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Ecofeminism: The Path towards Healing the Earth Jamie Thompson Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences Abilene Christian University

The concept of the , or any concept in which one group dominates another, is inseparable from the formation of kind’s domination of nature. This domination of nature has led to the current the ecological crisis humanity faces. Those who deny climate change can admit to the massive amounts of pollution, trash, and deforestation. Despite this worsening economic crisis, those in power have been slow to react. Women can ultimately provide and lead the movement to solve this ecological crisis through the growing movement of Ecofeminism. In the philosophy of Ecofeminism, individuals recognize and reject western dualistic thinking that the earth, and all things physical, is separate from the divine.

Women have typically been movement, the dualistic thinking of the associated with the earth and this connection western world that Ecofeminism rejects has led to both the oppression of women and must be understood. Dualistic thinking the oppression of the earth. Through this involves the separation of nature and societal connection Ecofeminism has arisen. culture, of spirit and matter, and even of Ecofeminism seeks to emphasize the man and . Popular Christianity, the interconnectedness of all creation through dominant form of religion in the West, has caring for the earth as well as other contributed heavily to dualistic thinking. oppressed groups. Some threads of Pauline theory heavily influenced Christian Ecofeminism take this association further dualistic thought. Paul was influenced by and insist that women innately have a Gnostic thinking which clearly separates stronger connection to the earth than men good and bad, and associates bad with which is why they are the only people who matter and good with spirituality.1 For Paul, can lead the movement of earth healing. sin is equated with death and decay, and However, this is an unsupported and salvation is linked with eternal life. When damaging claim that is not accepted by most Christians are baptized, they transcend their Ecofeminists. Despite these criticisms, mortal bodies, subject to decay, and take on Ecofeminism has the potential to lead the an immortal spirit. In 1 Corinthians 15, Paul way in the healing of the earth and speaks of the duality of bodies. He states perpetrating a culture of sustainability. that have a lesser natural body Women from all over the world have “sown of dishonor” and a spiritual body already set a precedent of caring for the “raised in glory.”2 This type of dualistic earth. thinking, which has become the dominant form of thinking in the West, leads to the Historical Connection Between Women domination of men over women and the and Nature domination of humans over nature. For To first understand why example, Christians who are always focused Ecofeminism is a necessary and powerful on heaven have often ignored the

1 Ruether, Gaia and God, 1992. 2 New International Version

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Ecofeminism & Earth Healing degradation of the earth because the earth In addition, several religions represents the material realm, which is of throughout history have also heavily linked lesser importance than the spiritual realm3. women with nature and specifically with the Therefore, in order for the position of human act of creation. In many ancient near east over nature to end, the entire chain of being religions, the universe springs from the must be upended; this includes male over womb of a .8 In classical Greek , scholar over worker, humans over culture, the earth is controlled by the nature.4 This view of nature as evil (or not of goddess Gaia, and in Hindu religion the the sacred or divine) has led to the earth is a sacred mother deserving of justification of its domination and and reverence.9 Within the Christian exploitation. Wisdom tradition, Wisdom was brought The oppression of women and the forth from God before creation as a female exploitation of the earth is further connected counterpart to God and assisted in creation. because, historically, women and nature Wisdom is described in the book of have been tied together. Plato’s concept of Proverbs as well Song of Solomon as a the disembodied soul and ultimate creative force.10 Christianity goes further in enlightenment involving transcending the being a dominant force linking women with Earth and reaching the heavenly realms, nature, and linking women with the “fallen” involved women being incapable of this type aspect of the Earth, and therefore something of enlightenment. Plato outlines this in that can be dominated and exploited. Eve, if Timaeus stating that if man fails to achieve the creation story is to be taken at face enlightenment then he will return to Earth as value, is the mother of all humanity and is a woman and then beast.5 This lumps responsible for sin entering into the world women with nature, both incapable of and the fall of all creation. In addition, transcendence, and leaves women on Earth women as life givers, as the bearers of as enlightened men ascend to the heavens. children and active participants of the So, there is a clear societal link between creation of life and organic matter have tied women and nature and it becomes clear that them to nature. This does not mean that “we cannot criticize the hierarchy of male because women can bear children they over female without ultimately criticizing naturally have a closer relationship with and overcoming the hierarchy of humans nature, but historically the designation of over nature.”6 The destruction of the natural women as bearers and homemakers world is even talked about with phrases that has tied them closer to nature. In the same are normally associated with violence way that there is a link between oppression against women, for example, the rape of the of women and the exploitation earth, there is earth.7 The domination of the earth, justified also a link between emancipation of women because the earth is part of the material and the restoration of the earth.11 In order world, which is lesser than the spiritual for the destruction of the earth to end world, becomes linked with the domination oppression of marginalized groups must also of women as they are more closely related to come to an end. this material world than men.

3 Dwivedi and Reid, 2007. 8 op. cit. Ref. 4 4 Ruether, and God Talk, 1983. 9 op. cit. Ref. 2. 5 Ibid. 10 op. cit. Ref. 4. 6 Ibid, pg. 73. 11 op. cit. Ref. 2. 7 Maria, Shiva, and Salleh, 2014.

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Tenets of Ecofeminism the earth, hurts marginalized members of It is clear that there is at least a society the most, in particular women and societal link between women and nature, children. The society that rose up to and because of this link, women have begun dominate world politics, economics, and for to recognize the link between the oppression a significant time, the world’s land itself, of women and the oppression of the earth. was the capitalist, patriarchal, west. It is this The culmination of these thoughts being the society that is responsible for the destruction rise of Ecofeminism. The term Ecofeminism of the natural world. However, it is not the is a term coined only recently. It was created society responsible that will feel the brunt of to refer to the numerous protests that were the devastating effects of this destruction. led by women that arose in the 1980’s that The effects of this destruction will be felt by protested ecological degradation. One of the the least powerful and the most vulnerable main tenets of Ecofeminism is the individuals in the world. These effects will acknowledgement of interconnectedness of be felt by women and children dying in war all life. This idea asserts what humans do torn Syria, by children dying of starvation impacts nature and everything that goes on on Madagascar because of a prolonged in nature affects humans. Humans rely on drought, and by native peoples whose water Earth for survival. As humankind has not yet is polluted by oil pipelines. Those most ill- found a way to live permanently outside of equipped to deal with the effects of climate the confines of this planet, humans therefore change and environmental destruction are in rely completely on the earth and its products developing countries and belong to for survival. On a more microscale humans marginalized groups This is because those cannot function properly without the individuals do not have the infrastructure, bacteria living on our digestive tract, and as safety precautions, health care, access to Ruth Rutherford says in her book Sexism clean water, or food security which would and God Talk “The plant can happily carry help alleviate the problems with climate its processes of photosynthesis without change and environmental degradation.14 human being, but we cannot exist without The upper class, in particular the capitalistic the photosynthesis of plants.”12 Ecofeminists west, has the power and resources to delay fully accept their reliance on the natural or avoid the effects of climate change, at world and hold a certain high level of least for a limited amount of time. respect for nature because of it. This is a Because climate change affects the hard concept to grasp, especially for lost marginalized of society it Christian Westerners, who are fully disproportionally affects women and entrenched in the idea of humanity's children of these groups more than men. For uniqueness. However, Ecofeminists realize example, this can be seen in casualties in that even when one species goes extinct the severe weather events. The frequency of whole integrity of the system is weakened.13 Environmental disasters and severe weather So it is the duty of women, and of humanity events is increasing due to climate change, as a whole to assist in the healing of the and these disasters impact women and earth because of this interconnectedness and children more than men. In the flood and the dependence humans have on nature. cyclone that hit in 1991 90 Another main tenet of Ecofeminism percent of the deaths were women. In 2004 is that climate change, and the destruction of when a tsunami hit Sumatra 75 percent of

12 op. cit. Ref 4, Pg. 87. 14 Gaard, 2015, pg. 23. 13 op. cit. Ref 1.

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Ecofeminism & Earth Healing those who died were women and in May of common connections of oppressed groups, 2008 when a cyclone hit Myanmar 60 Ecofeminism has arisen. One of the percent of the casualties were women. Even arguments against Ecofeminism is that it during Hurricane Katrina, women, in involves biological determinism, and that particular black women, were more severely ecofeminists assert that women are impacted than men.15 In countries hit by biologically determined to have a closer drought or lack of clean water, it is women relationship with nature. This is an idea that who spend hours each day collecting clean is held by some extreme ecofeminist, and water. In areas hit by famine, it is women cursory readings of some mainstream who first go without food so that children ecofeminist works can lead to this and working men can eat.16 Industrialization misconception.18 However, it is essential and capitalism has contributed to that this movement does not become closed environmental degradation and climate off to male input or refuse to acknowledge change. But those responsible for these the validity of male connection with nature. problems are not the ones that will feel its It would be a mistake to claim that only pressure as they can more easily adapt and women can experience a deep connection deal with the problems that arise. with nature and then to say that for this reason women are the only group capable of Criticism of Ecofeminism leading an environmental restoration To emphasize this link between movement. This falls into the mistaken way women and nature, many Ecofeminists point of thinking that women possess traits of to the term and the empathy, nurturing, and tenderness that men development of the term. Many also do not have and that men possess traits of exclusively use this term when talking about strength and boldness that women do not nature. In fact, the book Ecofeminist, which have. This is of course incorrect and not is a standard text in Ecofeminist theory, supported by research.19 These are not refers to the earth using only feminine masculine or feminine traits, they are simply pronouns.17 The development of the term human traits. certainly points to the link that society has Ecofeminism emphasizes the made between Women and nature. interconnectedness of the earth. If they hold However, the insistence on using the term to this idea that the entire earth is Mother Earth when referring to nature, and interconnected and dependent on each other, talking about nature in gendered terms is then it follows that men are an important damaging. When we us only masculine part of the system. It is important that men terms when speaking of God, we make it recognize their role in the creation and seem as if only men can relate to God. Using participation in the destructive patriarchal only female terms to talk about nature society. However, it is equally important relates only women to nature when in that they are active participants and actuality men and women are equally related contributors in searching for a solution to to nature. the current ecological crisis.20 Society has Women have a deeply entrenched associated women with nature and many connection with nature, and from this women identify with this link. This is of association with nature, and through the course not to say that men cannot feel a link

15 Ibid. 18 Shiva, 1997. 16 Ibid. 19 Ley, 2012. 17 op. cit. Ref. 7. 20 op. cit. Ref. 1.

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Ecofeminism & Earth Healing with nature, the first to study the natural was that of ecological justice. In fact, one of world were in fact men. It should also be the official unifying principles of the noted that some of the first people to Women’s March movement is champion for conservation and preservation Environmental Justice. On their website, of the wilderness in the were they state “We believe that our environment in fact, upper class, men.21 A better and our climate must be protected, and that argument to make is that women did not our land and natural resources cannot be study the natural world first because they exploited for corporate gain or greed - did not have the opportunity of the privilege especially at the risk of public safety and to be able to. health.” This shows that feminist movements recognize and fight for the needs World Changing Power of Women of the environment and see the link between People in power tend not to want to the rights of women and the rights of the give up that power, whether consciously or earth. Furthermore, the March for Science, subconsciously. Men, particularly straight which will take place on April 22, 2017, was white men, are the demographic currently in made in the spirit of and modeled after the power. While they do have their own merits Women’s March. and personhood, and will certainly be vital In addition to the power of the allies in the process of healing the earth, Women’s March, there is already a they do not represent the most likely catalyst substantial historical precedent for women for change. In most cases of social championing the environment as well as the revolution or change, the movements were disenfranchised simultaneously. Many started by the oppressed. The Civil Rights consider Rachel Carson, author of Silent Movement in the United States, the Russian Spring, to be single handedly responsible for Revolution, even Christianity was begun by the modern environmental movement.23 In people on the margins of society, not those her book Silent Spring, Rachel Carson in power.22 It certainly takes either the new recognized the interconnectedness of nature power or cooperation with the powers that and humanity, that humanity was not be to create real change, those in power are separate from, but an integral part of, not the ones that start revolutions. This is creation. She recognized that harmful why marginalized women represent a chemicals, most notably DDT, literally powerful force for change and are more designed to harm certain parts of the likely to be the catalyst for the process of environment, had negative effects on the healing the earth. entire ecological system, even humans. Her Furthermore, women have already for the environment and desire to help demonstrated significant power to change was fostered by her mother. In addition, thoughts and the world. Many movements Carson had many women that helped to which champion the earth and fight against build and continue her legacy of ecological destruction are women. Recently environmental consciousness. After on January 21st 2017, over a million people Carson’s death in 1964, one of Carson’s in the United States, and over 5 million closest friends, Shirley Briggs continued to people worldwide participated in the write about the dangers of pesticides as well Women’s March which protested injustices as founded the Rachel Carson Council.24 of all kinds. One prominent point of protest

21 Mann, 2011. 23 Musil, 2014 22 Op. Cit. Ref. 12. 24 Ibid.

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However, this is not a movement that earth and to list them all is beyond the scope involves only middle class white women of of this paper. These examples show the the West, but involves women from various potential of women to provide the solution different countries and social classes. In to our current ecological crisis. The in the 1970s villagers in several small mistreatment of women is deeply tied to the villages in the Himalayas had been fighting degradation of nature. The devaluing of both against the government which was women and nature is due in part to western attempting to cut down parts of the forest. In dualism which holds the spiritual as higher 1974 most of the men had left the villages to than the material. This leads to the go collect compensation from the disputes. justification of human domination over the When the lumber companies moved to take environment. Furthermore, nature has advantage of the presence of only women, historically been more closely related with children, and the elderly, 30 women woman than with men. This has led women marched into the forest and protected trees to develop a deep with nature, but it marked for felling by hugging them.25 In has also led men to relate women to the Kenya in the late 1970s, Wangari Maathai lesser spiritual realm and therefore justify started the Green Belt Movement. This was domination of women. Some Ecofeminist a grassroots environmentalist effort that have taken the kinship that they feel with sprung up as a way of helping rural women nature a step further and asserted that have access to the things that they needed women are naturally more connected to like firewood, clean water, and balanced nature than men. This is a mistake, as men diets. Members of the Green Belt Movement are an important ally to the ecofeminist worked to established public greenbelts for cause. Through the domination of both growing food, plots for growing firewood, women, nature, and all marginalized groups, and fighting against soil erosion. In 2004 the ideology of Ecofeminism has arisen. Maathai became the first African American This ideology emphasizes the woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, partly interconnectedness of all life as well as because of her efforts with the Green Belt emphasizes justice for all marginalized Movement.26 groups. Women, with the help of Ecofeminism, have the potential to lead Conclusion changes in thought that can help heal the These are just a few examples of the earth and bring justice to all people at the female leaders of the efforts to healing the same time.

Literature Cited Dwivedi, O.P. & Reid, L. (2007). Women and the sacred earth: Hindu and Christian ecofeminist perspectives. Worldviews, 11, 305-323. Gaard, G. (2015). Ecofeminism and climate change. Women’s Studies International Forum, 4920-33. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2015.02.004 Ley, R. (2012). Ecofeminism and nature-religion. Journal of Theta Alpha Kappa, 36(1), 53-73. Mann, S.A. (2011). Pioneers of U.S. ecofeminism and environmental justice. Feminist Formations, 23(2), 1-25. Miles, M. Salleh, A. & Shiva V. (2014). Ecofeminism. London: Zed Books. Musil, R. K. (2014) Rachel Carson and Her : Extraordinary Women who have shaped America’s Environment. New Brunswick, Jersey: Rutgers University Press.

25 op. cit. Ref. 2. 26 Muthuki, 2006.

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Muthuki, J. (2006). Challenging patriarchal structures: Wangari Maathai and the green belt movement in Kenya. Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, 69, 82-91. Ruether, R. R. (1992). Gaia & God: an Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing. New York: HarperCollins. Ruether, R. R. (1983). Sexism and God Talk: Toward A . Boston: Beacon Press. Shiva, V. (1997). Feminist ecology is the answer. Herizons, 11(4), 16.

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