From the Mosque to Satellite Broadcasting: A Historical Perspective of Hamas Media Strategy Submitted by Wael Abdelal to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics In March 2012 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ……………………………………… 1 Acknowledgements First of all I offer my sincerest gratitude to my wife Amani, and my family in Gaza, for their personal support and great patience throughout my journey of study at Exeter University. I am most grateful to Dr Rachael Rudolph who has helped, supported and encouraged me. Rechael’s ‘magical touches’ of advices and editing were great and invaluable. This thesis would not have been possible without the help and support of my supervisory team, First Supervisor, Professor Larbi Sadiki, My second supervisor Dr. Alison Harcourt, and my mentor Professor Jeff Karp. Dr Sadiki’s good advice, support and friendship have been vital to me, for which I am extremely grateful. My honest gratitude to the ‘in-sessional English’ team, namely, John Straker and Gareth Butt who have helped in developing my academic English. Big thank you to my friends, Dr Majdi Alkhouli, Dr. Marc Herzog, Dr Mohammed Sakhnini, Mohammed Mussa, Mustafa Wahdan and to all whom have already been named. Wael Abdelal, June 2012 2 Abstract The media keeps the Palestinian dream of a homeland and quest to end the occupation alive. Thus, the media has been a potent weapon in the story of the Palestinian people’s struggle for freedom. This thesis examines the Hamas media strategy in three different periods, and in its historical and analytical context. The first period begins with the outbreak of the Palestinian intifada in 1987 and ends in 1993. In this period, Hamas was strictly a secret/underground organisation. The second stage is from 1994 to 2005. This period witnessed the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority in 1994 and the second intifada. The third period begins after the 2006 elections, where Hamas came to the power after its victory in the PLC elections. The thesis uses an empirical investigation, which relies on two qualitative methods: interviews and document analysis. It illustrates how the Hamas media strategy developed over the mentioned periods and outlines the overall media strategy. The research critically assesses four elements of the Hamas media strategy, which were the media message (discourse), the media objectives, the infrastructure, and the target audience. The present research concludes that Hamas, since 1987, has developed a media strategy based on the four mentioned elements. In particular, it finds that the idea of the resistance is the key element of the Hamas media discourse. Political and ideological/religious agendas and impulses drive Hamas’s discourse. Second, it finds there are two types of objectives tactical and strategic. The former are subject to the context, while the latter is based on ideological political agendas. Third, it finds there are five ‘circles’ of the target audience, which Hamas considers in its media strategy. Finally, it finds that the Hamas media infrastructure expanded from 1987 to the present by using the maximum capacity of the media outlets and benefited from the new media institutions under the rubric of the ‘independent media’. Overall, the thesis is the first in-depth academic study on Hamas' media strategy. 3 Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Contents......................................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter One: An Introductory Framework .................................................................................. 5 Chapter Two: Historicising the Palestinian Media: Hegemony, Identity, and Resistance .......... 41 Chapter Three: Hamas’s Project of ‘Resistance’ and the ‘Resistance Media’ ............................ 70 Chapter Four: Hamas’s Media Strategy, the context of the first intifada .................................... 99 Chapter Five: Hamas media strategy Post Oslo Era: From Clandestine to the Public .............. 130 Chapter Six: Hamas media strategy: the context of the pairing of governance and resistance ‘Hokoumat Moqawama’ ........................................................................................................... 166 Chapter Seven: Reflections on the Hamas media Strategy ....................................................... 217 Chapter Eight: Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 254 Glossary..................................................................................................................................... 262 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 272 4 Chapter One: An Introductory Framework Purpose of the Study and Research Question(s) Interwoven into Palestinian pluralism, the Islamic resistance movement ‘Hamas’ is an integral part of Palestinian society and, arguably, one of the most important Palestinian organizations in recent decades. Its evolution is particularly remarkable given its young age, and when comparing it to other Palestinian factions such as the Palestinian National Liberation Movement (Fatah). Worldwide attention and its placement under a microscope really came after the Hamas' 2006 victory in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) election and through the formation of its government in the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). Afterward, numerous debates and studies were conducted and organized by think-tanks and research centres all over the world, with the majority concentrating on Hamas as a case study in the context of the rise of political Islam. This study, therefore, falls in line with many others. It differs though, as will be demonstrated and discussed below, because no one has yet to systematically and historically contextualize the development of Hamas' media strategy. In this regard, the project is distinct from all previous studies. The rise of Hamas, as argued by Abu-Amr 1 and Hroub, 2 must be understood in the context of the failure of secular-oriented projects in Palestine, and the presentation of itself as an ideological and political alternative. In Gramscian terms, it created for itself a discursive counter-narrative that propelled its representation as a counter-hegemonic force inside the world of Palestinian politics and, as this study will likewise demonstrate, the world of resistance. Hamas’ “Islamic resistance” project rivaled the ‘settlement of the Israel-Palestine conflict’ or ‘peace process’ that was adopted by the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). Since Hamas' establishment, it has extensively utilised the media as a means of mobilization for its political and ideological agendas. The media project began with rudimentary means such graffiti, posters, printed leaflets, and mosques microphones. Today, at least as of 2011, Hamas' media infrastructure includes two satellite 1 Abu Amr, Ziyad: Islamic fundamentalism in the West Bank and Gaza: Muslim Brotherhood and Islamic Jihad, (Indiana University Press, 1994). 2 Hroub, Khalid: Hamas: A Beginner’s Guide , (Pluto Press, 2006). 5 broadcasting channels, a terrestrial TV station, FM radios, media production companies, electronic online media, a Hollywood-style media city and spokesperson offices. The evolution has been remarkable, to say the least. These media outlets have represented and taken the form of alternative media, with the mainstream being reflective of the Israeli and/or the PNA media narrative. It should be noted here that both the Israeli and the PNA media could be considered separately or collectively, depending upon how they were being examined and analysed. Given that the intention of this study is not to compare counter-narratives in the creation of counter-hegemonic paradigms, the Israeli and the PNA media will be juxtaposed and recognised as Hamas sought and continues to challenge in the development of its media strategy. Development of an alternative and a counter-hegemonic narrative were a significant instrument of Hamas’ resistance project. Media has not been less important than “violent resistance.” As Hamas senior leader Fathi Hammad 3 stated, “media is a decisive weapon”. 4 As alluded to in the introduction, the Hamas media strategy has not been studied academically and relatively little is known about its development in mainstream public discourse. This research rectifies that problem by investigating the emergence of its media strategy. In so doing, it explores the context accompanying the formation of the Hamas media strategy over three different phases. An examination of its development over the phases will shed light on the relationship between media development generally and its impact on the growth of Hamas' strategy in particular. Theoretically, development is interdependent, thus implying that the process and actors are shaped by, and well as shaping, interaction and their