Front Matter

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-13976-3 — Public Painting and Visual Culture in Early Republican Florence George R. Bent Frontmatter More Information

PUBLIC PAINTING AND VISUAL CULTURE IN EARLY REPUBLICAN FLORENCE

Street corners, guild halls, government oices, and confraternity centers contained paintings that made the city of Florence a visual jewel at pre- cisely the time of its emergence as an international cultural leader. This book considers the paintings that were made speciically for consideration by lay viewers as well as the way they could have been interpreted by audi- ences who approached them with speciic perspectives. Their belief in the power of images, their understanding of the persuasiveness of pictures, and their acceptance of the utterly vital role that art could play as a propagator of civic, corporate, and individual identity made lay viewers keenly aware of the paintings in their midst. Those pictures airmed the piety of the people for whom they were made in an age of social and political upheaval as the city experimented with an imperfect form of republicanism that often failed to adhere to its declared aspirations.

George R.Bent is the Sydney Gause Childress Professor of the Arts at Wash- ington and Lee University, where he has taught in the Department of Art and Art History since 1993. A Fulbright scholar, Bent has written about the art of Lorenzo Monaco, Florentine painting of the Late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance, and manuscript production in the fourteenth century.

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-13976-3 — Public Painting and Visual Culture in Early Republican Florence George R. Bent Frontmatter More Information

PUBLIC PAINTING AND VISUAL CULTURE IN EARLY REPUBLICAN FLORENCE

GEORGE R. BENT Washington and Lee University

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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107139763

C George R. Bent 2016 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2016 Printed in The United States of America by Sheridan Books A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging–in–Publication Data Names: Bent, George R., author. Title: Public painting and visual culture in early republican Florence / George R. Bent. Description: New York : Cambridge University Press, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identiiers: lccn 2016021810 | isbn 9781107139763 (hardback) Subjects: lcsh: Painting, Italian – Italy – Florence – Themes, motives. | Public art – Italy – Florence – History – To 1500. | Art and society – Italy – Florence – History – To 1500. | Florence (Italy) – Civilization. | BISAC: HISTORY / Europe / General. Classiication: lcc nd621.f7 b47 2016 | ddc 701/.03–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016021810 isbn 978-1-107-13976-3 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations page vi Acknowledgments xiii

INTRODUCTION: PUBLIC PAINTING AND VISUAL CULTURE IN EARLY REPUBLICAN FLORENCE, 1282–1434 1

1 PAINTINGS IN THE STREETS: TABERNACLES, PUBLIC DEVOTION, AND CONTROL 17

2 IMAGES OF CHARITY: CONFRATERNITIES, HOSPITALS, AND PICTURES FOR THE DESTITUTE 65

3 ART AND THE COMMUNE: POLITICS, PROPAGANDA, AND THE BUREAUCRATIC STATE 105

4 PICTURES FOR MERCHANTS: THE GUILDS, THEIR PAINTINGS, AND THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER 135

5 PUBLIC PAINTING IN SACRED SPACES: PIERS AND PILASTERS IN FLORENTINE CHURCHES 185

6 MURALS FOR THE MASSES: PAINTINGS ON NAVE WALLS 221

7 MASACCIO’S TRINITY AND THE TRIUMPH OF PUBLIC PAINTING FOR COMMON PEOPLE IN EARLY REPUBLICAN FLORENCE 273

Notes 289 Bibliography 311 Index 325

ILLUSTRATIONS

color plates appear between pages 158 and 159 I. Giottino, Lamentation of Christ, ca. 1360, Uizi Galleries, Florence II. Giottino, Madonna della Sagra, 1356, Accademia, Florence III. Andrea del Bonaiuto, Madonna of Humility, ca. 1375, Via San Gallo, Florence IV. Madonna dei Malcontenti, ca. 1385, Via dei Malcontenti, Florence V. Jacopo del Casentino, Madonna della Tromba, ca. 1335–1340, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence VI. Santa Maria della Tromba, Codice Rustici, fol. 22, 1442–1447, Biblioteca Seminario Maggiore, Florence VII. Bernardo Daddi, Madonna of Orsanmichele, 1347, Orsanmichele, Florence VIII. Bernardo Daddi, Cruciix (recto), ca. 1345, Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan IX. Bernardo Daddi, Cruciix (verso), ca. 1345, Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan X. Niccolò di Pietro Gerini, Flagellation of Christ,ca.1390, private collection XI. Workshop of Bernardo Daddi, Allegory of Mercy, 1342, Museo del Bigallo, Florence XII. Niccolò di Pietro Gerini and Ambrogio di Baldese, Abandonment of Children and the Reuniication of Families, 1386, Museo del Bigallo, Florence XIII. Reconstruction, Abandonment of Children and the Reuniication of Families, 1386, Museo del Bigallo, Florence XIV. Jacopo di Cione, Madonna Lactans, ca. 1375, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. XV. Workshop of Lorenzo Monaco, Double Intercession,ca.1400, Metropolitan Museum of Art (The Cloisters), New York XVI. Giotto (?), Enthroned Madonna with Symbols of the City, 1334–1336, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence XVII. Andrea di Cione (?), Expulsion of the Duke of Athens, ca. 1345, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence

ILLUSTRATIONS vii

XVIII. Jacopo di Cione, Coronation of the Virgin, 1373, Accademia, Florence XIX. Fra Angelico, Madonna and Child, 1435, Museo di San Marco, Florence XX. Mariotto di Nardo, Madonna and Child with Saints Stephen and Reparata, ca. 1385, Accademia, Florence XXI. Incipit Page, Arte della Lana 4, fol. 6, ca. 1335, Archivio di Stato, Florence XXII. Sala d’Udienza, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence XXIII. Madonna della Lana, ca. 1315, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence XXIV. Nardo di Cione (?), Judgment of Brutus, ca. 1345, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence XXV. Bernardo Daddi, Saint Paul, 1333, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. XXVI. Giovanni del Biondo, Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, ca. 1376, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence XXVII. Jacopo di Cione and Giovanni del Biondo, Saint Zenobius, ca. 1390, Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence XXVIII. Nardo di Cione, Madonna and Child with Saints John the Baptist, John the Evangelist, Zenobius, and Reparata,ca.1360, Brooklyn Museum of Art, Brooklyn, New York XXIX. Giovanni del Biondo, Saint John the Evangelist,ca.1380, Accademia, Florence XXX. Andrea di Cione and Jacopo di Cione, Saint Matthew and Scenes from His Life, 1369, Uizi, Florence XXXI. Lorenzo Monaco, Agony in the Garden, ca. 1396, Accademia, Florence XXXII. Saints Mary Magdalene, Nicholas, Miniato, Andrew, and Christopher, ca. 1380–1390, San Miniato al Monte, Florence XXXIII. Coronation of the Virgin, ca. 1300, Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence XXXIV. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, Last Judgment (southwest, west, and northwest vaults), ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence XXXV. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, east vault, John the Baptist Imprisoned, ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence XXXVI. Andrea di Cione, Triumph of Death, ca. 1345, Santa Croce, Florence XXXVII. Masaccio, Holy Trinity, 1427, Santa Maria Novella, Florence XXXVIII. Pulpit, Santa Maria Novella, Florence XXXIX. View of the Trinity from the east portal, Santa Maria Novella, Florence

viii ILLUSTRATIONS

black and white figures 1. Fra Angelico, Deposition of Christ, 1435, Museo San Marco, Florence page 3 2. Bernardo Daddi, Madonna del Bagnuolo, ca. 1335, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 7 3. Isometric project of Santa Croce with tramezzo, before Vasari’s renovation 10 4. Sketch of Santa Croce with tramezzo 11 5. Niche, Piazza Santo Spirito, Florence 19 6. Taddeo Gaddi, Madonna and Child, ca. 1340, Via Antonino, Florence 20 7. Niccolò di Tommaso, Saint Sixtus,ca.1385,ViadelSole,Florence 21 8. Maestro di San Martino a Mensola, Madonna and Child,ca.1395, Piazza Piattellina, Florence 23 9. Lorenzo di Bicci, Madonnone, ca. 1390, Via di San Salvi, Florence 25 10. Giovanni del Biondo (?), Renunciation of Worldly Goods,ca.1390, Orsanmichele, Florence 26 11. Giovanni del Biondo (?), Miracle of the Ordeal by Fire at the Grain Market, ca. 1390, Orsanmichele, Florence 27 12. Giovanni del Biondo (?), Miracle of the Hanged Thief,ca.1390, Orsanmichele, Florence 29 13. Mercato Vecchio before its demolition, Florence 33 14. Giuseppe Moricci, Santa Maria della Tromba, ca. 1860, Galleria d’Arte Moderna, Florence 35 15. Johannes Stradanus, Mercato Vecchio, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence 36 16. Jacopo del Casentino, Madonna and Child with Saints Benedict and Peter, ca. 1345, Borgo degli Albizzi (Via dei Giraldi), Florence 37 17. Orsanmichele, Florence 47 18. Supplicants before the Madonna of Orsanmichele, Chigi L VIII 296,fol. 152, ca. 1342–1348, Vatican Library,Vatican City 49 19. Riot at Orsanmichele, Biadaiolo Manuscript, fol. 79, ca. 1340, Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence 53 20. Saint Anne, ca. 1345, Orsanmichele, Florence 57 21. Andrea di Cione, Tabernacle of Orsanmichele, 1352–1359, Orsanmichele, Florence 59 22. Duccio di Buoninsegna, Rucellai Madonna, ca. 1290, Uizi Galleries, Florence 67 23. Cimabue, Santa Trinita Madonna, ca. 1295, Uizi, Florence 69 24. Mariotto di Nardo, Coronation of the Virgin, 1408, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, Minnesota 73 25. Niccolò di Pietro Gerini, Vir Dolorum, ca. 1400, Accademia, Florence 76 26. Jacopo del Casentino, Saint Agatha, ca. 1335, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 80 27. Anonymous, Saint Agatha, ca. 1290, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 81

ILLUSTRATIONS ix

28. Flagellants, Chigi L VIII 296, fol. 197v, ca. 1342–1348, Vatican Library, Vatican City 82 29. Loggia del Bigallo, Florence 85 30. Alberto Arnoldi, Madonna and Child, ca. 1365, Museo del Bigallo, Florence 86 31. Nardo di Cione, Christ in Judgment with Angels,ca.1364,Museodel Bigallo, Florence 87 32. Workshop of Bernardo Daddi, Allegory of Mercy (detail, roundels), 1342, Museo del Bigallo, Florence 89 33. Workshop of Bernardo Daddi, Allegory of Mercy (detail, bread and wine), 1342, Museo del Bigallo, Florence 90 34. Workshop of Bernardo Daddi, Allegory of Mercy (detail, funeral bier), 1342, Museo del Bigallo, Florence 91 35. Copy, Abandonment of Children and the Reuniication of Families, 1386, Museo del Bigallo, Florence 93 36. Pseudo Don Silvestro dei Gherarducci, Madonna Lactans,ca.1380, Accademia, Florence 97 37. Workshop of Giotto, Chapel of the Magdalene with Last Judgment, ca. 1321, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence 110 38. Workshop of Giotto, Chapel of the Magdalene with Hell, ca. 1321, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence 111 39. Giovanni Toscani, Incredulity of Saint Thomas, ca. 1420, Accademia, Florence 115 40. Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Allegory of Bad Government, 1339, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena 121 41. Stemmi, Uizi, Florence 124 42. Jacopo di Cione, Coronation of the Virgin (detail, Virgin), 1373, Accademia, Florence 125 43. Jacopo di Cione, Coronation of the Virgin (detail, Victor and Zenobius), 1373, Accademia, Florence 130 44. Gold lorins 131 45. Bernardo Daddi, Madonna and Child, ca. 1340, Accademia, Florence 136 46. Fra Angelico, Madonna and Child (Saints Mark and Peter), detail, 1435, Museo di San Marco, Florence 139 47. Taddeo Gaddi, Madonna and Child, ca. 1350–1355, Accademia, Florence 141 48. Jacopo del Casentino, Madonna and Child with Saints Stephen and Philip, ca. 1340, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence 143 49. Palazzo Arte dei Giudici e Notai, Via del Proconsolo, Florence 145 50. Palazzo Arte dei Giudici e Notai, Sala d’Udienza, Via del Proconsolo, Florence 146 51. Ambrogio di Baldese, Cleric, ca. 1406, Palazzo Arte dei Giudici e Notai, Florence 147 52. Ambrogio di Baldese, Allegorical Women, ca. 1406, Palazzo Arte dei Giudici e Notai, Florence 148

x ILLUSTRATIONS

53. Ambrogio di Baldese, Uomini Famosi, ca. 1406, Palazzo Arte dei Giudici e Notai, Florence 149 54. Ambrogio di Baldese, Allegorical Winged Figure, ca. 1406, Palazzo Arte dei Giudici e Notai, Florence 151 55. Palazzo Arte della Lana, Via Calimala, Florence 155 56. Bottega, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Via Calimala, Florence 157 57. Vault,Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence 158 58. Annunciation of the Virgin, ca. 1315, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence 159 59. Saints Martin, Pancras, Peter, and Frediano, ca. 1370–1380, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence 161 60. Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Allegory of Good Government,1338–1339, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena 165 61. Judgment of Brutus, detail (dado), ca. 1345, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence 167 62. Nardo di Cione, Paradise, ca. 1357, Santa Maria Novella, Florence 168 63. Andrea di Cione, Strozzi Altarpiece, 1357, Santa Maria Novella, Florence 169 64. Judgment of Brutus, detail (left igures), ca. 1345, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence 177 65. Judgment of Brutus, detail (right igures), ca. 1345, Palazzo Arte della Lana, Florence 179 66. Giovanni del Biondo, Scenes from the Life of Saint Sebastian, left panel, ca. 1376, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 188 67. Giovanni del Biondo, Scenes from the Life of Saint Sebastian, right panel, ca. 1376, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 189 68. Bernardo Daddi, Saint Catherine, ca. 1335, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 193 69. Giovanni del Biondo, Saint Catherine with Noferi Bischeri,ca.1380, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 195 70. Jacopo di Cione, Saint Zenobius, 1394, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 197 71. Bernardo Daddi, Madonna and Child with Saints (“San Pancrazio Altarpiece,” ex–Santa Maria del Fiore), 1342, Uizi, Florence 199 72. Lorenzo di Niccolò, Saint Reparata, ca. 1408, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 200 73. Jacopo del Casentino, Enthroned Madonna Lactans, ca. 1335, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence 201 74. Jacopo del Casentino, Saint Bartholomew Enthroned, ca. 1335, Accademia, Florence 203 75. Circle of Andrea di Bonaiuto, Annunciation of the Virgin,ca.1380, Accademia, Florence 205 76. Lorenzo di Bicci, Saint Martin, ca. 1395, Accademia, Florence 209 77. Vision of Saint Bernard, ca. 1360, Accademia, Florence 212 78. Saint Mary Magdalene, ca. 1275, Accademia, Florence 213 79. Niccolò di Pietro Gerini, Saint Bartholomew, 1408, Orsanmichele, Florence 215

ILLUSTRATIONS xi

80. Christ with the Virgin and Saint Miniato, facade, ca. 1240, San Miniato al Monte, Florence 222 81. Christ Enthroned, apse, 1297, San Miniato al Monte, Florence 223 82. Saints on the South wall, ca. 1380–1410, San Miniato al Monte, Florence 224 83. Saints John the Baptist, Reparata, Zenobius, and Benedict, ca. 1400–1410, San Miniato al Monte, Florence 227 84. Christ with the Instruments of the Passion and Saints Julian, Miniato, and Catherine with Female Donors, ca. 1409–1410, San Miniato al Monte, Florence 228 85. Christ with the Instruments of the Passion, ca. 1409–1410, San Miniato al Monte, Florence 229 86. Vir Dolorum, ca. 1340–1350, Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence 233 87. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, Heaven (southwest vault), ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence 242 88. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, Hell (northwest vault), ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence 243 89. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, north vault, ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence 245 90. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, northeast vault, ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence 246 91. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, east vault, ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence 247 92. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, southeast vault, ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence 248 93. Last Judgment and Biblical Scenes, detail, south vault, ca. 1275–1300, San Giovanni, Florence 249 94. Andrea Pisano, Scenes from the Life of John the Baptist, ca. 1336, San Giovanni, Florence 251 95. Lorenzo Ghiberti, Baptism of Christ, ca. 1407–1424, San Giovanni, Florence 256 96. Lorenzo Ghiberti, Scenes from Genesis (Gates of Paradise),ca. 1430–1452, San Giovanni, Florence 257 97. Santa Croce, nave and pulpit, Florence 259 98. Cruciixion, Noli me Tangere, Ascension, Santa Croce, Florence 260 99. Triumph of Death, ca. 1333, Camposanto, Pisa 261 100. Andrea di Cione, Hell, detail, earthquake, ca. 1345, Santa Croce, Florence 262 101. Andrea di Cione, Hell, detail, eclipse, ca. 1345, Santa Croce, Florence 263 102. Andrea di Cione, Last Judgment, detail, beaked torturers, ca. 1345, Santa Croce, Florence 264 103. Andrea di Cione, Last Judgment, detail, LU(SS)VRIA, ca. 1345, Santa Croce, Florence 265 104. West side wall, with bay containing Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence. 279 105. Cemetery, east cloister, Santa Maria Novella, Florence 281

xii ILLUSTRATIONS

106. Giotto, Cruciix, ca. 1310–1312, Santa Maria Novella, Florence 283 107. Filippo Brunelleschi, Cruciix, ca. 1415, Santa Maria Novella, Florence 284 108. Lamentation of Christ, ca. 1340, Santa Maria Novella, Florence 285 109. Nardo di Cione, Last Judgment, Christ, ca. 1357, Strozzi Chapel, Santa Maria Novella, Florence 287

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My interest in the art of the fourteenth and early ifteenth centuries was born in Oberlin, Ohio, nurtured in Palo Alto, California, and cultivated in Florence, Italy, during the longue durée of the Reagan administration. In those days, and then through the 1990s, I came to think that the artistic traditions that drove Tuscan painting had much more to do with the mentality of the Middle Ages than it did with the early modern period. That belief led to and resulted in my examination of the artistic environment in the Camaldolese monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli and the legacy of Lorenzo Monaco, its most famous member. When that work reached its logical conclusion, I felt compelled to turn away from the strictly controlled environment of the cloister and to think instead about the messier, more complicated, and only vaguely understood visual culture of the Florentine laity. Poor, undereducated, and largely disen- franchised, these usually overlooked viewers presented an enormous challenge for me: I had to teach myself a great deal about corners of society I’d only paid marginal attention to in my earlier work, and I frequently reached out to friends and colleagues for advice and guidance. The going was slow at times, but it was always richly rewarding. Fortunately, the friends and colleagues to whom I turned were more than just enormously helpful. Without them, this project could have never reached its conclusion. Judith Steinhof, David Peterson, Areli Marina, Barbara Deim- ling, Alick McLean, and Felicity Ratté engaged me critically at the early stages of my research and helped me identify the good, address the bad, and beautify the ugly throughout the process. Roger Crum and Perri Lee Roberts called upon their vast understanding of the early Quattrocento to lead me in worthy directions. Philip Earenight, Megan Holmes, Kay Arthur, and William Levin were generous with their time and unreasonably patient with me when I asked them basic questions. Larry Kanter, Hayden Maginnis, Shelley Zuraw, John Najemy, and Marvin Trachtenberg provided encouragement during encoun- ters that they surely won’t remember as well as I do. Alessio Assonitis tenaciously advocated on my behalf on an utterly crucial matter and at an utterly crucial moment. Andrea Di Lorenzo was gracious with his time and his guidance. And Gail Solberg repeatedly aided me in this endeavor with her thoughtful

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xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

commentary,her tremendous intellect, multiple shots of espresso, and her afa- ble unwillingness to accept anything less than sound argumentation. Anastasia Graf, Beatrice Rehl, and the staf at Cambridge University Press showed great faith in this project and patiently helped guide it through to com- pletion. The stafs at the Florentine State Archives, Biblioteca Nazionale Cen- trale, Kunsthistorisches Library,the Società Dantesca, and the Polo Musei were courteous,eicient,and enormously helpful at every turn.I was assisted greatly by the generosity of the stafs at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Erica Garber at Art Resource tracked down photographs for me that I feared were hopelessly lost forever and advocated for me when others were diicult to obtain.Marcia Hall kindly lent the two diagrams of Santa Croce’s tramezzo now accepted as the most accurate representations of that lost architectural form. The two anonymous readers solicited by Cambridge who pointed out embarrassing errors in the original manuscript made the inal product ininitely better than it other- wise would have been. The Millard Meiss fund administered by College Art Association defrayed the cost of production in vital ways. And Lorri Olan and Cathryn Harbor read portions of the text and helped me rewrite them with an eye toward communicating my ideas clearly to actual human beings – a marvelous concept indeed. A variety of colleagues, students, and friends at Washington and Lee Uni- versity have directly and indirectly inluenced the contents of this book. The late Pamela Simpson was a mentor and role model for me in more ways than probably even I realize: I miss her greatly. Kathleen Olson-Janjic took over for me as department chair at just the right moment, and that selless act enabled me to focus on matters at hand and inish this project in a timely manner. Melissa Kerin, Elliott King, Andrea Lepage, and the late Joan O’Mara heard the arguments contained within the following pages and improved them through their observant and prescient suggestions.Hank Dobin,Suzanne Keen, Tom Williams, Harlan Beckley,June Aprile, Robert Strong, Marc Conner, and Daniel Wubah supported and funded this project from beginning to end. Mar- tine Petite’s generosity humbled me greatly, and without the support of Mary Hodapp and Betty Hickox, this study would not have been possible. And the hundreds (thousands?) of students – some of whom have been hooded with PhDs in the intervening years – who have listened, spoken, and even helped research some of the topics in this book contributed to my thinking in vital ways. Long before I began this project, I was fortunate to have studied with masterful and deeply inluential teacher-scholars. Robert Neil, Marcia Colish, Suzanne Lewis, Alessandro Nova, Judith Brown, Andrew Ladis, Marvin Eisen- berg, and William Hood mentored me in my youth and nudged me forward at those crucial moments when I did not have the conidence to do so on my own: anything at all that is good in this book can be traced back to them.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

With my adopted siblings in Italy – Carlo Zappia, Patrizia Lattarulo, Stefano Sacchetti, and Anna Lami – I have shared a quarter-century’s worth of joyous memories and a deep, abiding love and afection: their insights have inluenced me more than they can ever know.I send to Ruth Bent and to the late George R. Bent II, whom I miss dearly, heartfelt thanks for close to six decades of love and support. To William, Catalena, and Miles Bent I repeat what I have said to them from the day each was born: no father has ever been prouder of his children than I am of mine. And to Lorri Olan, who bridges my past and my future, I dedicate this book by way of thanks for joining me on this grand adventure of ours.