It is not clear who first taught it; however, it couldhave been either George F. Comfort or John H. Durston, then in the department, but it is likely that it was the former since the latter's chief interest was dearly German. In 1873-74 the College of Fine Arts was created with Professor Comfort as its dean. Inits programs in painting and architectureItalian was required in the senior year. Thereafter, various changes were made with reference to the place of Italian in the school's three programs: Liberal Arts, Fine Arts and Belles Lettres. Professor Comfort

" See Samuel M. Waxman." James Geddes Jr.:1858-1948 in Italica, XXV (1948), 571-73.

156 served until 1893. He was succeeded by Charles William Cabeen under whom Italian became solidly established at Syracuse, with himself as the teacher most of the time until his retirement in1924.Cabeen'sthesisforthe Doctorat d'Universite at Grenoble in 19434 was on L'Influence de Giambattista Marino sur la literature francaise dans la premiere maid du dix-septieme sickle (Grenoble, 1904). When the first genuine italianista came in 1939 it was in the person of Antonio Pace, who has developed into an outstanding specialist in Italo-American relations. His book on Benjamin Franklin and Italy (Philadelphia, 1938), is a model of illuminating and painstaking scholarship. He has been editor of Symposium and was President of the AATI in 1939.

Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins opened its doors to students in 1876. The fact that no full professors of Modern Languages were then appointed indicates that there was no intention of giving these disciplines a major role. A. Marshall Elliott, who had studied at Haverford, Harvard, and for eight years in Europe, was at that time appointed Associate in Romance Languages and Hermann C.G. Brandt, Associatein German. Elliott gave instruction in Italian, Spanish and Persian and added French and Provencal two years later in 1878. However, the University administration continued to lag in stimulating the growth of the modern foreign languages until Elliott brought national attention upon himself as the founder of the Modern Language Associationin1883. Thus a new era began in Modern Languages. The institution remained as the headquarters of the MLA for eighteen years with Elliott as its Secretary for nine of them (1884-189s). He was President in 1894. Thanks to his standing in the Association and to his initiative, Johns Hopkins soon became the foremost center for graduate work in the field. " He had initiated seminar work as early as 1881, but he did not announce it until 1884. Only his most advanced students were admitted to the regular meetings of the seminar, which concentrated on an exhaustive analysis of single documents,

157 the students using facsimiles of manuscripts. All graduate students of Romance Languages, however, attended meetings every two weeks at which original papers, journal reports, and professional correspondence were read and discussed. Thus the examination of original documents was done by a few students with a thorough preparation, while the reading of reports and essays afforded excellent training for a large group of beginners in research. * $ Elliott taught Italian throughout most of his long career (1876-191o). He was assisted by such reputable scholars as Henry Alfred Todd (1883-1901), John Ernest Matzke (1891), Edward C. Armstrong (1888-99), and James Eustace Shaw (1900 -1917). James Russell Lowell's twenty lectures at Hopkins during the winter of 1877 on " Romance Literature of the Middle Ages * with Dante as a central theme, must have been a memorable occasion at the new school. In 1894 Charles Eliot Norton also delivered a series of Dante lectures part of which were later incorporated in the monograph in Warner's Library. As noted, Professor Shaw continued at Hopkins until 1917. He then went to the University of Toronto to finish the last phase of a long and distinguished teaching career (1917-1946). Gustave Gruenbaum, on the Romance staff from 1911 to 1937, primarily taught Italian during the years of his incumbency. From 1937 to 1948 Charles S. Singleton had charge of advanced courses in Italian. Harvard claimed him for some years (1948- 57), after which he returned to Hopkins where he has been Professor of Humanistic Studies since 1957. He is our foremost living American authority on Dante and one of the most outstanding Dantists in this generation. Aside from his articles he has published Dante Studies1.Cornmedia. Elements of Structure (1954), Dante Studies II. Journey to Beatrice (1958), An Essay on the Vita nuova (1958), all published at Cambridge, Mass. On the occasion of the Dante centenary he has edited Toynbee's notable contribution on the poet:Paget Jackson Taynbee. Dante Alighieri. His Life and Works. New York,

" George B. Watts in The Teaching of French in the United States: A History, op. cit. 86-87.

158 1965. His critical edition of the Decameron (Firenze,1951) is a distinguished piece of work that has already stood up successfully against the most rigid analysts of its critics.Two of the promising Dantists: Edward Williamson (1948.53),now at Wesleyan, and John Freccero are the latest of the crop of fine Italian scholars which the school has had in thecourse of its relatively short history. The first three Ph.D dissertationson Italian subject-matter were written at Johns Hopkins: The Morphology of Francesco Petrarca's Canzoniere Accompanied bya General Introduction and Critical Glossary by Thomas McCabe (1888), The Historical Development of the Possessive in Italian by Lewis Emil Menger -(1893), printed in PMLA, n.s. 1, No.s, 1893, and The Phonology of the Pistoiese Dialect by James Dowden Bruner printed in PMLA, IX, No. 4, 1894. At Harvard in 1895 Kenneth McKenzie earned the fourth Ph.D. in Italian with The Development of Italian Lyric Poetry Before the Rise of the Dolce Stil Nuova. Columbia is the fifth in line with The System of Courtly Love Studies as an Introduction to the Vita Nuova of Dante by Lewis Freeman Mott (1896). Up to 1900 threemore dissertations appeared two of them at Hopkins, The Isopo Laurenxiano with Notes and Introduction Treating of the Interrelation of Italian Fable Collections by Murray Peabody Bush (1898), published at Columbus, Ohio in 1899, and The History and Syntax of the Atonic Personal Pronoun in Italian by Oliver M. Johnston (1898), published at Toronto in 1898. Also in 18g8we have the first Yale Ph.D dissertation in Italian, Vocabulary of the Orlando Furioso by John Joseph Dunn. If we take intoaccount the fact that the first Ph.Ds were granted at Harvard in 1873 and that the total number till 1900 amount to abouta dozen in French and a half dozen in Spanish, it will be clear that Italian hada fair representation." As far as Italian is concerned Columbia has now taken the lead with Harvard taking second place and Johns Hopkins third. Thereare presently approximately twenty-

" See Ray M. Merrill. Doctoral Dissertations in Romance Languages: 1876-1926 (New York, 1927).

159 five American universities offeringcourses leading to a Ph.D or Doctor of Literature in Italian.65

University of Illinois Professor Edward Snyder, trained at Lemberg and Vienna, was a member of the first faculty of the University of Illinois (1868) as assistant professor of Bookkeeping and German.In 1870 he was appointed Professor of Military Tactics and Bookkeeping and Instructor in German, Military Tactics being addedto his duties because of his participation in the Civil War (1862-65). In 1873 he was made Professor of Modern Languages, and from 1874 to 1894 also functionedas Dean of the College of Literature and Arts. In May 1878 The Mini announced:" Prof. Snyder is teaching Italian to a class of beginners. It is probable this will be introduced as a University study next year," (p. 304). Alas, this never took place for in October thesame Illini reported: " Many of the students had been in hopes that Prof. Snyder might be induced to continue his class in Italian,so successfully begun lastspring:but a glance attheProf'swell-filled programme of day's wail issufficient to convince the most importunate that they had better wait " (p. 26). Itwas only in 1892-93 that he found time to introduce it again. In 1893-94 he turned instruction in the languageover to James D. Bruner (Ph=D Hopkins) who resignedon March 12, 1895. From 1895 to 1901 a Dr. George Day Fairfield is listed as the only instructor. During the last two years he was assisted by Dr. Florence Nightingale Jones who until1912 handled most of the courses. She had the help of Olin H. Moore (laterof Ohio State and AATI President in 1931) in1911-12 and 1912- 13. Moore also taught alone in 1913-14 and 1914-15. He shifted to French when McKenzie, the first real specialist in Italian

" For full information on the subject of Italian dissertationssee H.R. Marraro. " Doctoral Dissertations in Italian Accepted by Romance Language Departments in the American Universities: 1876-1950." Bulletin of Biblio- graphy and Dramatic Index, XX (1951),94-99 and idem. " Ted Ph.D. sull 'Italia :1950 -1960, " Quadrivio, II (1962), v, 51-84.

160 1.11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

at the institution,came in 1915. Until Illinois for 1925, when he left Princeton, McKenziewas assisted most ofthe time by ProfessorJohn Van Home, who, in turn,shared instruction in Italian from1925 to 1957 with several of hiscolleagues, I among them the linguist,Henry Kahane, P. Oliver, and the classicist,Revilo Angelina Pietrangeli.Van Home a Hispanist but was primarily was genuinely devotedto Italian culture. published Studies He in Leopardi in1916 whileat Iowa State University. His El Bernardo de Balbuena(Urbana, 1927) isan exhaustive studyof the influence of Boiardo andAriostoupon the Spanish epic."He has beenco-editor with of a series of Vincenzo Cioffari Graded ItalianReaders whichhave had introduction. a wide After hisretirement,as visiting professor College in 1957-58 at Carleton he organizedan extra-curricularclass in Italian and in1958-59 servedas Professor of Italian University of Florida at the (Coral Gables). Hewas President of the AATI from1942 to 1943, resigningin the latter to act as cultural year in order relations attachéat the AmericanEmbassy in Madrid (1943-45).From 1933to 1942 he the organ of was editor of Italica, the AmericanAssociation ofTeachers of Italian, during whichperiod he expandedthe size of the the quality of its publication and articles and for thefirst timegave the Association a periodical that attracted theattention of thelearned world outside the sphereof itsown membership. Miss who began her Pietrangeli, teaching at theUniversity of Illinois1929, is presently in chargeof the advancedcourses. In the Year of Our Lord 1966there wasa repetition of Prof. Snyder'searly experience with Italian. Asecond semester class was quicklyfilled and hadto be closed allegedly of lack of staff. because In other words,just asa real interest in the languagewas manifested on the part of thestudents, itwas immediately stifled.Given thissort of attitude, Italian will one wonders if ever have a chanceto grow at Illinois. I

" For a completelist of Prof. VanHome's publicationssee " A Bibliography of theWritings of John Van Home," byHensley C. Woodbridge, Italica,XXVI (1m), 2-6.

161

11

0 we ,^ 4 4.4.11r4.0101191.,,.

Northwestern University

As in the case in quite a number of schools in the Middle WestAlbion College, 1881, University of Kansas, 1884, Oberlin College, 1899, etc.Italian got its start at Northwestern in 1879 via the Conservatory of Music then under. James Gill, Instructor in Vocal Culture, Singing and the Italian Language. In the College of Liberal Arts itfirst appears in 1891-92 with the proviso that it and Spanish would be offered in alternateyears. At that time no women were allowed to instruct at the school. However, never dreaming that one of them might some day take advantage of this prerogative by insistingon becoming a teaching member, the faculty regulations did grant the Dean of Women faculty status. This is just what Dean Emily Frances Wheeler did and she won the day. She may have learned her Italian in Italy where her brother, David Hilton Wheeler,an appointee of President Lincoln, functioned as U.S. Consul at Genoa between 1861 and 1866. Incidentally, D.H. Wheeler later joined the Northwestern faculty as Professor of English and was briefly acting president of the University. As for Miss Wheeler she turned over her job to a Miss Mary Freeman in 1897 who held it until 1904. This was the year Professor Alfonso De Salvio, who had just received his Ph.D at Harvard in Italian,. was made a member of the Romance Language staff. He remained through 1927 serving as chairman of the department for a number of years. De Salvio is the author of The Rhyme- Words in the Divine Comedy (Paris, 1929), a revision of his thesis, and Dante and Heresy (Boston, 1936). He was President of the AATI in 1930. [His place was taken in 1928 by Joseph G. Fucilla, a University of Chicago Ph.D with previous teaching experience at Iowa State University, Butler University and the University of Chicago. A comparativist of wide-ranging interests and meticulous scholarship, Professor Fucilla is also a tireless worker, and has been prolific in his output of books, articles and reviews. Like so many Italianists of his generation, he found it wise to have another major string to his bow. In his case it was Spanish, but, although he treated the cultures involved

162 with sympathy and understanding, he worked always from the viewpoint of his chief love, Italian. Thismay be seen in the volumes Relaciones hispanoitalianas (Madrid, 1953), and Estudios sobre el petrarquismo en Epaila (Madrid, 1960). These volumes, like his Studies and Notes (Naples, 1953), and Superbi coine altri saggi (Rome, 1963), gather togethersome of the more subtantial pieces which had been scatteredover a wide variety of scholarly journals here and abroad. The articles includedare not merely reprints, however, for they gain impact from a thematic grouping, and benefit from later findings in the field and from the author's greater perspective. The importance of these contributionsisequalled by Professor Fucilla's achievements as bibliographer. For Studies in Philology he has ably handled the Italian Renaissanceever since 1939; in 1956 he added the enormous task of the Italian Section of the annual MLA International Bibliography, doing the first two years alone, then aided first by Sergio Pacifici (now at Queens) and later by Professor Pane of Rutgers. In 1941 he published the first volume of his monumental Universal Author Repertoire of Italian Essay Literature, which he carried down to 195s in the sequel, Saggistica letteraria italiana (Firenze, 1956). The usefulness of the Bibliographical Guide to the Romance Languages and Literatures, in which Professor Fucilla collaborated with Palfrey and Holbrook, may be judged by the fact that it is now in its sixth edition. His Our Italian Surnames (New York, 1949), is the most extensive treatment of the subject that has as yet appeared. All the preceding, which clearly establishes Professor Fucilla as one of this country's most productive Italian scholars, would seem to preclude any other activity; yet since i943 he has been editor of Italica, pushing it to new heights of size and quality of contents. In addition, he has been a constant source of vitality for the American Association of Teachers of Italian, and one of the few in the field to maintain a broad professional concern. He was AATI President in1,939.] Part inclosed by brackets supplied by Prof. A.T. MacAllister.

16.3 Stanford University In 1891, six years after it was founded,Stanford University pened its doorsto students. In the modern languages,at least, careful provisionwas made to bring to the institutionthe best available talent.Since, thanksto A. Marshall Hopkins had acquired Elliott, Johns an outstandingreputationas a graduate school, itwas natural that the administrationshould makean attempt to procure personnelfrom that school. fell upon Henry The first choice Alfred Todd whohad been teaching and Italian French at Hopkins since1883, and whichhe also taught at Stanford. Graduate courses were offeredleading; toan M.A. and Ph.Dplanned for the benefit of specialists,particularly of suchas are looking forward to becoming collegeteachers of Romance Languages.* Professor Toddremained only 1893 when he until became Professorof RomancePhilology at Columbia where heenjoyedmany successful Up to 1900 the years as a scholar. institution hadput the greatest emphasisupon French with Italiansecond. Professor Todd was followed by JohnErnest Matzke, also a Hopkins Ph.D, whose tenure was cut shortby an untimely death in 1918. Though he taughtadvancedcourses in Italian his primaryinterests were in Old French and Frenchlinguistics. A third Ph.Dfrom Hopkinsto come to the teach Italian department to was Oliver MartinJohnston (1897-1935).His doctoral dissertation, 1898, wason The Historical Syntaxof the Atonic Personal Pronoun in Italian.At Stanford he keen and devoted became a student of Dante.In 1931 hewas elected President of theAATI. Stanley Astredo Smith, who hadbeen an instructorin Romance Languagesfrom 1904to 1907, temporarily school at that left the time in orderto teach at theUniversity of Washington and Reed College,but returned in1914 and, except for oneyear, served until 1944. He regularlytaught French, Italian andSpanish. After a short stay at St. LouisUniversity in1943-44, Roberto Benaglia Sangiorgi, a University of CaliforniaPh.D., settled

164 down at Stanford until 1965. His place has now been taken by Giovanni Cecchetti, formerly at Berkeley and Tulane, who has been rapidly asserting himself as one of the foremost of our younger scholars. He, too,isa California Ph.D. Professor Cecchetti has published La poesia del Pasco(Pisa,1954), Leopardi e Verga (Firenze, 1961), and a volume of translations Verga's The She-Wolf and Other Stories (Berkeley-Los Angeles, 1958)."

University of Chicago When William Ireland Knapp, a Hispanist, became " Head Professorof Romance Languages and Literature *atthe University of Chicago in 1892-93, he instituted seven courses in Italian, the most ambitious first-year program ever offered in any college. More than thirty years before, in 186o, he had introduced the language at Colgate University. In 1865 he had introduced it at Vassar. Both he and George C. Howland, an instructor, shared in teaching it at Chicago. James D. Bruner served as acting head in 1895-96. The previous school-year he had taught at Illinois. It is interesting to note that his Johns Hopkins Ph.D. dissertation on The Phonology of the Pistoiese Dialect was used as the basis for his course on " Italian Dialects and Seminar.* Prequisite for it was a course on " Italian Philologyalso given by him. Howland continued to share in the instruction in Italian and after Bruner's departure remained in charge of most of it for the next fifteen years." The appointment of Professor Ernest H. Wilkins in 19 is was a most fortunate one. As an effective and inspiring teacher and as a superb scholar he soon made Chicago a great center for Italian studies. Students from other departments flocked to his courses on Dante and Petrarch and freely went to him for advice " Some of my information on Stanford has been drawn from a manuscript copy of Pres. Ray Lyman Wilbur's autobiography, 2nd-String Pioneer. His published version is in a much more condensed form. " From 1911 to 1931 Howland taught General Literature, including a course on Dante in translation.

165

I and guidance in the writing of their dissertations. In his biographical sketch in the homage issue to Wilkins in Italica, XXIII (1946), Rudolph Altxocchi, his ex-colleague, who had known him for forty years states:61 Besides knowledge he [Wilkins] has sensitiveness and poetic imagination, qualities essential to the appreciation of beauty. Such qualities added to mounting erudition, made him an outstanding teacher and a great scholar. His sense of duty, his conscientiousness, his punctiliousness in method made him avery productive scholar and academic parent of scholars * (157-58). Realizing that class- texts in Italian were scarce in those days Professor Wilkins did much to remedy the deficiency through The University of Chicago Italian Series under his editorship. He himselfwrote an excellent First Italian Book and collaborated with Antonio Marinoni on a reader, L'Italia,an excellent primer that combines with an easy prose an adequate introductorysurvey of Italy, past and present. Eventually the nine texts of the original series and several that were prepared laterwere taken over by D.C. Heath. Thesetextsare,unfortunately,nolongeravailable.In recognition of his outstanding qualificationsas an administrator the university officials appointed Professor Wilkinsas Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences in1943, a position held until 1947 when he was calledto the Presidency of Oberlin College. Despite his many administrative duties, however, Wilkins still found time to publish scholarly books and articles. Afterhis retirement from Oberlin he servedas Visiting Lecturer at Harvard (1947-5o). He was now able to devote his full energiesto his studies which continued to issue forth from his brilliantpen with astonishing frequency until shortly before his death in January 1966. He concentrated on the life and works of Petrarch on whom he became the world's most eminent authority. Among the Petrarch volumes he has publishedare The Making of the Canzoniere and Other Petrarch Studies (Roma, 1951), and Petrarch's Eight Years in Milan (Cambridge, Mass.,1955 and 1958), Petrarch's Correspondence (Padova, 196o), and The Life of Petrarch (Chicago, 1961), translated into Italian with The

166 Malting of theCanzoniere... by RemoCeserani (Milano, 1964)." As a small token ofappreciation. Arqui, the citywhere The First Modern Manspent the final years of his life,bestowed the honorary citizenship ofthe townupon him in 196oon the occasion of his eightiethbirthday. In additionto Professor Wilkins' Petrarchanstudies, two other importantpublications are The Invention of theSonnet and Other Studiesin Italian Literature (Rome, 1959), a collection of thirty informativeessays dealing with the wholerange of Italian literature, and AHistory of Italian Literature(Cambridge, 1954), whichhas become the vademecum of all seriousstudents of Italian.Professor Wilkins is our biggestname in the field of Italian letters.He ranks with the very greatest of theAmerican scholars ofour time. He is one of the founders ofthe AATI, servedas President of the organization in1917 and its Honorary Presidentsince 193i. With the assistance ofRudolph Altrocchi (1913-28)and Hilda Norman [Barnard] (l916-47),Wilkins was ableto place Italian at Chicago on an exceptionallystrong foundation for quitea number of years. Walter Llewellyn Bullock(AATI President, 1932),a specialist in the Renaissance, was in charge of the advancedcourses in Italian from 1918to 1933. In 1936 hewas succeeded by the well-known critic, GiuseppeAntonio Borgese. Borgesecame to the department duringthe years when the Universityof Chicago was being hard hit by the economicdepression and the lack of operating funds. Studentsboth at the graduateand under- graduate levelswere few. Obviously, Italian sufferedalong with French and Spanish.Furthermore, Borgese'segocentricity, his excessive absorption withpolitics and world affairs,his unwilling. ness to learn to adapt himselfto American student psychology resulted in hisnever being able to createany sort of following. He retired in1947.

Si For a complete bibliography of Wilkins' Petrarchan studiesthrough 1963, see the Ceseranitrans., 391-96. On April ts, 1966, Prof.Andrew Bongiorno presentedto the General Faculty of Oberlin College,a beautifulmemorial minute * titled Ernest Hatch Wilkins: 1880-1966. Ithas appeared in the OberlinAlumni Mag. for Nov., 1966, and, ina revised and enlarged foizu,as a separate brochure.

167 Elio Gianturco (now at Hunter) and AldoScaglione (now at California-Berkeley) filled in for severalyears until 195*. They were followed by Hanibal Noce, a serious student of the Settecento, who took charge of advanced workuntil 2966 when he transferred to the University ofToronto. The present chairman, Bernard Weinberg, though principallyabsorbed by French, is very actively interested also in Italian.Besides teaching courses on criticism during the Italian Renaissance he is the author of a monumental History of LiteraryCriticism in the Italian Renaissance (Chicago, 1961).* volumes.

University of Minnesota

When Charles W. Benton, Professor of Frenchand Semitic Languages and Literature at the University of Minnesota,decided in 1895 to introduce courses in Italian andSpanish he did so In a most unusual way, namelyto conduct the elementary classes in these languages in French. In Italian, forexample, Ahn's Premier Cours d'Italienwas used during the first term, and the same author's second course during the second term.'° Goldoni's Yl zero alnico (first term), Pe llico's Le mie prigioni(second term), and Dante'sInferno(thirdterm)werereadinFrench translations. At the graduate level the Infernowas translated into French. Benton very likely continued thispattern in the courses under his charge until his retirement in19111. There were positive merits in Benton's method inthat it made the acquisition ofa knowledge of Italian speedier than it ordinarily is by approaching it througha sister language. But it also had its limitations insofaras it was transformed into a special preserve for students of French. Hence, when Ruth Shepherd Phelps brought English into the Italian classexercises she opened the possibility of the study of Italianto all the University " Franz Alm was a German whose datesare 1796-1863. The text Professor Benton used was a French version of the ItalienischesLesebuch, in drei cursus (Leipzig, 1834). It was one ofa series that included several languages: Latin, Dutch, French and Germanas well as Italian. Whatever the merits of these books, they were surprisingly popularduring the past century as attested by the scores of editions poured out by the printing presses.

168 of Minnesota students inthe schoolsthat had She is theauthor ofa perceptive Language electives. book ofessays on Italianliterature,Italian contemporary Silhouettes(New York, Earlier andLater Forms 1924), The of Petrarch'sCanzoniere a revision of herUniversity of (Chicago, 1915), an edition of Chicago doctor'sdissertation, and GiuseppeGiacosa's Una appeared in partitaa scacchi, which 1911 in theUniversity of Her Italian Chicago ItalianSeries. Grammar (NewYork, 1924), reference an unusuallythorough grammar. Itwas widely used thirties in in thetwenties and spite of itsunsatisfactory Elizabeth Nissen exercises.Meanwhile Miss assumed directionof the in 1923 andfrom1929 to 1966 undergraduatecourses courses. The was also in chargeof the departmentnow has three advanced Nissen'ssuccessor is Archi fulltime teachers.Miss Pipa, formerlyat the University California(Berkeley). of

Vassar, Wellesley,Bryn Mawr, Colleges Smith, Radcliffeand Barnard

The sixleading women's colleges,Vassar, Wellesley Mawr, Smith,Radcliffe and ,Bryn Barnard,can perhaps be convenientlydiscussedas a group. most Provision forItalianwas made at Vassar Female Vassar, officiallynamed College, duringthe first to function, year that the schoolbegan 1865-66. Under «Special Studies,* ment of Ancientand Modern in theDepart- catalog forthat Languages andLiteratures, the year lists Greek,Spanish and I. Knapp,who latergained Italian. William a considerablereputationas a Hispanist, initiatedthecourses in the three Knapp had languages. By1867-68 left theschool andJames A. the instructionin Italian. Robert tookcare of In the sectiondealing with courses of studyin the senior the regular the texts year, the Catalogannounced that for the firstsemester were Method, Marie to be 011endorff'sNew Stuart andElizabeth. Marie to Alfieri's Maria Stuart mustrefer Stuarda, butwho could Dante's Inferno have writtenElizabeth? was the text forthe second From 1896-97 semester. through 1915-16,with the 1907-08, theItalian exception of courses were taughtby CorneliaH. B. Rogers

169 and Edith Fahnestock. Bruno Rosellicame as exchange professor in 1919-so and shared the Italian work with MissFahnstock that year and the followingyear. In 1981-22 Gabriella Bosano was added to the two-man staff to help take care of the eight courses that were offered. Till then Italian and Spanish had formed one department. In19a2-23 Rose lli was named chairman of a separate department, which has continuedto remain independent to the present time. Vassar now has an endowed Chair in Italian in honor of Dante Antolini founder of the well-known importingconcern of Antolini and Co. Professor Mario Domandi is the firstoccupant.

At Wellesley Italian was in the beginning (1882-83) listed among the Classical Course offerings as an elective for juniors and seniors, but soon afterwards it was also openedto seniors in the Scientific course. Miss Julie M. E. Hintermeister,a Swiss- born lady, became the first instructor. Shewas a gifted intellectual woman who is better remembered for her eccentricities than for her teaching. For example, on returning to America fromone of her European trips, she adoptedas her brother a certain 0. Taccini, andwas faithful all her life to him, being a devoted Aunt to several of his children.* 61 She was followed in 1890 by Miss Margaret Hastings Jackson, a Florentine by birth and rearing and the daughter of the noted sculptor John Adams Jackson. Graduate courseswere introduced by her in 1892. In 1904 she was appointed Curator of the Frances Pearson's Plimpton Library of Italian Literature,a precious collection of rare books and manuscripts primarily dealing with the Renaissance, on which she prepareda Catalog of the Frances Taylor Pearsons Plimpton Collection of Italian Books and Manuscripts in the Library of Wellesley College (Cambridge, Mass.,1929), which stands out as a model of meticulous scholarship. The Department of Italiancame into being during her tenure in 1907-08. Louise S. McDowell in her obituary article in The Wellesley Magazine, XXII (i939),io7-io, provides us with the following appraisal of this remarkablewoman: " Miss " From anIn Memoriam s write-up in the Vassar College Library.

170 Jackson was not only the scholar and student, shewas the teacher, whose students have shown their devotionto her through the years. They still speak of her wit, of the droll sense of humor that enlivened her classes,of how human she was, how understanding when they were in trouble, and of the interest with which she followed their latercareers. One student writes: g I have always felt that this course (Dante) had themost enduring influence of any that I took in college. Miss Jackson succeeded in making us feel the delicacy,grace, and simplicity with which Dante has presented certain ideas, the fire of his political convictions, and many points in the presentation of his philosophy. I feel indebted to her for having mademe aware of both the beauty and the truth of Dante's convictions. When I remember how very immature I was, it seems tome the more remarkable that Miss Jackson should have mademe think in these directions She was, in a very real sense, a modern humanist. Her interests, like those of the humanists of the Italian Renaissance of whom she wroteso charmingly, lay in art and literature, but even more was she interested in the people by whom and for whom the art and literaturewas created. Her broad sympathies, her tolerance, her understanding of human nature, her love of children, birds, and all helpless creatures, her hatred of injustice, her absolute loyalty, her unselfishness, her keen sense of humor and kindly wit, all combined tocreate a rare person. She is still living in me,' writes one friend' not only because I believe in a future lifebut because she isa living presence in my memory of her personality.* Miss Jackson was succeeded as chairman in1930 by Gabriella Bosano who mmained at the post until her retirement in195t, when she was succeeded by Grazia Avitabile. Professor Avitabile has written The Controversy on Romanticism in Italy (New York, 1959). From 19a7st8 to 1956 Angeline La Planawas a member of the Wellesley Italian staff and is the author ofan informativeandwell-presentedsurvey.Dante'sAmerican Pilgrimage. A Historical Survey of Dante studies in the United States, 1800-1944 (New Haven, 1948), and La cultura americana e l'Italia (Torino, 1938). In 1940-41 Ezio Levi D'Ancona, one of the most distinguished Italian scholars in the field of Romance

171 literature, was appointedVisiting Professor. Hisunexpected death on March s8,1941 unfortunately deprived Wellesleyof the opportunity of materiallyprofiting from the addedprestige that he had broughtto it, Though graduate courses have been discontinued since1951 the department iscurrently offeringa varied program of ten courses at the undergraduate level.

Italian appears in the firstcatalog of Bryn MawrCollege, 1884-85, as a minor subject.The courses offered by J.James Sturzinger, its initialinstructor, whowas a Ph.D. from the University of Zurich in1879, were for the firstsemester the Historical Grammar ofthe Italian Language andPractical Grammar of the ItalianLanguage. In the secondsemester the offerings were the Historyof Italian Literature,Reading of Difficult Passages fromDante, and the Compositionand Reading. After Sturzinger's departurewe witness a veritablemerry- go-round as faras instructors in Italianare concerned. Seven followed one another inquick succession untilRichard Thayer Holbrook, who managedto stay on from 1906 to 1916.Two of them, Thomas McCabeand Emil LouisMenger were Johns Hopkins Ph.Ds. Undersuch conditions it isa wonder that the language was ableto survive. Walter Llewellyn Bullockserved from19ss to 1928. In reporting to the Editorof Italica on thestatus of Italian there in 19s6, he stated: u inspite of anew requirement that every student takea reading examination in Frenchand German in her Junioryeara requirement which tendsto crowd Italian and Spanish to thewallItalian, especially inundergraduate courses, is doing extremely well" (Italica, HI, 16). Angeline H. Lograsso hasbeen in charge from193o to 1965. She has been Presidentof the AATI (195s), isan excellent Dantist, an authorityon Silvio Pellico and the author ofan exhaustive studyon Piero Maroncelli (Roma, 1958).

Smith College, whichwas opened to students in 1875, is remarkable in beingthe first college forwomen to impose entrance requirements then ineffect in the best of themen's

172 colleges. These as well as the requirements for graduation closely resembled those then in operation at Amherst and Harvard. The ancient languages, Latin and Greek,were strongly stressed. English was the only required modern language, but itwas possible to take French or Germanas electives in the junior and senior years. Italian had to wait, and becamepart of the regular curriculum only in 1899as the result of the general revision during the presidency of L. Clark See lye. Mary V. Young, a University of Zurich Ph.D.,was chosen to teach the language. The peculiar feature about Italian as listed in the catalog for that year is that thecourses do not appear under a Department of Italian, but as separate paragraphs at the conclusion of the section of the offerings of the French Department. However, it is so listed in 1901-o2 during the one- year tenure of So lone di Campello an LD from Macerata. Amy Allemand Bernardy taught from 19o2 to 19o9 andwas succeeeded in 19°9 by Margaret Rooke, an English woman and Oxford graduate. Under her the Department of Italian at Smith became the most flourishing in the country in the 2o's and 3o's. In 1929 a Summer School in Italian was inaugurated on the college campus, which is said to be the first summer school held outside of Italy, and which offered lectures in the history of Italian art as well as courses in language and literature in various grades of competency. The response to this enterprise was inadequate foritssupport and the scheme was abandoned after two summers. In 1931 there were seven teachers on the Italian staff and in 1933 there were eight. At one time it was said that one out of every four Smith girls was a student of Italian. Soon thereafter, however, certainspecial circumstances combined unfortunately but very effectively spread dissension among the staff and hence to deal this popularity a blow from which it has not yet recovered. It was in 1931 when the Junior Year Abroad Program was introduced. From that year till now the Junior Year group has pursued a special course of study at the University of Florence after a four-week orientation course at the University per gli Stranieri at Perugia. For several years (1932-36), Giuseppe Antonio Borgese, the

173 well known author and critic, was a member of the staff, which no doubt helped the prestige of the department. It was during this period, incidentally, that Smith became a sort of under- ground railroad for helping anti-fascist intellectuals escape from Italy and find temporary employment in this country. In addition to Borgese, an outstanding example was the late Renato Poggioli. Arriving at Northampton early in 1938 the Poggioli's suffered stoically through the violence of that year's famous hurricane in the belief that such weather was a typical occurrence in this vast country. Poggioli went to Brown the following year, and eventually to Harvard. He was primarily a Slavic scholar, but, off and on, he also did some " pinch hitting " in Italian. In 1945-46, three years before Miss Rooke retired, Michele Francesco Cantarella, who had come to Smith in 1929, became her successor and, except for brief intervals, held the post until 1964. He has prepared one of the finest reading texts available in Italian today: The Italian Heritage (New York, 1959) and with his Smith colleague, Ruth E. Young (1928-62), is co-author of a Corso d'Italiano (New York, 1942) that has been used extensively for a number of years. The present chairman is Giuseppe Velli, formerly at the University of California at Los Angeles.

RadcliffeCollege, founded in1879, while keepingits corporate identity, has always drawn the members of its teaching staff from the Harvard faculty. In Italian, whose introduction coincides with the date of the establishment of the college, an elementary course was offered by George Bendelari and a course in Dante by Charles Eliot Norton. For a number of years starting with 1888 Charles Hall Grandgent taught at least one course, usually Dante, and as many as three. Since 1963 the young ladies have been attending Italian classes on the Harvard campus with the men students. It is interesting to note that the first prizes which any American college have offered to students of Italian were the two set up by Mrs. Mina Chapman in 1891-92 for the purpose of encouraging the study of Dante. Both were $loo.00 prizes, the first to be given for the best metrical translation of any canto

174 in the Divine Comedy (not awarded in 189a) and the second for an essay on Dante and his times, the winner of whichwas Miss Lucy Allen Paton who wroteon The Personal Character of Dante as Revealed in His Writings.

Just as Radcliffe has been closely associated with Harvard, Barnard College has been linked with Columbia. It operated in 1889 with 36 students and a staff of six. The President's archives have preserved a note to the Registrar from Carlo Leonardo Speranza, Adjunct Professor in the Department of Romance Languages and Literatures at Columbia, stating that classes in Italian would commence on November 5, 1890 at ten o'clock in the morning. He has been one of the most devoted and inspiring teachers the college has ever had. After his death in 1911 his former students and friends have paid tribute to these outstanding qualities by establishing The Speranza Prize, which is annually awarded to a member of the graduating class at Barnard College for excellence in Italian. In 19oo the school was incorporated into the educational system of Columbia and while it has continued to maintain its corporate identity its students have been sharing their instruction, the library and degrees with the University. Perhaps a word should be added about Wesleyan College (formerly Georgia Female Academy) of Macon, Georgia, which has the distinction of being the first college for women to offer Italian. This took place in 1839. The language continued to be taught in the 1840's and but is absent from the catalogs for the next eighty years. It was reintroduced in 119s4-25 as an elective primarily to meet the needs of voice majors.

University of Toronto In view of the intimate ties between our Canadian colleagues in Italian and ourselves for at least half a century, the artificial boundary lines that separate us have virtually ceased to exist as far as the teaching and study of Italian are concerned. At the University of Toronto courses in that language were begun by James Forneri appointedProfessorof Modern

175 Languages in the UniversityCollege in 1853. He continueduntil 1868. Professor WilliamH. Fraser was madeHead of the Department in 1887 at whichtime Italian and Spanishwere transferred from the Collegeto the University." Professor Milton A. Buchanan(19°6-1946), a Hispanist with a deep interest in Italian, followed incharge of the department, and he, in turnwas succeeded by Professor EmilioGoggio. The latter had beenon the Toronto staff berweenIgo.? and 1911, taught at the University ofCalifornia (Berkeley)between 191s and 1917 andat the University of Washingtonbetween 1917 and 192o. He returned to Toronto in192o where he remained until his retirement in 1956.The study of Italianflourished during Professor Goggio'sten-year tenure (194616)as Head of the Department of Italian andSpanish. He has beenone of the first to extensively explorethe field of Italo-Americancultural relations and through hisDue cornrnedie moderns(1917), which containsthetext of Pirandello's LumiedellaSicilia, he introduced the great dramatistto students of Italian. He is also one of the founders of the AATIand was President ofthe Association in1933. Another founder of theorganization and its Presidentin 1926 was James EustaceShaw, a notable italianista.He was an Englishman who hadcome to America in 1893. He receivedhis Ph.D in Italianat Hopkins in 1903 and taughtthere from igoo to 1917, when he wentto Toronto from where he retiredin 1946." As a scholar hewrote with authorityon Dante and Guido Cavalcanti. From1924 to 1941 he was an exemplarycompiler of the quarterly u Bibliographyof Italian Studies inAmerica,* one of the most useful features inItalica, a compilationnow competently continuedby two of hiscolleagues, Beatrice Corrigan and Julius A.Molinaro, both of them TorontoPh.D's and fine scholars. Twomore valuable members on the staffare Professors S.B. Chandlerand Hannibal Noce. Recentstudents

" On the early phase ofthe teaching of Italianat Toronto, see Emilio Goggio. lc One hundred years of Italian and Spanish Study at theUniversity of Toronto.* ModernLanguage Journal, XXXVIII (1954), For biographical andbibliographical informationon Prof. Shaw, see Italica, XL (1963), 1-6.

176 at the University have alsobeen especially privilegedto be able to come in contact with thevast erudition of the late Professor Ulrich Leo, who servedas atSpecial Lecturer * from 1948to 1959 and from 1961 to 1964." In1965 there were Ego students taking Italian includingmany honors majors. This great school is, ofcourse, not the only Canadian institution to offer Italianat an early date. At King's College (University of New Brunswick),to cite one example, itwas taught in 1841 by AntonioGallenga. At present the outlook inCanada for Italian is bright. Thirteen out the thirtyseven universities in the Dominionnow give instruction in thelanguage, while eighteenmore have indicated that theyare pinning to introduceitat the un duate level in thevery near future."

ITALIAN FROM THE CIVILWAR TO THE PRESENT (A thumbnail sketch)

The disruptive effects of theCivil War causedprogress in the languages to remainat a standstill. When the conflictwas over much of our educationsystem had to be rebuiltor reorganized. The Morrill Act(186s) providing public landgrants to establish state colleges for theteaching of agriculture and the mechanic arts broughtprofound changes in institutionsold and new.Technical andscientifictrainingwaswidely inaugurated. Where the languageswere taught in this type of school French and Germanappear as prescribed subjects. Obviously, since the modernlanguage staff servedas one unit in most schoolsas the medium for instruction of boththe technical-scientific and the« classical * studentgroup, these two " For a biographical sketchon Prof. Leo and his bibliography to igro, see the homage issue of italics dedicated to him, volumeXXXVII (1g61), 83-85. " For further detailssee Mr. A. Molliat'sit Italian in Ontario." Canadian Modern LanguageReview, XIII (1986), 1g-24, which isa review of the status of the teachingof Italian in the Ontario highschools and universities.

177 languages acquired precedenceover Spanish and Italian thinning the ranks of the matriculants andat times even succeding in temporarily eliminating them from the curriculum.Moreover, French and German now had the advantageof an ample supply of teachers which theirtwo sister languages did not have. As regards Italian, most of the patriotexiles who had sought refuge in this country and who had earnedtheir livelihood by teaching had returned to their homeland.The Civil War had reduced to a trickle the flow of Americanswho had been going to Italy to learn or to perfect their Italian. Whenthe Catholic Church decided on its nation-wide promotionof Catholic higher education in the United States in the thirtiesand forties, it sent numerous Italian priests here for thatpurpose. They formed the nucleus of many of the original faculties,and many of them were entrusted with instruction in Italian. Here,too, the situation changed when theirposts were taken by non-Italians. The depletion of thisreserve accounu for at least some of the weakness in the study of this language inthe colleges of the period. In the seventies two basic reforms inour education set-up took place under the leadership of PresidentEliot of Harvard: the elective system and the establishmentof college entrance requirements in the modern languages.The classical barriers were broken down and for the first time the modemlanguages appeared in the college curriculaas regular studies. On the surface the elective reformwas a positive gain for Italian, but it was quickly neutralized by theimposition of French and German as entrance requirementsand the further imposition of the same two languagesas requirements for the AB and BS degrees in our institutions of higherlearning. This reduced Italian as well as Spanishto the status of secondary languages, which necessarily had the effect ofstunting their development. The next important forwardstep was the institution in the eighties and in the nineties ofgraduate programs leading toa Ph.D. in Romance Languages. JohnsHopkins, Harvard, Yale and Columbia pioneered themovement. Advanced courses in French, Italian and Spanishwere added to the departmental offerings. Candidates majoring inone language took strong minors in the other two. On obtainingtheir doctoratesthey were equipped to teachtheir major language of the others and either of both and many ofthem didso. Italian benefited appreciably fromthis type ofprogram which, in has tended recent years, to disintegrate inpart through the splittingof the Romance Languages into separatedepartments and inpart through thewatering down ofour Ph.D. requirements. most of our Ph.D's In fact, today are narrowlytrained one-language individuals with little orno interest in the othertwo. The psychoneurosisthat developedagainst the study German during of World War I almostannihilated it inour high schools and decimated the enrollmentsin the colleges.This emotionalismsoon expanded intoa national re-action against all foreign languages and in thecolleges was expressed of the elimination in terms of the existinglanguage requirements, is, primarily that French and German.Finally, jarredout of the privileged position they held forso long the two languageswere reduced to thestatus of electives likeso many other subjects. The freer competition that resulted ledto an impressive number of new college introductions of Italianbetween 1914 and By that time 1937. the growingresentment against Mussolini's militarism had reached a peak.World War II brokeout soon thereafter with Fascistparticipationon the side of Hitler. the conflict Italian During was one of the five basiclanguages taught in many collegesin the Army Specialized TrainingProgram. The new methodof instructionthat prevailed which has since was audio-visual, become general inmost of our schools. Awell- planned and highlypractical text,Spoken Italian prepared for the (1g44), was Italiangroups by ProfessorVincenzo Cioffari connected at thattime with theASTP at the Iowa." However, University of outside the Programdecline in enrollment became extremely serious. Since thenrecovery has been painfully slow but healthy. We have been gladto note that particularly " For a detaileddescription of coursesin two centers, Galpin, " Italian ASTP see Alfred Program at theUniversity of Wisconsin." XXXI (im), 15-s8, Italica, and Arnold G. Reichenberger," Report on the Teaching of Beginning Italianin the ASTP at the Ohio State University."Modern Language Journal, XXX(i946), 137-44.

179 in the last fewyears studentshave been culturalas well as the becomingaware of the scientific valueof Italianand have manifestingan increasingdesire to been quitea few college study thelanguage, while administrations arrangements are currentlymaking to expand theircourse offerings or re-introduceItalian in or to introduce theirinstitutions, infact the for teachersis alreadyfar in demand is the excess of theavailable supply. most formidableobstacle that This is hamperingits growth. On thestatus of Italianin our colleges in1963 we have most enlighteningsurvey conducted a Luca of by ProfessorA. MichaelDe the C.W.Post Collegeof Long chairman of IslandUniversity, the NationalCommittee for Italian inHigher Education, the Promotionof sponsored bythe AATI. were contactedof which *85 schools us reported.The grand enrollmentfigure is total college- approximatelyso,000. Professor concludesoptimistically De Luca this that * Thereare clear indications survey thatenrollments in in level are Italianon the higher on the increasein most education is a substantial areas in the improvement country and there the MLA-FL over the total(16,874) reported Survey in1963.* The in * Enrollments report, underthe title of in Italianin Higher published in Education,*has been Italica, XLIII(1966),so4-**." " The ForeignLanguage Education: Fall EnrollmentsinItutitutiont of 1965, the latestsurvey on the Higher Modem LanguageAssociation by subject preparedfor the reveals that Nina Herslow Italian hada total enrollment and James F.Dershem, closely withthe figure in of ss,9tto in1965. This Prof. DeLuca's report. tallies

180 21111111111111111I

APPENDIX A LIST OF AMERICANCOLLEGES,1779-1966. ARRANGED ACCORDING TOTHE YEAR WHEN WAS FIRST ITALIAN INTRODUCED INEACH OF THEM

The list thatfollows has been compiled fromofficialsources, the collegecatalogs, wherever this has beenpossible. Ina number ofinstances my informationhasbeenfurther supplemented byother printedor manuscript data. its greater Because of historical importanceI have chosen a representation to give as full as possible to theschools whereItalian was offered eitheroptionallyor regularly before that are still in "goo. Among those operation, it isgratifiying to short or long note that despite lapses in instruction,all buta very few are teaching Italian today.On the otherhand, I have a score or more of omitted thenames of the less prominentschools suchas Reed, College of thePacific, Knox, Illinois Wesleyan,Otterbein, Oklahoma Baptist,Wilson Collegeetc., which in the this centuryhave at course of one time or anotheroffered Italian discontinued it but have on account of lackof teachers,World War H psychosis,administrative opposition,includingbudgetary considerations, and,here and there, real or allegedabsence of sufficient studentdemand for thelanguage.

Name of Year of Introduction College of Italian College of Williamand Mary Dickinson College 1779 1814 Universityof Pittsburgh(formerlyWestern University of Pennsylvania) 1819 * TransylvaniaCollege Harvard University 182o 1822 Note: An * indicatesthat Italian is at the present time. not offered by theinstitution A indicates that,as far as can be ascertained, school is no longerin existence. the Middlebury College 1822 Columbia University 1843 University of Virginia 1823 Columbian College [D.C.] 1 1826 * Hampton- Sidney College' 1826 University of Maryland (Washington College [defunct]) 1826 Bowdoin College 1829 University of Pennsylvania 183o Princeton University 183o Georgetown University 3 1831 Miami University [Ohio] 1831 Wesleyan University 1831 University of Alabama 1832 New York University 1832 TrinityCollege[Hartford,Conn.,formerly Washington College] 1832 Asbury College [Maryland] 4 1834 Lafayette College' 1835

As noted in the Washington, D.C. National Intelligencer for Sept. 1,1816,the professorincharge of French,Italianand Spanishat Columbian College was Sauveur Banff ls. At Hampton-Sidney, Colonel Louis Gasperi taught French, Italian and Spanish during the year mentioned, 1826. $ A much later date has been given by the Georgetown, archivist, due, it is stated, to the lack of early printed catalogs, a not unusual thing at thistime.Hence, we draw upon an announcement inthe National Intelligencer for Sept. 31 for the year noted. This reads:a The Italian, Spanish and German Languages will be taught if required but altogether with Music, Drawing, Dancing, Fencing and other similar accomplishments they will form extra charges.' It is likely that Italian had been available at the school some years before this. In a notice placed in the Baltimore Commercial Chronicle and Daily Marylander for Sept. 8, 1835, we have noted the following:4' The system of Education comprises the Latin, French, Italian, Spanish and Hebrew languages.* A Lafayette College notice in the New York Observer for Oct. 3, 1835 reveals that German, French and Italian were taught " at no extra charge." In 1838 the Rev. Frederick Schmidt taught these three languages.

182 * Norwich University (formerly Norwich Academy)1835 U.S. Norfolk Naval School 1835 * Union College 1836 Hobart College (formerly Geneva College) 1838 St.. Mary's College [Berrens, Perry County, Mo.] 6 i838 * VincennesUniversity(formerlyVincennes Catholic College) Y 1838 St. Louis University 1839 WesleyanCollege(formerlyGeorgia Female College) 1839 University of Delaware (formerly Newark College)1841 St. Gabriel's College [Vincennes, Ind.] 1841 St. Joseph's College [Bardstown, Ky.] 1841 Brown University 184a Cincinnati Wesleyan University s 1841 Fordham University (formerly St. John's College)1842 College of the Holy Cross 1842 Yale University 1842 University of St. Mary of the Lake [Chicago] a 1844 Western Reserve University 1844 Masonic College [Lexington, Mo.] 10 1845

'We have derived the date for St. Mary's from the Catholic Almanac. This publication (1833.49) and the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac (1850.53) also provide tentative introductory dates for other schools in our list, viz. St. Gabriel's College, 1841; St. Joseph's College at Bardstown, Ky., 1841; Fordham Univ.,184s; College of the Holy Cross,1841;St. Vincent's College, 1845; Notre Dame Univ., 1847; St. Mary's College at Emmittsburg, Md., 1847; Sinsinawa Mound College, 1847; College of the Sacred Heart, 1849; St. Joseph's College in Perry County County, Ohio, 1852; St. Joseph's College in Buffalo, 1853 and St. Mary's College in Columbia, S.C.,1853. According to the announcement in the Western Sun and General Advertiser for Aug. 18, 1838 « No boarders [were] admitted over 15 years, nor under nine." It should, therefore, be clear that it could hardly qualify as a " college," and this is also true of a number of other schools at the time which used the term " college " or " university." Often it was an expression of ambition rather than of achievement. Noted by Handschin, op. cit. p. 25. From an announcement in the Chicago Daily Journal, Sept. a6, 1844. 1° From the catalog in the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis.

183 * St. Vincent's College at Cape Giraudeau, Mo. [now a seminary for priests] 1845 Ohio Wesleyan University 1846 Bacon College [Harrodsburg, Ky.] 11 1847 * Marietta College 1847 Notre Dame University (formerly Univ. of Notre Dame du Lac) la 1847 * Saint Mary's College [Fmmittsburg, Md.] 13 1847 Sinsinawa Mound College [Sinsinawa Mound, Wis.] 1847 Washington and Jefferson College 1847 University of Michigan 1848 Jackson College [Jackson, Tenn.] 1849 College of the Sacred Heart [Rochester, N.Y.] 1849 Manhattanville College 185o Saint John Female College 14 [Marietta, Ohio] 185o Amherst College 1851 Franklin Female College 15 [Holly Springs, Miss.] 1851 Santa Clara University 1851 Dartmouth College 1852 St. Joseph College [Perry County, Ohio] 1852 Catawaba College 1853 Chesapeake Female College 16 [Hampton, Va.] 1853 Johnson Female College [Anderson, S.C.] 1853 Loyola College 17 [Baltimore] 1853

" See National Intelligencer, Aug. 9,1847. " A great fire in 1879 destroyed five of the Notre Dame college buildings along with most of the records. After that date Italianfirst appears in the 1893-94 catalog where it is included with French, German, Spanish and Hebrew as an elective course. However, in dealing with the period between 1859 and 18435, Arthur J. Hope in Notre Dame: One Hundred Years (Notre Dame, 1943, p. 130) cites courses in German, French, Italian, Spanish, Hebrew, Painting and Drawing which could be taken as g optional studies.* That he, too, is a number of years off the mark is made evident by the year noted above, 1847. 11 From an announcement in the Baltimore Sun, Aug. 11, 1847. " From a catalog in the Marietta College Library. " See Memphis Daily Appeal, Jan. 25, 1851. " See the North Carolina Standard for Feb. 21, 1853. " See notice in the Sun for Aug. 29, 1853.

184 1853 St. Joseph'sCollege [Buffalo] [Columbia, S.C.] 1853 St. Mary's College 1853 Washington and LeeUniversity College 18 [Wilmington(?)] 1854 * Delaware Female 1854 Duke University12 (FormerlyTrinity College) College of the Stateof Pennsylvania20 * Polytechnic 1854 [Philadelphia] 1856 Burlington College[Burlington, N.J.] 1856 University of Iowa 1856 Lynchburg College 21 1856 Tufts University 1857 University of NorthCarolina 1857 Worthington FemaleCollege 22 [Ohio] 1858 University of Wisconsin 1859 *Antioch College Birmingham SouthernUniversity (formerly 1859 Southern Univ.) 1859 Laurensville FemaleCollege [Laurensville,S.C.] 186o Colgate University(formerly MadisonUniversity) University of SanFrancisco (formerly St.Ignatius 1861 College) 1865 Massachusetts Instituteof Technology 1867 Vassar College of the West forOct.1854 we read:that " In the Presbyterian Professor of instru- Vincent Mennellifrom Florencewas engaged as mental and vocalmusic, French andItalian.* much later date.Substantia- " Duke UniversityLibrary had given me a cited can be foundin Mora CampbellChaffin. Trinity tion of the year University. Durham,N.C. College: 1839-1892. TheBeginnings of Duke 195o, 151. 1854, it is in the Intelligencerfor Sept. 11, 20 In its advertisement languages. revealed that V. DeAmarelli was theinstructor in modern Giuseppe AdolfoSartori was the 21 At LynchburgCollege in 1856, Languages according tothe announcementin the Professor of Modern in this paper, Lynchburg Virginianfor Aug. .23.Another announcement listing him as ateacher at theLynchburg Female (Aug. 18th issue), after of the mentions that tuitionin Latin, Greek or any College, specifically College should not beconfused modern languages was$ to.00. Lynchburg homonym which wasfounded in 1923. with its current Journal for Aug. 21,1857. 32 See an announcementin the Ohio State

185 University of California at Berkeley 1868 University of Utah (formerly University of Deseret)1868 * Wheaton College [Norton, Mass.] 1868 Wells College 1869 Cornell University 1870 Mary Baldwin College 1870 Boston University 1872 University of Louisiana 1872 * Wake Forest College 1872 Syracuse University i873 Villanova University (formerly Augustinian College of St. Thomas of Villanova) 1875 Johns Hopkins University 1876 University of Nebraska 1876 University of Illinois 1878 University of Missouri 1879 Northwestern University 1879 Radcliffe College 1879 University of Rochester 1879 University of Cincinnati 188o Albion College 1881 Buck. -11 University 1881 * Washburn Co 11(.4;e 1882 Wellesley College 1884 Alfred University 1884 Bryn Mawr College 1884 University of Kansas 1884 Shorter College 1884 * Swarthmore College 1884 Hesperian College [Woodland, Calif.] 1886 St. Meinrad's College [Spencer County, Ind.] 1886 Carson's College 28 [Mosey Creek, Tenn.] 1887 University of Mississippi 1889 University of South Carolina 1889 Barnard College 1890

" The year for Hesperian College and St. Meinrad's College has been taken from the PMLA (1886). The Carson yearcomes from the 1887 PMLA.

186 Franklin and MarshallCollege 18 90 Ohio State University 1890 Goucher College 189 Stanford University 1891 University of Arkansas 189s University of Chicago 189* Mount Saint Mary[Emmittsburg, ?vfd.] itags Williams College 189* *Denison University 1893 George Washington University 1893 Mount Holyoke College 1893 University of Vermont 1893 * University of Maine 1894 Hamilton College 1895 University of Minnesota 1895 Adelphi College 1896 University of Georgia 1896 University of Kentucky x896 University of Colorado 1897 St. Thomas Seminary[Bloomfield, Conn.] 1897 Temple University 1897 University of West Virginia 1897 Elmira College 1899 Lake Erie College 1899 Oberlin College 1899 Florida State University[Tallahassee] 1900 University of Oregon 1901 Vanderbilt University 1901 University of Denver 190s University of Washington[Seattle] University of Chattanooga 1903 1904 Clark University [Worcester Mass.] 1906 Rosary College (formerlySt. Clara 11 ) 1906 St. Mary's College [California] 1906 University of SouthernCalifornia 1906 Rutgers State University 1907 New York City C""`0;e 1909

187 College of NewRochelle (formerlyCollege 1909 St. Angela) University 1909 Pennsylvania State 1910 Lehigh University Woman's College 1910 Randolph Macon 1911 State College[Kingston] Rhode Island 1911 Convene College 1911 Oklahoma University of 1913 Colby College 1913 Muhlenberg College 1913 Pomona College 1914 Skidmore College 1914 University of Buffalo University of Texas 1914 1915 University of Arizona 1915 Connecticut College 1915 Rice Institute 1915 Sweet Briar College 1916 University of Nevada 1916 College of St.Elizabeth [New 1917 St. John's University 1917 Wayne StateUniversity 1919 Ohio University 1919 Providence College 1910 Douglass College (Newjersey college forWomen) 1920 Tulane University 1921 Auburn University 1931 North CarolinaCollege for Women 19s College of Notre Dameof Maryland University of RhodeIsland iglu/ Marymount College[Tarrytown, N.Y.] 19/3 San FranciscoCollege for Women 1923 Seton Hill College 1923 Stigmatine's Fathers'College 1924 Good CounselCollege College Misercordia 1924 Oglethorpe University 1924 Texas ChristianUniversity 1924

188 111111111111INI ANNISIIMMONIMINIIW

OklahomaStateUniversity St. Mary of theWoods College 1913 AlbertusMagnusCollege 1923 Chestnut HillCollege 1926 University of 1916 Bridgeport(formerlyjunior ofConnecticut) College SaintBonaventure 1917 CapuchinCollege College ofHoly Names [Bronx, N.Y.]1937 [Oakland,Calif.] Long IslandUniversity 1927 Regis College [Weston,Mass.] 19.17 Finch College 1917 Loyola University[Chicago] 1928 CatholicUniversity 1928 EmoryUniversity 1919 University ofNewHampshire 1919 Sewn HallUniversity 1929 BrooklynCollege 1919 ImmaculataCollege 1930 [Immaailata,Pa.] Los AngelesCity College 1930 MarywoodCollege 1930 SarahLawrenceCollege 1930 University ofTennessee 193o United States 1930 NavalAcademy Cedar CrestCollege 1930 DavidsonCollege 1931 San JoseState College 1931 BrighamYoungUniversity 1931 Dominican College ofSan Rafael 1931 University ofRichmond 1931 University ofScranton 1931 YoungstownUniversity 193s Briarcliff Manor JuniorCollege 1931 Bard College 1933 CambridgeJuniorCollege 1934 University of Californiaat Los Angeles 1934 CarnegieInstitute 1934 St. Joseph'sCollege [West 1934 Hartford.Conn.] 1934 189 State University of New York at Albany (formerly State College for Teachers) 1933 Boston College 1936 University of Puerto Rico 1936 University of Connecticut 1937 Emmanuel College [Boston] 1937 La Salle College [Philadelphia] 1938 Michigan State University 1938 University of New Mexico 1938 San Francisco State College 1938 Wooster College 1938 John Carroll University 1939 New School of Social Research 1939 Queens College 1939 Georgian Court College 1940 University of Miami [Coral Gables,Fla.] 1941 Colorado State University [FortCollins] 1941 Mary Washington College 1943 Texas Woman's University 1944 Harpur College [formerly TripleCities College] 1946 Newton College of the SacredHeart 1946 University of Portland 1946 Fairfield University 1947 Iona College 1947 Le Moyne College 1947 Roosevelt University 1947 Utica College 1947 Abilene Christian College 1948 Baylor University 1948 Central Connecticut State College 1948 Gannon College 1948 University of Hartford (formerlyHartford College of Music) 1948 University of Missouriat Kansas City (formerly University of Kansas City) 1948 St. Peter's College 1948 University of Florida [Gainesville] 1949 Sacred Heart Dominican College 1949

190 Brandeis University 195o Kansas State University 195o Mount St. Mary's College [Los Angeles] 195o Simmons College 195o Defense Language Institute [Monterey, Calif.] 1951 Drake University 1951 Fairleigh Dickinson University 1951 Hofstra College 1951 University of Houston 1951 Maryglade Seminary 1951 St. John Fisher College 1951 University of Southwestern Louisiana 1951 Wagner College 195* Santa Rosa Junior College [Santa Rosa, Calif.] 195* State College at Lowell [Mass.] 195* East Los Angeles College 1955 Danbury State College 1954 Marymount College [Palos Verdes, Calif.] 1954 Del Mar College [Corpus Christi, Tex.] 1955 Immaculate Heart College [Hollywood, Calif.] 1956 Cabrini College 1957 Stephens College 1957 Louisville University 1958 Morton Junior College [Cicero, Ill.] 1958 Ventura College 1958 State University at Buffalo 1959 Georgia State College [Atlanta] 1959 Gonzaga University 1959 University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee 1959 Humboldt State College 1959 Contra Costa College 1960 Earlham College 1960 University of South Florida 1960 Hartnell College 1960 New York State University at Potsdam 1960 San Antonio College 1960 Wichita University 196o C.W. Post College of Long Island University 1961

191 Marist College 1961 Montana State University 1961 San Diego State College 1961 St. Petersburg Junior College 1961 Suffolk County Community College 1961 Trinidad State Junior College 1961 University of California at Davis 196s University of Dayton 196s Fresno State College 196s Los Angeles Valley College 196 s San Bernardino Valley College 1962 Milisaps College [Jackson, Miss.] 196s State College at Westfield, Conn. 196s Northern Illinois University 1g6s Brenau College [Gainesville, Ga.] 1963 University of California at Santa Barbara 1963 Chabot College [Hayward, Calif.] 1963 Creighton University 1963 Memphis State University 1963 Pasadena City College 1963 State College of New York at Stony Brook 1963 Oregon State University 1963 Massachusetts State College [Bridgewater] 1964 Pace College 1964 Pennsylvania Military College 1964 Rochester Institute of Technology 1964 University of Southern Mississippi 1964 Weber State College [Ogden, Utah] 1964 American River College [Sacramento] 1965 Bowling Green State University 1965 University of California at Riverside 1965 University of California at San Diego [La Jolla] 1965 Chicago City Junior College: Bogan Branch 1965 Chicago City Junior College: Wright Branch 1965 Elizabeth Seton College [Yonkers] 1965 Junior College of St. Louis County 1965 Pennsylvania State College at Slippery Rock 1965 University of the Redlands 1965

192 111111101.gommowilinammimaiiISMONINIMMINMIMO

1965 San Diego MesaCollege Southern ConnecticutState College 1985 1965 Texas TechnologicalCollege 1965 West Chester StateCollege [Pennsylvania] West Valley juniorCollege [Campbell,Calif.] 1965 University of Wyoming 1965 1966 American InternationalCollege Arizona State University 1966 1966 El Camino College Dominican College [Racine,Wis.] 1966 Monmouth College [WestLong Branch, N.J.] 1966 1966 Pensacola JuniorCollege 1966 Southern IllinoisUniversity at Edwardsville Triton College [Northlake, Ill.] 1966 University of Wisconsin:Kenosha Center 1966 1966 University of Wisconsin:Oshkosh Center

193

13 CHAPTER VI

THE STUDY OF ITALIAN IN THE ACADEMIES (1820-185o)

During the period that concerns us here (I8so-186o),most of the schools that provided secondary instructionwere private or quasi-public. The names that commonly designated themare Academy,Institute,Seminary and Boarding School. They attained considerable popularity bymeans of the broader training and more flexible instruction theywere able to give students in contrast to the fixed curriculum of thegrammar school which was narrowly designedto prepare for college. While not neglecting Latin and Greek, the substantialcore of the older grammar schoolprogram, the majority of these institutions strongly stressed the study of modern languages French, Italian Spanish and German. Unfortunately, beyond being apprized that Italianwas taught in them, there is almost nothing in Handschin,Bagster- Collins and in the general and regional histories of secondary education available in print. Thereare, in addition, a number of state, county and city histories whollyor partially devoted to the education in the middle schools but of these fewer than a half dozen contain any pertinent material. Except for New York, state annual reports to the Boards of Educationor the state legislatures that bear on our periodare either lacking or uninformative. On the other hand, periodical articlesas well as published and unpublished theses and dissertations, havenow and then furnished occasional valuable facts. This extremely unsatisfactory situation has obligedus to build up our own presentation byrecourse to the original sources of information, primarily the annual school catalogs, newspaper announcements and, in thecase of the Catholic schools, the Catholic Almanac (1855-49) andthe Metropolitan Catholic Almanac (1850-55). Evenso, our investigation has constantly been hampered by various drawbacks.Most of the catalogs have been allowedto disappear without any attempt being made to preserve these preciouseducational documents

194 either on the part of thestate, regional or city historical societies or on the part of thestate, city or college libraries, in fact, the New Hampshire Historical Sxietyand the Vermont Historical Society are about the onlytwo archives owning a sizeable collection of the early schoolbulletins. Others have preserved a handful of scattered copiesof annuals and many, including most of the city libraries,nothing whatsoever. Yet here, too, when catalogs have beenavailable to us, we have found quite a number stating merelythat the school offered Modern Languages 1.or Languages,* terms not specific enough to serveour purpose. Luckily, it has been possibleto supplement thescant material gathered from them by the abundant data whichwe have been able to assemble from the newspaper advertisements. These, however, have had three major limitations, 1) Likeso many of the catalogs, most of the newspaper notices make use of terms similarlyvague such as4' Languages," Modern Languages,"" French and other Languages," "French and other EuropeanLanguages." Only in one case out ofevery three or four is there explicit mention of each language taught.' s) Withvery few exceptions the advertisements refer to schools in the immediatecommunities where the paperswere printed. Obviously only through access to these papers would it be possible to learn aboutthe private schools and theircourse-offeringsinliterallyhundreds of towns and counties, a task big enough in itselfto absorb years of labor on the part ofa large team of individuals. 3) A considerable number of schools whichwere drawing an adequate clientele did not useor did not see the need of any advertising as is evident from the few advertisements appearingin such big-town papers as the DetroitFree Press, Philadelphia Public Ledger, Boston Post, etc. Of necessity, therefore, the datawe have been able to muster is quite incomplete, but, suchas it is, it will show that far more schools taughtor offered Italian during this pioneer period than anyone haseven remotely supposed hitherto. I After mid-century, particularly in thelarge metropolitan papers, educational announcements are reducedto scarcely more than the name of the school, its location and date of theopening of the term.

195 There are two paramount reasons why we have been obliged to extensively document this sectionthe fact that information on the language in our early academies is all but non-existent, and the fact that there is a currently deep-rooted preconception, in large measure stemming from it, to the effect that Italian is a language which has found its way into our middle school curriculum only yesterday. The explosion of this myth has been long overdue. We shallfirstgivethenumberofItalian-teaching institutions in the various states grouped alphabetically and arranged according to the section of the country to which they belongNEW ENGLAND: Connecticut 18; Maine 5; Massachusetts91; New Hampshire32;Rhode Island4; Vermont 17. MIDDLE STATES: Delaware 6; Maryland 27; New Jersey 17; New York 115; Pennsylvania gi. SOUTHERN STATES: Alabama 7; Arkansas 5; Georgia 13; Kentucky 13; Louisianai; Mississippi 7; North Carolina 21; South Carolina 21; Tennessee 1 i; Virginia 116. MIDDLE WESTERN STATES: Illinois5;Indiana5;Michigan5;Missouri6;Ohio 16; Wisconsin 3. PACIFIC STATES: California 1. In the District of Columbia we have turned up 25 schools teaching Italian. Our grand total is 714. What follows is a sort of appendix that is more for the record than for reading, but, at the same time, it will serve to give concretenesstothefiguresjustcited byspecifically mentioning the names of schools and their locations in order to show that interest in the study of Italian was not limited to any one area in the United States, but was well diffused throughout the country from the Atlantic seaboard to the Mississippi and beyond to Arkansas, Missouri and California. In addition, the names of some of the instructors involved in teaching will be noted and, here and there, bits of miscellaneous information on the schools. Incidentally, the dates taken from thenewspaperannouncementsindicatethetimewhen instruction in the language at a given institution has first been noticed by us; it does not necessarily mark the year of its initial introduction. The other parts of the United States were, of course, too new or too sparsely settled to have many middle

196 schools at this time The fact that we are covering a completely unexplored territory on this subject, provides us with further justification for indulging in so much detail.

NEW ENGLAND

CONNECTICUT

One of the earliest schools to teach Italian in Connecticut was Mrs. Francis and Miss Caine's English and French Seminary at Middletown. The advertisement in the Washington National Intelligencer for Sept. 13, 1825 indicates that it expected to draw students from various sections of the East and Soutk. When Catherine Beecher obtained the services of Miss Degan [ Degen], a native Italian, as a teacher in her Hartford Female Academy in 1827 she considered the event important enough to highlight in the Connecticut Courant for Nov. 5: A lady is engaged to instruct in French and Italian who was born and educated on the continent and has from childhood associated with the best of French and Italian society. She will reside with Miss Beecher's family."' At about the same time Italian was taught at the New Haven Gymnasium, a school modelled on the German plan, under the co-direction of Sereno Dwight and his brother, Henry. In a boyhood letter of one of the students, Edmund Ruffin, Jr., son of Edmund Ruffin, the famous Virginia agriculturist and extreme Southern nationalist, written on Oct. 8,1828 to a member of his family, young Ruffin writes:u Mr. Dwight [presumably Sereno, who had studied in Europe in 1824-25] offers $10. to the one who can speak Latin best by next September, also offers $io. to the one who can speak German the best, and $io. to the one who can speak Italian the best. He does not offer a reward to the one who can speak french the

2 See also paragraph on Harriet Beecher Stowe, one of Miss Degan's students in the chapter on " The Italophilia of the American Intellectual Elite."

197 best because there are severalboys here from New Orleans that speak French as well as their native tongue, nordoes he offer a reward to the one who speaks Spanishthe best because there is a Spaniardhere and there is another coming.**Several years later another student, HenryRidge ly, age 13, member of the famous Ridge ly family of Delaware,tells about the school in a letter to his sister dated Feb. St l, 1831.This is summarized as follows in A Calendar of the RidgelyFamily Letters, 1742 -1899 in the Delaware State Archives.Edited and compiled by Leon de Valinger, Jr. Dover, Dela., 1951,Vol. II, 281-82: " Describes a French teacher, agood instructor 4 but in somethings a great fool; ' a servant of illustrious ancestry;and an eclipse (of the sun). Punishments include bed in thedaytime, studying at meals, and a bread and water diet. EnjoysItalian." Though the school had been very successful, 1881 wasthe last year of its operation. Serena became President of HamiltonCollege in 1833. The two brothers, incidentally, were the sons ofTimothy Dwight, Presi- dent of Yale College. In his letter to Theodore Dwight,New Haven, Feb. io, 1837, (manuscript in the PennsylvaniaHistorical Society), the Italian political exile Gaetano de Castillia(Castiglia) mentions that he was teaching his nativelanguage at the " collegio Apthorp." This may be identified withcertainty as Mrs. Apthorp's Young Ladies' Seminarywhich appears listed in Patten's New Haven Directory for the Year184o. The New York Observer for May 21,1842 announced the study of Italian in the New Haveh PrivateSchool for Young Ladies conducted by a Miss Lee. TIeWashington National Intelligencer for Oct. 14, 1843 brings outthat Latin, French, German, Italian and Spanish were thentaught at the Golden Hill Seminary at Bridgeport. An advertisement placed in theNorth American and Daily Advertiser of Philadelphia for Sept. 18, 1844 states:" Mr. Luigi

3 See the * School-Boy Letters of EdmundRuffin, Jr., 1828-2g," edited by Mrs. Kirkland Ruffin. North CarolinaHistorical Review, X (1933), 294.

198 Roberti, late professor of the Frenchand Italian languagesat Yale College and several Femalecolleges in the City of New Haven, has takenup residence in this city for thepurpose of pursuing his profession...* Roberti,like so many of the college language instructors of thosedays, had been selected for the Yale post from the ranksof the private teachers and like them was given a lean stipend whichwas supplemented by extra-mural teaching. How long he hadbeen in New Haven before his first Yale period (1842-44)we have no means of knowing. The period of his secondtenure was from 1847 to 1857. Despitethe fact that the private schools inwhich he taughtare not identified, they must have beenno fewer than six or seven. Hence there is warrant to add at least six forthese two periods toour Connecticut total,among them Mr. and Mrs. Roherti's Boarding and Day School forYoung Ladies (see New HavenPalladium for Sept. 21, 1847). Since J.G. Huber, teacherof modern languagesat the Preparatory School in Middletownalso instructed in Italianat Wesleyan, it would be logicalto assume that he likewise made it available at the middleschool establishment (see NewYork Spectator, Mar.31, 1886). The Rectory BoardingSchool, a family boarding schoolfor boys, was locatedat Hamden. Through variousadvertisements in the Hartford Courantfor 1845 and 1846 it offeredits pupils the opportunityto study French and Italian in additionto the regular courses. The Danbury Institutein Fairfield Countywas teaching French, Italian, Spanish andGerman in 1852 as announcedin the New York Observer forMar. 25. At Hartford, Madame deBelem, an Englishwoman, notified the future patrons of herYoung Ladies' School that thea modern languages,FrenchandItalian,alsomusic,vocaland instrumental are assiduouslycultivated in the family.* This was done in the Hartford Calandar forAug. 21, 1852. Miss Draper's YoungLadies' Seminary is listedin the Hartford City Directory for1857-58 with Wile Torrachinias teacher of French, Italian andSpanish.

199

-5 MAINE

There were no catalogsof the Hebron Academy in Hebron printed in the early yearsof its existence (1804.1850), henceit is impossible to statewhen Italian was introduced atthe institute. However, there arereferences to the teaching of the language in some of thefirst printed of its annuals,which are preserved in its archives-1853,1857,1863 and 1866. The catalogs of Kents Hill School atKents Hill are fuller, disclosing that Italian was introducedthere in 1836 and that it wastaught until 1859. Maine, incidentally,happens to be one of several states from whichobtaining information on the studyof modern languages in the academies hasbeen a frustrating experience. With extremely few exceptionsthe only source that is available are the announcementsin the newspapers hardly anyof which are known tobe microfilmed and thosethat are are non- circulating. Nevertheless, it has been pouible to see afew issues of the Portland Eastern Argus. In theseries of notices commencing with Aug. *6, 1833 it revealed that atthe Female High School in the city directed by James FurbishFrench, Italian and Spanish were offered at no extracharge. Some years later, theissues for August and September 1839bring out that Furbish was employed as the modern languageinstructor (French, Italian and Spanish)atthenearbyWestbrookAcademy. The advertisement notes that this gentleman was agraduate of the 18s5 class at Harvard and thathe * has been unusually successful as a teacher of languagesin consequence of a new system which he hasoriginated and matured by himself...*The Portland Transcript for April 19, 1851,the only year we have been able to see, carried the announcementof the Congress Street Seminary for Young Ladies,which includes the phrase * French, Italian and Spanishif desired.* We should not expect much representationfrom a frontier region that became a state only in 18so.However, the fact that Italian was doing so well in neighboringNew Hampshire and the fact that it was introduced at Bowdoinin 1829, must indicate

200 that Maine had, even in those clays, a fair number ofsecondary schools where it could be studied.

MASSACHUSETTS

Even though tenuous there was a continuation of interest in the study of Italian in Boston and the rest of New England from the time of the establishment of Vaidale's School during the Revolutionary period to the second decade of the new century. One bit of evidence is offered by theadvertisement of the French and English Book Store on StatebSt. in the Boston Mercury for Oct. 6, 1795 which announced the availabilityof works of Italianclassical authors.* In i8o8 we find young George Prescott, the future historian, taking lessons inthe language at Dummer's Academy. However the pace quickened perceptibly after the Napoleonic Wars (1815), which, while they lasted, had almost completely cut off travel to the Continent. Shortly thereafter we have noted in an advertisement inthe Columbian Centinel for July 19, 1818, that the firm of Caleb Bingham & Co., under the heading of « French, Spanish and Italian Books,* offered the reading public Dante, the Orlando furioso, Gerusalemme liberata, Morgante maggiore, Pastor fido, Secchia rapita, Filli di Sciro, Raccolta di novelle, Raccolta di fa- vole, Poesie satiriche, Notti romans and the works of Montiand Alfieri. When Mr. and Mrs. Ford advertised their Young Ladies' Day and Boarding School in Boston in the ColumbianCentinel for Mar. s4, 1821, there is a hint in the wording thatthe institution had been in existence for at least a year.The advertisement runs as follows: « Mr. and Mrs. Ford having met with the most liberal encouragement and given satisfaction to those parents who have entrusted them with theirchildren presume with more confidence to againdraw the attention of the public to the Young Ladies' Day and Boarding School.Mrs. Ford has been for many years accustomed to tuition in thefirst Noblemen's and Gentlemen's families in the United Kingdom and has studied the most recent and improved methods of

201 r

education in London and Paris. She has spent nearly two years in France. Besides the usual branches she teaches French, Italian and Music... Mr. Ford assists in the School in the French, Italian and German and Latin Languages..." The school changed its name to Bunker Hill BoardingSchool for Young Ladies in 1822 (cf. Centinel, Feb. is). In the Washington National Intelligencer for July 22, 1828, we read in the notice of that date that at their institution, now the Young Ladies' Boarding School, " Particular pains will be taken to teach pupils to speak the French and Italian languages." The Fords had a rival in a Mrs. McKeige who announced in the Centinel for May 2, 1821-" Mrs. McKeige is induced to acquaint the parents who have applied for vacancies in her seminary that the summer term will commence on Friday June 18th. Young ladies are educated in the following branches: The English, French and Italian languages, music, needlework..." In the same paper for Feb. 25, 1824 we are apprized that " Mrs. Saunders and Miss Beach will continue their Boarding and Day School at No. 63 Orange St... They will if required engage professsors in the Latin, Italian and Spanish languages." Though Pietro Bachi's appointment as instructor in Italian at Harvard in 1825 naturally enhanced hisopportunities to instruct in the private schools, his contacts with them must already have begun soon after he settled down in Boston in 1824. However, the first concrete evidence that we have been able to discover is in the Courier notice for Aug. 3o, 1827, on Messrs. Berteau and Bradford's School for Young Ladies where it is stated that " Italian is taught by Signior Bachi of Harvard." On Sept. 5, 1829 the Mrs. Curtis Seminary for Young Ladies announced in the Centinel that" the Italian languageis constantly taught by Signor Bachi." By Nov. 5, 1831 the name had been changed to Mrs. Curtis Boarding School with Bachi still as the instructor. The 1829 Centinel also brings out (Sept. 26) that the young Italian was giving lessons at the Elm Hall Seminary. In 1831 he taught at the Young Ladies' High School in Boston according to the Fourth Annual Catalogue of Teachers and Scholars..., which is preserved in the Massachusetts State Library, while the Boston Courier for Sept. 19, 1832 reveals that

202 he was the teacher ofItalian and Spanishat the Boarding School for Young Ladiesat 36 Hancock St. Bachi's teachingcareer coincided with that of hisHarvard colleague in French,Francois Surault, who likehim lent his services to the privateschools in orderto supplement his meagre college salary of'$5oo.In 1835 he publishedAn Easy Grammar of the Italian LanguageFor Use of Schools andColleges int response to the need for accessibletexts created by a rapidly developing interest inthe language. It wouldbe foolhardy to claim that he preparedthe book merelyas an accomodation for others to the exclusionof himself. Thevery existence of the text and the fact that heregularly taught Italian inPhiladelphia later on shouldprovide sufficient evidenceto make it certain that he also taught itin several institutionsin the Bostonarea during much of thesecond quarter of thecentury.' An institution ratherdifferent from the otherswas Brown's Writing Academy. Itsadvertisement in the Courierfor Oct. 8, 1827 states: " If suitableencouragement in given, will be taught the Latin, Greek,French and Italianlanguages. Lessons given on those most convenient from7 A.M. to 9 P.M. Private lessons given if more agreeable." We have not been ableto identify the Boston schoolwhere Julia Ward [Howe]studied Italian in 1828or 1829.5 Three more BostonSchools included Italianin their notices in the Centinel. Onewas Mrs. M.A. Easton's Schoolfor Young Ladies and Misses where,in the issue forOct. 15, 1828, we find it stated that "the Italian [willbe taught] bya native and French by an approvedteacher whose pronunciationis Parisian." In the Centineladvertisement for Mar.28, 1829 we learn that the teacherwas Miss E.G. Degen "a native of Italy and whose

This is the first ofsome half dozen instances wherewe have de. viated from our rigidlydocumented procedure by givingthe name of an instructor of Italianeven though the schoolor language may not be specified. This has beendone in cases of nativeItalians and others Blaettermann, Kraitsir, Ruger, Michard, Guillet,for example, whoare known to have taught thelanguage consistently. s See Richards and Howe: Julia Ward Howe(1819-I910). Boston, 1916, Vol. I, p. 32.

203 .;

pronunciation of Frenchis approved asParisian.* Miss Degen three years the Easton schoolin 1830. Incidentally, was still at [Stowe] before the young womanhad tutoredHarriet Beecher Female Seminary.The secondCentinel notice, at the Hartford Ladies April 18, 18s9, has todo with theAcademy for Young April 6, 183o, with run by Mrs.A. and E. Eaton,and the third, the School for Boys onFranklin St. in New Yorkand SauveurBonfils, who hadbeen Boston in 18,9. Hehad an Washington, settleddown briefly in Gazette for April 19 elaborate prospectusprinted in the Evening Bonfils' Institutionfor the Educationof Young Ladies. on his established, As was the patternlater in otherschools that he Italian came underthe French program. the Boarding and As an inducement toprospective students Young Ladiesclaimed in theBoston Daily Day School for and Italian Adverti4,and Patriot, May 3o,183s, that French « by a highly qualifiedlady.* a A newschool there were taught conducted by the for Young Ladies next tothe Mansion House, announced in theCourier for Sept. 16,1833 Misses Dehon, was private and Boston Transcriptfor Oct. 2, 1833.Margaret Fuller's Temple School in 1837 class in Italian while atBronson Alcott's has been mentionedin another chapter. Transcript for Aug.st1,1839 George S.Parker In the Boston of the advertised a schoolthat « will be heldunder the vestry nine years Old South Church...*It was meant forboys not under His residence of two of age. Mr. Parkerfurther stated that the advantages years inItaly and Franceenables him to offer countries.* of instruction inthe respectivelanguages of those M.A. Collier and Also in the Transcript(Sept. 3, 1839) Miss the opening of Miss E.D. Manning at 145Court St., announced given in thevarious a newschool where *Instruction will be English Branches, inthe Latin, French,Italian and Spanish and ornamental languages,alsodrawing,painting,plain needlework.* A Transcriptnotice on a Schoolfor Boys under 1840. the Church inChauncy Placeappeared on Oct.19, and Day Schoolfor This was evidently Mrs.Marston's Boarding 1,183s. Young Ladies whichadvertised in the Centinelfor April "iiPIPPRiPRIMPON,Nr

Functioning during thesame year was a Private School at No. Temple St. in which GaetanoLanza taught « languages * (id. Aug. 15). In 1841 The New Schoolfor Young Ladies was offering French, Italian and German (id.Aug. 18). Another school that used the wordprivate * as part of itsname was the Private School for Boys at13 Franklin St., conducted by James H. Wilder. French, Italian, Spanishand German are the languages Mr. Wilder listed ina series of advertisements in the Boston Semi-Weekly Advertiser commencingwith Jan. 1t 1, 1843. Twenty months later, on Sept. $6, 1844,the Boston Recorder made known that Miss Parker's Academyfor Young Ladieswas teaching French, Italian, Spanish and German. After resigning from the Universityof Virginia Charles Kraitsir set upa language school in Boston which he announced in " A Card " in the Transcriptfor Aug. s6, 1846. In thesame issue the paper announced Italianat Rev. William Jarvis' School. On Oct. $8, 1847 the languagewas listed by the School for Young Ladieson Park St. Two days later the Preparatory and High School for Young Ladiesinformed the public that Rafael Anguera was its 6 Professorof Spanish and Italian." There is no question but thatin the item on the Classical and Commercial School, which appearedon July x7, 185o and later issues of the Transcript, the phrase" courses offered in all the modern languages," indudedItalian. The Mutual Boarding School offered French, Italian andLatin in its Sept.4, 185o announcement. Worthy of special notice is the ItalianInstitute directed by Louis Adamoli (ex-private teacherin Baltimore) at which,as stated in the Transcript forAug. 28, 1851, Italian lectureswere to be given every Tuesday and Saturday from7 to 8 p.m. The announcement further made known thatAfter each lecture, half an hour will be devotedto Italian conversation for the advantage of pupils and allnecessary explanations will be given to Ladies and Gentlemen." When Luigi Monti (ex-Harvard)applied for a teaching position at Columbia College duringhis period of residence in New York City in the Fall of1883, his friend, Rev. Wildes, under the date of Nov.7, wrote a letter of recommendation for

205 him wherein hestates that he had becomeacquainted with him some thirty years before when he,Wildes, was Supervisorof the Episcopal School for YoungLadies in Boston, andadds that he then appointed himas instructor in the Italianlanguage and literature at the institute." While retaining hismany pupils there and in the privatecircles in Boston,"Rev. Wildes adds that he became " one of the most popular andsuccessful lecturers at the University." Incidentally, Monti taughtItalian ina private school at Hyannisin 1850. Between 1854 and 1859the followingBoston schools mentioned Italian intheir TranscriptannouncementsThe Misses Haughton'sSchool for Young Ladies(Aug. g, 1854); Mrs. Haskins' Young LadiesSchool at which G.B.Fontana was the teacher (Aug. 19, 1854);Bradford School forYoung Ladies in Pemberton Square (Aug.22, 1854); Miss Wilby's YoungLadies' School (Aug.3, 1855); School for Young Ladiesin the Thorndike Building (Sept.11, 1855); Chestnut St. Schoolfor Young Ladies (July 2, 1856); MercantileAcademy (Sept.g, 1856); Mrs. Lincoln F. Emerson's Schoolfor Young Ladies(July 18, 1857); Chapman Hall School for Boysand Girls (Aug. 18,1857); Temple Place School for Young Ladies(July 2, 1858); YoungLadies' School for Classical andModern Languages incharge of Gaetano Lanza (Sept. 8, 1858); Mr.Francis Williams' Schoolfor Young Ladies (Oct. 2, 1858); andMiss A.R. Curtis'School for Young Ladies (Aug. 31, 1859). Demand for Italian during thesame period is alsoin evidence in other parts of the state. InNorthampton itwas taught in 1824 by DonatoGherardi at the famousRound Hill School founded by Bancroft(Gherardi's brother-in-law)and his friend, J.G. Cogswell.After Gherardi'sdeparture for New Orleans in 1827 thelanguage was probablyhandled by Bancroft or Cogswell, either of whomwas perfectly capable of imparting instruction init.In the WashingtonNational Intelligencer (Spring numbers for183o) the institution'slanguage offerings are stated in terms of the "Modern Languages."

7 See H.R. Marraro, "Pioneer Italian Teachers cit., 577. of Italian... " op.

206 In a notice printed in the Centinel for Aug. 14, 1824 we are informed that the study of Italian could be pursued together with French and Spanish at the Bristol Academy in Taunton. The Boston Recorder for April 13, 1827 lists it at Miss Upham's School for Young Ladies in Belleville. In Charlestown the Ursuline Community at Mt. Benedict gave notice in the Centinel that it would provide instruction in Italian and Spanish " if required " (Jan. Feb., 1828). At the end of the following month, Mar. 29, the same paper announced that Italianwas available at the Miss Prescott's Female Seminary at Groton. The Female Academy at Oatsville near the Newbury Port Turnpike, used the Recorder for April g, 1829 for its notice. Besides the fact that it, too, taught Italian, it is interesting to note that the School for Young Ladies at Dorchester Heights,a Protestant insitution, proclaimed in its advertisement that itwas following the pattern of the Charlestown Convent (Recorder, April 6, 1831). Another school that apparently introduced the study of the language during the same year was the English and Classical School at West Newton (Recorder, June. 3) The Boarding School for Young Ladies at Jamaica Plain, Roxbury, madeuse of the advertising facilities of the National Intelligencer for Oct. to, 1832. Five years later the identical notice, with Italian still listed, was repeated in the Providence Daily Journal. In 1833 the language was offered at the Newtonian Institute, Newbury Port, according to the Boston Courier for March-April 1833. On March 28th of that year the Courier listed Latin, French and Italian at the Worcester Female Seminary. Wemay add here the name of another Worcester school, the Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies, which advertised thesame languages in the Boston Post for Sept.8,1845. A third Worcester establishment, Mr. Blake's School for Young Ladies, used the Worcester Daily Spy for its notice (Aug.3o, 1849). Monson Academy came out with its Italian announcement in 1834 (Recorder, Nov. 28); the Pittsfield Seminary for Young Ladies taught French and Italian in 1835 (New York Observer, Mar. 31). In 1836 we find it and French at the Young Ladies' School in Groton (Lowell Courier, Jan. 5), and with French, German and Spanish at the Billerica Academy (id., Mar. 1). In

207

_imimrat-"NsiW '144iW4747044-4,,kigio 1837 Italian was in an announcementof the Leicester Academy (New York Observer, Feb.18), as well as in oneplaced by the Fuller Academy in WestNewton (Recorder, May3), and in another placed by the AmherstAcademy (id., Aug. 3). 1837 was the year when AntonioGallenga (Luigi Mariotti)functioned briefly asI' Professor of ModernLanguages at the Harvard Young Ladies' Academy inCambridge. In 1840 courses inItalian could be pursued at the YoungLadies' School in Newburyport (Recorder, April 3), and, duringthe same year, at theBoarding School for Young Ladiesin Cambridge under GaetanoLanza (Boston Liberator, May 15).The language was available atthe Friends Academy in NewBedford in 1841 according tothe catalog in the New HampshireHistorical Society. Duringthis year students atWoodson's School for YoungLadies in Lowell could choose Latin, French,Italian or Spanish (LowellCourier, April 25). It was also in 1841that Miss Frances Averytaught French, Italian and Botany atthe Physiological Seminary at Davers' Plains near Salem(Recorder, Mar. 12). Information coming directly from AbbotAcademy in Andovcr revealsthat from 1842 to 185x Italian wastaught there by iz.; principal,Rev. Asa Farwell. In the BostonSemi-Weekly Advertiser for Mar. 26, 1842, the Family School atFramingham disclosed that " The Latin, Greek, French andItalian 1.-rguages and thehigher branches of the mathematics mal.1-)t- pursued without extra charge." Through the Transcriptfor Oct. 8 of the year justcited, we learn aboutItalian at the School for YoungLadies conducted at Cambridge bythe Misses Wells " assistedby their father." It was available at theHolliston Academy (BostonEmancipator and Weekly Chronicle, Aug. 21,1844), and in 1845 at the Newton Female Academy in Newton Centre(id., Mar. 16). The Lasall Seminary catalogs in the LasallJunior College Library at Auburndale bring out that thelanguage regularly appeared there for a number of yearscommencing with its foundingdate, 1851. At the Young Ladies'Institute in Pittsfield Mons.Victor Richard was teacher of French, Italianand German (New York Independent, Feb. 24, 1853). GaetanoLanza was employed as teacher of Italian and Spanish at theBoarding and Day School for Young Ladies in Brookline(Transcript, Aug. 24, 1853).

208 imirsrlinimPo4.14111111

Incidentally, the same paper brings out that he was replaced by Luigi Monti in 1857 (see Aug. 27 issue). Mr. Lanza was also connected with the Mystic Hall Seminary for Young Women in West Medford as teacher of Italian, Spanish and German (Transcript, July 23, i855), as well as teacher of the same three languages in the West Medford School for Young Ladies (see National intelligencer, Sept. 15, as, 17, 1855). In 18M students had the opportunity to learn Italian at Rev. Stickney's English and Classical School in Lowell (Lowell Daily journal and Courier, Aug. as), in 185g at the Lenox Academy, Berkshire County, Western Massachusetts (Albany journal, Dec. 20, and at Mrs. Comegy's English and French Boarding School in Ca bridge (Transcript, Oct. 3). Mrs. Comegy, we may add, is doubtless the same person whohad conducted a school at Bladensburg, Md. some years before. In the permanent collection of the Westfield Athenaeum there is a manuscript paper on a The History of Westfield Academy," written by Thomas J. Abernethy, a former principal at the institution. It contains the following statement: a ... in 1858 the Westfield Academy was reopened for what promised to be its most flourishing period... For young ladies, special courses in music, drawing and painting were offered, and ladies were also allowed to pursue the classics in the regular classes in that department. Spanish and Italian were to be offered if the demand was sufficient.*

NEW HAMPSHIRE

The New Hampshire Historical Society at Concord is one of the yery few libraries that has made a serious effort to preserve the catalogs of its secondary institutions. About seventy of them are from schools which were operating in the state between 1840 and 1860 and of these eighteen or more than one fourth were offering Italian, namely: Contoocook Academy, Exeter Female Academy, Franklin Academy, Gilmanton Academy, Hampton Academy, Hopkinton Academy, Literary and Scientific Institution (Hancock), Kingston Academy, New Englandtian Literary tote(Andover), New Hampton Literary and Biblical

14 Institution (New Ipswich), AppletonAcademy, The Academical Institution (New London), OxfordMusicalInstitute and Academy a Modern Languages,Orford Academy, People's LiteraryInstituteand Gymnasium(Pembroke),Pittsfield Academy, Sanborton Academy,New Hampshire Conference Seminary (Northfield,now TiltonSchool), Tubb's Union Academy (Washington), Union Academy(Durham). Incidentally, the name of TheAcademical Institutionwas changed in 1834 to The NewLondon Literary and Scientific Institution. Italian had been introducedthere in 1841 and continued to be listed in the curriculumsection of its catalogs through 1867. As for the New HampshireConference Seminary, we have learned from its catalogs that itwas taught there from 1845 through 1871. From theNew Hampshire Patriot and StateGazetteit has been possible to addseven more items to our list, namely, Mrs. Fletcher's Ladies' School in Concord(Dec. 9, 1833); Franklin Seminary of Literature andScience in Newfield's Village, New Market (July 18, 1834); Woodman'sSanborton Academy (May 18, 1840); Holmes' PlymouthAcademy (Oct.13, 1843); and Pembroke Academy (Oct.g, 1846); the Young Ladies' Boarding School in Concord (Feb.as, 1851); and the Female Seminary in North Hampton (Mar.11, 1831). Two Portsmouth institutions advertised Italian in thePortsmouth journal, the School for Young Ladies on Aug.30, 1836, and Mrs. Spalding's Schoolon Aug. 19, 1837. Among theBostonRecordernotices that concern us we have discovered two others, the AdamsFemale Academy at Derry (Mar. 19, i819) and th:tYoung Ladies' School at Keene (April 16, 1833). Weare uncertain as to whe er another Keene institution, which advertisedin the Boston New EnglandGalaxy April 13, dal is identicalwith the establishment just

RHODE ISLAND

After his first tripto Europe (1817.3o) G.W. Greene taught in aa classical schoolinProvidence. This unidentifed institutionmay have offered regularcourses in the modern

210 languages, but even if it had notwe can be certain that Greene taught French and Italian as extra-curricular subjects. Weknow that he very much wantedto become a professor of modern languages like his friend Longfellowat Bowdoin, but this ambition did not materializeat the moment. For this reason he left the United States in 1835 with theintention of remaining permanently in Italy, the home of his wife'sparents. He was, however, able to realize his ambition by becomingan instructor in Italian at Brown University between 1848and 1855.° Margaret Fuller, as has been noted, hada private class in Italian at Bronson Alcott's Temple Schoolin Boston in 1836-37. In view of her ardent love for Italywe do not feel that she would abruply cast aside the languagein 1837 when she transferred briefly to the Green St. School inProvidence then offering " modern languagesaccording to an announcement in the Providence Daily journal for thatyear. William Howe Tolman in his Historyof Higher Education in*Rhode island(Washington, D.C., 1894) addstwo schools in other parts of the state, the Kent Academyin East Greenwich, where he notes that Italianwas offered in 184o and the Smithville Seminary (later Lapham Institute) where itwas offered in 1845. However, both dates should be changed sincethe Rhode Island Country Journal brings out that the languagewas already taught at Kent in 1833 and at Smifield in 1843. Mr. Tolmafurther tells us that between 1789 and 1845as many as nineteen institutions received charters from theAssembly (op. cit. 35). There were, of course,a number of unchartered schools that were functioning contemporaneously. Nevertheless, thesmall Tolman figure plus the paucity ofeducational announcements in the papers reveal that thenumber of private institutions must have been limited.

VERMONT

Like its neighboring NewHampshire Historical Society, the Vermont Historical Societyat Montpelier has fortunately ' For a fuller account set Prof. Fred C.Halli000.1 Univ. of Washington doctoral dissertation on Greene.

211 preserved many of the catalogs of its middle schools. These indicate that between 1840 and 1860 Italian was available in the following academies and seminaries: Chester Academy, Derby Academy, New Hampton Institute at Fairfax, Brandon Seminary, Black River Academy at Ludlow, Middlebury Female Academy, People's Academy atMorrisville, Newbury Seminary, West Randolph Academy,Saxton'sRiverSeminary,Springfield Wesleyan Seminary, Thetford Academy, Leland and Gray Seminary at Townshend and Westminster Seminary. Thanks to catalogs for 1838, 1841.5o, 185968 in the Green Mountain College at Poultney, we can also add Italian at its parent school, the Troy Conference Aca y. Evidently, the founding year of the college saw the tail.end of a fashionable trend. Obviously, there must have been a number of other Vermont schools offering the language in the twenties and early thirties. Token proof of this can be found in the announcement of the Norwich High School in the New Hampshire Patriot and State Gazette forI . 9. 1833. MIDDLE STATES

DELAWARE

From what can be gathered from Margaret Loretta Kane's unpublished University of Pennsylvania thesis(2947), The Development of Secondary Education in Delaware Before r9oo, the spread of private schools in Delaware was unusually thin during our period, in fact, there were only fourteen chartered schools registered between 1769 and 1857. Among the few institutions that offered Italian were The Select School for Boys in Wilmington conducted by the Reverend H. Adams, Rector of Trinity Church (New York Churchman, Mar. 14, 1838), and the Wesleyan Female College Institute at Wilmington. The catalogs in the University of Delaware Library show that it was taught in the latter establishment from 1838 through 1854. The Philadelphia National Gazette and Literery Register for Nov. to, 183s perhaps provides the earliest record on the

212 teaching of Italianin the state. Thiswas at the Wilmington Boarding School. The Newark FemaleSeminary announcedin the Delaware Gazettefor Sept.3, 1841 that " The French, Spanish and Italian languages will be taught bythe professor ofmodern languages in Newark College * (now theUniversity of Delaware). We may add here thename of Delaware FemaleCollege (Wilmington [?]) where, according to theannouncements carried by the Presbyterian of the West for Oct.am, Vincent Menne Ili, a from Florence was engaged asProf of instrumental and vocal musk,French and Italian'

MARYLAND

P.C. Potts in Secondary Education inMaryland Before z800, a book published in 193o makes the generalstatement that Italian was taught in the Marylandschools priorto i800. We do not have the names of these institutions.On the other hand, we can supply the names of quite a number ofschools from iSog on. For example, from the BaltimoreWhig for Aug.as. 1809), we have learned that Mrs. Groombridgehad established a Colu bia Academy in the city. No languagesare specified in the notice, but since Mrs. Groombridgehad stressed Italianin her former school in Philadelphia andsince * Italian Singing" is emphasized in other Whignotices, it is certain thatinstruction

*Several institutionscalledcollege,' like this * college institute one, and others called cscollegiate institute *are going to be included in our secondary school list from here on. Itshould be kept in mindthat we are dealing withan overlapping type of the vertical type school system u opposedto prevailing today. Inmany cases primary, secondaryand college-level courseswere available in thesame school. In many instruction an hardly be said to havebeen of high quality. there are likewise On the other hand, many instances in whichacademies competed with and were even better than theso-called colleges. A Greenfield Hill Academy. famous example is the C.E. Cunningham inhis biography of its director: Timothy Dwight (New York, tets, 78) haswritten: Students from that institution Yale shiftedto Greenfield to be under he did his best his butruction... and to make them superior inscholarship to those who at New Haven.* remained

213 in the Italian language was a part of its curriculum. Greek, Latin, French, Italian and Spanish were taught in the Classical and English Academy, also in Baltimore, run by M. Power (see Baltimore Morning Chronicle and Advertiser for Sept.16, 1821.Information oneightinstitutionscomes fromthe Washington National Intelligencer while six were found in the Baltimore Sun. Those that we have picked up from the Inte lli- gencer are the following: Frederick Academy (Oct. 3, 1827); 10 Cedar Park Academy (July *6, 1832); 11 Miss Mercer's Boarding School at Belmont, which removed there from Loudon County, Va. (Mays 1, 1837); Rock Hill Mathematical Classical and Esthet- ical Select Academy and Boarding School at Ellicott's Mills in which Prof. Kraitsir, later at the University of Virginia and other academies was one of the teachers (Sept. 3, 1837); Mrs. Archer's Academy for Young Ladies in Baltimore (July 23,1840); Rockville Institutc in Montgomery County (Aug.so,1841); Landon Female Academy in Frederick County (Sept.4, 1845); Collegiate Institute for Young Ladies in Baltimore (Sept. *8, 1846); Mrs. Comegy's Boarding School for Young Ladies in Bladensburg (Sept. *, 1847); Charlotte Hall in Annapolis (Aug. 15, 1849). Those that we have gathered from the Sun are: Young Ladies' Academy of the Visitation in Baltimore (Aug. 18 ,1847); Forest School: Preparatory and Classical Boarding School for Boys at Owlings Mills (Sept. 4, 1851); Trinity School for Young Ladies in Baltimore (Aug. *8, 185*); St. Joseph's Academynear Emmitsburg (July 13, 1853): The Misses Gamber's Select School for Young Ladies in Baltimore (Aug. 29, 1853); and Frederick Academy of the B.V.M. (Aug. so, 1856). In their notice in the Philadelphia United States Gazette for Sept. 1, 1841 the directors of the Academy for Young Ladies, Mr. and Mrs. Davidge, made the statement: u The Italian, Spanish and German languages will be taught by Professors of long established reputation. Also in the Gazette (Aug. *9, 1843) isan advertisement on the Young

l Italian was still taught in this school in 1853 as revealed by the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for that year. " Cedar Park also ran an ad in the Philadelphia National Gazette and Literary Register for Sept. 11, Ass.

214 Ladies' School of Visitation in Baltimore.The Richmond Enquirer provides two notices, TheFranklinInstituteof Baltimore (Sept. 13, 1843), and Mr. and Mrs.Cary's School, 14 miles from Baltimore (Aug.7, 1841). In the issue for Aug. is, 184* the latter institution appearedas Mrs. Cary's Country School for Young Ladies and Paul Pioda,who had been at the Miss E.A. Thurston's School inOrange Court, Va., is listed as teacher of French, German and Italian. Laterhe taught at Benicia in California and still later becamethe first Professor of Modern Languages at the University ofCalifornia. An early announcement on the availability of Italian in thestate as an academy subject appeared in the Aug.13, 18so issue of the Federal Gazette and Baltimore DailyAdvertiser. It concerns Dr. Barry's Select Tuition School for Young Ladies.The name of the Misses Maxwell's School in Baltimoreis furnished by the Charleston, S.C. Courier (April3, 1844 In 1837 the Catholic Almanac announced French, Italian andSpanish at The Misses Cottringer's Seminary for Young Ladies and, in thesame year, The Misses McNally's Seminary for YoungLadies. On the latter school we read: The course of instruction willcomprise French, Italian, Music, Piano, Harp, Drawing, Embroidery,Fancy Work and Tapestry, History, Belles Lettres, Geographyand Daily composition in French. The Misses McNallyneither require nor employ any language outside of their family, theuse of another language than French and Italianis thus effectually excluded.* Through the 1849 annualwe learn that Italian was offered at St. John's Literary Institute, whilethrough the 1853 Metropolitan Catholic Almanacwe are informed on the offering of the language at Mount De SalleAcademy, near Catonville, five miles west of Baltimore.

NEW JERSEY

An early New Jersey academ), offering of Italianis registered in the 18s9 catalog of The Lawrenceville School inLawrenceville. Catalogs in the New Jersey Historical Societyat Newark show

215 that the languagewas taught in 1847 at BurlingtonCollege, an Episcopal schoolfor menwith 1 branches, and in preparatory andcollegiate 185$ at the Westjersey Collegiate Mount Holly.For St. Mary's Schoolnear Hall, anEpiscopal school also locatedat Burlington, for girls, we have a brochureby Helen Shaw: TheFirst Hundred Louise Years of St.Mary's Hallon the Delaware:a Century ofPrivate School Women Under Education forYoung the AmericanEpiscopal Church: (Yard ly, Pa.,1936), which 1837-1957 informsus that instructionin Italian was inauguratedthere in 1845, and that thelanguagewas among the basiccourses that appear in the catalogsfor thenext thirty years. We likewiselearn that its to the rudimentary principal, BishopDoane, added course, a course oftwo years' duration designed to fitone to teachor to do advance This was work is(p. 17). a unique innovationfor the time. the first In Italianliterature year dealt with Tassoand the second The following with Dante. names of other NewJersey schools Italianappear in various teaching newspaperannouncements: Lawren- ceville HighSchool (National Intelligencer, May11, 183o); Jersey City Boardingand Day School (New YorkChurchman, April 1831); Nasal,Hall in Princeton 16, with BenedictJaeger, professor at the University,listed as teacher ofGerman andItalian (RichmondEnquirer, Oct.x 1, x833); Private at Burlington School for Boys ,conducted byMrs. Emory 1837); The (Churchman, Sept.sti, Female BoardingSchool at Perth Observer, April Amboy (NewYork 28, 1838);The FemaleSeminary at Sussex County(id. April Sparta in 13, 1838); Miss L.Mann's Boarding School for YoungLadies at Morristown (id. April 28,1838); The Female Academyat Rahway, Essex County (id. Feb.23, 1839); The MissesUdell's Boarding School forYoung Ladiesat Princeton (id.Mar 28, 184o);The Boarding Boys at School for Boysfor Morristown whereItalianwas taught bya Mr. Luna (Intelligencer,May 11, 1844);The Minn, Institute.Boarding and Bucknall's Newark Day SchoolforYoungLadies (intel/igencer,Nov. 24, 1849). After specifying French in itsnotice the Boardingand Day School forYoung Ladies in Orangeadded that " Ifrequired the r 216 drawing will betaught at theusual other foreignlanguages and Journal, Sept. 4,1858). Sincethis instruction was rates (Orange likelihood that a obviously on atutorial basis,there is a strong asked for Italianlessons. few students University Library There is abroadside in theRutgers in the PenningtonFemale showing that thesubject was present Trenton, in1847, while a InstituteatPennington, near the TrentonTrue Americanfor Penningtonadvertisement in indication of acontinuance ofinterest Aug. 3o, 1853 servesas an in the language.

NEW YORK established by Academy forYoung Men The Manhattan Manhattan in New YorkCity in 1808,and the Lorenzo Da Ponte concurrently byhis Young Womenestablished Academy for In his Dellalingua e della wife, flourishedfor some years. published in1827, Da Ponte letteratura italianain New York, schools which hecalls " seminarijd'educazione speaks of eight of which was himself taughtfor nine years, one in which he monograph he Signora O'Kell.In the same conducted by a written to a in Italian by oneof his students introduces a letter of her: Damigella Garnet *with a notein which he says introdusse nelcollegio di suopadre " Questabrava Damigella already italiana the impart)da se stessa(68). We have la lingua (1821-go). After referred to AnnDa Ponte'sBoarding House under thedirection of Mrs. Da Ponte'sdeath it continued Ponte, wife ofher son, LorenzoL. Cornelia Durant-Da Normal City educationalestablishment, the One New York Knowledge, School for Languagesand Practical and Polytechnic Commercial F. De Gelone,advertised Italianin the run by Seminary listed Advertiser for Oct. 31,182o. In 1821,the Milton in theAmerican for Jan.6. the languagein its announcement Bonfils startedtheir Young The following yearMr. and Mrs. May 14). Thoughthe name Ladies' BoardingSchool (American, French Seminary(id. Sept. was soonchanged intoEnglish and

217 24), instruction in Italian was given in both. We see Prof. Bonfils later in Washington, D.C., the Universityof Alabama and elsewhere. Other establishments that advertised Italian in the American were UnionHill,Jamaica,L.I.(Oct.2,Mrs.Putnam's Academy for Young Ladies (May 14, 1826); Mr. Siflet's Institute for Young Gentlemen (Jan. 3, 1829); Mrs. Lambert's Academy (April 8, 1829); Christ Church Academy at North Hempstead (May 23,1829); Mrs. Thompson's Institute (Mar.3,1831); Madame G. Witel's French Day School for Young Ladies (April 7, 1831); John D. Ogilby's Collegiate School (April 6,1831); Rev. J.W. Curtis' and Mr. Libolt's English, French and Classical Institute (May 6, 1832); the School for Young Gentlemen with Antonio Martino listed as the teacher (Sept.11,1832); Mrs. Gibson and Daughters (May 4, 1836). Five more academies chose to place their notices in the New York Spectator, namely, Miss Gilbert's Young Ladies' Boarding School which stated that teachers « in the highest repute would be employed for French, Italian and Spanish " (Sept.1,1829); the La Fayette Institute which declared that " the most experienced teachers in the French, Spanish and Italian languages are also engaged " (Mar. 14, 1833); the Select Boarding and Day School (Sept. 2, 1833), and, out of New York City, the Troy Episcopal Institute for the Education of Young Gentlemen in charge of the Rev. Alva Bennett (Oct. 1, 1838). In the New York Evening Star for Mar. 31, 1836 we have noted the listing of Italian on the part of the Collegiate School, 16o Canal Street, with A. Pestiaux as the instructor, and, in the Feb. 20, 1838 issue, the offering of the language together with French, German and Latin at Mrs. Inglis' Boarding School for Young Ladies located in New Brighton, Staten Island. From 1827 to the year of his return to Italy in 1848, the Marquis of Santangelo, a good friend of Lorenzo Da Ponte, better known as Orazio De Attellis, conducted several private schools with Italian personally taught by him.12 One American

" For additional information on the Marquis see H.R. Marraro, Pioneer Italian Teachers..." op. cit., 558-62.

218 advertisement for Mar.24, 1831 informs us of a Private Literary Institution which he hadestablished, while the April 26issue of the papergave notice of the opening ofan ambitiously labelled " Foreign College" conducted by the Marquisand hisassociates." In 183o he andhis wife conducted Mr. and Mrs. Santangelo's Study (NewYork Evening Herald, April9). Likewise in operation duringthe followingyear was the Ladies' Morning Schoolrun by Mrs. Santangelo (American, Aug.26). Five city establishmentsoffering the language chose theNew York Churchmanastheir advertising medium:Mrs. John H. Greene and Daughters(Aug. 24,1833); Miss Calhoun's Select Seminary for Young Ladies(April 20, 1836); Mrs. Newton and Daughters (May14, 1836); Trinity School (Jan.12, 1839); Mrs Michaels' Boarding Schoolfor Young Ladies (July20, 1844). To these wecan also add the following: The Junior Mechanics Institute which offeredLatin, Greek, French, Spanish and Italian (New York Sentinel,Jan. 3, 1832), and the Cole and Carman Academy which offeredinstruction in " Bookkeeping, Penmanship and in the French,Italian and Latin languages (New York Transcript, Dec.19, 1835). In the course ofour perusal of the New York Observer,we have found that in 1840, 1841,1848 and 1851, four academies specifically designated Italian intheir first and secondterm announcements as one of the modern foreignlanguages which students enrolled in them mightstudy should they beso inclined. They were: the Hudson Seminaryfor Young Ladies, in charge of the Reverend Ward Stafford(May 2, 1840); the Young Ladies' Institute, under the directionof the Misses Havens (Oct.8, 1841); Miss Bailey's BoardingSchool for Young Ladies (March 27, 1847); and, lastly, Mrs. Hunter'sSchool for Young Ladies (August 21, 1851), which noted,as an added attraction, that " An accomplished ItalianGentleman has charge of hisown language." Another school, thatevidently catered to out-of-state students, placed its advertisementin the Washington National Intelligencer for March3o,1848.It was conducted by the Reverend Hanry Dana Ward, itsrector, who was " assisted by Mrs. Ward and bya resident Parisian governess and also byItalian,

219 German and Spanish ladies to accustomhis pupilsto converse with propriety in these languages." Inthe New YorkDaily Tribune (Oct. i 1, 1852), Mr. JohnMacMullengave notice on the opening of a new School for Boysat No. 34 Boweryat which French, Italian, German and Spanish couldbe studied. Inthe Tribune for Sept. 8, 1856 and the NewYork Times forSept. 4, 1856 J. De Launay announced the openingof his schoolwith classes in French, Italian,Spanish etc. Germanand Italian listed at Madame were Vander Weyde'sYoung Ladies'Institute (Times, Sept. 3, 1856). The Catholic Almanacfor 1842 printed the prospectus of the Young Ladies'Academy under theLadies of the Sacred Heart,in 1848 theone for the Convent of the Sacred Heart near Manhattanville Italian, Spanish andGer- man, " extras " and, in 1849, theprospectus of the Sacred Heart Academy,which must havebeen a branchof the Convent. In a notice in the New YorkMethodist for Sept. 2o, 1860, repeated in theissue of the 22nd,we read that in the [Rev. D.C.] VanNorman Institute. AnEnglish and French Boarding School for Young Ladies" The ablestmasters are employed for FrenchItalian, German, and other Pianoforte, Harp accomplishments." Theinstitute must havebeen operating successfullyfor severalyears to be able to advertise on a nation-wide scale as seems to be indicated bythe series of ads run in theChicago Press Tribunefor Sept. 1859. The of the private name school in which C.F.Secchi de' Casali,founder and editor of the Eco d'Italia, taughtItalian, French andother subjects in 1845 and1846 has not beenrevealed." It should be obvious that not one of theestablishments already mentionedwas a chartered Institution.For such a list we turn for our datato the Annual Reportsof the Regents of the State University of New York to theLegislature which began in 1826 and terminated in1904. By means of theseReports it has been possible to assemble an imposing catalogof educational institutions offeringItalian throughout theEmpire State between

14 See G. Schiavo: Four Centuries of ItalianAmerican History, cit. 266. Schiavo derived op. his information from theEco, June 28-29, t883.

220 1818 and 186o, which has savedus scores of hours of labor. In alphabetical order the followingare the names listed: Albany Female Academy (now Albany Academyfor Girls), Alfred Academy, Amenia Seminary in DutchessCounty, Angelica Academy, Brooklyn Collegiate Institutefor Young Women, Canajoharie Academy, Cherry Valley FemaleAcademy, Clarkson Academy, Cooperstown Seminary, DelawareAcademy. De Ruyter Institute, Ellington Academy, FairfieldAcademy, Glens Falls Academy, Gouverneur Wesleyan Seminary,Hamilton Academy, Keesville Academy, Kinderhood Academy,Manlius Academy. Mayville Academy, Middlebury Academy,Monroe Academy, New York Conference Seminary, NundaLiterary Institute, Oneida Conference Seminary, Ontario Female Academy,Oswego Academy, Oxford Academy, Phipps Union FemaleSeminary, Pompey Academy, Rensselaer -Oswego Academy,Renulaervitle Acade y, Rochester Collegiate Institute, RushfordAcademy, Rutgers Female Institute,S.S.Seward Institute,the Troy Academy (now Emma Willard School), Union LiterarySociety, Utica Academy, Vernon Academy, YatesPolytechnic Institute. No attempt has been madeto trace the life-span of Italian in these schools. It was short insome instances but in others it lasted for a fair number ofyears, for example, from 1855 to 1874 at the Albany Female Academy, from 1843 to 186o and beyond at the Alfred Academy, from 1837 to 187o at the Troy Female Academy? Among the schools teaching Italian outside ofNew York City the following are mentioned in the Observer:The Boarding School at Rye (Feb. 4,183s); Pougheepsie Female Academy (April 14, 1838); Alfred Clapp's Boarding Schoolfor Young Ladies in Brooklyn (Marc.17, 1847); Seminary Hill Academy in Newburgh (April s8, 1849); John Alzamora'sFrench Boarding

" Bagster-Collins in his History of ModernLanguage Teaching in the U.S., op. cit., 14, without specifyingany of the names of the schools, notes that there were four Academies teaching italian in thestate in 1836, which rose to fifteen in 1863. He is evidently referringto chartered schools but even a our list chows that his mention of the figurefifteen is a gross miscalculation.

221 School also in Newburgh (April 16, 1850); New York Conference Seminary in Charlotteville (Aug. s5,1853); and Fort Plain Semin..ry (Sept. s9, 1853). Erasmus Hall Academy in Flatbush, L.I. made its announcement in the Commerical Advertiser for Oct. 31, 18so, while Miss Gibbs' Female Boarding School in Hyde Park used the American for April 14, 18s1 as its medium. In the Albany Evening Journal notices three secondary schools in the city included the language: Albany Female Institute (April s8, 1831); Albany Select Family School (July 19, 1839); and Galway's Ladies' Seminary (Aug. 13, 1851). Two more which also advertised in the 101417141 were the Claverack and andHudsonRiverInstitute(Aug.7, 1854)andthe Princeton Academy Seminary in Schenectady County (Aug. ss, it 854). In the Troy Budget for May 6, 1836 The Practical School announced the teaching of French, Italian and Spanish during its summer session. Another summer session advertisement, one dealing with Mrs. Mark Cann's School at Ballston Spa, is printed in the same paper for May s, 1837. In 1839 the Catholic Almanac reproduced the prospectus of St Vincent of Paul's Seminary in Lafargeville, Jefferson County, which included French, Italian, German and Spanish. In 1847 Mrs. Vreedenburgh's Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies at New Brighton, Staten Island, placed a notice in the New Orleans Picayune (Aug. 31) that contains the statement: " The terms for French, Italian, Spanish, Drawing and Dancing will be regulated by the Professors employed.* Another prospectus on the Buffalo Academy for Young Ladies appears in the 1851 Metropolitan Catholic AlmanacItalian, German and Spanish * extras.*

PENNSYLVANIA

Because ofitsreadieraccessibilityinthenewspaper announcements of the time most of our data on the teaching of Italian in Pennsylvania pertains to Philadelphia. It is there that

222 we havefound our first Pennsylvaniaeducational establishment teaching the language. Thisis Mrs. Groombridge'sColumbia Boarding and Day Schoolfor Young Ladies. Its announcement in the PhiladelphiaGazette and Daily Advertiserfor Nov. so, illoo (one of a long seriesof repeated notices) readsin part: the following branches or any ofthem separately may beagreed for as mostagreeable: the English, Frenchand Italian languages grammatically, writing..." Theschool was already inexistence in 1797 as revealed by abit of publicity in anotherPhiladelphia paper. the Aurora.GeneralAdvertiser forAug. *5. The courses then taught there are notstated but theyA usthave included Italian. On Sept. 17, 18%theGazetteprinted the following on Mrs. Mallon's Academy: This Academy is and alwayshas been supplied with the mostdistinguished teachers from someof the principal cities of Europe,*namely Dublin. Edinburgh,Paris, London and Rome. Ittoo, had been inoperation since 1797 and continued at leastthrough181*.Instruction covered various branches of a liberaland polished education.*The Academy of the UnitedSciences conducted by Mrs.Ancora announced inPoulson's American Advertiserfor Sept. 9, 18o9 that * French and Italianwill be taught if required."A fourth institution which may beplaced in the early groupis the Franklin Academy in whichFrancis Varin instructed.In a thank younotice inPoulson'sfor April *6, 18s6 hemade known that he wascontinuing to teach the Latin, French, German and Italian languages," ashe had done for 13 years past, that is, since1813. Incidentally, anAcademy advertisement inPoulson'sfor Aug. s, 18so indicatesthe offering of French, Italian and Latin but notGerman. Among the schools thatadvertised in theNational Gazette and Literary Registerone of theearliest to give notice on instruction in the language wasMr. Hatt's Boarding Schoolfor Young Ladies (Aug. *6,18). Some others are theMrs. and Miss Harte's Boarding andDay Seminary (April $7,1824); Mr. M. Brown's Boardingand Day School (Aug. *618s4); Mrs. Brown's Boarding Schoolfor Young Ladies (Aug. 31,1824); Mr. and Mrs. Bazeley'sSeminary, where Latin,French and

223 Italian were taught byprofessors of talent in their respective branches..." (Aug. 31. 1814); Mr.Sanderson's Academy (Aug. 18. 1816): J.P. Espy's School ofClassical and Scientific Education (Aug. sg, OM); Mrs. Wood'sEstablishment for the Education of Young Ladies, where thelanguages were taught with 6 the assistance of the most approvedmasters(Aug. *8, 18*7); the High School Department of TheFranklin Institute with Giacomo Sep in charge of French,Spanish and Italian (Aug.17. illag); Mrs. Bouchard's Academy forYoung Ladies (Aug.it 181g); The Philadelphia Lyceum(Sept. a, 183o); Mrs. L.W. Eyre and L Burton's Boarding Schoolfor Young Ladies (Feb. 16, 1831) and its branch establishment underthe name of Mrs. LW. Eyre and M. Fennell's BoardingSchool for Young Ladies (Aug.*4, 1831); The Philadelphia HighSchool for Young Ladies (Sept. 19,1831); Mrs. Sarazin's Boardingand Day School, which announced thatSr. Mancinelli from Rome willhave a class in Italian at Mrs. Sarazin'sfrom 4 till 5 three timesa week (Sept. 6, 1831); the CatholicSeminary at South Fourth St. (July 11,1832);Mrs. Hugh's English andFrench School with Mancinelli as the Italian teacher(July *6, 1833); Mrs. Bushey's French and English BoardingSchool for Young Ladies (Aug. *0, 1833); Mr. and Mrs. Poole's School forYoung Ladies (Aug. *6, 1833); and Mrs.Ashmead's Seminary (Aug.1g, 1834); Aug. lo, 1833; Classical and MathematicalSchool. * For instruction in the modern languages,French, Spanish, Italian andGerman competent teachers will be procured;Sept. 1, 1833, Mr. Espy announced the opening ofan apparently new school at the Arcade with this P.S.at Signor Mancinelli has beenengaged to teach the Italian language throughthe medium of the French at a small extra charge; * Aug.27, 1834, Female Academy at No. 1 Old York Road;Sept. 3, 1834, Miss Mandevilleopened a School for Young Ladies with Latin,French, Italianamong its offerings; Sept.1,1834, J. Roberton and N.J.De Soter, principals of a School forYoung Ladies, announced that

" Later in Poulson's AmericanDaily Advertiser (Sept.1,035), the name of Mrs. Hugh's institutionwas changed to Boarding and Day School. Mancinelli is also mentioned hereas the Italian instructor.

224

laraMMIWOMMIVailla.NWINOINI=wwww.mimowleINANIIIINOMMRRIANNMAWai the studies for the ThirdClass 1' will Include Mathematics, Bookkeeping, Italian and German.* Mr. and Mrs. Picot usedthe Richmond Enquirer (Septso, 183g) to advertise French andItalian at their school. Through the United StatesGazette for Aug.31, 1840, we learn that J.H. Wilder'sSchool for Young Ladiesprovided instruction in Latin, Greek,French, Italian and Spanish.The Gazette also printedat least three more notices relatingto ItalianMiss Biundell'sMorning Establishment forYoung Ladies (Aug.as, 1841); The Misses Bartlett and CollinsSchool for Young Ladies (Septs, 1843); and the Select Senior School. Female Education (Sept.a, 1843). In the North Americanand United States Gazette forAug. 31, 1847, P.J. Livingston Van Doren (formerlywith the Brooklyn Collegiate Institute and from1831 to 1835 at its branch in Lexington, Ky.) with theassistanceof his Lady and Daughter,* advertiseda Young Ladies' Institute with Italian as one of its courses. An advertisementin the samepaper for Oct 3, 1848 informsus of a Boarding and Day School forYoung Ladies at which Dr. Togniwas the teacher of the language. In the Sept. 4, 184g issue theMisses Anable's School listedLatin, Greek, Italian, Spanish andGerman, and on Sept. 8, 1849,Mons. Richard, a ex-professor fromthe Academy of Paris I announced classes in French, Germanand Italian. In the National Intelligencer(Washington, D.C.) for Sept. 27, 1845, a Miss Williams, U nativeof England * gave notice of the establishment ofan English and French Boarding School in Philadelphia with instruction,provided also in Italian, German and Spanish. The Intelligencerfor Aug. 10, 1858 likewisegave notice that the Misses Carpentier'sBoarding and Day School for Young Ladies in thesame metropolis was ready to impart instruction in Italian, Frenchand German K at professor's prices.* Throughout 1848 and 1849 Mrs.Snow and E.J. Thompson used the National Era(Washington, D.C.) to advertisetheir Boarding and Day Schoolat which Italian, Spanish and German could be studiedat $5. per quarter. Evidently, the

225

Is Boarding School runby Mrs. Henry Wreaksdrew quite a number of its studentsfrom the Deep South,which would account for theseries of advertisementsplaced in the New Orleans Picayune for 1848,1849 and 1830. In thisinstitution there was an extra chargefor Italian and Spanish. V.M. in the Records ofthe American CatholicHistorical Society, LIX (1848) lists fourCatholic schools in thecity where Italian was taught between1833 and 1860at TheYoung Ladies French and English Academyin 1833; at St. Paul'sEnglish and maw Academy between 1841 and1847, at The Boarding School for Young Ladies inLogan Square in 1847;and at St. Joseph's Academy in 1848. A cataloginthe PresbyterianHistoricalSocietyin Philadelphia brings out thatItalian was available atthe Classical and MathematicalInstitute of the Presbyteryof Philadelphia (183s) under Tito Seron, «Professor of French,Italian and Spanish.* The 1834 catalog ofthe Scientific andClassical Institute in the PennsylvaniaHistorical Society listsV.D. Amarelli as Professor of Italian andSpanish language andliterature.* Another catalog, that of theQuaker City BusinessCollege (1863) lists Amarelli as teacherof French, Italian andSpanish. We are not certain whetherthe Classical andMathematical Institute (a common school name)is the same as the onecited under 1855. Presumably it was not. At any rate,the advertisement inthe Philadelphia Circulating Directoryfor 1838 gives thefollowing curriculum at the institute: " Inthis school are taught theLatin, Greek, French, Spanish,Italian and GermanLanguages, the Mathematics together withsuch English branches as are necessary to prepare young menfor college or for professional,mechanical or mercantilepursuits." Inasmuch as in his noticein the United StatesGazette for Sept g, 1846, ex-Yaleinstructor, Luigi Roberti, gave ashis references the names of thedirectors of thePhiladelphia schools in which he had previouslytaught, namely, MissBartlett, Miss Davidson, Miss Lamb, Mrs.Rice and Mrs. Woodruff,and, he added « some others," thisshould mean that hehad been available there for instructionin Italian. MissBartlett had,

226 incidentally, been teaching the language in her institution even before Roberti's arrival in the city (cf. U.S. Gazette,Sept. a, 1843). The others either did not place school notices or, asin the cases of Lamb and Rice, did not describe their course offerings. Nevertheless, we can safely add five more schools to our list. Though not specified, it is likely that Italian was taught at MissSoffredini'sSeminary,whichisadvertisedinthe Philadelphia Directoryfor1841. When thePantographic Academy told its public that " The course of instructionis very full, including eight languages," (North American andU.S. Gazette, Sept. 6, 183s) it would be absurd for anyone to insist that Italian was not one of them. Our list eloquently attests to a constant and steady flowof interest in Italian in Philadelphia, which lasted well-nigh sixty years. Insofar as the remainder of the state is concerned, our inventory of schools is meagre due to the inaccessibilityof documentary information. However, we do know that the Hamilton Village Institution was teaching Italian and French in i817. In the notice in the National Gazette for May 17thits director, Mrs. Lucretia Sarazin, communicated that she avisited Europe with the express view of preparing herself for the present undertaking. She spent two years in Italy and three in several of the most celebrated seminaries in Paris." Togetherwith French, Spanish and German, Italian was offered at the Bristol High School in 1831 (National Gazette, Dec. 6). TheWest Chester Young Ladies' School was teaching Italian in 1838 (New York Evening Star, Aug. s8), and it could be studied in 1840 conjointly with German and French at the Hamiltonville Female Institute (U.S. Gazette, June is). During the same year a Mr. Cattanio was teacherof Modern Languages at Holly Hall High School in Bridesburg (North American and U.S.Gazette, Aug. ag). The most impressive prospectus of aPennylvania academy that we have seen, specifying all the majormodern languages along with many other courses, is that ofthe Select SeminaryandBoardingSchoolforYoungLadiesat

227 Chambersburg. It was reproduced in a number of issues of the Bedford Inquirer starting with Sept. 4, 1843. The Pittsburgh Female Institute, in its notice in the (Pittsburgh) Christian Advocate for Aug. 11, 1846, offered instruction as " extras " in French,Italian,Spanish and German. A catalog ofthe Strasburg Academy for 1847 in the Presbyterian Historical Society reveals that thereThe branches embrace all those of a thorough English education together with the Latin, Greek, French, German and Italian languages." We learn about Italian courses at the Youngstown (Westmorland County) Academy for Young Ladies in the 1847 Catholic Almanac. A little later the Almanac for 1849 lists the language at the Young Ladies' Academy of St. Francis Xavier near Youngstown, and at Edin Hall near Holmesburg. According to the National Intelligtmcer for April 5, 1848 there were at least two schools in York with Italian as one of their courses, the Boarding School for Boys and, under the same proprietor, the Boarding School for Young Ladies. In 1853 the Bethlehem Boarding School for Young Gentlemen included French, German and Italian among the subjects it taught (cf. The True American of Trenton, N.J., Jan. 13). Italian could also be learned at the Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies run by Miss Sproul and Miss Carson (Baltimore Sun, Aug. 13, 1859). James Muihern in A History of Secondary Education in Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1933) mentions the language as one of the subjects taught sometime before 1861 in the Freeland Seminary (Montgomery County). In this book, incidentally, Mr. Mulhem citesa Table with two setsof figures on the Percentage of Seminaries Offering Certain Subjects." In one, under * Modern Languages," p. 428, he finds that out of is6 schools operating between 1750 and 1889, 70% offered French, 3o% German, so% Italian and 17% Spanish. In the second he reports that out of go schools operating between 1830 and 1889 French is represented by 8s%, German by 42%, Italian by ssty. and Spanish by 24%. The periods are arbitarily selected without any attention to educational trends such as the decline of the private schools after the Civil War and the enforcement in the latter part of the century of. requirements which favored French 11wwww

indicate hissourcesof Though hedoes not and German. of theothereducational tion,presumablylike most Hence he inf charteredinstitutions. historians, herefers only to applied for a slights manythat never misses ordeliberately of thosewhich majority inPhiladelphia charter,including the which hebases specified theschools on have cited.Had he of the we that nofewer thanfifteen out his Tableit is certain inPhiladelphiaand would representinstitutions list. twenty-five that are notincluded in our elsewhere inthe state in addingthis figure, therefore, wefeel justified Inferentially, plus 15 or 91schools, afigure count.Thus wehave 76 closer to the 15, to our brings ussomewhat which, thoughstillincomplete, actual numberof offerings.

STATES THESOUTHERN

ALABAMA Prior his chapter on" Education Albert BurtonMoore in Ala., 1934) History ofAlabama(University, to 1869" in his wereembraced in " modernlanguages merelymentions that H. Johnsonin secondaryschools. Joseph the curriculaof the Alabama Priorto the of theAcademy in The Riseand Growth University ofAlabamathesis, Civil War, anunpublished 1955 such a listof It is clearthat when and laconic. be drawn is just as vague compiled, itwill have to schools willeventually be To us, announcementsin the newspapers. primarilyfrom the in microfilmhave time being,state newspapers at leastfor the loans withthe exception availablethroughinter-library Patriot not been CommercialRegister and of short runsof theMobile From thefirst Journal(Montgomery). and theDailyAlabama YoungLadies the SuggsvilleSeminary for wehave gleaned which French,Italian Madame Pilateof London at from the conducted by studied (Nov. 4,1836), and and Spanishcould be Institute PresbyterianFemale College second the namesof the Perry St.Female 185o), andthe New atTalladega (Oct.21, 229

01111101111016110wimporwam. Academy in Montgomery (Aug. s5, 1851). An entry in the 1839 catalog of the Judson Female Institute in Marion (now Judson College), which is preserved in the Archives and History section of the State of Alabama reads: a French, German and Italian (either or all $so.00." Italian, incidentally, has had a good tradition at the institute, and though there may have been a break or two, it is interesting to find that it continued to be taught through 1884-85. The catalog for that year states: " They [French, German and Italian] do not form part of the regular course, but either of them will be accepted as a substitute for Latin in the requirements for graduation." Prior to moving to Columbia, Tenn. in 1845 The Tennessee Conference Female Institute had operated under another name at Athens, Ala. Since Italian was offered at Columbia, it may well be that it had also been offered at Athens. Thanks to a report from Mrs. Ella Terrill reference librarian at the University of Alabama Library, we are able to designate two more schools which were offering Italian, the Tuscaloosa Female College in186oand the Alabama Central Female Institute (Tuscaloosa), also in186o. The firststate institution to teach the language is the University of Alabama in 1832. Sauveur Bonfils was its first teacher.

ARKANSAS

It has been an unexpected surprise to find schools teaching Italian in Arkansas in the 50's. During that period the Arkansas Gazette and Democrat ran advertisements on four of them April12,185o: Washington Male Seminary at Hempstead whose director, Rev. H.C. Thweatt, listed himself as « Professor of Grecian, Roman, French and Italian literature," Oct. 4,185o: Little Rock High School. Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies; May13, 1853:St. Andrews' Boarding and Day Academy at Little Rock," Ample provision will be made for instruction in the French and Italian languages and in the Greek and Latin classics; " May 5,1854:The Misses McAlmont's Academy for

230 Young Ladies where French and Italian were the only two modern languages offered. In the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1852 we note that Italian was taught at St. Mary's Academy, also in Little Rock.

GEORGIA

In Georgia, as in other southern states, there are early indications of interest in Italian. According to Haywood S. Bowden: Two Hundred Years of Education. Bicentennial: 1733-1933. Savannah, Chatham County, Ga. (Richmond, Va, 1932), a Mrs. McGwire, in 1827, opened a children's school on Broughton St. He reports that she declares in her advertisement that she is a graduate of the New York Academies and that she will teach Spanish, French and Italian at night. He also notes that Chatham Academy was teaching French, Italian, Spanish and German in 1839, and that a Madame A. Girard conducted in 1847 a Young Ladies' Boarding School which offered music, French, Italian, German and English. The Savannah Georgian for Oct. 3o, 1841 printed an advertisement of the Polyglot and Classical School listing Latin, English, French, Italian and Spanish among its courses. In the Savannah Daily Morning News, Oct. 28, 1855 appears the following notice:" Professor H. Masson will resume today the duties of his office at Chatham Academy, the Public School and at Mrs. Holmes Seminary. His private tuition as also his night classes will begin at the same time.* The notice is captioned " French, Spanish and Italian Languages." In addition to Chatham Academy where we already know that Italian had been introduced, it is quite likely that Mr. Masson also taught it in the two other schools either as a regular or as an extra-curricular subject. At least four schools included Italian in notices they placed in the Columbus Enquirerthe School for General Instruction, conducted by Miss Anderson (April 12,1838); the Americus Female Institute (Jan. 6, 1851); the Columbus High School for Young Ladies (Sept. 16, 1859); and the Cusetta High School for Young Ladies and Gentlemen (Dec. 24, 1859).

231

411110.11111111101 The 1854 Catalog ofthe Greensboro FemaleAcademy, which is in the Universityof Georgia Library,registers courses in the Italian languageand literature. Anotice placed in the Charleston, S.C. Courierfor Sept.14, 1854reveals that the Georgia Episcopal Institute atMontpelier, Monroe County, was German, Italian and Latin.In the case .then teaching French, of the Lucy Cobb Institute atAthens, the fortunatepreservation of a receipted bill fortuition in 1859 disclosesthe offering of Italian at the time the schoolopened in 1858. The billis in the possession of Mrs. JamesBarrow of Athens. Finally, the appearance of areview of E. FelixForesti's Italian Reader in the SavannahRepublic for 1846 constitutes a further bit of evidence ofinterest in Italian in theDeep South."

KENTUCKY

One Kentucky schoolitem comes from theKentucky Reporter (Lexington),which, on Feb.19,1821, carried an advertisement by the LexingtonFemale Academy to theeffect that French, Italianand Spanish were beingtaught there subject to extra charge," thatis, $pa. per quarter. Theother newspaper ads arein the Lexington Observerand Reporter. On Sept. 3o, 1831 a Mr. andMrs. Barry fromPhiladelphia gave notice that on Oct. lothey were going to open anInstitute for Young Ladies in whichFrench, Italian andSpanish would be taught. On Oct. 16 and 3oJ. Livingston Van Doren,associate principal of the BrooklynCollegiate Institute, informedthe Lexingtonians of a plan to open awestern branchin the city, with Italian induded amongthe languages offered asit was in the main branch. OnAug. 6 and 20, 1834,Mr. and Mrs. Griswold's School for Girlsannounced Italian, Germanand the Ancient Languages as coursesthat could be studied byits students. Very likely the VanDoren of the Van Doren'sCollege for Young Ladies and the oneconnected with theCollege

" Reproduced in the editionof the Reader which cameout in 1855.

232 Institute for YoungMen are thesame person. At series of noticesOct. any rate, in a 3, 14, 11, 14, se, 1835thelatter school announced thatProf. L Carde llo, the city of a distinguished artist from Rome, Italy, hasaccepted theProfessorship of Drawing, Paintingand Italian.*The High School Ladies at for Young Langone% sixmiles fromFrankforton the Georgetown Road,*was teaching French,Italian and Spanish by the Inductive Method * in 1836(Sept. 7). The issue paper for Jan. of the 24, 1846 shows themagistervagans Bonfils as director of theEnglish and FrenchInstitute for Young In the ad is this Ladies. statement: " The Italian,Spanish and Latin lanpages are connected with this [theFrench] Department.* On Aug.a, 1856 the Walnut Female Instituteindicates that it was teaching French,Spanish and Italian,while the Daniel Boone Collegiate Institute announcedthat it providedextra instruction in "French or inany of the modern languages.* A notice in the Lexington Intelligence?for Aprili1, 1837 discloses that theRichmond FemaleAcademy in Richmond, Madison County,taught French andItalian at that According to the time. Frankfort Commonwealthfor April 18, 1834 courses in French, German and Italian couldthen be takenat the Frankfort HighSchool for YoungLadies. Finally, by means of the CatholicAlmanac for 1847,we are able to add the FemaleAcademy of Nazareth and through in Bardstown the1848 annual theUrsuline Academy Covington. in

LOUISIANA

The heavy Frenchand Spanish ethnicgroups in Louisiana and the fact that New Orleanswas the great center forLatin American tradenaturallygave these two languages over the others in the precedence state schools. Itwas only commencing with about 1840 that a real interest beganto manifest itself in and Italian. German The New Orleans Classical andCommercial Institution,

233 Boarding, Half Boardingand Day School under thedirection of J.A. Buffet, aBachelor of Arts, lateprofessor of Jefferson College,* announced inthe New Orleans DailyPicayune for Oct. 30, 1841, a a Complete Course of Education.*English, French, Spanish, Latin,Greek, German and Italianwere the languages taught. Mr.Buffet boasted thata Seven professors of capacity andmoralityareattachedtothecollegiate establishment.* On Sept.53, 1843 Messrs. Dimitry and Du Chiron made knownthat 6 Spanish, Italian,German and Music will be taught inthis institution,sTheOrleans Academy for Young GentlemenClassicaland Special. The noticeon Oct. as, 1843 concerning the High Schoolfor Young Ladles reads: K Opportunitiesare offered to Young Ladies(not otherwise pupils) to join classesin Drawing. French,Italian or any of the other accomplishments.* A few years later we note the following in thePicayune. Sept. 1, 1848: TheFemale Collegiate Seminary,Jackson Parish in East Feliciana,Spanish and Italian* at the charge of the professor.* Sept.3, 1848: an announcementon the teaching of French, Spanish andItalian at the Boardingand Day School for Young Ladies directedby Mrs. Fuertes.Oct. 117, 1848:one involving intruction the rudiments of Italianand Spanish " at the Academy for YoungLadies directed by Mrs.Van Nooten. Aug. 13, 1850: a notice on Mrs. Anna Y. Lord'sBoarding School for Young LadiesaItalian, German, drawing,music and dancing on terms regulated by themasters employed. Sept.a, 1850: the offering ofFrench, Spanish andItalian at the New Orleans Female Institute.Nov. 1, 185o: the offeringof German and Italianas« extras '1attheFranklinHigh School and MathematicalInstitute. Dec.so, 1851: a noticeon the English and FrenchHigh School forYoung Ladies making possible the study ofSpanish, German andItalian * at the desire of the parents.* Mr. and MadameMerrill's School taught French, Spanish andItalian as revealed inthe announcement in the New Orleans Daily SouthernStandard for Julyao, 1849. Except for the FemaleCollegiate Seminaryallofthese institutions were locatedin New Orleans.

234 MISSISSIPPI In a broken sequence of the JacksonMississippianwe have found a noticeon the Jackson Wesleyan mention of Female College with courses in French, Italian,Spanish and Latin 1,1854), while in (Jul one of the many noticeson Do lbear's Commercial College(Oct. 5, 1858 etc.)it is revealed German and Italian that Spanish, were available to students.In another broken newspaper sequence, the Sunny Southof A , we have noted the followingtwo establishmentsThe Female Seminary, Florence Synodical which lists E.Lambert as Professorof French, Spanish andItalian (Jan.s4, 1856), and the College where Aberdeen Female the teaching ofinstrumental music, Spanish Italian and was in charge of M.Rondo (Sept.i 1, 1856). Edward Mayesin his Eistory of Education inMississippi (Washington, D.C.,189g), recordsthree more schools offered Italianat the timeHolly which Springs FemaleAcademy in 1836, the Collegeand Academyat Sharon (Madison 1837, and the County) in Franklin Academy(Monroe County)in 1841. There musthave been stillother localities where the language in the state could bestudieNatchez,Vicksburg, etc. In Natchez,incidentally, there it in t850Isadore were two private teachersoffering Gullet and MineAngela Cykoski.

NORTH CAROLINA

Raleigh Academyin Raleighopened in 1804 in its curriculum. with Italian In 1844 itwas still offering the which gives language," evidence of thesolid place thatit must have in the school.Italian held appears at FranklinAcademy at Louisburg in i8o5. CharlesL. Coon who lists thetwo institutions inhis North CarolinaSchools and Academies 1790-1840(Raleigh, N.C., 1915), alsorecords Italian offerings atMorganton Academy (1822), WarrentonFemale Academy (1825), Goslin BluffsRefined Female College(1831), Female Academy at ShoccoSprings " See The North Carolina Standardfor Jan. 3, 1844.

235 0834, EpiscopalSchool at Raleigh (1834), Mrs.Safery's Female Seminary atGreenville (1835), Shocco ClassicalSeminary (1838), Wake ForestPleasant Grove Academy(1839), Academy inWayne County Goldboro (184o).The NorthCarolina Standard (Raleigh)furnishesus with the schools which names of sixmore were offering Italianafter 184o, Female Academy the La Vallee inHalifax County(Jan. Warwick Female 5,1841),the Institute (Nov.8, 1843), the Mathematical and Raleigh Classical Military Academy(Jan. *8, 1845).the Female School inHillsborough (Dec. School at sy, 1847), the YoungLadies' Select Raleigh (Dec.6, 1848),and the Seminary (Oct.11, 1855). Raleigh Female Accordingto school catalogs that areavailable University ofNorth Carolina at the Library, Italianwas taught at the GreensboroughFemale Academy School in in 1851 andat the East-Bend 1855-56. Thecatalogs in the Female Academy library on theEdgeworth mention Italianfrom 1853 languages to 186o and modern thereafter, withthe presumption continuedto be given for that thelanguage a time." We donot know when was introducedat the Cape Italian it is listed in Fear Academyin Wilmingtonbut the 1870catalog asa finishing and fifthyear of instruction. course in the fourth A notice in the WashingtonNational Intelligencer 7, 18411, makesknown that for Mar. '1 The Rev,Albert Smedes City of NewYork intends of the to open a schoolfor the city ofRaleigh, N.C. young ladies in on the 11th day ofMay.* Extra were to be madefor French, charges Italian, Music,Painting, Drawing and OrnamentalNeedlework.

SOUTHCAROLINA Prof. GeorgeW. Watt* in his TheTeaching of United States,op. cit. 3o, has French in the Gazette from noted that inthe SouthCarolina 1750 to 1776there are references to theteaching " Through the Standardwe can trace the to 1846. Cf. issue Edgeworth offering for Nov.a5. back

236 of Italian in the schools of the state. We havenot had the means of tracing this development during the next halfcentury, but we can convey some idea of the South Carolinian interest in the language from 1826 to 1859. In the first year of this interval, (1826), therewere two institutions in Columbia that were carryingon instruction in Italian,The MissesBlackburn's Female Academy which employed Col. Colonna D'Ornanoas its teacher (cf. Columbia Telescope and South Carolina State Journal, Jan. is). Direction of the school was taken over by the Rev. and Mrs. Wilson before the Fall term (cf. Telescope, Sept. 5). The Telescope for Oct.17, announced that Mr. J. La Taste had just been engagedto teach the modern languages, including Italian, at the Columbia Female Academy under the superintendence of Dr. Elias Marks." In 1828 Dr. Marks left the school in charge of Rev. Rennie and opened a new school at Barhamville knownas the South Carolina Female Institute. This has been the subject ofa monograph by Hennig A. Cohen: A Barhamville Miscellany. Notes and Documents Concerning the South Carolina Female Institute (Columbia, S.C., 1956). Wequote from part of page 45 which reads: a The Conspectus' of 1828 announcedcourses in Latin, French, Spanish and Italian. To judge by the available enrollment records and the faculty rosters in the catalogues they were consistently the most popular languages, but German was offered. In 1852 the faculty of twelve included four language instructors: Benjamin S.Miller, A.M., taught Latin: V.H. Manget taught French, Spanish and Italian; Demetrio Paredes taught Spanish, Italian and German; and Manuel M. Pirragx taught Spanish. The enrollment thatyear was ninety six.* The Jan. g, 1829 issue of the paper advertised Italianat the Richland School for Classical Scientific and Practical Educationat Rice Creek Springs between Columbia and Camden. We shall list in one group the items in the Charleston Courier, Jan.1,185o:Charleston Female Seminary. Italian appears as one of the languages in the curriculum for the senior

" On this school see also theSouth Carolina State Gazette (Columbia), Feb. 3, t847.

237 elm" Dec. as, 1831: Select Female Seminary, which offered Greek, Latin, French, Italian and Spanish. Oct. a, 1841: C. J. Hadermann's Young Ladies' Seminary, which taught German, French, Italian and Spanish. Mr. Hadermann here indicates that he is an ex-professor of mathematics at Emory. Jan. a, 1843: Male and Female Seminary conducted by Mr. Jenkins and Mr. Rosenfeld. Jan. a, 1843: The Ursuline Convent, which had an extra charge for French, German and Italian. Jan. *7, 1843: Mrs. Herriot's and Mrs. Ramsay's Seminary, where French, German and Italian were taught. Perhaps Mrs. C. H. Herriot's Seminary (Jan. 7, 1856), at which Mlle Erbeau taught these three languages, ought to be entered as a separate institution. Dec. 13, 1856: B.R. Carroll's Boarding and Day School for Boys, at which Latin, French, German, Italian and Spanish were available. These are Charleston schools. Two establishments ran their notices in the Charleston Evening Mercurythe New Seminary for Young Ladies and Gentlemen conducted by John Bloomfield, which included French, Italian and Spanish among its courses (Oct. 14, 1828), and Madame D'Orval's Seminary with Mr. Cavidali, who had come to the city from Norfolk, Va. in 1824, listed as instructor in Italian and French. Three institutes outside the city whose advertisements in the Courier included Italian are The Edgefield Village Female Academy (Oct. 24, 1840); St. Thaddeus Seminary at Aiken (Dec. 26,1853), and Limestone Springs Female High School at Spartanburg (Jan.x9,1854), which deserves to be especially remembered because one of its instructors was Vincenzo Botta, later at New York University.Still another school, which, however, used the Mercury as its advertising medium, was the Barnwell Female Academy at Barnwell, directed by Mr. and Mrs. Schiffely (Mar 15, 1824). In the New Orleans Picayune from June through Sept. 184s the Military, Scientific and Classical School at Aiken ran a series of advertisements containing the statement: « In this institution will be taught Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, German and

" It was still being taught in 1855 (see Courier, April ig).

238 Italian.* The prospectus of the Collegiate Instituteof the Seminary of John the Baptist in Charleston, printed inthe Catholic Almanac for1848, announced thatit was giving instruction in French, Italian, Spanish and German. Both the Johnson Female University at Anderson, andthe Laurensville Female College, whose catalogs are preservedin the University of South Carolina Library, had large grammar school and secondary school departments. Italian was taughtthere in 1853 and 1859 respectively. As further eviden'"ce of interest in Italian at Charleston we may note that W.H. Barrett, 36Broad St., ran a special series of advertisements in the 1843 Courier devoted to aItalian Books,*listing among theseGuicciardini'sStoriad'Italia, Guarini's Pastor ado, and the Orlando furioso. A littlelater John Russell, u Importer of Books,* especially featured anumber of 4 Italian Works * in his ad in the Courier for Oct. 27,1846, which included the Gerwalernme, the Orlando furioso,the Divina cornmedia, the Promessi sposi, Metastasio's Opere scelte and Goldoni's Commedie.

TENNESSEE

When in the appendix of his Della Lingua e la letteratura italiana in New York (New York, 1827, p. xxxii), Lorenzo Da Ponte observes: " V't una stupenda libreria in Filadelfia; havvene un'altra net Collegio di Nashville, ed una terza, e pitt d'ogni altra,aquello the dkono, numerosa6nelcollegiodi Cambridge..." his mention of Nashville can refer to no other school than the Nashville Female Academy which had been established in the Tennessee capital in 1816. Until it was forced to dose its doors in 1861 because of the damagesuffered by its buildings at the hands of the Federaltroops during the occupation of Nashville, it was one of the finest girls' schools in the country. It specialized in the so-called ornamentalstudies, music and languages. In 1840 there were 198 pupils enrolled while in 1861 there were 513, 256 of whom were boarders.In

239 describing the school Mrs. I.M.E. Blandinin her Historyof Higher Education forWomen in the SouthPrior to z86o (New York, 190g) states on page *76: g Dr. Elliott[C.D. Elliott, third president of the institution] employed thevery best teachers he could find. He imported experts from the East, fromEngland, from France and fromItaly. In orderto keep in touch with the best talent and the bestmeans of obtaining it, Dr.Elliott correspondedwith Count Cavour andotherprominent personages abroad. Sometimesthe French andItalian women engaged knewnot a word of English. Theywere sent over in care of the captain of thevessel, and forwardedto their destination.* Lack ofaccess to the catalog, if, indeed,any was printed, prevents us from stating categorically that Italianwas taught at the Collegiate Institute at Nashville establishedby Professor and Mrs. Bonfils (c.1840). Nevertheless,since Bonfilswas a native Italianspeaker and Italiantrained and had in Italian in instructed Washington, D.C.,at the University ofAlabama and later in St. Louisand Lexington, Ky.,it is virtually certain that he includedthe languageamong those that he personally taught. In the announcement in the NashvilleUnion for Aug. 4, 184o, it is stated that the course of studythere was analogous to that of colleges generally and that itwas modified to conform to the peculiar duties ofthe sex." An advertisementin the NationalBanner & Nashville for April Whig Sts, 1835 reveals that in theEnglish Department The High School of for Boys at LaGrange therewere to be " weekly exercisesin declamationand composition. Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Languages: French and Italian."As to the latterthe same notice discloses thatstudents will berequired " to exhibit frequent translations from the differentlanguages into English $1 This information has been derived froman unpublished 1937 Vanderbilt Universitythesis by Lucien Giddens: The Development of Ir4 Colleges for Women inthe South. to 1885. " Taken from an unpublished M.A. thesisby Harold E. Ward. Academy Education inTennessee Prior tor86z. George Peabody for Teachers, 1926. College Among the few academiesmentioned in the thesis only four offereda modern language, French.

240 and vice versa.* is In the Richmond Enquirer for Oct. 21,1834 under the heading u Education," we find the following: uThe Trustees of the Lagrange Academies wish to employ a lady competent to give instruction in the usualbranches of female education, including music and drawing. A knowledge of French and Italian would be a recommendation.* We, of course, do not know what the outcome of this notice was, but it is significant that the Trustees, presumably public school officials in this case, should give such stress to Italian. In an announcement on Dr. Weller's Female Seminary in the Nashville Republican for Jan. 2, 1836, we find printed inbold-type: u The French and Italian Languages are taught,* which is indicative of theimportance these two languages had in its curriculum. The catalogs in the Tennessee State Library and Archives bring out that The Tennessee Conference FemaleInstitute, which had moved to Columbia from Athens, Ala., offered Italian in 1845. In 185o the Columbia Female Institute furnished instruction in the language at $ io.00 for the session. It was taught at Jackson College, a boys' school inColumbia, by William A. Strozzi in 1849-50 and Carlo de Haro in 1850-51. The catalog for 1858 of the Columbia Athenaeum, a girls' school, lists that Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish or German would cost $1o.00 for the session. Italian continued to be available atleast through 1867. This school had an excellent reputation and drew a large patronage from the South. Through the Catholic Almanac for 1843 we learn about the Academy for Young Men attached to theTheological Seminary of St. Athanasius in Nashville in which u besides mathematics and the ordinary branches of good English education,the Greek,Latin,Italian, French and Spanish languages are carefully taught... The Academy is conducted by ecclesiastics under the superintendence of the Rev. Superior of the Seminary." A notice in the Memphis Daily Appeal for Jan. 25, 1851 lists Italian at the St. AgnesFemale Academy in that city. Incidentally, Ward's Seminary in Nashville offered the language in 1865 and perhaps some years prior to that date."

" The 1865 catalog is in the Tennessee State Library andArchives.

241

16 VIRGINIA

On Dec. 5, 1777 Daniel H.W. Mara, A.M.,of King and Queen County, ambitiously announced in the VirginiaGazette (the one published by Alexander Purdie)that he was opening a school where " Arabick, Greek, Latin, French and Italianas wellas Rhetorkk, Logick, Ancient and Modern History, Geography, the use of the Globe, Writing,Arithmetick, Book- Keeping, and some branches of theMathematiks " were to be taught. In 1785 the Rev. Arthur Emmerson,formerly an usher in the Grammar School of Williamand Mary College, moved to Nansemond County as Rector and openeda " Classical School " there. His announcement in theVirginia Gazette stated that instruction would be offered inthe Latin, Greek French and Italian languages, " with particularattention to reading, writing and declamation.* 24 It will be recalled that themost eminent of the ardent Italophiles of the time, Thomas Jefferson,had made Italian a part of the original curriculum of the Universityof Virginia when he became Rector in 1825. Enthusiasmfor the language quickly spread outside thecampus precincts into the town of Charlottesville, where by the end of the secondquarter of the century there were at least thirteen schools teachingit in that area. Seven are mentioned in a University of Virginiathesis by Harold M. Mopsik: A Historyof the Private Schools in Charlottesville (1936). Theyare Mrs. Blaettermann's Institution of Female Education (1828) 25run by the wife of Virginia's Professor of Modern Languages,George W. Blaettermann; the School of William L. Harris(1833), the School of James H. Davis (1836), Boarding School forYoung Ladies (1843), Stephan H. Mirrick's School (1846),the Young Ladies' Institute (1854), and the Piedmont FemaleInstitute(1857). The Piedmont institutionhad,incidentally,advertisedinthe Richmond Enquirer during the previousyear (Sept.3). The Enquirer

24 Cf. Calvin H. Phippins. LegislationAffecting Secondary Education in Virginia from z6z8 to 1845.University of Virginia thesis, 1932,E81. 2$ Mrs. Blaettermannadvertised her school extensively in thepapers the Intelligencer, Lynchburg Virginian,Richmond Enquirer, etc.

242 -or

also brings out in its issue of Aug. 31, 1860 that oneof its teachers was Gaetano Lanza, an instructor at theUniversity. Of the six remaining academies three advertised in theEnquirer Oct. 17, 1837: The School at Edgehill inAlbemarle County, five miles from Charlottesville,operated by Mrs. T. Jefferson Randolph and Miss Mary Jane Law; July 29,1852:the Ridgeway School; Aug.29,1854:Mrs. Lenton and Mrs. McPherson's Boarding School for Young Ladies. The threethat placedtheirnoticesintheWashington,D.C.National Intelligencer were the Charlottesville Female Academy (June 28, 1851), the Bloomfield Academy (July 21, 1857)and the Brook Hill School (Jan. 26, x858). Demand for the language at Norfolk was in evidencemainly in the thirties as indicated in L. Minerva Turnbull'sarticle, " Private Schools in Norfolk, 1800-1860," in William andMary Quarterly, XI (1931), 28o-88. She lists Mrs. De Haro's Young Ladies' School (1830), Mrs. Hackley's Seminary (1838),Norfolk Grammar School (1831), C.J.Hadermann's Young Ladies' High School (1839). Also cited by her is an institutionoperating at a later date, Mrs. W. M. Whiting'sSchool for Young Ladies (1858). The strongest center of interest in Italian in the stateof Virginia must, however, have been Richmond. Between 1829 and 1860 the Richmond Enquirer gives notices on atleast twenty-three schools: Mr. and Mrs. Reynolds' FemaleSeminary and Boarding School (Mar. 26, 1829); Mrs. Broome'sBoarding and Day School (Sept. 25, 1829); Richmond FemaleAcademy (July 16, 183o); Institution for Young Ladies founded by Mrs. Colonna D'Ornano (July 2o,1830); Harmony Hill Seminary (Oct. 21, 1834); where, however, Italian was already beingtaught in 1829see Constitutional Whig, Jan. 6; Mrs. Persico'sBoarding and Day School for Young Ladies (Oct. 6, 1835); Hadermann's Virginia Institute (Sept. 29, 1837); Mansfield Female School, which taught " French and Italian with critical exercises " (Dec. 27, 1837); Southern Boarding Schoolfor Young Ladies (Oct. 24, 1840); Boarding and Day School for Boys and Young Gentlemen where Italian was taught by Isadore Guillet, its principal (Aug. 6, 1841); Dr. Maupin's School (Sept. 27, 1842) where Guillet,

243 though listedas the instructor in ModernLanguages, was without any doubt alsoinvolved in teaching Italian;Richmond Academy :a (Sept.23, 1842); Mrs. Burke's FemaleAcademy (July 28, 1843); Mrs.Nottingham's Boarding andDay School for Young Ladies at which, we are told, 1' Monsieur Hubertsonfrom Paris, Professor of ModernLanguages, will give instructionin French, Spanish, Italian &c "(Sept. 2, 1847); Rev.M.D. Hoge's Boarding. and Day School whereItalian was taught byJoseph Michard (Aug. 2, 1853); Mrs. Pellet's English andFrench Boarding School With Mr. Persicain charge of Italian(Sept 27, 1853); Volger Sc Patton's Classicaland Mathematical Academy(July 14, 1854); Mr. Lefevre's Schoolat which Joseph Michardfunctioned as the language teacherand presumably taughtItalian (Sept. 1855)at any 4, rate, the Richmond DailyDispatch for Aug.15, 1859, which listsCarlos C. Meraas teacher of Spanish and Italian, confirms itsavailability at theinstitution; Michard is listed for instructionin Italianat the Richmond Female Institute (Sept. 3, 1855), buthere, too, hewas succeeded by Mera (Sept. 29, 1859). We continue our list with Miss Pegram's YoungLadies' School where Italianand Germanwere taught by " native masters of each language,"by Persico in thecase of Italian (July 18, 1856); Southern FemaleInstitute (Sept.3o, 1858); Old Dominion Institute with Spanishand Italian in chargeof Carlos C. Mera (July 12, 186o), andMrs. Brooks' Boardingand Day School with Persico as its teacher (Aug. 8, 186o). TheIntelligencer lists the Select School forYoung Ladies (Sept.11, 1848), and the Home School for Young Ladies (Oct.9, 1848). The names of twomore Richmond institutionsteaching Italian havebeen gleaned from the Daily DispatchMr. and Mrs. Keeling'sFemale Boarding and Day School (Sept. 4, 1852), and Mr. Cary's Schoolof Ancient and Modern Languages and Mathematics(July 27, 1857). Schools offeringItalian whichare mentioned in several articles and theses are The Boynton Female Academy(year noted, 1832), theBuckingham FemaleCollege Institute (1848); Culpeper Female Institute(1848); KempsvilleAcademy (1838);

" This may very wellhave been thesame institution as the Richmond Female Academy.

244 Midway Female SeminaryatKempsville (1838); Male and Queen County(184o), and Female Academyin King and Institute (184s)." Petersburg Classical intelligencer Announcements inthe WashingtonNational Loretto, EssexCounty list Italian atMr. JamesGarnett's School, School, Elm-wood,Essex (Aug. (Aug. 17, 1824);Mrs. Garnett's for YoungLadies inAlexandria 8, 1826); Mrs.Porter's Seminary of Duke and Young Ladies'Seminary, corner (Aug. 29, 1829); Mrs. Sheffey's in Alexandria(Sept. 8, 1831); Washington Streets in Staunton(Sept. Seminary for theEducation ofYoung Ladies Boarding Schoolin LoudonCounty 28, 1831);Miss Mercer's Classical School atSheperdtown (Aug. (May s, 1837);the Female Academy atWestermorland (Dec. 27, 21, 1837);Washington which states leSelect Mead's School atShockhoe Hill 1839); Mrs. evening * (Sept. and Germanwill meet every daises in Italian Alexandria (Aug. ig,1847); 19, 1844);Mrs. Eliason'sSchool in Rappahannock County(Dec. 8, 1848); WashingtonAcademy in 185s); Institute inFredericksburg (July 27, Southern Female Waverly Institute, onemile Upperville Academy(Aug. 2, 1854); 1855); LocustGrove Academy from WarrentonSprings (Feb. 8, 1858); StriblingSprings School in AlbemarleCounty (July 18, County (Jan. 26,1859); EdgevilleFemale Seminary in Augusta Smith School at County (July*6,1859); Ann in Caroline School where Lexington (July26, 1859);Alexandria Boarding modern languages(Aug. 9, Almericus Zapponetaught the an (Aug. 16, 1859);Virginia 1859); *1 WheelingFemale Academy Female Institutein Staunton(Aug. 18, 1859).

.1.1.1i1., .1.1MMINWp op.cit.781; WilliamShephard, st On theseschools see Phippens, Quarterly, Collegiate Institute,*William and Mary Buckingham Female Kelly, A Study ofSecondary Education XX (1940), 343-68;Harold Ratrie Academy * of Va. thesis, 193s;« Kempsville in CulpeperCounty, a Univ. Dec. 8, Norfolk k PortsmouthDaily Advertiser, in AmericanBeacon and Antiquary, V, 148; in Lower NorfolkCounty, Virginia, 1838, reprinted in King andQueen County,Va.: Russell B. Gill,Secondary Education History of Va. thesis,1938; HenryBuckius Bracknell, 1691-1938, a Univ. Univ. of Va.thesis, 1939. Education inPetersburg, Va., a of Secondary Charleston, S.C.Courier for Sept. 8, *3 Cf. also thenotice in the Italian was thentaught togetherwith Latin, 1840, whichindicates that Greek, and French.

245 The schoolsusingthe Richmond Enquirerastheir advertising medium are: Concord Academyat Bowling Green in Caroline County (Dec. 18, 1828);" Thomas Dabney School, upper part of King William County (Dec. 18, i8s8);The School at Llangollen, an institution for boys (Dec.so, 1828); Winchester Academy (Aug. s5,1819); Rappahannock Academy(Dec. 7, 1830); Boydton Female Seminary (May24, 1833); Seminary for Young Ladies at Williamsburg (Sept.21, 1837); Young Ladies' Seminary at Prince Edward Court House(Oct. 13, 1837); Amelia Academy held at the Wigwam, residenceof Governor Giles here the statement is made thatN The French, Spanish and Italian languages will be taughtby an English gentleman for four years a resident of France andItaly '1 (Jan. 1, 1838); Female School at the Parsonagenear Loretto in Essex County (Sept.so, 1839); Hopkinsville Female School(Sept. 1, 1840); Slate River Academy (Jan. *6, 1841); ClassicalSchool in Louisa (Aug. 18, 1843); Ellington Schoolnear Fredericksburg (Dec. 13, 1843); Classical Academy at Boyd's Tavernin Albemarle County, whose principal was G.W. Blaettermann,Poe's Italian teacher at the University of Virginia (Oct.g, 1846); Woodland Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies inEssex County (Aug. 17, 1847); Male School near Dunnesville inEssex County (Aug. 17, 1847); Culpeper Female Academy(Dec. 16, 1847); Mrs. C.B. Boston's Boarding School for Young Ladiesat Woodlawn, Cumberland County (July is, 1853); PrivateBoarding School near Staunton (July is, 1853); BoswellAcademy, 4 miles from Staunton (July *4, 1854); Goochiand Academy in GoochlandCounty (Aug. *9, 1854); Flat Rock Female Seminary(Feb. 1, 1856); Kilmarnock Female Academy (Aug.13, 1856); Danville Female Academy (Sept. 5, 1856); Oak GroveAcademy in Buckingham County (Dec. s3, 1857); Hilton Schoolin Gordonsville (Sept. 18, 1857); Female School at PrinceEdward Court House (Sept.$5, 1857); Select Country BoardingSchool for Young Ladiesat Ashland (Sept. *7, 1858); AberdeenSchool in King and Queen County (Aug. s, 1859); Belle HavenInstitute in Alexandria (Aug.1*,

" Italian was still being taughtat Concord in 2846. See Intelligencer, July It. 1859); Hampton Academy withItalian and Spanishin charge of FlemingJames (Sept.s 1, 1859). Incidentally, for Dec. in the Enquirer a 1, 1841, Paul Piodawas announced Modern Languages as the teacher of at Miss E.A.Thurston's Schoolin Orange Court. Inasmuchas on the following year the samepaper in its issue for Aug.is announced him as instructor in Italianat Mrs. Cary's CountrySchool forYoung Ladies must also have taught near Baltimore, he it at theThurston Institute. The Richmond Daily Dispatchhas made itpossibile to add the UnionFemale CollegeInstitute at Richmond 13, 1858) and the Hill (Aug. School for YoungLadies at Green the neighborhood Springs in of Louisa (Aug.6, 1859). To the Alexandria schools alreadymentionedwe may add two more whichannouncedour subject in their in the Alexandria advertisements Gazette and VirginiaAdvertiserMrs. Moore's Seminary forYoung Ladies(Aug. sg, i843) for Young and the Institute Ladies (Jan.s7, 1846). Herewe may add Alexandria academy, a third the Boardingand Day Schoolfor Young Ladies, conductedby Mrs. MargaretM. Coleman, its notice in which placed the (Washington,D.C.) UnitedStates Telegraph for Aug.s7, 1834. Notices in the Lynchburg Virginianreveal the two academies in names of the city thatspecifically listedItalian as oftheircurricular one coursesTheClassical,Englishand Mathematical School(Aug. *5, 1854)and the Lynchburg Seminary (Aug. Female s6, 1858).Furthermore, in viewof the of the languagein Virginia vogue and the Italiannationality of Giuseppe AdolfoSartori, LLD, who was thenfunctioningas Professor ofModern Languagesat Lynchburg Dispatch, Aug. College(cf. 4, 1856) and whowas available at Female College Lynchburg to instruct in 6Latin, Greek Modern Languages or in any of the (Dispatch, Aug.18, 1858), itis virtually certain that hedid not fail to include hisnative tongueamong the ModernLanguages he taught at Mrs. Kirkpatrkk'sSeminary for Young Ladies(Dispatch, Sept.3, 1856). Despite the factthat we havegathered from only four our information papers and a smallgroup of other dear that forthe period sources, it is 18so-1860, Virginiastands outas

247 the state where the keenest interestwas manifested for Italian. Were It possible to makea complete survey of the schools which offered the language, it wouldnot be surprising if the total reached double the numberwe have already recorded.

MIDDLE WESTERN STATES

ILLINOIS

The list of 182 private Illinois schoolsfounded before 186o given in the University of IllinoisM.A. thesis in Education by James Ellsworth Wooters: A Historyof Academies in Illinois (1913), at first raised expectations thata reasonable number of schools teaching modern languages mightbe found which at one time or another included Italian in theircurriculum. Nothing appears. Theywere further raised by the knowledge of another University of IllinoisM.A. thesis by Gertrude Howell Hildreth:Private Elementary and SecondaryEducation in Illinois from all to 185o (1911).The latter makes the statement on page 57 that a More than 5o different subjects ofsecondary grade were taught in97 secondary institutions." There follows a list of subjects and underLanguage * are listed Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, German,Italian. But as to the study of Italian Miss Hildreth cites onlyone institution, the Mount Carroll Seminary (later Frances ShimerSchool and now Shimer College), which offered it in 1853.Unfortunately, the University of Illinois has preserved only fiveor six of the early middle school catalogs while the State HistoricalLibrary in Springfield ownsascatteringofperhapstwenty.Suchpovertyof documentation makes it almostimpossible to deal satisfactorily with the curricula in the pioneerIllinois secondary schools. This accounts for the discovery of butone of a series of annual catalogs in Springfield ofany use to us, those of the Monticello Seminary in Godfrey, whichlist Italian from 1847to 1853 and from 1854 to 1859 employonly the termModern Languages * without any specification.In the 185o catalog the following statement may be ofsome interest:" The languages are

248

0,0 11 introduced to some extent, chieflyfortheirinfluencein exercising the power of analysis; at the same time, the study is highly valued as a means of cultivating the taste, and also as an aid in acquiring a more thorough knowledge of the principles of our own language.* Indications in the catalogs of the Du Quoin Female Seminary (1853-66),Languages extra,* and the Young Ladies' Institute in Springfield (1851) u Languagesare inconclusive. This leaves the newspapers as the remaining source for further data. Since Chicago was founded late for our purpose and grew slowly, its papers contain next to nothing on the secondary schools. Apparently the only Chicago academy that was teaching Italian at the time, the St. Francis Xavier's Academy (cf. Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1850) did not place any notice in them. An announcement made by the Bloomington Female Academy in the Bloomington Western Whig for Sept. 8, 1849. K If requested arrangements will be made to teach the Ancient and Modern Languages,* is again inconclusive. It has not been possible to comb the other papers for information except for the Peoria Democratic Press which on Sept. 16, 1846 announced the opening of the Peoria Female Academy witha list of subjects offered, among them Italian. It is not clear whether the Peoria Academy which appears in the Illinois Annual Register and Business Directory (Chicago), 1847, and which also lists Italian among the subjects taught is the same as the above school. It has been noticed by Paul Belting in The Development of the Free Public High School in Illinois to,r86o, a Columbia University Ph.D dissertation printed in Springfield, Ill. in1919. A reflection of some interest in Italian in Naperville in 185s can be inferred from the Italian Lexicons advertised in the Du Page Observer by the bookstorerun by Joseph Klein, Jr. and Bros.

INDIANA

The notes of Professor Albert Mock of Butler University on The Academy Movement in Indiana from 1850 to 1900 have been deposited in the Indiana State Library. Much of their information is derived from thenewspapers and in a number

249 of cues theyrefer toyears prior to the The notes middle of thecentury. indicate thatItalianwas taught at the Young Ladies(Madison Female Seminary for Academy) in1831 andMiss Harrison's Schoolin Vincennesin 1838. Lafayette College Those relatingto the Institute for1864-65 revealthat the was then offeredat the school. language when it We haveno further dataon was introducedthere. From two othersources, advertisements inthe Peoria(Ill.) Daily *6, 1859 and Transcript forAug. the ClevelandPlain Dealer learn that St. for Sept.3, 1859 we Mary's Academynear South Bend teaching French,German and was then Italian. Theschoolwas chartered in 1835.Evidently muchlater but is the teaching not entirely devoidof value, of Italianat the Academy of theImmaculate Conception inOldenbergas disclosed in The and Advocatefor Aug. Catholic Telegraph 15, 1878. At SaintMary of the Academy (nowa college) Italian Woods offerings startedwith 188*-83.

MICHIGAN Thereare actually no good historiesof education state of Michigan.The one that on the should havecontained usefulinformation,an unpublished some Grimes: A dissertationby Odus History of theAcademies of Prior to 1873 the State ofMichigan (University ofMichigan, 1929), as far as is nextto worthless lbw we are concerned.However, in his curriculum of chapteron the of the academieshe does list subjects taught Italianamong the in 1849 intwo unspecified dissertation, academies. Another Education inDetroit, bySister Mary (Lansing, 1948),provides the Rosalita at the Female news that the languagewas offered Seminary in1836. She also Detroit Journal cites a noticein the and MichiganAdvertiser for informing thepublic that Mar. *6, t834, in the MichiganHigh School gentleman hasbeen engaged ic A and German to instruct theFrench, Italian languages " (*46).In the Detroit 1844 to 186o Free Press from there isextremely little on schools educationalmatter either or on privateinstruction, hence to locatean announcement we have been lucky in the Sept.2, 1858 issue,on the

250 Detroit French and EnglishBoarding and Day Institute,for Young Ladies, which informs usthat Mrs. H. de Manly Reighly, its principal, taught the uFrench and Italian languagesand their literatures.* When, as notedby Grimes, one considersthat there were only 43 academieschartered between 1830 and1849 and only *7 between 185oand 1873, the total is quitesmall. Under such conditions it is doubtfulwhether further research could turn up as many as a halfdozen new names ofschools teaching Italian within these twoperiods.

MISSOURI

Italian crossed the Mississippiinto the state of Missouri at an early date. Inthe St. Louis City Directoryfor 1845 appears an advertisementof the English and FrenchCollegiate Institute for Young Ladies announcing coursesin the Italian language and literature. It was run byProfessor and Mrs. Bonfils whohad previously been in charge of aCollegiate Institute in Nashville, 184o. It will be recalled thatBonfils is the first professorof Modern Languages at theUniversity of Alabama, 1831-36.In the Catalog and Prospectus ofthe High School for theEducation of Young Ladies for 1849-5oItalian is listed among the courses taught. In 1851-51 the catalogof the Young Ladies'Academy in charge of Mr. and Mrs. A.Mercier states that 6 the Italian language will be taught andspoken in the academy.* It isalso mentioned in the Third AnnualCatalogue of the St. Louis Female Institute for the YearEnding June 23, 1854. Thethree catalogs are in the St. LouisPublic Library. That thelanguage made further penetrationwestward at the time is evidentfrom the First Annual Catalogue,1845, of the MasonicCollege of Missouri at Lexington, near the Kansasborder. Here a statement reads: The Hebrew, French,Spanish, Italian and German languages will be taught, ifdesired by the student or his parent or guardian.*The catalog is in the MissouriHistorical Society in St. Louis. A series ofadvertisements in the New OrleansDaily Picayune in 1841 deal with anAcademy and High Schoolfor Young Ladies in St. Louisunder the direction of " P.Mauro and Daughters." There is a stronglikelihood that Italian was offered at the school. A good illustration as to how Italian was apt to turn up in the most unforeseen places is its appearancein the South Missouri Academy in Jackson, Cape GirardeauCounty, where all the major modern languagesFrench, German,Italian and Spanishwere taught as " extras "(see Western Eagle [Cape Girardeau], Feb. 1, 1850).

OHIO

introduced N.3 One of the first centers in Ohio where Italian was in the private schools was Columbus. Alfred E.Lee in his History of the City of Columbus (New York, 1892), Vol.I, 515, mentions that Carlo de Haro had established a schoolthere between 1850 and 1845. Mr. Lee may be referring to the ColumbusYoung Ladies' Seminary directed by Mrs. de Haro with theassistance of her husband, which placed one of its advertisementsin the Ohio State Journal (Feb. 6, 1855). The Fourth (1855-56)Annual Catalogue of another Columbus school, the EstherInstitute, indicates that French, Greek, Italian and Spanish could be studied for an " extra charge." The catalog is preservedin the State Library. Inasmuch asItalian wastaughtatWestern Reserve University in 1844, then located at Hudson, it is likelythat it was also offered at the time inits preparatory or Grammar School. Hence the statement in the 1850-51catalog on the Grammar School curriculum:" Lessons in French, German, Italian and Spanish will be given those whodesire them, at a moderate expense,"isnot theearliest containingthis specification. The instructor in both cases was Karl Ruger.As a teacher of " languages,ancient and modern " at the Cleveland Commercial College he wasalsodoubtlessavailablefor instruction there. An announcement by the school appearsin the Cleveland Plain Dealer for July 2, 1855. The same paper in listing the Young Ladies' School of the UrsulineConvent in the city during Sept. and Oct. 185o, indicates in itsnotice that

252 IMININOMINIMMINMINOP'41111101111111111111111111111111104111111MPOINwir'.-

no extra chargeswill be made for teachingFrench, German and Italian or the higherbranches of mathematics."Also among the daily's Sept.-Oct.advertisements is a series onthe Seminary for Young Ladies inCleveland run by Mrs. andMiss Dickinson in which the public isinformed that * Miss Dickinsonhaving been instructed by thefirst masters in Englandin French, English, Italian and music,hopes to give satisfaction tothose entrusted to their care." In its announcements in thePlain Dealer in 1856and 1857 the Cleveland FemaleSeminary specifies Latin,French, German and Italian but makes nospecification from 1858 on.From the prospectus printedin the WashingtonNational Intelligencer for Oct. 7, 1841, we areinformed that the languagestaught at the Western Scientific andMilitary Gymnasium atDayton were French, Italian, Spanishand German. The Catholic Almanacfor 1833 reports that theAthenaeum in Cincinnati wasteaching Italian, while theAlmanac for 1849 notes in the prospectusof the UrsulineAcademy, also in its Cincinnati,that Italian and Spanish wereincluded in curriculum as " extras." TheWestern CollegiateInstitute for Young Ladies, a schoolprobably located in the samecity, announced Italian in itsnotice in the (Columbus)Ohio State Journal for Jan. 3, 1834. A catalog in the WesternReserve Historical Library onthe Painesville Academy for the yearending July 13, 1843 includes " Modern languages,French and Italian." Theotextbooks used were " Vergani'sGrammar, Graglia's Dictionary,Tesoretto, Boccaccio's Novelle tratte dalDecamerone." There are two Ohio schoolcatalogs in the Presbyterian HistoricalSocietyinPhiladelphia. One for185o, on the Vermillion Institute at Hayesville, notesthat " Instruction will be givenifdesired inthe Spanish,Italian and Hebrew languages." The other onWoodward, College and HighSchool in Cincinnati for the year1847 states: g The modernlanguages taught in the Institutionembrace the German, French,Spanish " extra andItalian."Italiancouldbestudiedasan accomplishment " in the WesleyanFemale College in Cincinnati for a number of yearsstarting with 1851 (catalogsin the Public

253 Library of Cincinnati). TheBiennial John Female (185o) Catalogueof St. College inMarietta (catalog Library) in theMarietta College announces in its* Plan of Instuction &c the Institution,Course of " thatA fullcourse in this threeyears. The Instituteoccupies standard ofgraduation, thorough English includingnot onlya education, butwhere it is Hebrew,German, desired Latin,Greek, French, Spanishand Italian great object isto be thorough." languages. The

WISCONSIN In 1846 the ItalianDominican St. Dominic's Father,Mazzuchelli, College atSinsinawa founded to Sinsinawa Mound. Itsname was changed Mound Collegein function until 1847, whichcontinued 1866 whenits premises to the Dominican passed intothe hands Sisters andthe school of Academy.Later the became knownas St. Clara's Academy movedto River Forest, and isnow knownas Rosary Illinois, courses at the College. WhetherSinsinawa offered college levelis somewhat the Catholic doubtful. Atany rate, Almanacrecords that German, Italian it wasteachingFrench, and Spanishin 185o. goes backto the days It is likelythat Italian when theinstitution College. Somehint of this was St. Dominic's is in theAlmanac for additionto listingFather 1847 where,in it is revealed Mazzuchellias President of that hewas also " professor Sinsinawa, languages."This of drawingand modern most remarkableman was scientist,humanist, a theologian, educator,architect andthe first in Wisconsin.It isas an architect resident priest that he madehisgreatest contributionasthe plannerof cities including in theMississippi Dubuque, Ia.,as the designer Valley, and builder ofgovernment buildings of churches.Sister his biography: RosemaryCrepeau haswritten Un ap6tredominicain Samuel-Charles-Gaetan aux Etats-Unis:Le Pere large Mazzuchelli.Paris,193s. The basis for portion ofthis bookis Father a storiche d'unmissionario Mazzuchelli'sMemorie fra i cattolici apostolicodell'ordine dei e protestantinegli Stati predicatori 1844. The Uniti d'America.Milano, MetropolitanCatholic Almanac for1853 prints

254 information on St. Peter'sInstitute in Milwaukee,a preparatory school which is presumedto be the germ of the Seminary of St. Francis de Sales. TheRev. John W. Norris, itspresident at thetime, was also" Professor of Rhetoric,Logic, Moral Philosophy and Italian." Several years before hewas made professor of modern languages at the Universityof Wisconsin (1858),Joseph C. Pickard had takenup residence in Madisonas principal of the Madison Female Seminary.In the institution's advertisementin the Madison EveningArgus and Democrat forDec. so, 1856 he listed himselfas " Teacher of Classics, German,Spanish and

This was the time thatthe state was reached bythe great influx of German immigrantswho establishedmany schools in their settlementsthroughout all the NorthCentral States. In this area Italian, whichhad so frequently combinedwith French as an academy subject,was naturally replaced by Germanas one might expect, and inthe new combination thelatter took precedence over the former.

CALIFORNIA

In the Far West the onlymiddle schoolname that we can offer in connection withItalian is the Young Ladies'Seminary at Benicia, the predecessor of MillsSeminary and Mills College. The Catalogue for the FifthYear Ending May r,1857indicates that it together with Greek,Latin, French and Germanwere optional subjects. A MonsieurPaul Pioda, who hadpreviously taught in the privateschools in Virginia andMaryland and was to teach later at the Universityof California, is designatedas " Professor of ModernLanguages and Music." Piodamay have severed his ties with theinstitution by the end ofthe first term in 1859. At any rate, in the next availablecatalog, 186o-61, S. Charton, author of theChartonian Method andex-private teacher in Washington,D.C., appears listedas " Professor of French, Spanish and Italian."These languageswere very likely offered at the Seminaryeven before 1856-57. Watts, Leavitt and

255 Zeydel do not record this historically important fact in their histories on the teaching of French, Spanish and German. Since we know that Italian was being taught privately in San Francisco as early as 1851, which also happens to be the year when it was first introduced at Santa Clara College, it is certainthatdiligent research could turn upsome other academies where instruction in the languagewas available at the time.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

The teaching of Italian in 1813 at the Boarding School conducted by Miss Charlotte Ann Taylor, shows that " l'idioma gentile " had found a place in the secondary school curriculum in Washington at a relatively early date (see Federal Republican [Georgetown], Mar. 8). Advertisements of Italian books in the Washington National Intelligencer during the winter of 1824on the part of the book- dealer, Henri Guignon, on Pennsylvania Avenue,serve as an indication of a continuing interest in the language. On April 7, 1825 Prof. Sauveur Bonfils, after announcing that he had removed to Washington the seminary that he had been conducting in New Ycvk with Mrs. Bonfils, TheYoung Ladies' Boarding School, added thissentence: " Mr. Bonfils is determined that the Italian language shall be cultivated inhis academy according to the same planas in the first institutes of Europe." He introduced Italian at Washington College(D.C.) in 1826, was professor of Modern Languagesat the University of Alabama from 1832 to 1836, following which, until1848, he set up new schools at Nashville, St. Louis and Lexington. Ky. As in the case of the above the remainder ofour references to Italian in the private schools in the District of Columbia have been drawn from the announcements in the Intelligencer,viz., Sept. 2,1828: American Institution conducted by Major J. Holbrook; April 1, 1829: Mrs. Grant's Seminary; Sept.so, 1829: Mr. and Mrs. Steinhower's School for Young Ladies:Dec. 2, 1832: Mrs. Heaney's Academy; Aug.24, 1835: Mrs. Barney's English and French Boarding School;Aug. 22, 1838: Mr.

256 Bulfmch's School; Aug. 1, 1841: Mrs. Breschard's Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies; Aug. 16, 1841: Young Ladies' Academy conducted by Mrs. Harriet D.P. Baker; Aug. 13, 1844: Mr. and Mrs. True's Classical Boarding and Day School for Young Ladies; Aug. so, 1844: Normal School. Mr. and Mrs. Michard's School for Young Ladies; Aug. 3o, 1844: French Boarding and Day School for Boys in charge of Henry Bento lou Michard; Aug. 19, 1847:Mrs. David H. Burr's French and English Boarding School for Young Ladies; Aug. 31, 1848: Almericus Zappone announces thathe will resume charge of his [language] school at Madame Burr's... at Rugby Academy and City Academy; * Mar. s7, 1851: Young Ladies' Institute; Mar. 31, 1853:Mrs. Hogan's English and French Boarding School for Young Ladies; Sept. s, 1858: Academy of Visitation; Oct. 3, 1859: Washington Female Institute. These were all schools located in Washington. Elsewhere in the District of Columbia the following have been noted Classical School for Young Ladies in Georgetown conducted by Mr. Hart and Miss Pennell-4 As soon as sufficient encourage- ment is received the Spanish, Frenchand Italian languages will be taught without additional charge * (Aug.15,1817; Boarding School for Young Ladies in Congress St., Georgetown (Aug.s6,1840). On July*9, 1843thereappeared an announcement of the premium in Italian given toMiss Mary Fulmer during the Annual Distribution of Premiums of the Academy of Visitation in Georgetown. Miss Rosa M. Nourse's Boarding School taught it at the Highlands (Aug. 28, 1845). Still another Georgetown establishment, the Female Literary Seminary, announced in the Georgetown Columbian Gazette for Aug. 11, 1859 that * Competent instructors in Musk, Painting, French. Spanish,Italianetc.willbe employedthe terms atthe Professor's charges.* * * *

For the benefit of those who have neither had the patience nor the inclination to examine the above list in detail, weshould like to call attentic`1 the great vogue of Italian in the girls'

257

17 schools. Apropos of them it is of further interest tonote that the training they imparted closely correspondedto that of the gentlewoman as stated in Book III, chapter II of Castiglione's Cortsgiono:Voglio the questa donna abbia notizie di lettere, di musica, di pittura e sappia danzaree festeggiare.* The curriculum of literally hundreds of female institutions fromthe colonial days on into the forties almost exactly duplicatedthe educational ideal which Castiglione puts in the mouthof ll Magnifico in the manual, and thoughnew subject matter was later introduced, the pattern remained basically thesame until the days of the Civil War. This constitutesa yet unwritten chapter on the extraordinary prestige enjoyed by the famous courtesy book. That this sort of training was frequentlyover- emphasized is revealed at the opening of the nineteenthcentury by some remarks made by the eminent feminist HannahMore in her Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education (London, itloo, sit).We admit,* she writes,that a young lady may excel in speaking French and Italian,may repeat a few passages from a volume ofextracts, play like a professor and sing like a syren, have her drawing-room decorated with her own drawings, tables, stands, cabinets,nay she may dance like Sempronia herself, and we shall insist that shemay have been very badly educated... These things in theirmeasure may be done but there are others that should not be Wt undone.* The connotation normally given to Castiglione's lettere was obviously languages, and it is significant that Miss More singles out the two that were most fashionableFrench and Italian.Needlesstosay,the vogue for the latter was a manifestation of the fervent cult of Italy during the Romantic period and in America itgrew rather than diminished in the course of the next half century. This cult had so impressed the anonymous reviewer of A Year of Consolation who, amid the comments on the book in the American Whig Review, VI, July 1847, took occasion to remark: * There isa glut on the market. People have their houses full of Italian views, their libraries full of Italiantravels and the boarding house misses are twaddling nelle parole Tuscane 1'.

258 Therewere, of course, many boys' schoolsthat taughtItalian particularly inthe 183o's,but they the girls' always faroutnumbered by schools whichoffered the the difference language. Thiswas due to in educationalaims, the and the social attainment ofrefine .ent graces in the latter,training in the and businessin the former. professions The femaleacademies, institutes, seminariesmarked theend of the girls, whereas schooling formost of the a largepercentage of the boys schools geared attendedpreparatory to the demandsand requirements These though of the colleges. somewhatliberalized stillretained characteristics ofthe traditional some of the stress on Latin grammar school witha heavy and Greek.French languages to was the first of themodern break downthe barrier.When a second was introducedin the * language Classical "academies Italiantended to be favoredover Spanishat least until However, in the well in theforties. military andcommercial or mercantileacademies Spanishwas commonlypaired with French whileItalian ranked third in thenumber ofofferings. French was, of course, thegreat of the private constant * in themajority secondary schools.It was curricular offerings invariablyamong the wherever themodern languages As for theother modern were taught. of languages,to judge fromthe nurnbei appearances in thecatalogs and Italiancame first after announcements to1845, French, Spanishwas second though close to Italian,and German very third. However,in the interval between 1845and the CivilWar both had gained Spanish andGerman enoughmomentum to catch We have up with Italian. already provideddocumentation seven hundred middle on more than schools thattaught Italianin the forepart of thenineteenth century.Isit possibleto estimate the approximatenumber that then made thelanguage availableto the youngstudents? Wethink it is, on the following and we baseour conclusions considerations. i)The numberof schools used the generalterms a Modern that the the Languages,* 6Languages,* in newspapers of the timewas three or four than thenumber of those times greater that specificallynamed them, thisgroup it wouldnot be W.-fetched and in to say that Italianwas Included in about fifty percentof the cases. a) We have drawn our newspaperdata mainly from thepublications in the larger urban areas which, with veryfew exceptions concentrated on local educational announcements.The spread of Italian was, however, state-wide asisgraphically demonstrated by the situation in New Hampshire,New York, Vermont andVirginia. We may therefore assumethat there were severalhundred teaching Italian removedfrom the urban centers whose names we have not beenable to record. For these reasons, acalculated guess would placethe number of schools at aminimum of s,000 and a maximum of 3,000. Atthe height of the popularityof the study of Italian, which I shouldplace between 1833 and 1845, there were years when probalAy as manyas Soo schools were offering the language at the sametime. When one considers these figures in relation to thepopulation of the United States, less than io million in 18so, 17million in 1840, 31 million in 186o, and in relation to the percentageof the young people in the secondary schools, itshould be abundantly clearthat the showing made by Italian was veryrespectable. Nevertheless, impressive as the vogueof the language really was during ourperiod, one should not fail to notethat its record was spotty. The life-spanof the private schools wasbrief, probably not averaging morethan few years per institution. Most schools were small and soconsequently were the classes which, where they were offered on afee basis, often amounted to a little morethan individual tutoring. Inaddition, the extremely short tenure of theteachers of the time made the replacement problem difficult, and inthe case of Italian, Spanish and German, whichperennially suffered from apaucity of available teachers, this frequentlyinterrupted the continuity of instruction. As we approach the CivilWar period the study ofItalian is closely linked to the fateof the private academies. Therapid growth of the public highschools deprived them of alarge number of their students. Manyof them soon went out of existence and many others wereturned over to the communities in which they were conductedand became high schoolsunder

260 public management. Those that survived as privateinstitutions more and more took on thefunction of preparing for college, and since college entrance requirements called forthe study of French and German these two dominated the languageofferings to the virtual exclusion of Spanish and Italian. There is noindication at present that the day in the sunwhich Italian had enjoyed in the private secondary schools will return for sometime to come at least not until thereisa reassessmentof our current educational philosophy.

261 CHAPTER VII

THE STUDY OF ITALIAN IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS AND THE GRADES

i. HIGH SCHOOLS

Public high schools were scarce in the early decades of the nineteenth century and in them the traditional Classical type of education with its primary emphasis on the study of Latin prevailed. The schools where modern foreign languages were taught were very distinctly in the minority with French favored over the others. As far as Italian is concerned, we know that there was a strong demand for it on the part of the students of the Brighton High School in Brighton, Mass. as early as 1843, which we can learn from a section of the Report of the School Committee of the Town of Brighton for 1844, p. 7: u In addition to the usual English Branches, there have been large classes in the higher branches of English Education; also in the Latin, French and Italian Languages." Since this was at the height of the Italian vogue, it is certain that the Brighton institution was by no means alone, but in view of the lamentable dearth of curricular records invirtuallyallof our local Boards of Education and in the public schools for this pioneer period,a dearth, incidentally, which still persists on this subjecteven with respect to very recentcourse offerings, it will never be possible to bring to light much if anynew pertinent historical information from these sources. During the last quarter of the past century Harvard,as we have noted, imposed French and Germanas an entrance prerequisite. Many colleges quickly followed its example. At the same time the majority of the high schools felt obliged to give these two languages preference in orderto insure the admittance 1 In our list of private schools we have noted the names ofa number bearing the name of " high schoolbut our efforts to ascertain whether or not they were a part of the public school system (some of them, we suspect, were), have proven utterly fruitless.

262 of their graduatesto the colleges. The priority they enjoyed soon began to gravely affect courses in Spanishas well as in Italian, a situation which lasted until WorldWar I. We have also noted the effecton German of the national hysteria generated by the Great War and thegrowing opposition that developed against the other foreignlanguages. It was in the high schools especially that Spanish tookthe place once held by German. Paradoxically, it was during the firstpart of this bleak period that Italian really beganto assert itself in the high school curriculum. In New York City themovement was spear- headed by the Italian Teachers Association foundedbefore the conflict but re-organized inisgst. Under the dynamic and tireless leadership of its President, Dean Mario Cosenza, andits vice president, Leonard Covello, high school enrollmentin Italian increased from 8g8 in seven schools in1921-as to approximately 16,000 in fifty-five schools in 1937-38. The debtthat Italian owes to these two men is incalculable. Before any tangible gain could be achieved itwas necessary to overcome three serious obstacles, two of them purely local in character and the third national. The Italianthat was taught in the city prior to1922 had been by suffrance only. Where the principal chose to offer the language thestudent could only study it after he had hada year of Latin, French or Spanish. In 19ss, however, the Board of Educationwas prevailed upon to place Italian on parity with the other foreign languages,a decision that led to a swift and vigorousexpansion in the senior high schools. Efforts to introduce it intothe junior high schools met with considerable resistence in the beginning, but itwas gradually relaxed until in 1937-38 therewere twenty-one teaching it. Finally, in view of the increasingnumber of students who were preparing to attend our colleges, the questionas to whether or not high school credit in Italian would be accepted for entrance became very important. In1924, in order to clarify the matter, Professor Cosenzamailed out a questionnaire to Presidents of 676 institutions of higherlearning and received answers from 519. The results were published ina pamphlet of the Italy America Society under thetide: The Study of Italian

263 in the United States (New York, 1924). They were, indeed, gratifying in that they showed that out of 519 schools, 364 were disposed to accept the language for entrance. As to those institutions that did not then accept it for admittance, here is Dean Cosenza's own comment: ...« in practically every case where Italian was not already accepted for entrance, the frankly American attitude was manifest:Study Italian, present it for entrance, create the demand and we shall give you anything you ask for.' The cultural and linguistic value of the study of Italian were readily admitted on all sides; its many contributions to all the arts and sciences, both in the past and in the present, were granted with equal readiness. It all comes down to the age-long question of supply and demand. The field is now, therefore, opentoItalian.Parityoftreatmentisassuredinan overwhelming number of cases. The real friends of the study of the Italian language and literature could wish for nothing better, for nothing more favorable. They do not want any special privileges. An equal start and a fair field for all,and we can safely leave the merits of the case to decide the issue " (p. 13). Incidentally,thefavorableresponsetoDeanCosenza's questionnaire was in large measure directly attributable to the trend toward the elimination of the college entrance and graduation requirements, which in most cases involved French and German. The removal of these barriers coupled with the stimulus furnished by the example of New York City made it possible for Italian to spread throughout the country. Concrete evidence of this is to be found in the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Italian Teachers Association for the schoolyear 1937-38, which lists 257 schools in seventeen states with a total of more than 75.000 students in the first and second semesters. (See Appendix B.) Until this time Fascism had enjoyeda generally favorable reception on the part of both the public and the American Press. But Mussolini's imperialistic ambitions which resulted in the Ethiopian War late in 1935 now reversedour attitude towards him and his regime. President Franklin D. Roosevelt made his famous * Quarantine Speech " in Chicagoon Oct. 5, 1937 stigmatizing Fascism and all that it stood for. Resentment

264 brought repercussions upon the study of Italian marking the start of its downward spiral. It showed up quicker andmore decisively in the high schools than in the colleges, andwhen World War II erupted it has disappeared fromtwo thirds of the schools where it was once taught and suffereda noticeable drop in enrollment in the remaining third. War conditions were, understandably, not conduciveto any revival and this was aggravated by the vicious blows dealtthe languages by various and-languagegroups such as the American Youth Commission in its brochure What the High Schools Ought to Teach (1940), the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association in its4* i-page book entitled Education for All American Youth (1941), and the so-called Harvard Scholars' Report, General Education ina Free Society (1945).2 The decline that startedat this time continued to 1950. In 1949, for example, out ofa high school population of 5,400,000, French attracted only 4.7% of the total enrollment, Spanish 8.2% and German 0.8%. As the result of these two crises Italian has been ableto move forward slowly and is as yet considerably below the peak it had reached in 1937-38. In 1962-63a report on the enrollment in fifteen states gives a total of25, 777 students mainly in the the New England States, New Jersey and California.In New Jersey there are at present forty secondary schools offering Italian, in New York City twenty-two junior andtwenty-seven senior high schools, andon Long Island fourteen senior high schools and two junior high schools. Italian will naturally expandmore and more during the coming years though, ofcourse, it will not reach the proportions of French, Spanish or Latin, oreven Russian, at least as long as " sputnik feverremains lodged in the cerebellum ofso many of our fellow Americans. It will continueto be excluded from most of the established public secondary schools particularly those in rural areas which can provide instruction only inone language, usually Latin, sometimesa second language, French

See William Riley Parker. The National Interest ed Foreign Languages. 3rd ed. Washington, D.C., 196s, 81-8g.

265

1111111111110/ .ANIMMIONtV41M101111011011010b, 11111IVONSINIMINe.ormiammilmINMENNININIIIMMii. or Spanish, and very infrequently the threeof them. Ideally Italian belongs to the larger schools with their bigger student body and teaching staff, as is clear from the fact that 90% of those currently offering it belong to this category. It is regrettable, nonetheless, that even here there are hundreds of schools which by administrative edict teach only one language and hundreds of others which for the same reason offer only two languages. Students are obliged to take not the language of their choice but the ones that are imposed upon them by the schools they attend. In not a few schools, due either to a real or a feigned ignorance, councilors have deliberately kept students from enrolling in or petitioning for Italian on the ground that it is not accepted as a college entrance requirement. This ispatently untrue since today there is hardly any college, certainly no outstanding school, that does not accept the language despite the fact that it may not be teaching it at the moment.3 It is surprising that this hurtful sort of misrepresentation should be allowed to persist. It should not be forgotten, too, that principals and superin- tendents are virtual dictators of their school curricula. Many of them are products of the anti-Janguage era of the forties. For them the " core curriculum " must be made up of the so-called practical courses to the exclusion of those that have any relation to a liberal education, which means that among the foreign languages Italian, whose claims are preeminently cultural,is their chief victim. The principal of Austin High School in Chicago, which had recently become the center for Italian in the city with a flourishing group of thirteen classes and five instructors, decided to eliminate the language, which he effectively succeeded in doing within an interval of three or four years. At about the same time at Proviso Township High School in Melrose Park, Ill., there were seven classes in Italian taught by a full-time and a part-time teacher. Upon the retirement of full-time instructor

Sec Foreign Language Entrance and Degree Requirements in U.S. Colleges and Universities: Fall 1966. New York: Mod. Lang. Assoc., 1966.

266 all the courses wereabolished. Similar if less extremeexamples would fill several pages if weat..empted to enumerate them,but perhaps these will suffice tomake us aware of someof the formidable opposition Italian mustcontinually cope with. The motivation for theantagonism is not always the same, but in the majority of instancesit is related to the questionof so-called practical objectives. In thelight of a school-enrollment of several millions in theforeign tongues, itisdifficult to conceive how these educators cansubstantiate their contention. The bitter truth as we see itis that except for anextremely small fraction of the studentbody, the study of languagesis a sheer waste of time insofar asthe vast majority isconcerned. These can cease being wastefulfor the mass only if they can serve to enrich thelives of those who learnfliem, that is, only in terms of their humanisticvalidity. On this basis, Italianranks among the highest onthe list. Unfortunw,ely,it will be a long time before the mirage ofpractical application will bereplaced by the reality of culturalvalues. There are, nevertheless, numerousadministrators with more open andcultivated minds who would bewilling to introduce the language in their schoolsprovided they had persons on their faculty equipped to teach it.We are awaiting a nation-wide survey to determinewhat schools are favorably disposed todo it. Once thisisundertakenthereare bound tobe college undergraduates in sufficientnumbers who will be induced to major or at least to minor inItalian and thus make possible a notable expansion of Italianlanguage study in the middle schools. * * *

As everyone knows theNational Defense Education Act was signed byPresident Eisenhower on Sept.2,1958. The Language Development Sectionwhich forms a part of it was put into operationin 1959. The only sectorthat specifically concerns high schoolteachers of Italian is Title XI(formerly Title VI), which provides for aninstitute for the re-training of teachers. Thus farthere have beensix,fiveatCentral

267 Connecticut State College directedby Professor Arthur Se lvi, and one at the University of California(Berkeley) headed by Professor John A. Scott. Duringtwo of the years, ig6o and 1963, no institute was provided by the planners.The new methods applied under the guidance ofexperts have led to an appreciable improvement of the quality ofinstruction. However fine this may be, it has failed, nonetheless,to meet the most pressing need of Italian at the high schoollevel, namely the preparation of new teachers. A move in this directionwas made in 1965 when a " second field * institutewas conducted for the first time in order to give those teachers whohad attended an institute inone language, but who hadsome competence in Italian, an opportun- ity to improve their qualificationsin it. Anothermove forward has been the establishment in1966 of an NDEA Instituteat Rutgers for undergraduates preparingto teach Italian. Its director is Professor Remigio U.Pane, chairman of the Departmentof Romance Languages. It is dueto his interest and initiative that Rutgers has become thecenter for Italian studies in the East. Still anothermove forward is the establishment ofan Overseas NDEA Institute for AdvancedStudy under the direction of Professor Ernest S. Falbo, whichis scheduled to be in Florence during thesummer of1967. Though allthree moves are beneficial theyare obviously still far from adequate because of the small number ofnew teachers they will be able to train. For this reason suggestionshave been advanced for the creation of a different type of institutefor teachers of French, Spanish and Latin who havenever had formal instruction in Italian but who are interested inteaching the language in theirschools. This method of studyinga new language by makinguse of others intimately relatedto it has been tried for centuries, with excellent results in Americafor at least15o years. Many of us who have studied Portuguesehave learned this language rapidly through Spanish,a procedure which is currently fairlywide- spread in our colleges.

268 APPENDIX B

[1938 remains until now the peak-year in our high school Italian enrollment. The table that follows is reproduced from the Italian Teachers Association Seventeenth Annual Report: School Year 1937-38. Since ITA Reports are virtually inaccesible, we should like to add for the benefit of those who may wish to consult them that the only complete library set in existence can be found in the Teachers College Library at Columbia University.]

REGISTRATION OF STUDENTS OF ITALIAN IN HIGH SCHOOLS

(As per Reports received)

(Nor : An asterisk indicates a High School that appears for the first time in these Reports. Among the 257 High Schools in the following table, there are 30 new schools.)

I 93 8 CALIFORNIA 'rum ENDING January June 1.Fresno Edison Technical High School 77 90 2.Los Angeles Lincoln Evening High School 43 e43' *3.Oakland Lowell-McClymonds High School 85e85 4. Technical High School 131 119 5. University High School 53 33 6. Redwood CitySequoia Union High School 28 s8 7. Richmond Salesian House of Studies 33 44 8. San FranciscoBalboa High School 389 e3809 9. Commerce High School 249 e249 10. Galileo High School 40449* 30 11. Girls High School 113136 12. Lowell High School 20 13. Mission High School 216*oa 144 Polytechnic High School 47 47 *15. Porto la Jr. High School 93 16. So. San Francisco Jr.Sr. H. S. 51 4* 17. San Jose Bel larmine College Prep. School 3* 3* e, here and elsewhere, evidently refers to estimated enrollment.

269 CALIFORNIA--(Cont.) 1 9 3 8 TERM ENDING January June 18. Senior HighSchool *19. 69 64 Notre Dame HighSchool 90. e$8 $8 Peter Burnett Jr.High School 91. so 7 15 Woodrow WilsonJr. High School 22. $8 33 Department of AdultEducation 58 86 $3. Santa Cruz Senior High School 25 11 94. Santa Rosa High School 46 95. Sausalito Tamalpais Union 57 High School 6364 26. Stockton High School 27. Weed High School 317369 45 43 COLORADO 28. Denver Assumption HighSchool $9. 36 14 14 North HighSchool 150149 Horace Mann Jr. High School 92 94 CONNECTICUT

31. Bridgeport Bassick High School 91 21 " Central High School 193189 33. " Central EveningHigh School 30 77 90 34. Warren HardingHigh School 145137 35. Farmington Miss Porter'sSchool 36. Hartford Public High 7 7 School 100 91 37. " Bulkeley HighSchool 194 38. Meriden High School 124 39. New Haven 35 35 New HavenHigh School 40. Waterbury 388388 Crosby HighSchool 103 41. 103 Leavenworth HighSchool 30 Wilby High 42 43 School 134132 43. West HavenHigh School e64 64 ILLINOIS

44. Chicago Austin High School 1291$9 45. " Crane TechnicalHigh School 317317 270 1 9 3 8 ILuNoxs--(Cont.) TERM ENDING January June

46. McKinley High School 18o18o 47. Steinmetz High School 122 122 48 " Wells High School 50 50 49. Chicago HeightsBloom Township High School 51 48 50. Highland ParkDeerfield-Shields High School 30 29 51. Maywood Proviso Township High School 153 159

LOUISIANA

52. New Orleans Aide Fortier High School 126 181. 58. Warren Easton Evening H. S. 27 27

MASSACHUSETTS

54.Boston Central Evening High School 75 75 *55 Dorchester Evening High School 27 27 56. East Boston High School 885335 57. East Boston Evening High School34 34 58. English High School 218213 59. Girls High School 216216 6o. Hyde Park High School 57 57 61. Donald McKay Jr. High School 272272 62. Michelangelo Jr. High School 260260 *63. Roslindale Evening High School55 55 64.Chelsea Senior High School 55 55 *65.Fitchburg High School e57 57 66.Framingham High School 33 33 *67.Franklin High School 86 77 68.Medford High School 106105 69. Medford Evening High School 25 25 70.Milford High School 205205 71.Revere Central Jr. High School 148148 72.Somerville High School 211 e211 73. Somerville Evening High School28 28 74. Northeastern Jr. High School 178178 75. Southern Jr. High School 110110

271 1 9 3 8 MICHIGAN TEM MOW January June 76. Detroit Eastern High School 47 50 77- Eastern Evening High School 21

Nzw Jzaszy

78. Atlantic CitySenior High School 57 57 79- * Evening High School 110110 80. Bayonne Senior High School 55 61 81. Bloomfield High School 46 55 82. Cliffside ParkJr.-Sr. High School 42 42 *83. East Orange Vernon L. Davey Jr. High School54 54 84. Elizabeth Battin High School(Girls) 85. * Jefferson High School (Boys) 77 77 86. Garfield High School 71 108 87. Hackensack High School 22 22 88. Jersey City Accredited Evening High School68 68 89. * Dickinson High School 232213 90. James J. Ferris High School 195so7 91. Jersey City Lincoln High School 219 e219 * Henry Snyder High School 209 197 93. Lodi Thomas Jefferson High School 133 116 94. Montclair Senior High School 193 125 *95- * Evening High School so 96. * Glenfield Jr. High School 72 72 97. Newark Barringer High School 446504 98. Barringer Evening High School 49 46 99 Central High School 354 e354 100. East Side High School 132 130 101. West Side High School 218 e215 los.Orange High School 130195 log.Passaic High School 141 130 104.Paterson Central High School 268 e268 105. Central Evening High School 52 45 196. East Side High School 36o326 107. Penn's GroveRegional High School 82 37

272 1 9 3 8 Nzw jzzszY-(Cont.) TERM ENDING January June

108. Ramsey Don Bosco High School 2 109. Trenton Central High School 87 87 *11o. Central Evening High School 28 48 111. Union City Emerson High School 269318 112. Vineland High School 124loo 118. West New YorkMemorial High School 137 127

NEW YORK

114. Albany Philip Schuyler High School 48 50 115. Ardsley High School 51 51 116. Auburn Senior High School 113109 *117. Binghamton Central Evening High School 87 118. Buffalo Grover Cleveland High School 116118 119. Hutchinson Central High Schoole115115 12o. Canastota High School 65 65 121. Dobbs Ferry High School 22 ism Dunkirk High School 17 17 *1113. Elmira High School 52 52 124. Endicott Union-Endicott High School 118133 125. Floral Park Sewanhaka High School 51 49 126. Harrison High School 32 32 *127. Lawrence High School 54 47 28. Mamaroneck Senior High School 18 17 * 1 Marlborough Central High School 13 10 *133. Mount VernonA. B. Davis High School 44 48 *131.Newburgh Free Academy 35 57 *132 3. Evening High School 45 133. New RochelleSenior High School 125108 134. Salesian High School 32 26 135.New York Bay Ridge Evening High School113 107 136. Bryant High School 347323 3, 137. BushWick High School 251e251 xi 138. Central Evening High School 81 85 139. 3. Evander Childs High School 983loi8

273

18 938 NEW YORK- (COnt.) TERM ENDING January June

140. , tt Grover Cleveland High School 186232 141. x 33 De Witt Clinton High School 470469 142. >f it Curtis High School 248229 143. x Eastern District Evening H. S. 88 101 ft 144. it Benjamin Franklin High School 612567 145. tt tt Alexander Hamilton High School85 98 146. tt >f Immaculata High School 163163 147. >f ft Washington Irving High School666696 148. 7, ft Washington Irving Evening H. S. 276433 149. tt tt Jamaica Evening High School 30 45 150. x J, Abraham Lincoln High School 516501 151. >f Xl Manual Training High School 342365 152. >f ft James Monroe High School 151 170 153. >f ft Morris High School 112 129 154. >f ft Morris Evening High School 55 65 155. x x New Dorp High School 108 143 156. TY New Utrecht High School 13371433 157. " ,* New Utrecht Evening H. S. 165 178 158. tt >f New York Evening High School 56 88 159. >f X/ Newtown High School 550572 160. " Julia Richman High School 182 154 161. >f tt Theodore Roosevelt High School 720715 162. >f ft Theodore Roosevelt Evening H.S.181 153 163. >f tt Seward Park High School 313309 164. ft Xl Stuyvesant High School 112 176 165. " Textile High School 207237 * 166. " Textile Evening High School 110 51 167. ,* ,* Tilden High School 120 142 168. " ft Wadleigh High School 231220 169. ), Music & Art High School 93109 170. ,* Jr. H. School, P.S. 37, Bronx 126e126 ,* ,* " ,, " *171. 44, " 58 101

" XO If ft tt 172. " 45, " 896904 x, x, 2, XI tt 173. " 57, " 283301

274 NEW YORK- (Con t.) 1 9 3 8 TERM ENDING January June

174. Jr. H. School, P.S. g8Bronx 17 *175. Olinville Jr. High School 240365 176. Jr. H. School, P.S.6, Brooklyn117e117 177. H H " 29, 163312 178. H H 73, * 171 264 179. 2 2 7 953873 180. H 228, * 6o6567 181. 3, Manhattan 155 182. 143 65, 95100 183. H H H H 83, 739703 184. H H H H 95, 113 109 *185. H H H H 99, 47 186. H H " 159, 309295 187. H H H H 16, Queens 296390 188. The Finch School 13 13 189. Miss Hewitt's Classes 151 12 190. The Spence School 15 15 191. North Tarrytown High School 38 192. Oneida 40 27 27 193. Ossining 81 77 194. Peekskill 70132 195. Pleasantville 68 67 196. Port Chester Senior High School 223236 *197. Poughkeepsie High School 42 198. Rochester 40 Aquinas Institute 82 82 199. East High School 271249 200. East Evening High School 65110 201. Benjamin Franklin HighSchool 238215 202. Jefferson High School 169120 203. Washington High School 128 133 204. Seneca Falls Free Academy 106130 205. Seneca Falls Mynderse Academy 37 *206. Syracuse 36 North High School 98 *207. Tuckahoe Eastchester High School 51 51 208. High School 25 25

275

.- - NEW YoRE(Cont.) 1938 TERM ENDING 209. Utica January June Thomas R.Proctor High *210. WhitePlains School 275350 Greenburgh HighSchool 211. " High School 20 312. Yonkers » 65 85 213. " 81 72 School forAdult Education 68 59 OHIO

214. Cleveland Collinwood High 215. School 39 East HighSchool 52 216. 20 20 Extension HighSchool 217. e45 Institute ofMusic 45 *218. John Hay 25 25 Senior HighSchool 219. Murray Hill 30 220. Youngstown JrJ. HighSchool 76 East HighSchool 83 to8 68 PENNSYLVANIA

221. Dunmore High School 222. Erie 50 42 Strong VincentSr. High 223. School 10272 Roosevelt Jr.High School *224. Hazelton Senior High 71 37 School 136 225. Johnstown 7, 37 130 226. Philadelphia 71 63 So. Phila.High School 227. for Boys611520 So. Phila.High School 228. for Girls754681 So. Phila.Evening High 229. School 194194 Bartlett Jr.High School *230. 207264 Furness Jr.High School 231. Vare Jr. High 253 232. Pittsburgh School 109 eta? AlleghenyEvening High 233. School 20ego LangleyEvening High 234. School 15 15 Fifth AvenueEvening H. 235. S. 14 PeabodyEvening High 15 236. School 18 Taylor-Allderdice 14 Evening H.S.20ego 237. Westinghouse 238. Evening H.S. 5o 15 WestinghouseHigh School 120153 276 1 9 3 8 RHODE ISLAND TERM ENDING January June

239. Bristol Colt Memorial High School 38 38 ,, 240. Colt Memorial Evening H. S. 25 24 241. Cranston Senior High School 138156 v 242. Hugh B. Bain Jr. High School 140143 243. Newport Rogers High School 52 52 244. Pawpucket Senior High School 62 6o 245. Providence Central High School 377434 206 246. , Samuel W. Bridgham Jr. H. S. 154 64 83 247. " Esek Hopkins Jr. High School ,, 76 68 248. Oliver H. Perry Jr. High School 140154 249. " George J. West Jr. High School *25o. " Holy Ghost Jr. High School 95 251. Woonsocket Jr.-Sr. High School 146 65

TEXAS

252. Galveston Ball High School 5 e5

WASHINGTON 253. Seattle The Cornish School 6 6

WEST VIRGINIA 254. MorgantownHigh School 43e43 3o 6o 255. St. Francis de Sales H. S.

WISCONSIN 256. Kenosha Senior High School 102 98 257. Milwaukee Lincoln High School 326328

277 2.ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (including private andreligious schools)

classes The teaching ofthe ancient andmodern languages to early is,needless to say,centuries old. In the of children customarily carried onin nineteenth centuryinstruction was school type thatthen prevailed inthis country, the overlapping education in a single acombination of primaryand secondary institution. children The private schoolsexclusively devoted to young the other hand, tohave been relativelyfew. One of seem, on " the first to come to ournotice is a " Schoolfor Young Children Mrs. McGwire, a opened in Savannah,Georgia in 1827 by a of the New Yorkacademies, who offered to graduate of one this teach French, Italianand Spanish atnight.* Obviously, at hampered by thelack time teaching atthe primary level was which, if used atall, were for the mostpart of printed texts in imported from England.It was toremedy this deficiency the Italian that PietroBachi preparedThe Rudiments of Italian Language, orEasy Lessons inSpelling and Reading, Adapted to thecapacity with an Abridgmentof the Grammar. reader, Barbauld's of Children (1828), aswell as a companion Easy Hymns for Childrenin Italian, Being aS 'que; to the Lessons in Reading. In1841 a new editionof the Easy Lessons Barbauld ..." revised andimproved " and areprinting of the and Co. of Boston. Hymns "... were brought outby James Monroe Bachi prepared the textsis a certain signof a The very fact that kind of growing demand, atleast in NewEngland, for this instruction. There were a numberof " immigrant "schools where organized in children could also studythe language. Two were 1842 in Boston andNew York by theGiovine Italia groups Five Points, near Another was alreadyoperating in 1855 at Mulberry St. in New YorkCity!' As the influxof immigration Two Hundred Years ofEducation... op. cit. See H.S. Bowden. Writings 5 Noted by J. Rossi.The Image ofAmerica in Mazzini's (Madison, Wis., 1954, 25). See L'Eco d'Italia. Dec.6, 1869.

278 increased, more and more of them wereestablished in the socalled Italian Colonies stretching from NewYork to San Francisco and from Duluth to New Orleans. Many weresponsored and supported by local Italian MutualBenefit Societies.* To cite a concrete case, in 1941, on theoccasion of its seventy-fifth anniversary, the Society Unione e FrateHansa of St. Louis published aHistorical Review containing anarticleon * Establishing the First ItalianSchool in St. Louis, which informs us that in 1869 the Society sponsored aschool for the teaching of the Italian language to thechildren of members and other interested personts Though theenterprise lasted less than, a year, no doubt more long lutingresults came from similar projects elsewhere. Naturally, numerous parochial elementaryschools have provided facilities for learning the language.One very early instance that is worth noting is recordedby Lewis Joseph Sherrill in his Presbyterian ParochialSchools (New Haven, 1911). A 61 Tableon their curriculumbased on twenty-nine schools operating between 1846 and 1849,brings out that Latin was taught in three,Greek in two and German, Italian and Spanish in one. For lack of other data we move to 1934,when there were 263 Catholic and Protestant religiousschools teaching Italian according to Bruno Roselli in his ItalianYesterday and Today (Boston, 1935, 54-55), most of thempresumably at the grade school level. In a Modern LanguageAssociation survey, * Foreign Languages in the ElementarySchools in the United States, 1959-1960,* Marjorie Breuning recordsthat there were 44075children enrolled in Italian in Catholic parochialschools. From the useful and informative Bulletin of the ItalianCulture Council, Vol. I, No. 10, March 2966, edited by itscoordinator, Elvira Adorno, it has been interesting to learn that theteachers of the Filippini order are currently teaching thelanguage in some forty of their elementaryschools in New jerseyMaywood, Montclair, Peapeck, Trenton, Newark, liton and to.ber towns. They have prepared a PrimaryGrades Manual for 4,10.=@1 I See L'Eco d'Itilis, Feb. tg. The brochure is in the St. Louis Public Library.

273 kindergartners and first andsecond graders, withpoems, songs, and illustrations andaTeacher's Manual for theIntroduction to Italian, Grade3, divided into lessons plans,songs, vocabulary and line drawings. Copiesare obtainable from Sister Margherita Marchione, Villa Walsh,Morristown, NJ" InMassachusetts there are at least five religiousschoolsLeominster, Fitchburg, Worcester, Holyoke andPittsfield- -thatare currently teaching Italian at the elementarylevel. However, with referenceto the study of Italian in the parochial grade schools, itshould be noted that ithas been far less developed thanexpected, particularlyat the immigrant stage. Nathan Glazer, in hischapter on The Process and ProblemsofLanguage-Maintenance:an Integrated View(in LanguageLoyalty inthe United States,edited by Joshua A. Fishman LondonTheHagueParis, zg66p. 364), explains why: Religionhas an equally complexrelationship to language-maintenance. One ofthe most interesting generaliza- tions one can draw fromthis series of studieson the experiences of ze ny different ethnic groups in the United States is thatthe Catholic Church becameindifferent or opposedto the language maintenance efforts ofimmigrant groups withinits fold. Thus, among the Germans, it was the Lutheran churches ratherthan the Catholic thatwere most concerned withmaintaining German schools. TheFrench had to fightconsistently against the Irish-Americanhierarchy in orderto maintain their French- language schools andFrench-language parishes.The Ukrainians encountered thesa e difficulties. Norwas the Roman Catholic

Other texts thatare available are the following:Prof. halo L. Ponterotto: 4 Guide forTeachers of Italianisthe Blensentar7 Schools (New York, nu); MimiUnits. Term z anda put out by the School District of Philaddphis:Italian Teaching Guide forthe 7th Year (tglo) &td a more thorough text, /tells" in the BlenstnterSchools. Bulletin No. g, iges.08, both issued by theNew York City Baud ofZducation, which includes units forthe first threeyears starting with grade four. It has been prepared byTeresa di Rapt*. (0,- Whom. Union Diners, Josephine Morabitoand others. The Italianfor Chitlins Hear Stash Records, a picturemanual withtranslations put t b7 Ottenhebser in lialtimmt is serriumble.Though much more nodeto be dos. a pod begirming has akeedy beenowe s. hierarchy much friendlierto Italian, Hungarian,Polish, or any other language-maintenanceefforts. But if theRoman Catholic hierarchy in Americagenerally playeda grudging and unwilling role in helpingforeign languages, thesituation was, of quite different course, where thegroups were able to maintaintheir own distinct parishes, withpriests steaming fromthe language group itself. The FrenchCanadians weremost successful in doing so, and some of their parishes becamestrong supporters of language-maintenanceefforts.* In the large metropolitancommunities a thirdtype of private elementary schoolestablished by halo-Americanshas likewise been in existence fora long time. For example,on April i6, 1873,L'Eco Whelk carried thefollowing advertisement:'1 Scuola Private, Italians: Igenitori theamassero far istruire i loro fan- dulli nella belle linguaitalianapossono indirinarsi calla Signora Angela Scotti, al N.61, South FifthAvenue * (New York). There wassome sporadic teaching of ItalianIn the pu grade schools as early as 1855. On this pointwe have one piece of evidence i The Fifth AnnualReport of the Superintendentof Public instruction of the State ofCalifornia, datedJanuary 17, 1856, which containsanAppendix A witha list of textbooks * recommended to be used in the publicschools of this state.* However, no texts are listed under theheadingFrench, Italian, Spanish and German " but instead thereis a note (p.16) Indicating that their choice was to beat the discretioof the teachers* There followsa parenthesized remark* (Recent publications offergreat improvementsupon the pas** which is somewhat ambiguous,but it can beinterpreted as meaning that various inadequatetexts had been inuse in the state for several years. There is " - to believe that those who Italian were for studied the mostpart young children ofItalian immigrants and thatthis took placevery likely in the heavy Italian settlements inthe San Franciscoarea. More than a half century later we find that in Milwaukee,Wisconsin, itwas studied by 77o children in 1913 and that by1917 the figure had risen to goo. Germanand Polishwere the other foreign languages aught. However, the strong feeling of nationalismgenerated by World War Isoon put an end to themovement in the Wisconsin

281 city." Until very recently there has beenno mention of foreign languages below the high school in the Boston SchoolCommittee Reports after their discontinuance in 11397. However,in 1916 a syllabus in Italian was issued for the intermediateclasses or junior high school which presumably marksthe date of its introduction." in 1918 the languagewas re-introduced in two public elementary schools in San Francisco."The meagreness of further data makes it clear that Italian hadan extremely limited place in the public grade school curriculumat the time, which is also true of the other foreign languages.Nevertheless, there was sufficient demand for it in the Clevelandarea in 1941 to call for the establishment ofa Summer School of Italian at Western Reserve University foryoungsters six years of age and older.This featureda DemonstrationSchoolinItalian conducted entirely in that language accordingto theCleveland Plan * inaugurated by Imile de Sauth.

On May 3, 1931 the then United States Commissionerof Education, Earl J. McGrath, who had recentlybecome a pro- language convert, statrd publiclyat a meeting of the Central States Modern Language Association in St.Louis: * For so e years I unwisely took the position thata foreign language did notconstituteanindispensableelementinthegeneral educational program. This position, Iam happy to say, I have reversed. I have nowseen the light and I consider foreign languages a very important element in generaleducation... Only through the ability touse another language even modestly can one really become conscious of the full meaning of beinga member of another nationalityor cultural group. It is in our national interest to giveas many of our citizens as possible the opportunity to gain these cultural insights...Educators from the elementary school to thetop levels of the university system ought to give immediate attentionto this matter.* In January " See Bapter.Collins, op. cit. 25-0. 1, Cf. Barter-Collins,op. dt. *4. " Noted In the /tellers Teachers' AuocirCron R for ig*S-eg. 1953 he himself took theintroductory step by callinga national conference on FLES(Foreign Languagesin the Elementary Schools). Soon thereafterFLES programsbecame a reality and have since enjoyed a success that is literally phenoenal. Italian, unfortunately, has neither sharednor has it been allowedto share in the benefits so generously reaped by thebig two in this field, Spanish andFrench. In 1959-6oseven years after FLESwas put into operation Italian had an enrollment of LASconcentrated inseven states: California, Colorado, Connecticut,Illinois,Michigan, New York and Washington. Out of this numberCalifornia had more than one half of 513, them in the ParamountUnlaed School District. That thisflourishingprogram ceased to exist abruptly at Paramount after the premature death in 1964 of itsgifted and energetic director, the late Martin Paes,shows the importanceof strong leaders in our struggle for existence inthis sector. The fact that Mr. Paes left behind hima staff of four acceptablytrained teachers casts considerable doubt on theexplanation given by the local Administrative Assistant in EducationalServices when he discontinued the program on account of " lackof qualified teachers.* " The losshas been partiallymade up by the Introduction of an Italian FLESprogram in three of theNew York City grade schools in 1963,a number that hasnow risen to seven out of a total of 123 FLES schoolsgiving instruction. Again it should be stated for the recordthat the languagehad been excluded in the original experimentalprogram but was included only afterthe strongestpressure on the part of the Federation of Italian American DemocraticOrganization." In contrast to thepoor showing in NewYork City, where, incidentally, two other great major languages,German and Russian, are completely absent from theprogram, it is gratifying to note that in thenearby town ofHicksville the study Italian is flourishing of in the publicelementary schools. It is is A doubt further heightened by a letterdated Jan. 18, ig63, which Mr. Paes wrote to Mr.Fumard, the administrative in my files. iunistant. A copy is 14 Cf. FIADO Newsletter,Feb. ig63.

283 taught there in 14 classes in i i schools witha total enrollment of 386 students. But let us for as, oment look at the FLU enrollments for 195940, in order to see the relation which theone for Italian has when compared with the other four majorEuropean languages. These are the figures given by MissBreunig in the Report that has been cited above.

Spanish 485,815 French 184,651 German 17,535 Russian 1,384 Italian 1,188

Inviewofthestartlingandextremelydisturbing disproportions that the figures show, it is legitimateto raise the question: Do Americanparents really exercise their personal chokes as to the language their grade-schoolchildren study? In the majority of instances obviously onlyif the choice coincides with the languageor languages which the school or district administrators designate, whoas in the case of the high schools, are the virtual dictators of their respective curricula.The prevailing practice has beento set up schools or zones for a single language, usually Spanishor French, an arbitrary ruling which has already forced thousandsof pro-French parents to accept Spanish as the course to be pursued by theirchildren as well as thousands of pro-Spanishparents to accept French." Where two languagesare offered it goes without saying that they are apt to be the above mentionedtwo, likewise ordinarily designated by administrators. Asto the other three great major languagesGerman, Italian and Russian,they are, for the most part, artificially squeezed out. Thereare, course, administrators

11 Among the concrete examples thatcan be cited are the two large suburban centers in the Greater Chicagoarea, Des Plaines, where Spanish has been designated as theone language available in the city, and Park Ridge, where French is the " preferredlanguage. The caption of a letter by a g Teacherin the Chicago De, News for Mar.so, One- Language Schools Feared,' epitomizes the writer'sconcern on this subject.

284 who are not against theirbeing taught, but theirhands are tied by the unavailability of anyqualified instructors in these languages whereas trained teachersof Spanish and French are easily obtainable. In otherwords, it is not the desireof large segments of a communitythat often determines thelanguage or languages to be taught but thesupply of instructors whohappen to be on the spot atthe moment. What happens when Spanishand French students go to a high school wedo not fully know as yet,but one of two things is bound to occur. Eitherthe majority continuetheir grade- school language as they areexpected to do, which willhave the effect of causing enrollmentsin German, Italian andRussian to drop drasticallyand eventually beeliminated in whole sections of the United States savein our colleges, or,should a sufficiently heavy percentageelect to begin German orItalian or Russianin high school, or evenshift from French toSpanish or vice versa, thenthe FLES program mustbe labelled a colossal failure and consequentlyresult in a terrific wasteof the tax-payers' money. Since the grade-schoolpopulationis so vast and the problems of implementing the programmany andcomplicated, it is extremely doubtful thatit will ever become auniversally integrated part of the pre-highschool curriculum. Nevertheless, the situation that has alreadydeveloped is serious enough to call for a quick and determined move tobring about some sort of equilibrium. Rather thanwait for u grass-rootsmovements to develop, which arealways difficult to organize amongthe loosely-welded residents of individualschool districts even if administrators are favorablydisposed, the soundest procedure would be for the directorsof FLES to take theinitiative immediately in establishing specialinstitutes in those localities where there is a genuine &mire amongparents to havetheir children study German, Italian orRussian rather than French or Spanish.

285 CHAPTER VIII

MISCELLANEA.

1. THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS OF ITALIAN

At the Modern Language Association convention held at Iowa City in 1921, the first discussions were held in thecourse of the meetings of ItalianI and II on the feasibility of organizing teachers of Italian for the purpose of achieving efficient cooperation in developing the study of Italian. A planning committee was appointed consisting of Professors Goggio (Toronto), Cavicchi (Brown), Agnes Ridell (Wheaton) andAltrocchi(Chicago).Atthe MLA Conventionin Philadelphia in igsa organization of the proposed association was further discussed and a new and enlarged committee was appointed to report at the 19,3 meeting in Ann Arbor. This committee consisted of Professors Grandgent (Harvard), Shaw (Toronto), Roselli (Vassar), Ridell (Wheaton), Wilkins (Chicago), with Professor McKenzie, then at the University of Illinois,as chairman. It drew up a tentative constitution for the society which was carefullydiscussedatthegathering.Professor McKenzie became its first president, Wilkins and Shaw vice- presidents,Altrocchisecretary-treasurerand editorofthe Bulletin of the American Association of Teachers of Italian. Roselli, De Salvio (Northwestern), Vaughan (California)were named councillors, Lipari (Wisconsin) and Phelps (Minnesota) consulting Editors. Professor Grandgentwas named Honorary President. The organization started with99 nembers, 74 active and 25 associate, the difference consisting in the fact that the active nembers were teachers of the language while the associate members were not teachers of Italian but otherwise interested init.Our new constitution, adopted in1g58 during the presidency of Prof. A.T. MacAllister, incidentally,no longer makes this distinction. It also provides for the creation of chapters of which thereare now ten: Detroit, Chicago, ITA

286

I (New York), LongIsland (New York),New England, New Jersey, Philadelphia,Northeastern Ohio,Northern California, Pacific Northwest,Southeastern states. Membership has grownfrom 99 to approximately 15oo. The organ of theAssociation, re-namedItalica in 1926, has had as its editorsRudolph Altrocchi,1924-28, N. D. Austin,1 1928-33, John Van Home, /933-4sand Joseph G. Fucillasinet. has gradually 1945. It started r.a notiziarioof twelve pages and expanded as membershipand subscribers haveincreased to more than ioo pages perissue. One of thevaluable features it contains is the quarterlyanalytical bibliographywhich, over the years, has beenprepared by J. E. Shaw,J. G. Fucilla, C. S. Singleton, Vincent Luciani(AATI President 1953)Armand L. De Gaetano (AATIPresident, 1966-68), andis presently in the hands of Beatrice Corriganand Julius Molinaro.The periodical has sought to keep itsscholarly standards highand has had at various times among itscontributors teaching inthe American universities such eminentcolleagues as J.E. Shaw,McKenzie, Spitzer, Hatzfeld, Kristeller,Ulrich Leo and Wilkins.Some of alsobeen thedistinguishedforeignscholarswho have contributors are Momigliano,Migliorini, GiuseppeToffa.nin, Emilio Santini, Natali, EttoreAllodoli. The secretarytreasurers upon whoseshoulders most of the hardwork in the organization has fallen have beenHilda Norman, AngeloLipari, Luigi Passarelli, DomenicoVittorini,CamilloP.Merlino,Elton Hocking, Joseph Rossi, AlfredGalpin, Norma Fornaciariand Herbert Golden. Ernest Falbois the current secretary treasurer. The AATI is now solidlyestablished and is already avital force in the propagationof Italian culture in this country.

a. THEITALIAN TEACHERS'ASSOCIATION

In view of its existence as anindependent organizationfor a numberof years and its importantrole in the teachingof

Professor Austin also deserves tobe remembered for hisvaluable lexicographical studies on the DivineComedy. He taught atPrinceton

287 Italian in our schools in the twenties and thirties, a few words on the Italian Teachers'Association are apropos here. It began to function in New York City in191s, but temporarily halted its activities with the outbreak of World Was I. The group was re-activated in igs 1 and adopted a constitution with a two-fold aim: 1) To encourage the teaching of Italln and s) To encourage solidarity among teachers of the Dalian language and Americans of Italian extraction engaged in the teaching profession. Professor Mario E. Cosenza, later Dean of Brooklyn College, was elected President, and Dr. Leonard Covello, first head of the Italian Department at De Witt Clinton High School and later Principal of the Benjamin Franklin High School, Vice-President. Both of them were retained in these offices for some twenty-five years. In 19st the ITA was successful in securing from the New York Board of Education the same parity for Italian that had been enjoyed by French, German and Spanish, thus paving the way for the rapid introduction of the language in many of the New York City and many other high schools.' Until 1988 -39 the Association published Annual Reports dealing with useful information on the study of Italian and on Italian culture. With the Third Annual Report (i923-24), the yearly listof high schools and colleges in the New York metropolitan area and the State of New York was extended to include other institutions in all parts of the United States, and gradually grew to the point of presenting a virtually complete picture of the country-wide enrollment in Italian from year to year. As the only faithful record we have on the status of the language from 19$3 to 1939 the value of the lists is inestimable. The ITA is now a chapter of the American Association of Teachers of Italian.

(1901-06),Amherst(1908-09),Johns Hopkins(1910-11),Universityof Michigan (1911-20), and at the University of Southern California (1920-45). See Italica, XXI (Sept. i946), i29-35, for a biographical sketch on him and a bibliography of his. writings. This issue was dedicated to him. See also the chapter on the Public Schools.

288 3. THEMODERNLANGUAGE ASSOCIATION read The story of theModern LanguageAssociation can be 1883.1953 * (PMLA, in William RileyParker's " The MLA Winchester Stone's LXVIII, 1953, pt.31, 3-39)and in George of the MLA as a " The Beginning,Development and Impact LXXIII, 1958, No. 5,Pt. ,, Learned Society, 1883-195S" (PMLA, into this subjectin any detail. 23-44). We,therefore, need not go Its founder was A.Marshall Elliott ofThe Johns Hopkins University. The firstmeeting was held atColumbia University 1885, in 1883. The official organof the groupwhich appeared in Language TheTransactionsofthe Modern was called it assumed Association, but commencingwith the fourth volume the name of ThePublications ofthe ModernLanguage Association (PMLA). in In the early yearsthe organizationtook a keen interest Section *was pedagogicalproblems anda" Pedagogical regularly a part ofits program until1903. By 1911the advancement of researchhad already becomethe Association's official in 1927 by predominant objectiveand this was made changing the originalstatement of purpose," the advancement " the of the study ofmodern languages andtheir literatures," to advancement of research "in these fields. As those who have gonethrough the files ofthe PMLA well Program was notdivided know, initially theModern Language sessions into groups andsections as it is now.Instead there were number from year to yearand naturally which varied in With few increased withthe growth ofthe Association. exceptions the papersof each of thesessions were miscellaneous not infrequent, in character. Thosedealing with Italian were concerned but, in accordancewith the trend ofthe time they the older writersand linguistics.The first for the most part the paper to bedelivered on an Italiansubject was given at Marshall Elliott on "The 1887 meeting atPhiladelphia by A. Published Earliest Works on ItalianGrammar and Lexicography Publication of studiesin Italian startedwith in England." largest Volume IV, 1889,which contains three ofthem, still the number to appear in any oneyear. They are" Dante'sParadiso:

289 Cantos XXIV-XXVI,"by Edward E. Walterof the University of Michigan, "Italo-Keltisches " by RichardOtto, Ph.D from Munich, and " ItalianPoetry and Patriotism atthe Beginning of the NineteenthCentury " by FrederickN. Page of the University of the South,Sewanee, Tenn. In 1900 the annualMLA meetings split into anEasteJ n and Central Divisionand up to 1911 met atUnion Meetings only twice. Union andSectional Meetings alternatedtill 1923 after which the Association has met asone unit. Partition of the languagesinto English, Germanand when the Romance Sessionsprevailed from 1904 until 1921, Romance LanguageSession was divided intothe present French, Italian and Spanish groups.Plans to biszct Italianinto Group I Italian (Medieval-Renaissance)andGroupII(Modern Literature) were set inmotion in 1921 at the EasternDivision meeting in Baltimore andthe Central Divisionmeeting at Iowa City where both groups metin continuous session.They kept meeting in continuoussession in 1922, 1923and 1924, when it was realizedthat there was toomuch compression, only one. hour being allowed forboth. Hence more time wasrequested. However, the request wasignored until 1936 when, atthe Richmond-Williamsburg convention, ourtwo groupsappeared scheduled separately andthey have remained separateever since. Outside these groups papersdealing with Italianhave been offered frequentlyin the Mediaeval andComparative Literature IV (Renaissance)Sections, and occasionallyin the Romance and other Sections. AATI members who havebeen Presidents of theMLA are C.R. Grandgent (1912),Edward C. Armstrong(1918-19), Milton A. Buchanan (1932), ErnestH. Wilkins (1942),Hayward Keniston (1953) and Morris Bishop (1t11). For teachers of Italian the two mostimportant practical contributions of the Association are 1)the Italian section ofits annualInternationalBibliography(1957)whose hundreds of titles, approximately 2,000 inthe May 1966 PMLA,have served to keep scholarsthoroughly posted on the mostrecent books and articles that have appearedin the field of literature and linguistics and 2) the MLAMaterials Center. Thisbranch

290 publishes a catalog of publications ofinterest to teachers of Modern Foreign Languages which listsbrochures availableon the numerous and varied projectsundertaken throughthe sponsorship of the MLA Foreign LanguageProgramTeacher Preparation, Teaching Techniques, Linguistics,The Elementary School, Language Laboratories, Literature,NEC Reports of the Working Committees of the NortheastConference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, etc.In1961the Center published an MLA Selective List ofMaterials For Useby Teachers of Modern Foreign Languagesin Elementary and Secondary Schools and a Supplementfor French andItalian in 1964. In 1961 the Chairman for Italianwas Elvira Adorno of the John Adams H.S., Ozone Park,N.Y., and in 1964the General Chairman was Prof. Olga Ragusa ofColumbia. With the assistance of a corps of experts they havesupplied elementary and high school teachers with valuableevaluations of materials in the following classifications: BasicTexts, Books of Culture Civilization, Books ofSongs, ConversationBooks, Dictionaries, DiscsSc Tapes: Cultural, Discs Sc Tapes:Language, Elementary Readers,Integrated Programs,Literary Texts,Periodicals, Supplementary Materials,Teachers Course Guides. is also responsible The Center for a series ofintegratedprogram language texts, the A-LM, which are now extensively used inour high schools. Available in ItalianareLevel OneandLevel Two. The material consistsof a studenttext, teaching tests, practice record set, class-mom/laborator recordset, classroom/laboratory tape set, teacher's manual and teacher'sdesk materials. total program u This approaches languagestudy through authentic speech and structural pattern drills which providea basis for later developmentof reading andwriting skills * loc. cit., 5i). (Supplement,

4. THE NATIONALFEDERATION OF MODERN LANGUAGE TEACHERS'ASSOCIATION Quite belatedly, in 1914, it was realized thatthere wasa need fora journal exclusivelydevoted to modem teaching and for language a national organizationcomposed of teachers

291 the National college levelsThis gave rise to at theschool and From Modern LanguageTeachers' Associations. Federation of have joined it as time to timegroup oforganised teachers presently includeThe American constituentassociations, which French, TheAmerican Association Association ofTeachers of The AmericanAssociation of Teachers of Teachersof German, Associati,m ofTeachers of Slavicand of Italian,The American of Languages, TheAmerican Association Eastern European well as a numberof Spanish andPortuguese, as Teachers of Since 1914 both state regional and statelanguage associations. annually takenplace underits and regionalmeetings have auspices. first editor ofthe Journal,made E. W.Barter-Collins, the in Volume I, 117,that a beforeall else it the announcement of modern the secondaryschool teaching Wends to help of the periodical has remainedthe major aim languages," which for and not bythe the ankles aremostly written even though from the pedagogical secondary school group.Many have profited rather thanprimarily through data that hasappeared in it, but teachers of Italianhave benefited their owncontributions the the sisterlanguages. This moody indirectlythrough those on the collegeteachers areinterested isbecause virtuallyall those in thehigh schools,like in its literature,while most of languages, havetended to accept their fellow-teachersin other methods on hand asworked out bytheir the tools and colleagues, andpedagogically-inclinedcollege linguistically of their own.With rather than to carry onoriginal experiments and the Officeof Education the ModernLanguage Association research individualinitiative entering the fieldof methodological almost to astandstill along these lineshas, unfortunately, come in all the modernforeign languages. served as editorsof the Five members ofthe AATI have 111 Crawford, Henry Modern LanguageJournalJ.P. Wicke P. Merlino,Julio del Tomand Robert Grattan Doyle, Camillo held the of our Associationmembers have F. Roeming. Four F. FederationJ.P.W.Crawford, Ferdinansl presidency of the Fornadari. The Di Bar tolo, Juliodel Toro, andNorma V. president for 1967 isErnest S. Falbo.

292 In 1958 the NFMLTA inaugurated aModern Foreign Language Teacher's Hall of Famelimited to forty living members. Upon the recipients, who areannually designated by the Executive Committee of the Federation,is conferred The National Foreign Language Achievement AwardIn recognition of exceptional services in the study andteaching of modern foreign languages.* Teachers of Italian who havereceived the award thus far are Ferdinando Ferraro DiBartolo, formerly Director of Foreign Languages in the BuffaloPublic High Schools, Vincenzo Ciolfari, now Modern LanguageEditor for D.C. Heath and Co., Joseph G. Fucilla ofNorthwestern University, Camillo P. Merlin of Boston University,and the late Ernest H. Wilkins, former President of OberlinCollege and former Dean of the Colleges and Professorof Romance Lansaw" at the University of Chicago.

5. ITALIAN INTHE SCHOOLS OF MUSIC Italian, the language of music, has naturallybeen the preferred modern language studied byAmerican students interested in voice culture. It is indeed, to the musicdepartments of our colleges and academies that it owesits introduction in quite a number of our schools. Among the institutions of higher learning thatfunction as independent music schools, o e of the best knownis the New England Conservatory (Boston). When Italian wasfirst offered there in 1883, it was taught by M. B. Berlitz,founder of the Berlitz School. The catalog for that year informs usthatthe method of instruction is what is known as theBerlitzmethod' a system that has producedfor the four years past, quite unparalleled results... Lessons will be given in smallclasses or privately. There will be special hours devoted to thestudy of elocution in the foreign languages, for those who learn tosing in these tongues. Lectures in German, French andItalian are delivered when the number of advanced students will warrant. It is also the purpose ofthe Director to have special tables in the dining-mom reserved for conversation exclusively inFrench, German andItalian.*

293 A few other prominentmusic schools that haveintroduced Italian early in theirhistory and that still requireit of their voice majors are theBoston Conservatory ofMusk, The California Institute of theFine Arts (Los Angeles), TheEastman School of Music (Rochester,N.Y., The juillard School of Music (New York), The ManhattanSchool of Musk, The Peabody Conservatory of Music(Baltimore) and The San Francisco Conservatory of Music.

6. SPECIAL NON-CREDITCOURSES There are probably severalhundred schools and other organizations offering specialadult non-credit courses inItalian throughout the United States --evening extension divisions in the colleges and in the highschools, YMCA's and YWCA's,civic centers. In 1965 theAmerica-Italy Society in New Yorkoffered fourteen classes in Italianincluding classes in the fundamentals of the language, an ItalianConversation Circle and other courses, while theFra Noi project of the JointCivic Committee of Italian Americans in Chicagohas had enrollments that have run to ashigh as five hundred. A large percentageof the participants look forward to a trip toItaly and the possibility of making their sojourn morepleasant and worthwhile through direct oral communication with itsnatives. The television course in Italian,Ecco l'Italia, presented by the late Professor Norma V.Fornaciari over WTTWChannel it in Chicago afew years ago, was a huge succor $ ashave been radio courses conducted by ProfessorLuigi &relli and several other teachers. Both television andradio instruction need to be exploited far more than they have until now. The Istituto Italiano di Cultura has,incidentally, been active not only via radio but also as a sponsorof courses, public lectures, exhibits etc. Under the indefatigableand intelligent direction of Dr. Giuseppe Cardillo theIstituto has closely collaborated with the AATI and is making a mostsignificant contribution to Italian culture in America. This presentation was given' the first place awardby the Institute for Education by Radio Television. 7. COMMERCIAL LANGUAGE SCHOOLS

The Berlitz School of Languageshas been far and away the most successful of all thecommercial language institutes. It was started in 1878 by Maximilian D. Berlitzand is based on the method originally used byhis French instructor Nicolas joly. It consists of learninga foreign language as a baby learns its mother tongue simply by listeningand repeating. u Sincea baby learns to speak without theuse of a second language, the Berlitz Method strictly forbids theuse of the student's native tongue at any time, even in thevery first lessons, and insists that teachers teach only their nativelanguages. The new language is taught by pointingto objects and acting out verbs. A simple basic vocabulary is builtup in this way and explanations of the more complicated words and rulesare then made with this vocabulary." Approximatelyone hundred lesson-hours are assumed to be required in orderto learn a Western language. In 1964 the school initiatedatotal immersionprogram 'I with the first experimentconducted in Italian. Two studentsof the Montreal branchwere taught the language under controlled medical supervision fora consecutive period of 45 hours, and were able to carry ona conversation in Italian withpersons other than their professorsat the end of this time. The experiment has been highlypublicized and is describedmore fully elsewhere in theFrench-Canadian periodicalPerspectives, No. aft, 8 adit 1964,1-4, i8-19. The school's latest advertisementsbring out that this high intensity languageprogram has now been expanded intoa ten- clay course, given privatelyduring the day and evening from Monday through Friday.Four instructors anda supervisor are provided, with theinstructors changedevery three hours. Luncheon periodsare taken with a teacher and the lessons continue through lunch.During certain review sessions,two instructors are usedat the same time. An average beginner

Taken from Robert Sellmer's articlein Life for Feb. 14,1947, P. 58. See also an article in ModernLanguage Journal by Gerhard C. Sder,lite, XXXIX (1955), po-10.

295 should acquire a vocabulary ofapproximately 3,600 use of all major words, the tenses and the abilityto think in the better than 83% language fluency. LanguageProficiency Testis required to qualify for T[otalll[mmersionj courses.* Berlitz's enrollees in Italian haveregularly heldfourth rank after French,Spanish and German, witha total of3s,000 students in 1964in thiscountry. Besides the Ber litz School there havebeen othercommercial language schoolsprimarily for adultsthat have different times operated at during thenineteenthcentury. One of the was Dr. Comstock's oldest Vocal Gymnasiumand Polyglot located in Institute Philadelphia,.Itsannouncement in The American and Daily North Advertiser (Philadelphia)for September 1845 informs 23, us that in additionto Italian the other then taught languages were 'French, Spanish,German, Modern Ancient Greek, Greek, Latin, Turkishand Armenian.An advertisement in thesame paper for August 30, 1847 adds Gaelic,Hebrew and Hindustani.ThePolyglot InstituteforInstructionand Interpretation ofModern Languagesof New York only French, City stressed Italian and Spanish(New York Daily August 31, 1833). Tribune, An Academy ofLanguages, No. was already in business 920 Broadway in 1860-61 andperhaps earlier. advertisement in In an the New YorkHerald Tribunefor January 14, 1861 an F. Martinelliappears as its principal. school is the Another old Sauveur SummerSchool whichopened at Amherst College in 1877.In the course of the next twenty-fouryears of its existence if movedfrom Amherst to Burlington, Vt.,to Oswego, N.Y., to Burlingtonand back to Amherst. In additionto courses for adults it alsoprovidedcourses for children. pretty consistently Italian was taught there from 1877to i9oo. Mr. Sauveurand his staff employedthe natural method,*which is similarto the audio-visual methodused today. More exclusivelyfor adults was the Cortina Academyof Languages establishedin New York, 18go's and during which flourishedin the the earlyyears of this century.It attracted wide attentionthrough theuse of the phonograph tool. Still another as a teaching school thatwas opened in NewYork around

296 19ao, and which laid particular emphasis on the teaching of Italian, was the Sergio School of Languages. Mr. Sergio, the director of the school, prepareda Logical Method to Learn the Italian Language which he advertisedas u The clearest and best Italian Conversational Grammarever written * and described it as u A self-teaching book that leads students to think in the new language, learning its grammar the easiest way.* The list of schools could, of course, be extended, but we shall close with a reference to 11 A Survey of Language Schools Under Non-Academic Auspices, 1955-1961 "in Reports and Studies in the Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages: 1959-61, pp. 18716. In her investigation Helen M. Mustard covers 93 self-supporting schools in ten major citiesBoston, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit. Denver, Los Angeles, New Orleans, San Francisco, Seattle and Washington, D.C. She deals with schools ranging from very small one-man schools to institutions with large faculties including business schools. The courses offered are designed to teach languages to college students, business people, tourists, housewives, those intending to work abroad, etc. The survey shows that Italian stands next to French and Spanish in the total number of students. There are also language correspondence schools such as the Hugo Language Institute, the Toussaint-Langenscheidt School, the Linguaphone Institute and the Cortina Schools of Languages, in all of which there has been a strong demand for Italian. Those who wish to study Italian or to improve their knowledge of the language by themselves can do so by means of numerous phonographrecordsandtaperecordingslike Linguaphone Records, The Passport to Italian of the Columbia Modern Language Course, The View lex Sight and Sound Language Station etc. Berlitz deals with records, too, u kind of Soap Operas " Charles Berlitz calls them. They teach French, Spanish, Italian and German via simple little plots involving business, success, love and struggle. The Orfeo Importing Co., 350 S. Goodman St., Rochester, N.Y., and Goldsmith's Music Shop, Inc., 401 West 4and St., New York, are ready to furnish an extensive variety of Italian records.

297 FOR THESTUDY S.OPPORTUNITIES OF ITALIANIN ITALY new. InItalian, programs are,of course, not Foreign study Georgia, hadalready Shorter Collegein Rome, for example, Florence in119438-09. The EuropeanBranch in established a Abroad Programhas beenin Smith CollegeJunior Year University forForeigners inPerugia operation since 1931.At the hundreds ofAmericans whohave there havebeen since igss studying Italian.For of theopportunity of availed themselves in Romehas regularly The DanteAlighieri Society many years The ChigianaAcademy of been teachingcoursesfor foreigners. Conservatory at Siena andthe BenedettoMarcella Music at Italian formusic students, includedinstruction in for Venice, have Venice hasdone the same while TheArtistsWorkshop in and there areothers. Art students yearsthat yearlong However, it isonly withinthe past few for Americanshave enjoyed abroad studyprograms study in or semester those that aredesigned for a widepopularity. Among Year atPadua, University ofCalifornia Junior Italy are The Perugia Center,Finch College The Universityof Colorado Junior Year GonzagaUniversity Junior YearAbroad, The Bologna for IndianaUniversity at Abroad atFlorence, The Roman Center, LoyolaUniversity graduatestudents, The Center of Florence, TheItalian Studies MichiganUniversity at Pavia, The of HigherEducation at the OregonState system Lawrence Rosary College atFlorence, Sarah Pius XIIInstitute of Campus at Year in Rome,Stanford Overseas College Junior at Florence,Tufts University Florence, SyracuseSemester Abroad the in Florencesponsored by Naples, TheFlorida House the at Florida StateUniversity, and University ofFlorida and School ofItalian inItaly at MiddleburyCollege Graduate the (Richmond,Ind.),with Florence.EarlhamCollege stranieri Centro italiano,viaggi istruzione collaboration of the studying atGargnano (CIVIS), hashad a groupof its students Italian is nottaught on theEarlham and Romefor a semester. taken regularly receivecredit for courses campus,but students in Italy.

298 The Summer School Abroad programs that have come to our noticeareClassrooms Abroad inFlorence,Gonzaga University and Rosary College Summer School in Florence, the Scuola Vicenza at Vicenza, and Italian universities providing summer study courses such as the University of Florence, Livorno, Pisa, Siena and the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart (Milan). Finally, the Foreign Language League Schools of Europe, with headquarters in Salt Lake City, are planning for the summers of 1967, a six weeks training school for high school students to be held in Florence and Rome. It is too early to assess the effect of the new trend but there is no doubt but that it will increase interest in the study of Italian...... *1

Printed in Florence (Italy) by Graiica Toscana, s.a.s. April 1967

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