1 Racial Mediterraneanization: Origins and Development

Home , Antiziganism, Cyprus Emergency, Dom people, ELAM (Cyprus), Greek Solution

Notes

1. Eisenstadt 2000, Schmidt 2010. 2. Percy Bysshe Shelle’s poem of the same name ends thus: ‘Nought may endure but mutability.’ 3. Personal communication from S. Sayyid 2013. 4. See The Samuel Morton Crania Collection, http://www.penn.museum/ documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/50-3/renschler.pdf 5. See Antiracist Futures: a manifesto published in an edited form as the preface to Sian, Law and Sayyid (2013). 6. As quoted in Hunwick and Powell (2002, p.124). 7. Dhimmi was the name applied by Arab-Muslim conquerors to indigenous non-Muslim populations who surrendered by a treaty (dhimma) to Muslim domination (http://www.dhimmitude.org/). 8. This term refers to poor rural folk and it acquired a set of derogatory meanings to encapsulate the Northern view of Southerners as uncivilized and vulgar (Pugliese 2008).

2 Contemporary Racisms in the Mediterranean Region

1. See http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/SRRacism/Pages/CountryVisits .aspx for the full list of country visits and associated reports. 2. See http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/ for details about CERD and http://tb.ohchr.org/default.aspx?ConvType=17&docType=36 for country reports which are included in Annual Reports. 3. ‘[Identity fetishism] stresses that the feeling of horizontal comradeship among so much inequality is not a simple mental emotional illusion. It has its material base in what is perhaps the only thing that a “community” dis- tributes equally [ ...] the “potential” to be what the idealized best of the community are’; in this case, white (Hage 2005, p.203). 4. Hicham Rachidi, the Secretary-General of the Anti-racist Group for the support and defence of foreigners in Morocco (GADEM), discussed the distinction between examining race at a social level, as with the studies conducted by AMERM, compared to evaluating state level racism. He asserted that examinations of state level institutional racism are only really conducted by NGOs like GADEM because of the fear of state reaction. (Interview conducted by Anna Jacobs in Rabat, Morocco, 27 January 2012). 5. When discussing the current works on the question of sub-Saharan migration in the introduction to the study, AMERM concludes that ‘En effet, dans la production médiatique et dans le recherche, les réactions racistes

163 164 Notes

apparaissent davantage que les comportements de tolérance et d’acceptation de l’Autre.’ 6. 44.5% of men and 39.4% of women cited this as the reason for the negative response. 7. Interview with Professor Mohammad Khachani, University Mohammad V, June 2009. 8. Quoted in Khachani et al. 2008, pp.42–43. See also Pierre Vermereen cited by Smahane Bouyahia, ‘Les Marocains racistes des noirs: un sujet encore tabou’, at www.afrik.com and also Mohammad Ennahi (1997) ‘Soldats, domestiques et concubines’ (Ed. Eddif). 9. The ‘chasse aux noirs’: the hunt for blacks has been identified in many contexts including Libya in 2011 see Chapter 4. 10. Cited by Camara Laye and Marcel Amiyoto of the Council of sub-Saharan Migrants in Morocco at the AMDH press conference, at the AMDH Rabat Office, 14 June 2012. 11. Interview with Camara Laye, former president of the Council of sub- Saharan Migrants in Morocco, 20 November 2012. Both ABCDS (Oujda) and the Rif Association for Human Rights (Nador) tend to have the most contentious relationship with authorities, according to the NGO ABCDS; interview with Mohammed Tanbi, treasurer of ABCDS, ABCDS office in Oujda, 21 June 2012. 12. ‘Casablanca Landlords try to ban renting to Africans,’ France 24, http://observers.france24.com/content/20130719- landlords- casablanca- ban- renting- africans, accessed on 19 July 2013. 13. La Confédération des Élèves, Étudiants et Stagiaires Africains Étrangers au Maroc 14. While this division may indeed contribute to the growing distance between the two regions, Morocco was in fact forced out of the African Union after several African countries lined up against them to support the Polisario front in the Western Sahara. ‘OAU considers Morocco readmission,’ BBC, 8 July 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1428796.stm (accessed 27 March 2010). 15. See also Escoffier, Claire, Transmigrant-e-s africain-e-s au Maghreb; Une question de vie ou de mort (Paris: L’Harmattan 2008). 16. Salaheddine Lemaizi, ‘Rabat: Sombre destin des migrants subsahariens,’ in L’Observateur, N-160, 2–8 March 2012, pp.52–54. See also, ‘Le racisme des autre et le notre’ Sana el Aji, http://www.panoramaroc.ma/fr/le-racisme-des -autres-et-le-notre-par-sanaa-el-aji/ accessed 24 May 2012. 17. Ashmal, # 283, September 2005, http://www.casafree.com/modules/newbb/ viewtopic.php?topic_id=6395 accessed on 24 July 2012. 18. Interview with Pierre Delagrange on 10 June 2012. 19. http://www.almassae.press.ma/node/37988, accessed on 20 January 2012, help in translation from Anne Montgomery, Ph.d Candidate at Columbia University. 20. http:www.maghress.com/fr/albayane/11653, accessed on 11 July 2012. See also Phd candidate from the Mohammed I University, CEI member speech at the opening conference of the immigrant section of the Organisation democratique de travail (ODT) in Rabat, 1 July 2012. 21. http://www.yabiladi.com/articles/details/11775/957/253166/chomage-maroc -l-immigration-coupable-selon.html?utm_source=newsletter_actu&utm Notes 165

_medium=email&utm_campaign=newsletter_actus_html, accessed on 11 July 2012. 22. Ibid. 23. Accessed through the Forum-Migrant List serve and translation provided by Hicham Rachidi of GADEM, accessed on 20 June 2012. 24. See her conclusion: ‘La presse est soucieuse de l’image du Maroc, ‘...il n’y a pas de doute. C’est la plus sale affaire que la diplomatie marocaine affronte: de quelque bout qu’on la prenne, elle se retourne contre le Maroc.’ Les images des émigrants subsahariens conduits vers le désert dans des auto- bus marocains ont en effet placé Rabat en position d’accusé. Les journalistes réclament aussi l’aide extérieure. ’ 25. Telquel, ‘Pourquoi le “péril noir” de Maroc Hebdo provoque l’indignation,’ by Karim Boukhari, http://www.courrierinternational.com/article/2012/ 11/09/pourquoi-le-peril-noir-de-maroc-hebdo-provoque-l-indignation, 9 November 2012. 26. The Tuareg themselves claim to be more than three million. Yet their number has variously been estimated at some 1.5 to 2 million, with the majority of some 750,000 living in Niger, and 550,000 in Mali. In Algeria they are estimated at 40,000, excluding some 100,000 refugees from Mali and Niger, and the same number is officially admitted to live in Burkina Faso. In 1986, Algeria did not hesitate to expel more than 15,000 Tuareg refugees from Tamanrasset, only to find themselves in camps in the borders of Mali and Niger. Without papers, and hence without citizenship, the Kel Tagglemoust people were being bounced from one country to another. Today, Algeria has adopted an ambiguous attitude with regard to the suffering of the Tuareg of Mali and Niger. It seems to be split between the desire to expand its diplomatic influence and the will to play on the issue of the community of origin of the ‘white’ Tuareg and Algerian populations in order to enjoy privileged relations with the governments of Niamey and Bamako and to appear as the natural protector of these populations, while in other respects, the agitation of the Tuareg of the south overcome their brothers in Algeria. This anxiety has become a deciding factor with the increasing flow of refugees stationing in the Ahaggar. ‘Tuareg, The Tragedy of a Forgotten people,’ http://www.amazighworld.org/ studies/articles /forgotten_poeple.php, (accessed 7 March 2010). 27. Le ‘harraguisme’ est présenté par les articles comme un phénomène gran- dissant et touchant toutes les couches de la société. Il y est fait d’une volonté de s’extraire d’une ‘malbie’ affectant la population algérienne sans distinction d’âge, de sexe ou de statut professionnel. Les textes soulignent les risqué encourus de mort physiques, d’interpellation et de refoulement dans un contexte de politiques européennes d’immigration répressives et d’abus criminels de la part d’organisateurs de la traverse. 28. Abdelaziz El Aatiki speech in the Conference, ‘Les migrants en situation irreguliere au Maroc: Entre droits et justice’, 4 July 2012, section ‘access aux droits fondamentaux’. 29. ‘Morocco: the PAM to introduce a bill with stricter penalties against racism,’ http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2013/07/97782/morocco-the -pam-to-introduce-a-bill-with-stricter-penalties-against-racism/ accessed on 13 July 2013. 166 Notes

30. http://www.naﬁdapress.com/%D8%A2%D8%AE%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9% 84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1/1/4558 10 June 2013. 31. http://www.lapresse.tn/24062013/69039/la-honte.html 24 June 2013. 32. ‘Maroc: poussé hors d’une fourgonnette en marche par un policier Marocain, un Congolais décède 6 jours plus tard.’ 5 August 2013, http://www.afrik -online.com/?p=20287. 33. These included KISA – Action for Equality Support and Antiracism in Cyprus, the Future Worlds Centre, MIGS – Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies, Worldwide Nepalese Students’ Organisation –Cyprus, Association of Protec- tion of Pilipino in Cyprus, the Social Centre – Catholic Convent in Nicosia and the International Cameroonian Student Association (Cyprus Branch).

3 The Mediterranean Roma

1. This research was carried out as part of the TOLERACE, EU FP7 research project: The semantics of tolerance and (anti-)racism in Europe. 2. Çingene is the Turkish term for Gypsies, stripped of its pejorative associations and preferred by activists as inclusive of the many different groups who iden- tify with this umbrella term (Upzeder et al. 2008). However, who is and who is not a Turkish ‘Gypsy’ is not easily resolved; it is a fluid category, subject to significant variation and confusion depending on the positions taken in externally imposed bureaucratic categories, intersubjective identities, local- ities and families. Indeed, the use of such an umbrella category itself must remain fuzzy and contested as its boundaries are not firm and consistent and groups and individuals may shift in and out, dependent on time and context. 3. For further details on their migration path and the first written traces of their settlement in each country, and also on the policies pursued regarding the Roma, see Roma in Europe, by Jean-Pierre Liégeois (Council of Europe Publishing); see also the Roma history factsheets published by the Council of Europe and available online at: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/roma/ histoculture_EN.asp? 4. This refers to the title of the ERRC (2000) report on the Roma. 5. The term ‘Roma’ refers to persons describing themselves as Roma, Gypsies, Manouches, Kalderash, Machavaya, Lovari, Churari, Romanichal, Gitanos, Kalo, Sinti, Rudari, Boyash, Ungaritza, Luri, Bashaldé, Romungro, Yenish, Xoraxai and other groups perceived as ‘Gypsies’. The term ‘Traveller’ refers specifically to Irish Travellers, who are not Roma and are native to Ireland. The terms ‘Roma’ and ‘Travellers’ are not intended to minimize the diversity within these communities or to promote stereotypes (FRA 2006b, p.16 in Law 2010, p.165). The enumeration of the various sub-groups of Roma can be contested in its operation of as an externally imposed category which fits poorly with inter-subjectively constructed identities. Many Roma here defined themselves as Serbs, Croats, Yugoslavian, Romanian, rather than as Roma belonging to certain groups. There is a sort of insistence with the spe- cific definitions which strengthens the sense of non-belonging to a national entity. Simultaneously, the insistence on Roma identity is important in the fight for fundamental rights. Notes 167

6. According to ofﬁcial sources, it is estimated that the Roma population in Italy ranges between 110,000 and 180,000, with an average number of 140,000 – of which 40,000 are supposed to be living in nomad camps (Senato della Repubblica, XVI Legislatura, 2011: Commissione straordinaria per la tutela e la promozione dei diritti umani. Rapporto Conclusivo dell’indagine sulla condizione di Rom, Sinti e Camminanti in Italia. 7. The Sinti distinguish themselves from the Roma and vice versa. 8. According to Vitale, Claps and Arrigoni, persecution has not been a constant pattern of the Roma presence in Italy, ibid., p.83. 9. http://www.comune.roma.it/wps/portal/pcr?jppagecode=progetti_integ _scol_dses.wp 10. Per l’antropologo veronese i rom delinquevano perché naturalmente incline a farlo: non esisteva una volontà cosciente, ma soltanto ten- denze malvagie dipendenti dalla loro organizzazione ﬁsica e psicologica differente da quella dell’uomo normale. Una simile interpretazione por- tava ad un’unica consequenziale soluzione: la ‘piaga zingara’ non poteva essere risolta con alcun intervento educativo, poteva soltanto essere pre- venuta e la persecuzione o la pena di morte potevano essere i soli mezzi per arrestarla sul nascere. La ‘asocialità zingara’ aveva cioè assunto una connotazione genetica ed ereditaria. (Own translation)

11. Other concentration camps existed in Italy where Jews, political opponents and Gypsies were interned together (cp. ibid., p.860). 12. These objectives were noted by one of the volunteers in a Lacio Drom class. 13. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/lsa/12 2100.pdf 14. OSCE Ofﬁce for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR); OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM) (2008): Assessment of the Human Rights Situation of Roma and Sinti in Italy. Report of a fact- ﬁnding mission to Milan, Naples and Rome on 20–26 July 2008; European Parliament: Motion for a resolution on the census of the Roma on the basis of ethnicity in Italy http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type= MOTION&reference= B6-2008-0348&language=EN; FRA: Violent attacks against Roma in the Ponticelli district of Naples http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/ Incid-Report-Italy-08_en.pdf. 15. ‘Kampina’ is the term used by the Roma in Rome for a camper van. 16. In the Eastern bloc, Roma were forced to be sedentary. They were given houses and worked mostly in factories. In former Yugoslavia they had a better status than in other countries of the Eastern bloc and a small Roma élite established itself. 17. Piasere underlines that the ‘ethnic camping’ solution was conceived as the place for local Roma people. Things were aggravated when Roma from former Yugoslavia arrived, of whom 99% has never lived in a caravan. 18. Regione Lazio: Norme a favore dei Rom 1986, Art. 1. 19. The management of the camps by non-roma associations begin at a larger scale in the 1990s. 168 Notes

20. A first census (after a survey in 1980) on voluntary basis was produced in 1986 concerning the Roma living in mobile homes, which did not comprehend the entire Roma population in Rome but which was nonetheless considered sufficiently representative. (http://www.inventati .org/6antirazzista/sites/default/files/ROMA%20TIME_OLTRE%20I%20CAMPI .%20def.pdf, accessed 27 October 2013,Lacio Drom (1986), No.1). 21. Rom, activist and cultural mediator 1. 22. A recent example of inflammatory discourse was the remark of Umberto Bossi, leader of the separatist Lega Nord party, during the municipal elections in Milan in 2011, when he encouraged the fear that Milan could become a ‘gypsy town’ (zingaropoli) if the left-wing candidate was elected. 23. See Law 2010, Chapter 6 for a full version and analysis of the Ponticelli events. 24. http://www.governoberlusconi.it/page.php?idf=450&ids=480, accessed 9 May 2011. 25. ‘Da qui la necessità di identificare chi vive negli oltre 700 campi nomadi abusivi. Dare una identità certa ai bambini, vuol dire liberarli dalla schiavitù. Essi sono vittime degli adulti che li costringono a delinquere: per liberare i bambini il primo passo è quello di riuscire a identificarli con certezza’ (Own translation). 26. Nonetheless, fingerprinting procedures for minors should be considered as the last resort to ensure the identity of minors over 14 years of age. Minors between six and 14 years should only have fingerprints taken until the issue of a residence permit or with the approval of the juvenile court. The same rule should be applied to minors under six years of age, but only if they seem to be in a status of abandonment or if they have been crime victims. 27. ‘Auch das Problem der Papierlosigkeit, der sans papiers, ist in der antiziganis- tischen Politik vorweggenommen. “Die Methode der Ausgrenzung der Roma in die papierlose Illegalität scheint ein Strukturmerkmal des Antiziganismus zu sein”, konstatiert Gernot Haupt. Abschiebungen sind ein ständig wiederkehrendes Element in der Geschichte des staatlichen Umgangs mit “Zigeunern”’ (Own translation). 28. Researcher and activist, 1. 29. Rom, activist and cultural mediator 1. 30. The ‘Nomad Plan’ was provided with 32.5 million: 19.5. million from the Ministry of the Interior, 5 million from the Latium regional depart- ment, 8 million from the Municipality. A recent report published in 2013, entitled ‘Segregating causes costs’ has calculated that in the years from 2005 to 2011 86,247,106 has been spent for the maintenance of the camp system. This sum includes the funds allocated during the emergency by the Ministry of the Interior: 7.9 million in 2009 and 10 million in 2011. However, an exact reconstruction of the expenses was not possible due to a lack of transparency. Berenice, Compare, Lunaria and OsservAzione (2013) ‘Segregare Costa: La spesa per I “campi nomadi” a Napoli, Roma e Milano’; www.lunaria.org accessed: 27 October 2013. 31. http://www.comune.roma.it/wps/portal/pcr?contentId=NEW116577&jp_pa gecode=newsview.wp&ahew=contentId:jp_pagecode. 32. All provisions taken during the state of emergency, including the involvement in the management of the emergency by the Italian Red Cross, Notes 169

were to retain invalid after the definitive ruling of the Court of Cassation on 2 May 2013. 33. cp. Dobreva 2007, who analyses the representation of ‘the Gypsy’, especially in film, underlining the relatively recent representation of the Gypsy in the last 50 years as victim due to its marginalized situation in nearly every society he/she resides. 34. The strategy follows the communication of the European Commission 173/2011 and its implementation will be financed by the EU and national funds. 35. The European Directive itself envisages the implementation of ‘the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin’ (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L: 2000:180:0022:0026:EN:PDF, 22.09.2010) and does not speak of anti-racism legislation. 36. An acne lesion on the buttocks.

4 The Mediterranean Expulsion Machine

1. This has been mapped by the cartographers Olivier Clochard and Philippe Rakacewitz (2010). 2. http://fortresseurope.blogspot.co.uk/2006/02/immigrants-dead-at-frontiers- of-europe_16.html 3. Translation: ‘You may be invaded tomorrow by multitudes of Africans who, driven by misery, will flood the countries of the North. And whatever laws you may make against emigration, you cannot stop this flow because one does not stop the sea with one’s arms,’ quoted in Khachani 2006, p.4. 4. See Khachani 2007, Bensaad 2009. 5. International Organization for Migration. 6. http://migrantsatsea.wordpress.com/ 7. http://www.frontex.europa.eu/ Frontex promotes, coordinates and develops European border management in line with the EU fundamental rights char- ter applying the concept of Integrated Border Management. Frontex helps border authorities from different EU countries work together. Frontex’s full title is the European Agency for the Management of Operational Coopera- tion at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union. The agency was set up in 2004 to reinforce and streamline cooperation between national border authorities. 8. Interview with David Cantero, MSF-Spain director of operations in Morocco until 2013. 9. http://www.yabiladi.com/articles/details/8885/yene-fabien-didier-nous -sommes.html 10. Translation by Anna Jacobs, ‘I am trying to raise awareness in the Moroccan migrant community abroad about our cause through multiple associations and conferences. All the Moroccans residing abroad are not open to our interests. Certain people object to this because they see it as a political question and refuse to get involved. There are others, notably at ATMF, who are more open. The Moroccans residing abroad must position themselves with us: our position here in Morocco is like theirs in France. Our fight is the same.’ ibid. 170 Notes

11. http://www.frontex.europa.eu/intelligence/migratory-routes 12. Perrin ‘Immigration et création juridique au Maghreb; La fragmentation des mondes et des droits’, p.246. 13. ‘The MEDA Regulation is the principal instrument of economic and financial cooperation under the Euro-Mediterranean partnership. It was launched in 1996 (MEDA I) and amended in 2000 (MEDA II). It enables the European Union (EU) to provide financial and technical assistance to the countries in the southern Mediterranean: Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, the Palestinian Territory, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. The MEDA programme takes the place of the various bilateral financial proto- cols that exist with the countries in the Mediterranean basin. It is inspired by the Phare and TACIS programmes, especially as regards transparency and information. A budget heading is established for financing the programme’. MEDA Program, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/external_relations/ relations _with_third_countries/mediterranean_partner_countries/r15006_en.htm, accessed 6 February 2010. 14. See also Hein de Haas and Myth of Invasion, cited in ‘Les Migration subsahariennes irrégulières au Maghreb; Contexte et Champ d’Action,’ (Algiers: Migration Report, CISP, Réseau Afrique Migration 2008), 23. He argues that It is a misconception that all or most migrants crossing the Sahara are ‘in transit’ to Europe. In particular, Libya is an important destination country in its own right. There are probably more sub-Saharan Africans living in North Africa than in Europe. An estimated 65,000 to 120,000 sub-Saharan Africans enter the Maghreb yearly overland, of which only 20 to 38 percent are estimated to enter Europe. The total number of suc- cessful irregular crossings by sub-Saharan Africans should be counted in the order of several tens of thousands, according to our estimates 25,000 to 35,000 per year. The majority of migrants enters Europe legally and subsequently overstays their visas. The total annual increase since 2000 of the registered West African population in the EU has been around 100,000. This is still relatively modest compared to the total EU immigration of 2.6 million in 2004. There are an estimated 800,000 West African migrants in the main receiving countries compared 2,600,000 North Africans. 15. ‘5 + 5 Dialogue on Migration in the Western Mediterranean,’ http://www .iom.int/jahia/Jahia/policy-research/regional-consultative-processes/ snapshots-selected-rcps/5-5-dialogue/ cache/ offonce;jsessionid= 324BED682 C57159191CAAF88E810A82B.worker02 (accessed 7 February 2010). 16. ‘The Policy: What is the European Neighbourhood Policy?’ http://ec.europa .eu/world/enp/policy_en.htm (accessed 7 February 2010). 17. ‘Fortress Europe,’ http://fortresseurope.blogspot.com/2006/01/october-2007 .html (accessed 16 January 2010). 18. The European Neighbourhood Policy applies to the EU’s immediate neigh- bours by land or sea – Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Egypt, Georgia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Moldova, Morocco, Occupied Palestinian Ter- ritory, Syria, Tunisia and Ukraine. Although Russia is also a neighbour of Notes 171

the EU, relations are instead developed through a Strategic Partnership covering four ‘common spaces’. http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/policy_en.htm (accessed 7 February 2010). 19. Perrin also points out that there are indeed protections in this national law against the expulsion of certain categories of foreigners based on their level of vulnerability, in this case with special reference to pregnant women and children. 20. le Système Intégré de Surveillance Extérieure (S.I.V.E., Sistema Integrado de Vigilancia Exterior en espagnol) est un ensemble d’actions mis en oeuvre par la Direction Générale de la Garde Civile pour le contrôle de la frontière sud de l’Espagne – et de l’Union Européenne. Depuis cette date, le programme S.I.V.E. s’est beaucoup développé. D’un point de vue géographique, il s’est étendu sur une partie importante des côtes de l’Andalousie. D’un point de vue technique, il est passé d’un système de contrôle semi mobile et exclusivement terrestre à un dispositif très sou- ple comprenant des unités d’intervention aériennes et maritimes. Depuis 2002, ce dispositif s’appuie sur une technologie unique en Europe: radars, caméras thermiques et à infrarouges, unités d’intervention rapide, etc. Cet aspect a pris une telle importance qu’on assimile aujourd’hui le programme S.I.V.E. à la technologie de surveillance développée par les autorités espagnoles. ‘S.I.V.E.: blindage électronique des frontières espagnoles,’ http://www .migreurop.org/article626.html?lang=en (accessed 7 February 2010). 21. FRONTEX was created by law N. 2007/2004 on 26 October 2004 (officially titled Hera I and II operations). 22. ‘La promesse d’un traitement plus favorable des émigrés maghrébins en Europe en contrepartie d’une lutte intensive du Maghreb contre les migrants subsahariens tend par ailleurs à un dualisme géostratégique qui coupe le Maghreb de l’Afrique comme de l’Europe, sans pour autant le renforcer, et à un dualisme humaine qui implique une hiérarchisation dans le droit et la manière de circuler.’ Ibid., 256. See also Delphine Perrin, ‘Le Maghreb sous influence: Le nouveau cadre juridique des migrations transsahariennes’ in Le Maghreb sous influence: le nouveau cadre juridique des migrations transsahariens, edited by Ali Bensaad (Paris: Afrique-Machrek 2005). 23. ‘WORLD BRIEFING/AFRICA; Morocco: 9 Imprisoned For Casablanca Blasts Escape,’ by Agence-France Press, 8 April 2008. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/ fullpage.html?res=9A05E5DE103EF93BA35757C0A96E9C8B63 (accessed on 1 February 2010). 24. Interview with Professor Boualem Belkacemi, 20 July 2009, CEMA. 25. ‘The aim of the AENEAS programme, a multi-annual programme set up by the EU in 2004 to provide “Financial and technical assistance to third countries in the field of migration and asylum”, is to provide EU assistance to third countries to help them better manage and regulate migration in all its dimensions’. ‘AENEAS Program,’ http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/services/ showShotlist.do?out=PDF&lg=En&id=80237 (accessed on 12 February 2010). 26. Public statement from Algeria, as reported in the daily newspaper, El-Watan, 1 June 2008: ‘L’Algérie ne pourra pas accepter d’avoir sur le territoire d’un pays du Maghreb un camp ou seront parqués les immigrants clandestins, 172 Notes

en attendant que leurs dossiers soient régularisés dans un pays européen.’ Labdelaoui, ‘Les Dimensions sociopolitiques de la Politique algérienne de lutte contre l’immigration irrégulière’, 7. 27. Ibid., 8. 28. Ibid., 244. 29. It is important to keep in mind that the aforementioned average stay of migrants in the region is between one and three years. 30. ‘In Morocco violence from both authorities and gangs are major threats to immigrants,’ http://www.msf.org/msfinternational/invoke.cfm?objectid= A6F3F482-E018-0C72-096DD202421D8CE9&component=toolkit.press release&method=full_html (accessed 14 September 2009). 31. Interview with C.H, Rabat, 12 April 2012. 32. IPPR, CCME, and PICUM preliminary findings cited in the section on Dis- crimination and Exclusion, in the project ‘Au-dela de l’irregularite,’ at the Conference on Migration irreguliere sub-saharienne au Maroc: Reponses politiques actuelle et defis a reliever, Rabat, 4 July 2012. 33. http://www.ces.uc.pt/projectos/tolerace/pages/en/about-tolerace/what-is -tolerace-about.php 34. The organizations taking part in the campaign include the Migrants’ Network for Equality, Jesuit Refugee Service (Malta), Migrants Solidarity Movement, Moviment Graffitti, General Workers’ Union, Amplify, CEER, GetUpStandUp!, Organization for Friendship in Diversity, Kopin, Moviment Azzjoni Xellug, Salesian Pastoral Youth Service, Koperattiva Kummerc Gust, Greenhouse, Third World Group and Alternattiva Demokratika, see http:// saynotoracismmalta.org/Home/tabid/1986/Default.aspx. 35. http://infomobile.w2eu.net/2013/05/29/38-migrants-in-hunger-strike-in -detention-cells-in-iraklio-crete/ 36. See: ‘Neither in Heraklion, nor in Crete, trash the fascists across the globe’, http://blog.occupiedlondon.org/2012/09/08/militant-anti-fascism-some -updates-from-heraklion-crete/

Postface: Theorizing Polyracism

1. See Manifesto for Anti-Racist Futures in the Preface to Sian, Sayyid and Law 2013, also available at cers.leeds.ac.uk. References

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Note: The letter ‘n’ following locators refers to notes.

Abdulrahim, Sawsan, 54, 55 Anderson, Bridget, 53 Abrams, Philip, 2 Antelava, Natalia, 52, 53 Abu-Habib, Lina, 57, 60 Anthias, Floya, 85 Abulaﬁa, David, 1, 5 anthropology, genetic, 5, 36, 96–7 Abun-Nasr, Jamil M., 148 anti-Arabism, 26, 27, 51 Abyssinian empire, 11, 21 anti-Gypsyism, 17–19, 41, 96–7 Afrikonline, 80–1 see also Roma AIDS, 64, 66, 69–70, 151, 155 anti-Judaism, see anti-Semitism Airs, Waters and Places, 7, 14 anti-Semitism, 8, 17, 26, 37, 39, 49, Ajrouch, Kristine J., 49, 50, 51 87, 148, 154, 156 Alabaster, Olivia, 53 anti-terrorism, 44–5, 66, 130–2, 135–8 Alami M’Chichi, Houria, 64, 65, 68, Arab, in pre-Islamic context, 11 69, 71, 72, 76 Aristotle, 7 Aleotti, Eleonora, 103 Ashmal, 69 al-Gaddaﬁ, Muammar, 148, 150–2 Athinganoi, 112 Al-Garrallah, Aiman S., 52 Atsiganoi, 113 Algeria azzi,69 Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) Balbo, Laura, 99 report on, 46 Baldacchino, Godfrey, 84 French colonization in, 25–9 history of trans-Saharan migration, Banton, Michael, 47 73–4 Barcelona Process, 130–3 racial Arabization in: attitudes to Barth, Boris, 35 black Algerians, 76; attitudes to Barth, Fredrik, 57 Haratanis, 74; attitudes to Bartlett, Roger, 13, 14 sub-Saharan migrants, 73–6; EU Bauman, Zygmunt, 8, 88 security-control approach, 73; Baussano, Ludovica Francesca, 48 negative attitude of media, 74–6 Becker, Cynthia, 62 xenophobia, 75–6 Benkiran, Abdel-Ilah, 70 Ali, M., 53, 60 Bensaad, Ali, 73, 74, 76, 169n. 4 Alleva, Enrico, 31 Berbers, 11, 21, 23, 25–6, 27, 46, 61–3, Al Massae, 69–70 74, 148, 149 Almond, Ian, 29 Bernal, Martin, 16 Amazigh people, 46–7, 62, 79 Bhabha, Homi K., 59 Ambiguous attitude, 32, 43, 50–3, 65, Biblical genealogy, 9 69, 71, 74, 76, 165 Bigo, Didier, 51 AMERM, 64, 66, 68, 69, 163n. 5 Bilgen, Ay¸se, 48 Amin, Ash, 88 Biller, Peter, 14 Andalusia, 23, 129, 145–7 Billig, Michael, 85

192 Index 193 black Africans, 5, 9, 11–13, 20, 22, 46, Chrisaﬁs, Angelique, 152 51–2, 61–2, 65–6, 71, 74, 76, 133, Chrysi Avgi, see Golden Dawn 139, 148–51, 153–5 Çingene black Europeans, 48 and Kurds, 93 Black Mother, 6 in Ottoman Empire, 92–3 blackness, associations of, 7, 14–15, in Turkey, 90–4, 166n. 21, 60 3;institutionalized racism, 93–4; Biblical, 9 remit of improvement plans, 94 Egyptian civilization, 5–6, 21 see also Roma female, 15, 41 çingene hanesi, 92 Greek civilization, 7 Çirakman, A., 34 in Lebanon, 60 Clancy-Smith, Julia, 13 slavery, 9–10, 21–2 Clough Marinaro, I., 102, 105 blacks, racism towards, 9–12, 18, 20–1, Collectif des Communautés 42, 51, 52, 61–2, 66, 75, 80, 139, Sub-sahariennes au Maghreb 144, 151, 154 (CCSM), 81 Boats4People, 152 colonization, 15, 24–7 Bolaño, Iván Periáñez, 145, 146 Committee for the Eradication of Bonnett, Alastair, 16, 50, 52 Racial Discrimination, 147 border deaths, 123 Committee for Union and Progress at sea, 126, 151–2, 154 (CUP), 35 Boukhari, Karim, 72 Committee on Migration, Refugees Braude, Benjamin, 13 and Displaced Persons, 127 Braudel, Ferdinand, 23 Committee on the Elimination of Bravi, Luca, 97, 98 Racial Discrimination (CERD), Britain 44–5 colonization of Egypt, 31–2 Algeria, 46 colonization of Palestine, 32–3 Egypt, 46 legal imperialism, 33–4 Libya, 46, 47, 148 Buonaiuto, Claudia, 29 problems in functioning, 47 Syria, 45–6 Cafona War, 30 Tunisia, 47 Caldwell, Leah, 58 Connell, John, 84 campi nomadi, 95 Connolly, Paul, 59 Campo, Juan E., 26 Convention against Racial Carras, Iannis, 43 Discrimination, 77 Casilino 900, 108–9 Convention on the Rights of Migrant Cassata, Francesco, 31 Workers, 77 Castles, Stephen, 125 Council of sub-Saharan Migrants in Çelik, Faika, 120 Morocco, 68, 124 Centro Identifcazione e Espulsione critical race theory, 2 (CIE), 104 Crusades, 15 Césaire, Aimé, 28 Culture and Imperialism,19 CESAM, 68 Cuno, Kenneth M., 13, 21 Chaaban, Jad, 54, 56 Curcio, Anna, 98, 99 Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 4 Cyprus Chambers, Iain, 2, 40 EU accession, 83–4 chasse aux noirs, 67 history of, 82 Chinese civilization, 8 immigration into, 82–4 194 Index

Cyprus – continued Egypt racialization of: emergence of British colonization in, 31–2; and ultra-nationalist far-right Sudan, 32 groups, 86–8; Islamophobia, Committee on the Elimination of 85–7; negative attitude of Racial Discrimination (CERD) media, 88; notion of Greek report on, 46 superiority, 84–7; by Orthodox racial differentiation in ancient, 5–6 Church of Cyprus, 85–6; Roma, slavery in, 20 see main heading; Turkophobia, Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah, 4, 163n. 1 84–6 Eissenstat, Howard, 35, 36, 37 research process, 81–2 ELAM, 85–7 tax haven, 83 El Hamel, Chouki, 3, 11, 20, 21, 41, Cyprus Labour Institute 61, 62, 63 (PEO-INEK), 83 Elias, N., 17 Cyprus Mail, 88 Eliav-Feldon, Miriam, 3, 4, 18, 19 El-Watan,75 ENAR, see European Network Against Damon, Arwa, 32, 55 Racism (ENAR) Daniele, Ulderico, 96, 101 environmental determinism, 7 Daskalaki, Ivi, 113 Erdem, Hakan, 22 Davis, David B., 52, 53 Errazzouki, Samia, 61 de la Cueva, Murillo, 147 ERRC, see European Roma Rights Delacampagne, C., 7 Centre (ERRC) de Lucas, Fernando, 147 eugenics, 7, 36 Demetriou, Corina, 83 Nazi, 36, 97 de Miramon, Charles, 14, 17 Euro-African Manifesto, 124–5 Derderian, Richard L., 27 Euro-Mediterranean Partnership Derrida, Jacques, 2 (EMP), 130–3 Dialogue 5+5, 132 European civilization Didier, Fabien, 128 hybridity of, 16–17, 38 Diouf, Abdou, 123–4 racialization, 17 Djebali, Tauﬁk, 26, 27 European Commission on Racism and DNA studies, 5 Intolerance (ECRI), 44, 48–9 Doctors without Borders-Spain, 127 European expulsion machine, 77, 82, Dom community, racial Nawarization, 123–60 116–18, 121 Algeria, 135–8 in Israel, 118 Andalusia, 145–7 in Lebanon, 118–20 border deaths, 123, 126 origins of, 116–17 dangers faced by migrants, 139–42 perceptions about, 117 Greece, 126–7, 155–60 human rights violations, 124–7 Syria, 117–18 Libya, 132–3, 147–53 DuBois, W. E. B., 5 Maghreb region, 130–8 Durant, S., 8 Malta, 153–5 Dyer, Richard, 52 maritime immigration enforcement, 126 ECRI, see European Commission on Morocco: bilateral relationship with Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) Spain, 133–4; brutality towards Edwards, J., 8 migrants, 124, 127–8; Index 195

differential experiences of black Fuhrmann, Malte, 35 sub–Saharan African migrants, Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA), 127–8, 143–4; failure of 44, 127 migration policies, 125–6; hypocritical approach to GADEM, 67, 77–8, 125–6 migration, 128; law 02–03, 127, Galey, Patrick, 53, 54 134; Rabat Manifesto (2006), Garner, Steve, 153 125, 128–9; tensions with Gauci, Jean-Pierre, 48, 154 Algeria, 135; weak position gender-based racism of, 135 female migrant domestic workers reasons for migration, (FMDWs), 53–60 139–40 slaves, 7, 12, 22 Spain, 133–4, 140 Geneva Convention on the Rights of Tunisia, 136, 144 Refugees, 77, 132 European narratives of racism, 3 Genographic Project, 53 European Network Against Racism Ghorbal, Samy, 135 (ENAR), 44, 48–9, 100 Goldberg, David T., 2, 3, 17, 33, 43, European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), 56, 62, 63, 111, 139 44, 90–1 Goldenberg, D. M., 9 Europol, 131 Golden Dawn, 37, 39, 85, 86–7, 113, 155–60 Falola, Toyin, 51 Greco-Roman racist discourse, 4, 7, 16 Falzon, Mark-Anthony, 154 Greece Fanon, Frantz, 28 migration route to Europe, see Faour, Muhammad, 50 ‘European expulsion machine’ Fekete, Liz, 48 racialized nationalism in, 37–9, 43, female migrant domestic workers 155–60 (FMDWs), in Lebanon, Roma, see main heading 53–60 Greek civilization, 4–8, 16, 37–9, 84–7, Ferguson, Michael, 22 155–6 Findlay, L. M., 38 Greek-Pontiacs, 83 Finotelli, Claudia, 147 Groebner, Valentin, 18 Fischbach, Michael R., 148 Gualtieri, Sarah M., 51 Fleming-Farrell, Niamh, 58 Guberman, R. M., 29 FMDWs, see female migrant domestic workers (FMDWs) H24 (24-hour surveillance Fortress Europe blog, 123 service), 107 Fourth Mediterranean (1350–1830) Habash, 10 period, 5 Hage, Ghassan, 50, 51, 52, 53, 163n. 3 FRA, see Fundamental Rights Agency Hainsworth, P., 48 (FRA) Hall, Bruce, 4 France Hamitic curse, 9, 61 colonization of Algeria, 25–9 Hancock, Ian, 18 legal imperialism, 33–4 Hannaford, I., 15 normalization of racism, 28–9 Haratanis, 74 Fraser, Angus, 92 Harik, Iliya F., 52 Frederickson, G., 3 Harragas, 74–5 Fredman, Sandra, 47 Harrison, M., 127 Frontex, 126, 129, 134 Hartigan, John, 153 196 Index

Haupt, Gernot, 106 Joseph, Suad, 50 Helal, Emad Ahmed, 20 Jureidini, Ray, 53, 55, 58, 60 Hellenic culture, see Greek civilization Heyzer, N., 55 Kabbani, Rana, 15, 17 Hippocrates, 7 kafala system, 54–6 HIV, see AIDS Kaj, Nisreen, 49, 50, 58, 60 Hourani, Albert, 51, 52 Kandiyoti, Deniz, 58 Huggan, Graham, 40 Karaca, Özen, 37 Human Development Report, 139 Kasidiaris, Ilias, 87 Human Heredity, 36 Kaufman, Asher, 51 human rights, 44–7, 69, 72, 108, 111, Kenrick, D., 90 124, 127 Keshishian, Tamar, 50 approaches, 47 Khachani, Mohammed, 64, 65, 66, 68, conventions, 77 133, 134, 139, 164n. 8, 169n. 4 Human Rights Watch, 148–9, 150, 151 Kimber, Imogen, 50 Hunwick, John, 9, 10, 13, 163n. 6 King, Russell, 84 KISA, 88 Iganski, Paul, 48 Kizilkaya, Ahmet, 48 imperialism, 7, 23, 32, 33, 42 Kleven, Thomas, 56 ‘legal’, 33–4 Kolukirik, Suat, 94 and proto–racism, 7 Kovats, Martin, 40, 91 Inhorn, Marcia C., 59 Kurds, 36–7 Institute of Racial Hygiene, 97 and Çingene, 93 International Organisation for of Syria, 45–6 Migration (IOM), 124 Kuri, 116 Isaac, B., 3, 4, 7, 8, 38 Kusow, Abdi M., 49, 50, 52 Islamic lands, colonization of, 15 Islamophobia, 26, 145–6 Labdelaoui, Hocine, 76 see also religious discrimination Labib, Tahar, 11, 61 Israel Laforest, Marie-Hélène, 29 Dom, 117–18 la méconnaissance,68 founding of, 33 la politique de voisinage (PEV), 132 racial state, 33, 43 Lapov, Zoran, 95 Italy Laquer, W., 8 colonization of Libya, La Rue, George Michael, 21 25, 30 Latin Christian, ‘superiority’, 16–17 fascist state racism, 30–1 Lauren, Paul G., 52 internal racialization, 29–31 Law, I., 3, 8, 28, 35, 36, 39, 40, 47, 57, North Africans, 48 63, 64, 92, 111, 127, 145, 163n. 5, Roma, see main heading 166n. 5, 168n. 23 Laye, Camara, 68 Jacobs, Anna, 64, 68, 169n. 10 Lazaridis, Gabriella, 85 Jahoda, G., 7, 15 Lebanese Labour Law, 53–5 Jamali, Dima, 50 Lebanon James, Diane, 51 classism, 56 Jenkins, Richard, 50 colonialism in, 34 Jews, 26 communities, 49–50 depictions of, 8, 13, 15 Maronite Christians, 34, 50–1 of Spain, 15, 17 patrilineality, 50, 59 Index 197

police in, 53–4 Marsh, Adrian, 91, 92, 93 racialization of society, 49–61; black Matar, Nabil, 23 subjugation, 52–3; claim to Matras, Yaron, 91, 116, 117 ‘whiteness’, 50–3; Dom, 60–1, MEDA programmes, 131–2, 134 118–20; migrant domestic media, 45, 68–73, 88 workers, 53–60; patrilineality, and government rhetoric, 72 50, 59 Megaloudi, Fragkiska, 157 Shi’a Muslims, 49, 51 Mellino, Miguel, 98, 99 Sunni Muslims, 51–2 Metaxism, 39 Lee, Hayeon, 58 Meyer, Frank, 117, 118 Lee, Sean, 56 Micallef, Mark, 154, 155 Leichtman, Mara A., 49 migrant domestic workers, in Lentin, Alana, 98, 99, 100, 111 Lebanon, 53–60 Leontidou, Lila, 160 Migrants at Sea blog, 126 Leoussi, Athena S., 38 Migreurop, 125 Le Péril Noir, 61, 72 Miles, R., 17 Les Marocains et Les Migrants Miller, Joseph C., 11 Subsahariens: Quelles relations?, 64 Mirga, A., 48 Lewis, Bernard, 10, 52 Mixed Feelings: Racism and ‘Othering’ in Libya Lebanon from a Lebanese anti-Semitism, 148 Perspective, 60 Committee on the Elimination of Mockler, Anthony, 30 Racial Discrimination (CERD) mode de vie,64 report on, 46, 47 modernity, varieties of, 4 Italian colonization in, 25, 30 Mohamed, Mohamed Hassan, 20 racialization of black Africans, 148–51 Mohsen, Ahmed, 53, 57 Lorcin, Patricia M. E., 25 Monasta, L., 104 L’uomo delinquent, 97 Moors, 15, 23 morality-based racism Maalouf, Amin, 49, 50 female migrant domestic workers McClintock, Anne, 32 (FMDWs), 53–60 McDowall, David, 56 Italian southerners, 29–30, 42 Macmaster, Neil, 28 Jews, 17 Maksudyan, Nazan, 36, 37 Muslims, 15, 17 maktoumeen, 45 slaves, 10 Mali, 12, 64, 69, 139, 140 Morice, Alain, 132 Malta, 153–5 Morocco, racial Arabization in African migrants in, 48 attitudes to sub-Saharan migrants, ‘racial promotion’, 153–4 64–73; differential experiences racism towards illegal migrants, of, 127–8; discrimination in 154–5 public transportation, 79–80, and whiteness, 153 143–4; EU security-control Manconi, Luigi, 99 approach, 78; as HIV/AIDS Manifesto of Antiracist Scientists, 31 carriers, 64, 66, 69–70; negative Mann, Michael, 35 attitude of media, 68–73 Maraushiakova, Elena, 92 Berbers, 11, 27, 60–1 Markessinis, Andreas, 39 institutionalized racism, 64–8, 77–8, Maronite Christians, 34, 50–1 79–81 198 Index

Morocco – continued Party of Authenticity and Modernity migration route to Europe, see (PAM), 79 ‘European expulsion machine’ patrilineality, 50, 59 pressure for reform, 79 Patterson, Orlando, 19 racialization of slavery in, 12, Perrin, Delphine, 133, 134, 135, 136, 20–1, 27 137, 170n. 12, 171n. 19 taboo on discussing racism, 20, 41, Petrakis, Marina, 39 65, 78–9 Phillips, D., 127 Mroueh, Wassim, 53 Phoenix, Anne, 59 Mussolini, 30 physiognomics, 5, 7 Myers, B. R., 161 Pian, Anaik, 124 Piasere, Leonardo, 95, 101, 102, Nallu, Preethi, 55 167n. 17 Nasr, Salim, 51 Piertese, J., 15, 16 Nassar, Angie, 56 Plato, 7 Nazi eugenics, 36, 97 police, racist attitudes of, 22, 34 Nazi Holocaust, 18 in Greece, 39, 43, 48 Negroid facial features, 5–6 in Italy, 30–1 Neighborhood Strategy, 132 in Lebanon, 53–4 Neilsen, Nikolaj, 126 in Morocco, 64–8 Netanyahu, Binyamin, 130 in Turkey, 49 9/11 attacks, 130 Politics, 7 Nirenberg, David, 17 polyracism, 3–7, 28–9, 39–40 Nomad Plan, 104, 106–10 Popov, Veselin Popov, 92 non-governmental organizations Portelli, Alessandro, 30 (NGOs), 44, 47, 57, 78, 125, 127, Powell, Eve Troutt, 32, 163n. 6 149, 151, 154 Poynting, Scott, 49 North, Andrew, 53 pre-modern racisms, 4 Nubians, 5, 6, 10, 32, 46 proto-racism, 7–8, 14, 38 Provence, Michael, 33 Obeid, Nadine, 50 Pugliese, Joseph, 30, 31, 163n. 8 Old Africa Rediscovered, 6 Ong, Aiwha, 2 Opera Nomadi, 98, 104 Rabat Manifesto (2006), 125, 128–9 Operation Ulyssess, 131 racial hierarchy, Northern–‘Southern’ Oprisan, Ana, 93 Africa, history of, 20–2, 31–2, ‘Other, the’, 11, 14, 17, 31, 41, 50, 56, 40–1, 61–2, 68–9, 73–4, 76–7 62, 63, 84, 85, 88, 91, 112, 146 racial profiling, 48, 77, 79, 94, 147 Ottoman empire, 5, 15, 20–5, 34–5 racial rule, technologies of, 25–7 Roma in, 92–3, 120 racial states, strong/weak, 43 racism, contemporary, 43–9 Pagano, Simona, 95 anti-black, 46 Palestine history of, 77 British colonization in, 32–3 Israel, 33 racialization, 33, 43 Lebanon, see Lebanon and Syria, 46 taboo on discussing, 20, 41, 65, Papardelas, Stylianos, 157 78–9 Pappé, Ilan, 30 Radu, Carmen, 109 Parreñas, Rhacel S., 54 Red Racisms, 3, 8, 40 Index 199 religious discrimination, 44–5 Sara, Aline, 58 see also Islamophobia Saracenization, 13–14, 15, 41 Renan, Ernest, 85 Sayyid, S., 40, 47, 111, 145, 163n. 5 Republic of Cyprus (TRC), see Cyprus Saz, Gökhan, 34 Roma, racism towards Scarpino, Salvatore, 30 in Cyprus, 88, 90 Schmidt, Volker H., 4 Dom, see main entry Schneider, J., 29, 98 in Greece, 48, 112–16; EU Scholz, Roswitha, 97, 106 initiatives, 115; poor living scientific racism, 14, 24, 30–1 conditions, 112–15; Scott, David, 2, 4 segregationist policy, 112–13 Semeraro, Giovanni Maria, 125 history of, 18–19, 92–3 Sergi, Guiseppe, 1 in Italy: anti-racist policies, 98–101, Settlement Law, 93 110–12; anti-Roma violence, Shankman, S., 8 105; camps, 95, 97–8, 101–9; Sharawi, Helmi, 11, 12 cultural racism, 96–7, 101, 109, Shashati, Adla, 48 121–2; from former Yugoslavia, Shehadi, Nadim, 51 96; government authorized Shenker, Jack, 53 censuses, 105–6; government Shi’a Muslims, 49, 51 emergency decree, 104–7; Shlaim, A., 33 media portrayal, 110; ‘Nomad Sian, Katy, 40, 47, 111, 145 Plan’, 104, 106–110; origin, Sigona, N., 97, 98, 101, 102, 104 18–19, 95–6; pro-Roma laws, Silverstein, Paul A., 25, 40 99–100, 101–3; racial Sinti, 92, 95, 98, 99, 104, 110 dimension, 97; religious skin colour, categorization by, 9, 21, dimension, 96; schooling of 42, 50, 59, 76, 84 children, 98; social dimension, slave trade, 18, 22–3 96–7; Ufficio Nazionale Atlantic, 13, 17, 23 Antidiscriminazione Razziale struggle for emancipation, 24 (UNAR), 110–12) in Turkey, 90–4; origins of, 91–2; see also slavery remit of Roma improvement slavery, 9–10 plans, 94, 121 Atlantic, 13, 17, 23 see also anti-Gypsyism, Çingene Egyptian, 20 Roman Açilimi, 94 and Islam, 11–12 Romani, see Roma Mediterranean, 19, 22–3 Ronen, Yehudit, 149 Moroccan, 20–1 Rossi, Monica, 104 women, 22 Russeau, Simba, 53, 59 see also slave trade Russian expansionism, 24 Slemrod, Annie, 53, 56 Smaje, Chris, 4, 40 Saad, Stepahnie S., 27 Smith, Anthony D., 38 Said, Edward W., 2, 10, 15, Smith, Malvern van Wyck, 5, 6 19, 24 Solimene, Marco, 102 Salesa, Damon, 32 Spanish Border Surveillance System Salibi, Kamal, 34, 51, 53 (SIVE), 134 Samaha, Nour, 56 Spickard, P., 4 samra, 50–1 Stern, Jacques, 34 Sanussi,30 Strand, Elin, 93 200 Index

Strik, Tineke, 126, 127, Tunisia 151, 152 Committee on the Elimination of Sub-Saharan migration Racial Discrimination (CERD) to Algeria, 74–6 report on, 47 association with terrorism, 66 migration route to Europe, see history of, 73–4 ‘European expulsion machine’ to Morocco, 64–73, 77–81 racial Arabization in, 46–7, 129–32; reasons for, 139–40 attitudes to sub-Saharan Sudan, 12, 21, 32, 53, migrants, 79–81; 74, 91 institutionalized racism, Suez canal, 5 80–1, 144 Sunderland, Judith, 153 Turkey anti-Turk discourse, 34 Sunni Muslims, 51–2 racialized nationalism in, 34–8, Swann, Sarah, 40 48–9 Syria Turkish Review of colonialism in, 34 Anthropology, 36 Committee on the Elimination of Turkophobia, in Cyprus, 84–6 Racial Discrimination (CERD) Tutankhamun, 5 report on, 45–6 Twine, FranceW., 59 Dom, 117–18 Tzanelli, Rodanthi, 38 Kurds, 45–6 Palestinians, 46 Ufﬁcio Nazionale Antidiscriminazione Razziale (UNAR), 110–12 Taif Agreement, 50 UN, 33, 44, 46–7, 67, 111–12, Talhami, Ghada H., 52 136, 149 Tanner, Fred, 130, 131 Committee on the Elimination of Tate, Shirley A., Racial Discrimination (CERD), 40, 59, 63 44–7, 148 Taylor, G., 90 oversimpliﬁed framing of racial discrimination, 47 Telquel,72 Third World Conference in Durban, Third Hellenic Civilization, 39 2001, 47 Third Mediterranean (600–1350) United Nations High Commission period, 5 for Refugees (UNHCR), 67, Thomas, C. F., 60 137, 151 Thompson, Elizabeth, 51, 52 Ungerer, Gustav, 23 Thornberry, Patrick, 47 Uzpeder, Ebru, 89, 91, 94 Tizard, Barbara, 59 Toledano, Ehud R., 22 Valluy, Jerome, 134, 135, 137 TOLERACE research programme, Vassallo, Claire Thake, 24 144–5 Vitale, Tommaso, 96, 167n. 8 Touareg, 73, 165n. 26 trans-Saharan migration, history Walz, Terence, 13, 20, 21 of, 73 Weiss, Gillian, 23, 25 Treaty of Lausanne, 91 Weiss, Max, 51 Triandafyllidou, Anna, 38 White, Sarah, 59 Trimikliniotis, Nicos, 83, 90 whiteness, associations of, 7, 16, Troutt Powell, Eve M., 32 50–3, 153 Index 201

Williams, G. A., 51, 60 Yeoh, Brenda S. A., 55 Wilson, R., 48 York, B., 153 Wippermann, Wolfgang, 96 Young Turks, 35 women Yuval-Davis, Nira, 85 female migrant domestic workers (FMDWs), 53–60 as perpetrators of abuse, 58 Zaghawa,¯ 10 as slaves, 7, 12, 22 Zakharov, Nikolay, 40 Wright, John, 61 Zanj, 10 Zeghbib, Hocine, xenophobia, 7, 57, 66, 69, 75, 77, 80, 132, 138 88, 98, 144, 158 Ziegler, Joseph, 14