Iranica Antiqua, vol. XXXIX, 2004 THE FIGURATIVE WALL PAINTING OF THE SASANIAN PERIOD FROM IRAN, IRAQ AND SYRIA1 BY An DE WAELE (Ghent University) “… nec enim apud eos pingitur vel fingitur aliud, praetor varias caedes et bella.” Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 6,32 1. Introduction The aim of this article is to provide a full view on our current knowledge of the figurative wall paintings of the Sasanian period from Iran, Iraq and Syria. All possible information has been collected, examined and finally resumed to this study. The themes that will be looked at are: the exact location of the paintings and function of this place; iconography (subject- composition-style); plastering, colour use and painting techniques; dating; and lastly the function of the murals (decorative-ideological/symbolical). As conclusion, they will be compared both with each other and with Sasanian art in general. Likewise, attention will be given to the profession of the painters. I just want to emphasize that only published data, drawings and pho- tographs were used (I have not been able to study the paintings themselves) so no new information will be given. Moreover, it concerns a summary but bibliographic references to more extensive descriptions and analyses will be provided. 1 This article is a summary of a part of my MA-thesis which I finished -under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Ernie Haerinck- in May 2002 at Ghent University and in which I studied the art of wall painting from both the Parthian and Sasanian empires. I owe much gratitude to Professor Haerinck, not only for offering me the opportunity and support to write this paper, but also for adjusting where necessary and for helping achieving my first article. 2 “… for nothing in their country is painted or sculptured except slaughter in divers forms and scenes of war.” (Rolfe, 1950, 456-457). 340 A. DE WAELE In literature about Sasanian art almost no attention is paid to wall paint- ing. In most cases, just a short -incomplete- enumeration of sites is given. Nevertheless, a few detailed excavation reports and other publications (namely about Dura-Europos and Hajiabad) prove that Sasanian murals are really worth being investigated. It seemed most appropriate to restrict the article to those murals which were depicted when their location was subjected to Sasanian rule. Illustra- tion 1 shows that the few sites where paintings were found, are distributed far from one another: Dura-Europos is situated in eastern Syria and Cte- siphon in eastern Iraq. In Iran, four sites are known: Susa and Ivan-e Kerkha (Khuzistan), Hajiabad (Fars) and Tepe Hissar (Mazandaran). The important place of pilgrimage Kuh-e Khwaja3 was not admitted either because of the uncertain datings of the buildings and the existing murals. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, scholars have put forward various dates for the several building and decoration phases. Ill. 1. The triangles indicate the sites where murals from the Sasanian period were discovered (map made by Geert Verhoeven). 3 Ghanimati, 2000, 138. WALL PAINTING OF THE SASANIAN PERIOD 341 These datings vary from the Achaemenid period4 to the Parthian (first- third century A.D.5)6, the Sasanian (third-fourth century)7 as well as the early Islamic period8. However, due to this lack of unanimity, I consider the site as an exception which would be better subjected to a separate study9. Various finds prove that Sasanian wall painting had an influence on the art of local dynasts, surrounding areas as well as the later Islam10. A good example of Kushano-Sasanian art is the well preserved painting which was found in an isolated cave at Ghulbiyan (Afghanistan, fourth century (?)). It represents a ceremony with a Kushano-Sasanian ruler (?) and three or four deities (ill. 2)11. Although under strong Sasanian influencing, this mural is also excluded from the present study just as other paintings which belonged to local dynasties further eastwards, for example the rock paintings from the Bud- dhist sanctuaries at Bamiyan and Dukhtar-i-Nushirvan (Afghanistan, date uncertain12) with Sasanian elements such as a Buddha with Sasanian crown and pearl medallions with heads of bears and birds (comparable to Sasanian textiles)13. Worth mentioning are also some Sogdian paintings (fifth-eight century), for instance at Afrasiyab, Panjikent and Varakhsha, where senmurws, fluttering ribbons etc. were depicted14. However, only Iran and the western areas will be discussed. 4 This date, proposed by Giorgio Gullini, has been strongly contested (Ghanimati, 2000, 140). 5 All dates mentioned in this article are A.D. 6 Herzfeld, 1976, 293; Ghanimati, 2000, 145. 7 Ghanimati, 2000, 141, 145. 8 Ghanimati, 2000, 141. 9 For more information about the murals at Kuh-e Khwaja, I refer to the following publications: Facenna, D., 1981. ‘A New Fragment of Wall-Painting from Ghaga Sahr (Kuh-i Hvaga-Sistan, Iran)’, East and West n.s. 31, 1-4: 83-97; Kawami, T.S., 1987. ‘Kuh-e Khwaja, Iran, and Its Wall Paintings: the Records of Ernst Herzfeld’, Metropoli- tan Museum Journal 22: 13-52; Ghanimati, S., 2000. ‘New Perspectives on the Chrono- logical and Functional Horizons of Kuh-e Khwaja in Sistan’, Iran XXXVIII: 137-150. 10 The best examples of the heritage of Sasanian subjects by Islamic mural painting were found in the Ummayad residence at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi (Syria, eight century) and in the Abbasid palace at Samarra (Iraq, ninth century) (Rice, 1971, 32; Overlaet, 1993, 137). 11 Grenet, Lee and Pinder-Wilson, 1980, 83; Grenet, 1999, 66-67. 12 Azarpay, 1981, 93. 13 Rowland, 1946, 35-36, 39-40. 14 Azarpay, 1975, 168; Azarpay, 1981, 27; Overlaet, 1993, 136. 342 A. DE WAELE Ill. 2. Ghulbiyan. Drawing of the mural (after Grenet, 1999, 67). In spite of a couple of dating difficulties the paintings will be described chronologically, from the beginning of Sasanian dominion (Dura-Europos) to the fourth century (Susa, Ivan-e Kerkha and Hajiabad) and ending with the late-Sasanian period (Tepe Hissar and Ctesiphon). As mentioned, a summarized overview is aimed at. With regard to the sites, I therefore will restrict myself to those rooms which are interesting with a view to the paintings. On the other hand, much attention will be paid to the function of the murals: wall paintings can be pictured as deco- ration but they can also express ideas and/or symbols. This ‘Lehrmate- rial’15 mostly was not the work of a painter but a depiction commissioned by a client who wanted to demonstrate something to the spectators. The ideological/symbolical connotation is not always that clear for modern scholars; it is above all important to look at the paintings in their natural environment -to discover the function of the building and the room- and to be well informed about the history of the people, their society and thoughts. Finally, I want to underline a few problems which have turned up during this study. Sometimes, too little or totally no illustration material accompa- nied the descriptions which -on their turn- could be too general. Besides, in 15 Nunn, 1988, 251. WALL PAINTING OF THE SASANIAN PERIOD 343 just a few cases data concerning the used painting materials and techniques were mentioned. About this Astrid Nunn also remarked, and I too would like to stress this problem, that in publications the terms plastered/enduit/verputzt or mortar/mortier/Mörtel are often used, but in reality these words teach us nothing about the plastering16. Many authors mention ‘frescoes’ as well, while it is mostly unclear whether the fresco technique17 was used or if the term serves as an alternative for ‘wall painting’. Sites Building Room The murals Size (dating) (always profane) Dura-Europos private dwelling largest room historical (?) battle < life-size (third century) (reception room?) figures on couches archer figure with flower Susa residence of an hypostyle hall next hunting scene twice (late Parthian period?/ important person to an inner court crescent, stars & life-size first half of the fourth clouds century?) Ivan-e Kerkha royal (?) reception central part of persons at least one (second half of the pavilion a triple iwan person twice fourth century) life-size Hajiabad residence of an public audience geometric & floral main portrait: (fourth century) important person hall and smaller designs > life-size; reception hall five ‘portraits’ other figures: combat scene (?) < life-size Tepe Hissar residence of an two rooms adjacent a rider \ (under Kavad I important person to an ‘audience hall’ (488-531)?) Ctesiphon al-Ma’aridh private villa \ persons life-size (sixth-seventh century) bird nearby the Taq-i Kisra bathhouse \ small decorative \ (?) motifs Table 1: Overview of the Sasanian murals discussed in this paper. 16 Nunn, 1988, 7. 17 In case of the fresco technique one uses a humid plastering, whereas the secco tech- nique requires a dry one. 344 A. DE WAELE 2. Dura-Europos Dura-Europos is well known for its many well preserved murals. During the Seleucid, Parthian as well as Roman occupation phase of the city, both religious and secular buildings were often adorned with painted wall decoration. In the third century -when the Sasanians advanced west- wards- the Durenes strengthened the western city wall with an embank- ment consisting of mudbricks, earth and stones. It was in this bank, which covered a part of Dura, that archaeologists found a lot of remarkably intact wall paintings18. Most famous are those of the synagogue, Christian chapel and Mithraeum. Characteristic is the presence of an own ‘Durene style’ which existed of an interesting eclectic mixture of Aramaic, Parthian, Hel- lenistic and Roman elements and ideas19. As already mentioned, all these paintings date from the period before the Sasanian invasion of Dura.