arXiv:1402.2717v1 [astro-ph.HE] 12 Feb 2014 tlredsacs h eeto fnab N-athere- SNe-Ia nearby of detection discovered The usually hence distances. and to large rare at difficult has are are they SNe-Ia theories because However, study strong aforementioned pur- cause. provide their such the would for observed for of evidence if used Each that be signatures, unique can all. they at or if poses distances, determining cosmological for measuring more even become for to SNe-Ia tools for accurate importance utmost the of this fore in formed are majority the impli- if way. profound to cosmology leading for usual 2013a) cations using al. standardizable et as formed not (Ouyed (NS) methods SNe-Ia are star channel Interestingly this neutron (QN-Ia). through companion involv- Ia a 2013), Quark-Nova of Staff a & explosion of (Ouyed explosion the presented the ing for been channel has new Webbink WD a year 1994; a Tutukov past & the In (Iben the WDs 1984). two from and of mass merger non- 1973) the the a provides Iben from channel & (DD) WD double-degenerate the (Whelan onto lead- companion accretion single-degenerate (WD) degenerate the the dwarf is explosion: channel white thermonuclear (SD) the a to onto ing mass research. of intense cumulation of area of an actu- still explosions is they are how explode SNe-Ia ally (COWDs); under- that dwarfs We white spectra carbon/oxygen understood. their poorly from are stand explosion behind progenitors SN-Ia Despite the of the nature and can- nature. acceler- mechanism the “standardizable” of which dles, the as from perception acceptance study overwhelming results our their then the shaken Universe; and deeply 1998; the have 1999) of al. et expansion (Riess over ated al. discover used first et been to has Perlmutter decades sense two this past cosmological in the utility measuring Their of distances. capable candles dardizable” eovn h rgntrmcaimdbt sthere- is debate progenitor/mechanism the Resolving ac- the requiring both fray, the lead theories Two “stan- be to thought are (SNe-Ia) Supernovae Ia Type rpittpstuigL using 2018 typeset 21, Preprint August version Draft eateto hsc n srnm,Uiest fCalgary of University Astronomy, and Physics of Department PCFCPEITOSFRS 04 NTECNETO H QUARK THE OF CONTEXT THE IN 2014J SN FOR PREDICTIONS SPECIFIC pcfi rdcin o N21Ji h otx fteQakNv I Nova signa the gravitational Quark opportunity after and headings: days the an creation, Subject of of such element hundreds context heavy and provides emission, the prior M82 correc neutrino in just galaxy the luminosities 2014J Obse X-ray is the SN include any, for in problem. if predictions Mpc this theory, specific 3.5 which to close determine resolution supremacy relatively to a for critical necessitates vie therefore cosmology theories of several study although understood, poorly h xc ehns eidTp asproa SeI)adthe and (SNe-Ia) supernovae Ia Type behind mechanism exact The 1. A INTRODUCTION T E eateto hsc n srnm,McureUniversity Macquarie Astronomy, and Physics of Department tl mltajv 11/26/04 v. emulateapj style X uenve niiulS 04)–glxe niiulM8)–stars – 82) individual(M : galaxies – 2014J) individual(SN supernovae: tr:wiedwarfs white stars: ahdOyd ioKnn,DnsLeahy Denis Koning, Nico Ouyed, Rachid rf eso uut2,2018 21, August version Draft a .Staff E. Jan ABSTRACT 50Uiest rv W agr,Abra 2 N Canada 1N4 T2N Alberta, Calgary, NW, Drive University 2500 , Goa ta.21)wsdsoee nJn2 2014 21 Jan at on M82 discovered in Fossey was J. 2014) Stephen astronomer 2014J by al. have SN not today. et did have we we (Goobar capabilities SNe, telescope these space of the time the at Unfortunately l 00 ue ta.21b.TeQ jcsteouter- Lorentz the a with ejects speeds et QN Γ relativistic The Niebergal at factor NS 2004; 2013b). the of al. al. layers most et et star Vogt Ouyed quark would 2010; 2002; a it al. al. to occur. and et explosion crit- (Ouyed (QN) matter would the Nova (QS) above neutron Quark NS NS a by where the undergo the sustainable system, to drive mass binary would WD ical tight mass the accreted a from The form transfer COWD mass and NS a be not observing may upcoming or for may motivation in what provide proposals. model of to QN-Ia sense the and make predic- of seen context to observable the attempt present in an we 2014J SN paper for this electromagnetic tions entire In the spanning spectrum. 2014J SN on papers explosions. SN-Ia and unprece- behind mechanism progenitors an the the on provides of light 2014J nature shed SN to telescopes opportunity object, sophisticated dented this most mod- the the on of in trained many observed With SNe-Ia closest era. the ern of one it making at 5128 et NGC Sandage in 1994; 1986G della SN al. 1975; and et Tammann 1994) Branch & at 1992; al. Sandage Melnick 5253 1992; & NGC Valle al. in et 1972E Phillips SN were the of resolution a to lead debate. perhaps progenitor/mechanism explosions and these detail study exquisite to in opportunity unique a offers fore Oyde l 04 ue ta.2006). al. et Ouyed 2004; al. et (Ouyed 1 ue tff(03 osdrdteseai nwhich in scenario the considered (2013) Staff & Ouyed of deluge a expect we years and months coming the In 2014 to prior observed SNe-Ia modern-era closest The h opc enn teQ)i ona naindrotator aligned an as born is QS) (the remnant compact The QN ∼ hi eue motnet the to importance secured Their . tures. n.S 04 icvrda a at discovered 2014J SN one. t 0 naeae10 average On 10. xlso,lgtcre“glitches”, curve light explosion, S 19 Australia 2109, NSW vtoso erySeI are SNe-Ia nearby of rvations Q-a oe.Predictions model. (QN-Ia) a 2. aueo h rgntr is progenitors the of nature UR-OAIA QUARK-NOVA nti ae egive we paper this In . OAI MODEL IA NOVA − 3 M ∼ eto – neutron : ⊙ .- p (e.g., Mpc 2.5-8 fio-ihand iron-rich of ∼ ∼ - Mpc. 3-5 . Mpc, 3.5 1 2 Ouyed et al. neutron-rich material is ejected during a QN (Ker¨anen which lasts tens of days; (ii) (56Ni + 56Co) decay dom- et al. 2005) equalling about ∼ 1052 erg in kinetic energy. inated; (iii) A return to spin-down dominated emission This ejecta hits the WD fractions of a second after the starting a few hundred days after the explosion. We QN explosion, leading to the thermonuclear explosion of therefore expect to see a “glitch” in the light curve the WD; the QN-Ia. The properties of the QN ejecta of SN 2014J a few hundred days after the explosion, as it hits the WD have been presented in §2.3 in Ouyed assuming a fiducial spin period of ∼ 20 ms, as the & Staff (2013). This external triggering mechanism and main energy source changes from (56Ni + 56Co) decay the induced shock compression implies that even low- to spin-down. If the QS later collapses into a black mass WDs (i.e. << 0.5M⊙) will explode in the QN-Ia hole (BH), a second “glitch” will be observed as the model. spin-down energy will suddenly be extinguished.3 A QN-Ia, in addition to the energy from the 56Ni decay, 2. At ∼ 1 year after the explosion we estimate the spin- is also powered by spin-down energy of the newly born 43 −1 QS. This results in the QN-Ia obeying a Phillips-like (cal- down luminosity to be ∼ 10 erg s for a QS born with an initial period of ∼ 20 ms and an initial mag- ibration) relation where the variation in luminosity is due 15 to spin-down power (see §4 in Ouyed et al. 2013a). We netic field of ∼ 10 G. Assuming an X-ray efficiency of ∼ 1% this would correspond to a flux of ∼ 10−10 also find the calibration relation to be redshift-dependent −2 −1 which means that SNe-Ia are not standard candles 2 (see erg cm s . Thus the compact remnant in SN Ouyed et al. 2013a) making their utility as distance in- 2014J should appear as a bright X-ray source ∼ 1 dicators unreliable. year after the explosion. The QS could also be a marginally detectable Fermi source (in the 10-100 GeV 3. CURRENT QN-IA SIGNATURES IN SN 2014J band; http://fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov ) if a γ-ray efficiency ∼ If SN 2014J is a QN-Ia explosion, several unique sig- of 1% is assumed. natures may have already been observed prior to and in 3. The QN explosion proper ejects a very dense, ultra- −3 the few weeks following its discovery. relativistic ejecta with mass MQN ∼ 10 M⊙ and Lorentz factor ΓQN ∼ 10. The portion of the QN 1. The hyper-accretion rate onto the NS just prior to 2 2 ejecta that will impact the WD is ∼ (RWD/4a ) × the QN explosion should generate temperatures high −4 M ∼ 10 M⊙ where R is the WD radius and enough for strong neutrino emission. A luminosity on QN WD 46 48 −1 a ∼ 2RWD the binary separation when the WD starts the order 0.1M⊙/week ∼ 10 -10 erg s in tens of 47 to fill its Roche-Lobe. This means that at most MeV neutrinos would be expected. For an Eν ∼ 10 −4 ∼ 0.1M ∼ 10 M⊙ will collide with the WD while erg s−1 and ∼ 10 MeV neutrinos this would corre- QN the rest of the QN ejecta expands freely. Thus most of spond to a flux of ∼ 10 νs cm−2 s−1. This is clearly the QN ejecta with its ∼ 1052 erg of kinetic energy will much below IceCube sensitivity (Abassi et al. 2011) expand freely outwards with unique implications if it but worth mentioning here. couples to the surrounding environment. For exam- 2. Just prior to the neutrino dominated hyper-accretion ple, the QN ejecta may carve out a superbubble that phase, we expect a brief accretion phase (< 1 day) set could reach out to a parsec in a few years assuming a 38 −1 ∼ by the photon Eddington limit (LX ∼ 10 erg s ). typical number density of 1 particle per cc in the In the case of SN 2014J this would correspond to a surrounding environment prior to the explosion. HST flux of ∼ 7 × 10−14 erg cm−2 s−1 which is detectable should be able to resolve such a superbubble. by Chandra (http://cxc.harvard.edu/). 4. The neutron- and iron-rich QN ejecta was shown to be 3. The NS will spin-up to millisecond periods due to ac- an ideal site for the nucleo-synthesis of heavy elements, cretion from the WD. If the viewing angle is fortuitous, in particular nuclei with atomic weight A > 130 and the surrounding electron density low enough, this (Jaikumar et al. 2007). Compared to the burnt WD will have been observed as a radio pulsar in the days material, these nuclear proxies should be distinguish- able in the late spectrum of SN 2014J. However we prior to the QN-Ia explosion. −5 predict at most ∼ 10 M⊙ of A > 130 radioactive 4. Gravitational wave (GW) detectors should see signa- material to be mixed with the burnt CO ejecta. This tures of two explosions, the QN explosion and the WD is far too small to be detectable by Fermi and Nustar detonation (a fraction of a second apart). The QN at the distance of SN 2014J. GW signatures have been investigated in Staff et al. (2012). 5. The QS is likely to be born as an aligned rotator (Ouyed et al. 2004; Ouyed et al. 2006) and as such 4. FUTURE QN-IA SIGNATURES IN SN 2014J no radio pulsar should be seen in future observations of SN 2014J. Many signatures of the QN-Ia are not evident until the explosion becomes transparent to radiation. The follow- 6. We have argued in previous work that the QN compact ing are a list of unique signatures that might be observed remnant shows properties reminiscent of Soft Gamma- in SN 2014J in the months and years to come. Ray Repeaters (SGRs) and Anomalous X-ray Pulsars (AXPs) (see Ouyed et al. 2010 and references therein). 1. The light curve of SN 2014J is expected, in the QN-Ia We therefore expect magnetar-like behaviour from the model, to undergo three distinct phases (see Figure location of SN 2014J in the future. 2 in Ouyed et al. 2013a): (i) Spin-down dominated 3 We should note that if the QS collapses into a BH during phase 2 If the majority of SNe-Ia are in fact QNe-Ia ii. the first “glitch” will never happen Specific predictions for SN 2014J in the context of the Quark Nova Iamodel 3

5. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION out this scenario, or confirm it with observations from The proximity of SN 2014J offers us an unparalleled near-by SNe-Ia such as SN 2014J. opportunity to study a SN-Ia which may reveal clues In this paper we have provided the observer with a as to the nature of the progenitors and the explosion list of QN-Ia signatures which, if observed in SN 2014J, mechanism. The two leading explosion scenarios (SD would support the existence of QNe-Ia. We do note, and DD channels) have recently been joined by a new however, that many of the late-time predictions rely on the existence of a QS. It is entirely possible that the intriguing possibility; the QN-Ia. 56 56 The relative unfamiliarity of the QN-Ia model makes QS collapses to a BH during the ( Ni + Co) decay it easy to dismiss. However, the QN has been success- phase (see point 1 in §4) thereby providing an (albeit fully applied to a plethora of other astronomical phe- unintended) hedge. If the QS-BH transition occurs at nomena including SGRs and AXPs (e.g. Ouyed et al any other time, however, we should see this in the light 2010), Gamma-ray bursts (e.g. Ouyed et al. 2011) and curve of SN 2014J (e.g. if it occurs immediately, no spin- down energy will be deposited and the light curve will Superluminous-supernovae (e.g. Ouyed et al. 2012). 56 56 In fact the double-humped light curve observed in SN be purely due to ( Ni + Co) decay). 2009ip and SN 2010mc (modelled and well fit by Ouyed et al. 2013c) was first predicted by the QN model in 2009 (Ouyed et al. 2009), four years prior to its discovery. This research is supported by operating grants from Successes put aside, the QN-Ia model does make bold the National Science and Engineering Research Council claims that if true could once again alter our perception of Canada (NSERC). N.K. would like to acknowledge of nature. It is therefore imperative that we either rule support from the Killam Trusts.

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