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Home , Ecofeminism, Environmental ethics, Feminist theory, Mother, Val Plumwood

A Critique of

by Anne Archambault

Une discussion du concept nonhuman " (64). Some d'kofkminisme estprhentk dam cet ecofeministshave argued that women article, plus prkciskment d'une are in a better position than men to tendance rf associer les femmes et la relate with nature, that they are in fact nature comme base de l'action closer to nature and hence can derive environnementale.L 'auteure conclut some unique insight from this bond. cependant, qu 'unefois cette dificultk This ecofeminist discussion takes surmontke, l'kcofkminisme est un two forms (66).l Proponents of the mouvement prometteur. "body-based argument" claim that women, through their unique bodily Since Francoise d'Eaubonne first experiences-, menstrua- coined the term eco-feminisme in tion, , birth, and 1974, a growing number of feminists breast-feeding-are closer to and can and environmentalistshave been con- more readily connect with nature. cerned with the links between the The " argument" is based domination of women and the domi- on the belief that women's separate nation of nature in Western . social reality, resulting from a sexual Although the concept of ecofeminism division of labour and associated has come to mean quite different oppression, has led women to de- things to different ecofeminists, velop a special insight and connec- Karen Warren suggests that it is at tion with nature. In either case, least based on the following claims: ecofeminists typically derive an eth- (i) there are important connections ics based on historically undervalued between the oppression of women feminine values of "care, , friend- and the oppression of nature; (ii) un- Tamara Thiebaux, Earth Posing, 1989 ship, , and appropriate reciproc- derstanding the nature of these con- Watercolour, 4 X 3" ity" (Warren, 1990: 141) that ismeant nections is necessary to any adequate to overcome all forms of domination. understanding of the oppression of women and the oppression of nature; (iii) and Relying on women's bodily experiences practice must include an ecological perspective ;and (iv) solu- tions to ecological problems must include a feminist perspective While it is hard to deny that and male bodily experi- (1987, 4-5). Ecofeminism is thus more than a complement to ences differ in many ways, one must be careful before giving either or environmental thought; "ecofeminism locates support to the "body-based" argument that specifically female itself as a theory and movement which bridges the gap between bodily experiences actually confer on women superior (as op- feminism and , but which transforms both to create a posed to different) insight into our relationship with nature. As unified praxis to end all forms of domination" (Sandilands, 3). Catherine Roach points out, Ecofeminists recognize that the association between women and nature has historically been used to exploit them, but they although men do not menstruate, bear children, or breast- choose to embrace this connection as a source of empowerment feed, they do share all other biological processes and as the basis for their critique of the patriarchal oppression of (eating, sleeping, eliminating wastes, getting sick, dying), women and nature. As Robyn Eckersley points out, "[tlhis is an and in addition, in their ejaculation of semen they have explicitly ecofeminist project because it exposes and celebrates experience of a tangible stuff of the reproduction of life (52). what has traditionally been regarded as Other--both and

VOLUME 13, NUMBER 3 19 The claim that women are biologically closer to nature reinforces the patriarchal of domination and limits ecofeminism's effectiveness.

Furthermore, if child-bearing or breast- However, Robyn Eckersley cautions She identifies several forms which the feeding is what attunes women to nature, ecofeminists to be wary of "over-identi- feminization of the character can are women who do not experience these fying with, and hence accepting take: it can be affirmed as a complement biological processes any less connected uncritically, the perspective of women." (rather than as a rival) to the masculine to nature? Robyn Eckersley suggests that She points out three ways in which model; it can be based on a reversal of "[tlo the extent that bodily experiences overprivilegingwomen's experiences can traits under-valued in the masculinizing may differ between men andwomen, there "inhibit the general emancipatory proc- model; it can be presented as an actual is no reason why either should be socially ess." First, such an analysis can overlook rival to the masculine model of the hu- elevated as superior to the other" (66). It the extent to which many women have man; or, it can be based on the celebration is questionable whether women's "body been accessories in the process of eco- of women's differences from the mascu- parables" are any more "natural" than logical destruction in the past. Second, it line character ideal. men's. Reducing men's status tootherness can fail to identify the different ways in The feminization of the female charac- because they cannot actively participate which men themselves have suffered from ter ideal revolves around the concept of in the body-consciousness that provides "masculine" . Third, it can be the female ideal. One must first determine women with a more acute awareness of less responsive to the impact of other what the characteristics of the archetypal nature effectively reverses the hierarchi- social dynamics and that are feminine ideal might be. How can such cal dualism which many ecofeminists unrelated to the question of . Ulti- traits be identified? Are these traits the (paradoxically) claim to want to over- mately, she feels that while "rendering ones that actual women really have or the come (Zimmerman). visible and critically incorporating" wom- ones that are traditionally associated with Biological conditions are experienced en's experiences is commendable, over- women? differently by different , and privileging their experiencescan only lead Andrew Dobson raises the following bodily experiences are themselves condi- to a "lopsided and reductionist analysis of dilemma: "we could know what a repre- tioned by culture. Lynne Segal points out social and ecological problems" (67). sentative sample of 'female' womenwould that one should be "a little more than look like only if we already had some idea sceptical of an over-emphasis on the sig- The feminine ideal of what female traits were, but then the nificance of 'female ' where the traits would be announced a priori, as it woman's body is seen entirely in terms of Whether women have developed a spe- were, rather than deduced through obser- sex and reproduction." This is a reflection cial connection with nature through their vation" (195). Furthermore, a number of of the power that exercises specific biology or through their histori- women exhibit what might be regarded as over women's experiences of their own cal oppression, ecofeministsseem to agree "masculine" traits while a number of men bodies (9). that female traits such as caring and nur- exhibit what might be considered "fe- turing should be part of an ecofeminist male" characteristics. How can generali- Over-privileging women's experi- environmentalethics. sug- zations be made in such a context? Does ences gests that: adopting the feminine character ideal in- clude both positive and negative traits Because women have historically been perhaps the most obvious way to in- currently associated with women? Patri- less implicated than men in the process of terpret the ecofeminist argument is as archy has produced both some "desir- environmental degradation, they "occupy one which replaces the masculine able" and some "undesirable" character avantage point of 'critical otherness' from model of the human character by a traits in women. Would the feminine ideal which they can offer a different way of new feminine model. That is, if the come as a package deal and include a trait looking at the problems both of patriarchy masculinizing strategy rejected the such as subservience-which is consid- and ecological destruction" as do other feminine character ideal and affirmed ered by many to be a negative character- groups such as indigenous people and a masculine one for both sexes, this istic associated with women-for in- other ethnic minorities (Eckersley, 67). feminizing strategy rejects the mas- stance? Otherwise, how does one differ- This lends support to the "oppression ar- culine character ideal and affirms a entiate between positive and negative gument." feminine one for both sexes (20). traits? And, given that both women's and

20 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME men's traits have been developed under and lived by everyone, then a general herself for instance). Ecofeminists, hence, patriarchy, why should either set of traits improvement in both the human and cannot speak of "caring" without specify- be considered more valuable? the non-human condition will result. ing the object and purpose of the caring. Ultimately, Val Plumwood concludes: If they are not taken up, then women Janet Biehl, for her part, argues that will have 'sacrificed themselves to even the most 'caring' people cannot ex- [tlhe genuinely feminine is either the environment,' and this is a price tend their care to all other human beings. unknowable or as yet unknown, to be some feminists are clearly not pre- They certainly cannot extend their care- brought into existence.. .[S]ince it pared to pay (202). the way a mother would care for her cannot be actual existing women children or relativeet0 everyone in the whose character forms the basis for Janet Biehl finds the implications of an world. She states: "[als an emotion, 'car- the ideal, this position sets off a search based on biological attributes such ing' cannot be universalized as the basis for some sort of feminine essence as caring or nurturing to be devastating for for social organization outside one's own which eludes expression in present women. small group, whether based or societies, but appears as an unrealised not. Nor can the kind of caring that a potential, so much unrealized that it For ecofeminists, women's caring and mother (or ) feels for a child be is, in some versions, almost essen- nurturing have presumably been so universalized" (148). For Biehl, to care tially inexpressible (21). long-lived and so extensive, and their for everyone simply trivializes the con- 'association with nature' so cept of caring, rendering it "meaningless" To the extent that specifically female traits longstanding that their own 'nature' and "unfocused." cannot be identified and to the extent that is ostensibly sufficiently permanent She further contends that "an ethic of women are connected to nature conceptu- to be constituted as a ground for eth- motherly care.. .does not by itself pose a ally only, ecofeminists will have to re- ics (25). threat to hierarchy and domination" in think their concept of ecofeminist ethics any event (144). She feels that the notion based on women's special insight into, An ethics based on such an immutable of caring is not necessarily anti-hierarchi- and caring for, nature. female 'nature' is constricting because it cal and may not necessarily promote demo- does not leave room for evolution, "con- cratic practices. Individuals may not care Implications of ecofeminist ethics for sciousness, reason and freedom" for enough; may stop caring; or may only women women (26). Women are thus confined to care for a certain group of individuals. their nurturing role and have no hope of Caring is by nature particular and limited. Christine Cuomo suggests that: transcending it. Ultimately, this kind of ethics rests on the If we believe that women are connected will of individuals to exercise 'car- [i]f it is true that have been withnature and possess the character traits ing.' In Biehl's opinion, caring then be- socialized certain ways in order to necessary for preserving the environment, comes whimsical, subject to prejudices maintain an oppressive system, then then it follows that they are most qualified and can hardly provide a solid foundation it is also true that aspects of this to save the Earth. Men cannot be expected for emancipatory political life. socialization must be thoroughly ex- to participate in this restoration project amined and recontextualized before since they presumably lack the sensitivity Conclusion they can be reclaimed and consider to nature that women have. Women will useful (354). therefore simply end up in charge of clean- In spite of the weaknesses of ecofeminism, ing up the global mess-fulfilling their it still remains one of the most promising Not surprisingly, the most common criti- traditional role as nurturing . In movements within radical environmental cism of ecofeminism is that the claim that the end, the implications of ecofeminist thought. I feel ecofeminism has the ca- women are essentially or biologically ethics hardly appear to be emancipatory pacity to transcend its difficulties: the closer to nature is regressive, that it re- for women. reliance on women's biological functions enforces the patriarchal ideology of domi- to establish a connection between women nation and limits ecofeminism's own ef- The effectiveness of an ethic of care and nature, the uncritical overprivileging fectiveness. As a result, it merely perpetu- of women's experiences, the inappropri- ates the notion that biology determines Although, as Christine Cuomo points ateness of designating ideal female char- the social inequalities between men and out, "caring promotes health and stability acteristics, and the regressive political women. The view that 'biology is des- of the community, creates and strength- implications of associating women with tiny' has been actively contested by femi- ens friendships, and is necessary for the nature. The final concern, that an ethic of nists for the past twenty years. Andrew health and livelihood of dependent indi- care may not fulfil1the task of emancipat- Dobson states: viduals," such caring is not "always mor- ing both and nature, is the most ally good" (354). Cuomo believes that problematic. Although such an ethic of [elcofeminism proposes a dangerous caring can also be "neutral" (as in the case care certainly represents an improvement strategy-to use ideas that have al- of caring for the outcome of some sport over the current situation, can it be relied ready been turned against women in event) or "morally damaging" (when the on as the sole (or even main) source of the belief that, if they are taken up moral agent neglects responsibilities to ethical guidelines to foster global emanci-

VOLUME 13, NUMBER 3 pation? It remains for ecofeminists and other environmental thinkers to clarify what the new ethics will be.

Anne Archambault is finishing her Mas- ter ofEnvironmenta1Studies at York Uni- WOMEN'S ACTION versity. l1t should be noted that some authors refuse either of the following interpreta- Code of and Accountability tions. For instance, Catherine Roach finds the question "Are women closer to Na- ture?" misleading. First, she claims that Recognizing the current moral and ethical double standards that are "[iln no way can anyone or anything be applied to environment and development activities, women's participa- 'closer to nature' than any other being or tion and social throughout the world, thing because, through the inextricable Recognizing that, in contrast, the women's global environmental model implication of all in an environmental is cooperative rather than competitive, values women's roles, work, and web of interconnection, all is already and participation,andacknowledges the responsibility that accompanies power equally 'natural,' that is, part of nature." and is owed to future generations, Furthermore, she believes, such a ques- Believing that a universal code of ethics and international law should be tion assumes and perpetuates the nature1 based on equity, respect for humans and other species, and biologic and culture dualism (53). cultural diversity, Distressed that policy planners and political representatives use barren References instruments (systems of national accounts) on which to make all major economic and environmental decisions, Biehl, Janet. RethinkingEcofemhistPoli- Insisting that national boundaries should not impede the development of tics. Boston: South End Press, 1991. global concepts of the environment and responsibility on a global level, Cuomo, Christine J. "Unravelling the We will work for of an International Code of Environmental Problems in Ecofeminism." Environ- Conduct by business and industry, governments, U.N. agencies, and non- mental Ethics 14 (1992): 351-363. governmental organizations that includes precautionary and preventative Dobson, Andrew. Green Political approaches, considering the true of the environment and the effect Thought.London: Harper Collins, 1990. on women when planning activities that may affect the Earth, Eckersley, Robyn. and We support new of international , includ- Political Theory: TowardanEcocentric ing: strict liability for environmental harms (the polluter pays), the Approach. Albany, NY: State Univer- intrinsic value of , and non-adversarial dispute resolution sity of Press, 1992. mechanisms to include the public in decision-making about compensation Plumwood, Val. "Women, Humanity and for victims. Nature." RadicalPhilosophy 48 (Spring We call for non-governmental monitoring systems that will hold insti- 1988): 16-24. tutions, corporations, states, organizations, and individuals accountable Roach, Catherine. "Loving Your Mother: for their actions, products, and policies. On the Woman-Nature Relation." We demand time-use studies of women's work (, cottage . 6 (1991): 46-57. industries, subsistence agriculture, child care, elder care, volunteer com- Sandilands, Kate. "Ecofeminist and Its munity service). Discontent: Notes Toward a Politic of We demand that qualitative indicators be used for environmental and Diversity." The Trumpeter 8 (2) (1991): natural resource measurements. 90%. We urge governments to agree to a timetable for implementation of full Warren, Karen. "The Power and the Prom- cost accounting that includes environmental and social costs-and assigns ise of Ecological Feminism." Environ- full value to women's labor-in national accounting systems and in mental Ethics. 12(1990): 125-146. calculation of subsidies and incentives in international trade. "Feminism and Ecology: Making We require governments, the World Bank, International Monetary Connections." Environmental Ethics 9 Fund, and lending agencies to establish environmental audits with which (1987): 3-20. every funding proposal must comply before implementation of loans. Zimmerman, Michael E. "Feminism, , and Environmental Ethics." Excerptedfrom Women's Action Agenda 21. Environmental Ethics 9 (1987): 22-44.

CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIESILES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME