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FOR REFERENCE ONLY Alison J. G. Brookes University of Wales College, Newport Ph.D. Thesis Volume 2

'The Visible Dead: A New Approach

to the Study of Late Iron Age Mortuary

Practice in South-Eastern Britain 9 Chapter 5

Objects in Action

5.1 Introduction

This chapter considers the typology, quantity and chronology of objects incorporated in the late Iron Age mortuary rites. The material included in the mortuary repertoire through a sequence of ritual acts comprises objects deposited as grave goods, offerings burnt on the funeral pyre and material incorporated through mortuary- related activity. Furthermore, the associated artefacts operate on a number of different levels; they have functional, symbolic and technological value. It is important to consider that the function and meaning of an object is subject to change and no object should be perceived as having a fixed or rigid identity. This is particularly so in mortuary contexts because death is imbued with so much meaning and represents not only the deceased but also the actions of the living.

The main themes examined in the chapter are:

What types of artefact are included and which are absent from the deposits?

Objects appear to be incorporated into the mortuary sequence at different stages

and in a variety of features: on the funeral pyre, as intact grave goods, or as

deliberately broken or fragmentary deposits.

It is argued that the objects included in the mortuary repertoire have a range of

functions and/or values: symbolic, artistic, economic, and prestigious.

The production techniques and processes are examined.

206 The notion that the objects deposited are clearly linked to the wider process of

transformation and liminality in death are considered.

In the past studies concentrated on the identification of cemeteries and the content of individual burials; on the elements which are easily detectable and highly visible in the archaeological record. However, it is not the purpose of this study to conduct an exhaustive analysis of each and every artefact. Instead the material will be divided into a number of groups based on type of object and burial rite to establish some basic patterns. There are five main categories of object, which are frequently deposited as gave goods:

Vessels for the dead: amphorae, silver, bronze and glass vessels, and a host of

pottery (Fig.5.1). Specific types of pottery seem to be regularly included in late

Iron Age mortuary contexts including pedestal urns, tazzae, bowls, flagons,

platters and cups. Furthermore, ceramic, metal and glass vessels are on occasion

deposited in pairs or in sets.

Personal hygiene and grooming: toilet instruments, razors, shears, mirrors,

cosmetic sets, surgical kits, glass phials and bottles.

Personal objects and adornment: brooches, rings, beads/necklaces, belts, buckles,

bracelets, and bone toggles. All of these objects are associated with clothing, dress

and appearance and brooches in particular are useful for dating purposes (Stead

1976; Haselgrove 1997; Jundi & Hill 1998).

207 Fig. 5.1 Samian, amphorae and fine wares are all types of ceramic vessel found associated with the cremation burials (Niblett 1999, Fig.63)

208 Furniture and fittings: boxes/litters, couches/stools, screens/covers,

metal/bone/ivory furniture fittings, handles, studs/rivets/pins/nails/, figurines,

hearth furniture, keys/lock plates/latchlifters, and lamps.

Leisure and warfare: gaming counters, gaming boards, dice, musical instruments,

swords, spears, shields, headresses, chain mail/buckles/studs, belthooks/suspension

rings.

The burials vary considerably and are characterised by a range of grave forms comprising shallow circular pits to large rectangular cuts including mortuary shafts.

The majority appear to have been grouped in small cemeteries with short chronologies and moderate to poor assemblages dominated by ceramics and brooches. Four main categorise of cremation burial and mortuary structures are distributed across south­ east England:

The most common being calcined human remains accompanied by between one

and five pots derived from a restricted range of pedestal urns, jars, or beakers and

metal brooches (Haselgrove 1984).

A second band is distinguished by comprising a modest range of objects including

toilet instruments, bronze vessels, wooden and metal bound buckets, decorated

mirrors (Fig.5.2) and a range of personal objects (ibid.).

A third group of burials referred to as 'Welwyn-type' (Stead 1967) are

characterised as cremations placed in large, usually rectangular grave-pits

containing a wide range of largely intact grave goods including at least one

amphora, a quantity of pottery, and imported metal or glass vessels.

209 Fig.5.2 The Colchester Mirror (After Fox & Hull 1948, Fig.2)

210 The final group classified as the 'Folly Lane Rite' are characterised by mortuary-

related shafts or chambers associated with a range of unusual objects which have

been deliberately broken and only a token amount deposited (Niblett 1999,394).

An interesting range of objects is incorporated into the mortuary repertoire dominated by ceramic vessels and brooches, while others are absent or occur in limited numbers.

The research noted that objects are often duplicated in graves, with some artefacts occurring in matching pairs, particularly pottery vessels and brooches. The most frequently encountered objects are ceramic vessels which cover the complete spectrum of forms available - fine tablewares, imports and local copies. They are associated with eating and drinking rather than food preparation which is significant in terms of feasting and ostentatious display. There are also frequent occurrences of objects which are connected to the collective consumption of alcohol and beverages - wooden and metal bound buckets, bronze strainer vessels, silver cups, bronze bowls and amphorae. Toilet instruments nail-cleaners, ear-scoops, and tweezers - mirrors, razors and shears are also found in association with one another and are clearly associated with dress and appearance and possibly the preparation of the body in mortuary rituals. Gold and silver appear to be rare inclusions with only twenty instances: silver brooches (11), silver vessels (3), silver bracelet (1), silver furniture and decorative fittings (2), silver tweezers (1), gold tore (1), and gold thread (1). A whole range of organic material including wood, leather, textile, straw (matting and basketry), foodstuffs and liquids were probably associated with many of the graves but survival is extremely rare. It is evident that many objects were burnt on the funeral pyre being occasionally incorporated in a fragmentary condition along with the cremated remains (see chapter 4). There are very few objects representative of

211 production processes such as tools and weaving equipment. However, there are nine graves with small iron discs (probably cutting instruments) which may have been used in leather or textile production (Table 5.1). Weapons are largely absent from the cremation burials, although there are a number of inhumations burials which are accompanied by a host of weaponry items (swords, scabbards, spears, and shields).

Coins are another rarity, this is particularly intriguing in view of their deposition on temple and votive sites. In addition there are a small number of miscellaneous, rare

and unusual objects which include horse-gear, gang-chains, needles, spoons, and inkpots.

Table 5.1: List of iron disc objects recovered from cremation burials

Site Grave Artefact Description Biddenham Loop 357 Iron cutting disc and a copper alloy strip Bedfordshire Stotfold, Bedfordshire G1204 Iron disc and copper alloy fragments Hinxton, Cambridgeshire 2 2 Iron discs: 45 nun in diameter possibly with a central perforation filled with an iron attachment; iron disc 32 by 35 mm with a central perforation (1 5mm in diameter) through which a chain may have passed Maldon Hall Farm, Essex 3 Iron disc c. 88 mm in diameter with central perforation, apparently soldered to a copper alloy rod/tube Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire 1 Iron disc c. 80 mm in diameter King Harry Lane, 325 Iron disc 77mm in diameter with central circular perforation Hertfordshire (1 1mm in diameter) Verulam Hills Field, 4 Iron disc 80 mm in diameter with a central nodule which had traces Hertfordshire of a coarse woven textile on its surface St. Lawrence, Isle of Wight 1 Iron disc c. 81 mm in diameter with a central perforation filled with an iron attachment Alkham, Kent 3 Iron disc with central perforation.

There are numerous possible reasons why objects were deemed necessary inclusions in burial deposits: perhaps they served to equip the dead for the next world, they may have been selected to represent the individual's occupation or social position; or they may simply represent gifts from the assembled mourners. Their deposition might also vary according to political and ideological currents in society and this could be particularly significant in the period this study embraces with the increasing influence

212 of the Roman world. It is obvious that the objects were carefully selected; they may have been specifically made or may have been possessions or heirlooms. It must also be remembered that the decisions are taken by the living, the dead do not bury

themselves and the deposits demonstrate the mourners representation of the deceased

(Parker Pearson 1993,203). Recent studies have shown that changes in dress and

appearance, cuisine, building forms, and the organisation of domestic space are

central to understanding this period. During the first centuries BC and AD not only

did the range and type of artefacts change but also the ways in which they became

incorporated into the archaeological record (Hill 1995; 1997). Evidence of human

cremations and inhumations become evident in the archaeological record providing an

opportunity not only to examine the treatment of the dead but cosmological, political,

and ideological structures at this time.

In the past archaeologists have tended to draw clear distinctions between practical and

ritual activity which could be recognised in the archaeological record through the

identification of 'structured deposition' relating to artefacts and material culture

(Richards & Thomas 1984). However, most day-to-day activities that may be

recognised in the archaeological record can be described as structured. Furthermore,

the division of the ritual and the secular is not supported by anthropological studies

which suggest that ritual and non-ritual practices form part of a continuum of activity

that is difficult to distinguish between (Barrett 1991; 1994; Hill 1995; Briick 1995,

1999). In particular, technological and production processes have been seen as

relatively unproblematic but it is important to consider the role of the

metalworker/smith/potter in Iron Age society. The production processes involved in the manufacture of many of the objects should not be seen as mundane but firmly

213 embedded within social contexts (Barber 2001). It is important to consider the skill,

creative design and expertise, not to mention access to raw materials, required to produce such objects. Their production would have embodied notions of ritual

knowledge not just craft knowledge and craftpersons would certainly have been

highly regarded in Iron Age society (Aldhouse-Green 2002,15-16; Creighton 1995,

2000; Ehrenreich 1994, 16-18; Hingley 1997). The ability to manipulate raw metal

into magnificent decorative pieces using the powerful and transforming process of fire

would have been imbued with magical even fearful properties. The objects serve to

portray an important set of images including conspicuous display, economic wealth

and political power. The elaborate design techniques employed in the manufacture of

some of the metalwork pieces including the Battersea shield, the Stanwick and Polden

Hill collections, as well as the Birdlip and Desborough mirrors suggests that they

were probably made for flamboyant display or as ceremonial pieces. It is suggested

that the objects, the processes involved in their manufacture and their distribution

symbolise alliances between different groups of people integral to a complex social

network.

5.2 Feasting and Cuisine

Ceramic vessels are the single most common artefact deposited as grave goods and

incorporated into a variety of mortuary related features including pyres, pits and

ditches. They are recovered as complete vessels or fragmentary sherds, in a variety of forms including imports, fine tablewares and locally manufactured pieces. Specific types of vessel seem to be regularly included comprising pedestal jars, bowls, cups, platters, beakers and flagons. The repertoire of deposited pottery forms appears to change from 50BC onwards from a limited range of communal serving forms (jars

214 and bowls) to a wider set of vessels including imports and local copies culminating in

individual 'dinning sets'. Gaulish imports begin to make an appearance c. 15BC

consisting of high quality table wares - drinking cups, platters, butt beakers and

flagons with one or two handles - all in fabrics with especially colourful and

decorative finishes in contrast with contemporary local products. In the years

immediately prior to the introduction of these imports local potters began to

experiment and produced new forms closely modelled on the imports which were

made in grog-tempered fabrics (Thompson 1982; Stead & Rigby 1989).

The pottery assemblage from the Westhampnett cemetery, West Sussex comprised

only two basic forms of vessel, the jar and the bowl and imported types were

completely absent. A total of 251 complete and partial vessels were recorded from

150 of the 161 excavated graves. The assemblage is extremely important since it

represents the largest known collection of pottery connected to a late Iron Age

cemetery dating to the early first century BC in southern England (Mepham 1997,

114-138) (Table 5.2). At Hinxton, Cambridgeshire a minimum of nineteen vessels

from eight cremation burials consists of a similar assemblage dominated by grog-

tempered fabrics restricted to bowls, jars, and tazzae. Together the pottery and

brooches from the cemetery suggests that the cremation burials date to before c.

15/lBC and the earliest to c. 50BC representing another early example of the rite (Hill

et al 1999, 257-62). At Salford, Bedfordshire a minimum of eight grog-tempered pottery vessels were recorded from four cremation burials (Dawson forthcoming) and again the forms were restricted to jars and bowls while Gallo-Belgic wares and copies were absent, reinforcing the comparisons made above with the earliest burials of the cremation tradition. Similar, although much smaller repertoires attributed to the mid

215 first century BC are known from Shillington, Bedfordshire (J.D. Hill pers. comm.);

Aston, Hertfordshire (Rook 1982, 23); Chilham Castle, Kent (Parfitt 1998, 348);

Alkham, Kent (J.D. Hill pers. comm.); and Maldon Hall Farm, Essex (Lavender 1991,

205-8).

Table 5.2: List of Westhampnett pottery vessels

Jars Bowls High-shouldered jars 67 High-shouldered bowls 47 Ovoid jars 25 Ovoid bowls 9 Rounded jars 5 Rounded bowls 20 Biconical jars 5 Biconical bowls 16 Two-tiered jar 1 Corrugated or cordoned bowls 3 Unknown jars 21 Unknown bowls 8

Other vessels Unknown types 23 Romano-British type 1

Pottery vessels appear to have had a number of functions:

Ceramic vessels are commonly used as a container for the cremated remains

symbolising the containment and therefore control of the dangerous nature of the

dead.

Some mortuary-related features are associated with fragmentary, sometimes burnt

vessels, symbolic of transformation and regeneration of the self/spirit. In modern

Indian cremation ceremonies pottery vessels are smashed at key stages during the

rites to emphasise separation between living and dead (Parry 1994). The

individuals and the vessels that sustained them during life were burnt and broken,

symbolising both the end of an individual's life and the termination of his or her

relationship with others. In a number of the burials pottery and even some bronze

vessels appear to have been deposited in a broken, burnt or fragmentary state.

216 Pottery vessels are an essential component of feasting activity which may have

played an important role in the mortuary sequence. The majority of graves are

associated with at least one vessel, with an average of up to five, although the

Welwyn Garden City burial (Stead 1967) and some of the graves from the Alton

cemetery, Hampshire (Millett 1987) have revealed between 30 and 50 pots. The

vessels have a range of functions including the storage of liquids, beverages and

oils, also as drinking, eating, and pouring utensils. However, the focus appears to

be associated with drinking, collective consumption and ultimately display.

Interestingly, it does not stop at ceramic vessels and as discussed below through

time a host of copper alloy, silver and glass vessels are added to the assemblages.

Interesting vessel types synonymous with the cremation burials are a series of wooden buckets with copper alloy and iron bindings and fittings. At least 26 graves are associated with such buckets deposited either singularly or in pairs (Appendix C.I).

The most famous are those associated with the cemeteries at Aylesford (Fig. 1.1) and

Swarling discovered in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Evans 1890;

Bushe-Fox 1925; Stead 1971). Five are associated with 'Welwyn-type' burials: Old

Warden, Bedfordshire (Fox, 1923, 98-9; Stead, 1971, 279); Baldock (Stead 1971;

1986); Welwyn B (Smith 1912; Birchall 1965); Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire

(Stead 1967); and Great Chesterford, Essex (Fox 1923, 105; Stead 1971; Fitzpatrick

1985, 324; Crossan et al 1990). Likewise, another four are associated with burials which contain bronze vessels including Aylesford, Kent (Evans 1890; Stead 1971);

Felmersham, Bedfordshire (Watson 1949; Kuhlicke 1969; Kennet 1970; Megaw

1971); Harpenden, Hertfordshire (Cussans 1881, 350; Bagshawe 1928; Freeman &

Watson 1949; Stead 1971, 279); andKelvedon, Essex (Paul Sealey pers. comm.).

217 Many of the examples discovered during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

were inadequately or poorly recorded. However, discoveries over the last twenty years

at Alkham, Kent (Philp 1991; J.D. Hill pers. comm.) and Baldock, Hertfordshire

(Burleigh 1982; Selkirk 1983; Stead 1971; 1986, Figs.22-24) have added important

finds to the archaeological record. In 1990, four large cremation burials of late Iron

Age date were discovered at Alkham, near Dover. Two of the burials contained

bronze buckets, the first discovered in Kent since the Aylesford and Swarling

examples. One of the buckets (Bucket Burial A) consists of a pair of cast bronze

handle mounts depicting a human head wearing a helmet or head-dress surmounted by

a pair of twisted ram's horns. The second bucket (Bucket Burial B) is encased with

alternating bronze and iron bands with three ornamented rectangular plaques covering

the feet, a swing handle and anchor-shaped handle mounts. It contained the cremated

bones of an adult male c. 25 years old, along with three cordoned jars, three brooches,

a toilet set and unburnt pig remains. At Baldock, Hertfordshire two cremation burials

from separate areas of the site each revealed a pair of wooden buckets (Stead 1971;

Stead & Rigby 1986; Burleigh 1982; Selkirk 1983). The discovery from Upper Walls

Common is particularly interesting since one of the buckets appears to have been burnt during the cremation ceremony (Burleigh 1982). The grave cut and the pyre feature were positioned towards the centre of a large ditched enclosure. A small bronze-bound stave-built bucket with an iron rim was deposited intact as a grave offering, while the pyre feature revealed the burnt remains of a iron rim probably from a bucket similar to the example in the grave. Finally, in at least nine cases buckets were used to hold the cremated remains, suggesting that like pottery vessels they were suitable for containing the deceased.

218 The final category to consider is a collection of bronze alloy and silver vessels

recovered from a small number of cremation burials and mortuary features. A variety

of types are represented including jugs (6), pans (6), bowls (12), cups (5), strainers

(5), cauldrons (2) and vases (1). Approximately 38 bronze and silver vessels are

known from 23 mortuary-related contexts and in many of the burials combinations of

bowls, strainers, pans and jugs occur together. The majority of the vessels have been

recovered from 'Welwyn-type' burials including Baldock (Stead & Rigby 1986),

Welwyn Garden City (Stead 1967), Snailwell (Lethbridge 1953), Stanway (Crummy

1993; 1997a; 1997c; Crummy & Crummy 2000), Stanfordbury (Dryden 1845),

Heybridge (Essex County Council SMR Record 7814), Great Chesterford (Fox 1923,

105; Stead 1971), and Welwyn (Smith 1912). A bronze cup was associated with the

mirror burial from Colchester (Fox & Hull 1948; Hawkes & Crummy 1995), while an

isolated early Roman burial from Verulamium contained a bronze bowl (Niblett &

Reeves 1990). The remainder of the vessels are associated with the extensive

cemeteries at King Harry Lane (Stead & Rigby 1989 Graves 37 and 325) and

Westhampnett (Fitzpatrick 1997, 103, Fig.74 Grave 20140). Fragments of possible

bronze vessels have also been recovered from the mortuary chambers at Lexden

(Foster 1986, 64-65) and Stanway (Crummy & Crummy 2000 BF6) and from the

'burial pit' at Folly Lane (Foster et al 1999, 158). The Folly Lane objects like the

majority of the deposited material was of a fragmentary and distorted nature and may

represent at least two bronze vessels burnt on the pyre. Furthermore, copper alloy

strainer vessels recorded from Welwyn Garden City (Stead 1967) and Felmersham

(Kennet 1970; Megaw 1971) were recovered in a fragmentary condition and may have suffered deliberate damage. A similar vessel found in a cremation burial (325) at the King Harry Lane cemetery had been burnt on the funeral pyre resulting in a

219 completely distorted object (Stead & Rigby 1989, 111). At Stanway two strainers

suffered a similar fate; one had been deliberately crushed in the grave (BF64) and the

spout of a second vessel was recovered from one of the mortuary chambers (BF6) (Crummy & Crummy 2000).

It is suggested that the wooden buckets and tankards, along with the bronze and silver

vessels were used in the preparation and consumption of alcoholic beverages such as

ale, mead, and wine, even in the preparation of medicinal drinks. The vessels can be

associated with varies stages of preparation and consumption including vessels for

straining liquids; cauldrons, buckets and pans for mixing; jugs and jars for pouring;

and cups and bowls for drinking. The ' Welwyn-type' burial from The Tene, Baldock

revealed a single amphora and no other pottery vessels but it can be argued that it

contained a full drinking complement including a cauldron, a pair of bronze bowls

and a pair of buckets (Stead 1986). It is obvious that many of the Iron Age cauldrons

were not suitable for heating food or liquids they would have quickly buckled and

distorted. The Hochdorf cauldron was found to contain a mead residue and it is

possible that they were used as mixing or serving vessels for mead, ale or wine

(Dietler 1990; Arnold 2001). Finally, alcoholic drinks are mind altering substances

which often play a role in religious and ritual ceremonies such as Christian mass, to

toast the newly weds or to fondly remember the deceased. Alcohol was no doubt used

during the prehistoric period just like it is today to celebrate, commemorate, remember and forget the living and dead during rites of passage, perhaps even as a trance inducing substance

220 5.3 Furniture and Fittings

A number of the graves, especially those which represent the 'Welwyn-type' and

'Folly Lane' rites, are associated with various items of furniture and fittings. A range of objects have been recovered which include handles, copper alloy sheet and plating,

studs and rivets, latchlifters/keys, lock-plates, buckles, iron bars, pins/nails. These

fragmentary elements represent a variety of original pieces of furniture including

couches/litters, tables, trays, folding stools, boxes, and boards or covers. Six

'Welwyn-type' burials along with the Folly Lane mortuary chamber are associated

with hearth furniture in the form of fire-dogs, tripods, frames and spits. The objects

were found complete and intact in the burials but an iron terminal fragment of a fire-

dog was all that was recovered from the Folly Lane shaft (Foster et al 1999, 150

Fig.58.13). The Folly Lane example is indicative of the deliberate destruction of the

object and the deposition of only a token element of the original. Fire-dogs, tripods

and spits are further evidence of the importance of feasting and drinking and would

have formed an integral component of any hearth or fireside area.

It is possible to suggest that a number of graves are associated with funerary litters or

couches, used to display the dead or transport the corpse to the place of cremation. At

Lex den Tumulus and Folly Lane numerous objects including iron bars, and copper

alloy and ivory fittings can be tentatively interpreted as some sort of chair or couch.

One of the graves (2) from the Hinxton cemetery, Cambridgeshire included an unusual cast bronze conical shaped terminal, which decorated a piece of furniture possibly a banner or wall hanging (Hill et al 1999, 254, Fig.l 1). The 'Welwyn-type' burials from Dorton (Parley 1983) and Welwyn Garden City are both associated with a quantity of charred wood, which may result from a couch/litter burnt on the funeral

221 pyre. Excavations conducted at Folly Lane uncovered a number of objects from the burial pit and the mortuary shaft, in various states of preservation, which suggest that a cart may have been employed in the mortuary rites.

The most commonly encountered piece of furniture associated with approximately 30 graves is a box, tray or board. They are frequently used to hold some of the deposited objects including the cremated remains and are represented by metal fittings which include handles, hinges, studs, pins, rivets and copper alloy plating. Stanfordbury B contained the remains of a small box which appeared to have been covered with thin bronze plating (Dryden 1845). There were also two small handles and several small nails or studs. During the conservation of traces of wood unearthed from the Dorton grave it was demonstrated that the fibres represented the remains of a small box within which a bronze mirror and the cremated remains were contained (Parley 1983).

Similarly the partly excavated grave from Mount Bures revealed the decayed substance of a small wooden box (1852). The box fittings included two bronze handles and a hinge and it appears that a glass bottle and bead were originally contained within it. Numerous other graves including examples from cemeteries at

Owslebury, and Alton, Hampshire; Lexden, Stansted, and Stanway, Essex all included small boxes which were found to contain a variety of objects including glass pieces, toilet instruments, brooches, figurines, and often the associated cremated remains.

Evidence of trays have been found from at least two graves one from Stansted (13),

Essex which revealed sixteen copper alloy discs and decorated strips from a flat object on which the calcined remains had been placed, perhaps a wooden tray covered in leather (Havis & Brooks forthcoming). The other example comes from Stanway

(CF47) where a tray or even a low table was represented by decorative copper alloy

222 fittings. It overlay a ceramic flagon and resting on its surface was a decorated samian bowl, a large copper alloy handled pan and a strainer bowl (Crummy & Crummy

2000, 81-82). Finally, a number of graves and mortuary chambers have revealed evidence of substantial wooden structures including Folly Lane, Lexden Tumulus,

Hertford Heath, Snailwell and Stanway (CF47) and at Welwyn Garden City it appears that a screen or partition may have divided the grave.

5.4 Personal Adornment

A large number of graves have revealed evidence of a society which was concerned with personal appearance and ornamentation with brooches dominating the

assemblages. The number of jewellery pieces is limited and includes beads, probably from necklaces in thirteen instances, just eight finger or toe rings and evidence of sixteen armlets or bracelets. In addition, one of the 161 graves from Westhampnett

(20095) contained a roughly rectangular wafer-thin piece of gold and it has been

suggested that it may result from a tubular sheet gold tore (Fitzpatrick 1997, 97-98.

P1.22). A number of worked bone objects including a distinctive bone belt with iron buckle recovered from Grave 270 at King Harry Lane, Hertfordshire (Stead & Rigby

1989, 107-8, Fig. 142) were incorporated into the funeral repertoire. It seems that at least three sites including Snailwell, Cambridgeshire (Lethbridge 1953);

Westhampnett, West Sussex (Fitzpatrick 1997, 114, Figs. 66 & 95); and Stansted,

Essex (Havis & Brooks forthcoming) included individuals clothed in garments adorned with decorative bone toggles. The Lexden Tumulus contained a small amount of gold thread or tissue and a vast quantity of silver trefoils and bars which probably decorated a garment or furniture covering (Foster 1986, 88-95). Finally, the Folly

223 Lane burial pit revealed a small fragment of what was originally a fece mask (Niblett 1999, 157-8, Fig.60.23).

The objects most frequently incorporated into mortuary-related contexts are brooches, which may have served to decorate the garments in which the dead were clothed or

deposited as an offering by the mourners. Over 500 examples have been recovered

from cremation burials, funeral pyres and mortuary-related features such as pits and

ditches in the south-east. They are frequently deposited singly or in matching pairs

sometimes attached by short lengths of chain. The study identified 41 graves with

three or more associated brooches: 20 with three; fifteen with four; and three with five

(Table 5.3). Furthermore, a grave from Stanway (Crummy 2000, 79 & 88 CF72) was

found to contain six brooches and another from the Lexden cemetery, Essex was

associated with as many as ten brooches (Hull 1942; Hawkes & Crummy 1995).

Brooches occur in iron and copper alloys, with a limited number of silver examples.

There are only eleven incidences of silver brooches and interestingly they are all of

the Feugere 8, Almgren 65 or Stead type (Stead 1976; Lavender 1991; Fitzpatrick

1997).

Table 5.3: List of graves containing 3 or more brooches

Site Grave No. Site Grave No. Westhampnett 20484 3 King Harry Lane 143 3 Stone 4 King Harry Lane 115 3 Allington 3 King Harry Lane 86 4 Deal X4 5 King Harry Lane 73 4 Deal X8 3 King Harry Lane 68 4 Aylesford Y 3 King Harry Lane 67 3 Alkham 4 4 King Harry Lane 37 3 King Hairy Lane 399 3 Bishop Stortford 1 4 King Harry Lane 388 3 Owslebury 45 3 King Harry Lane 370 4 Stanway CF47 3 King Harry Lane 361 3 Stanway CF72 6 King Harry Lane 312 3 Stansted 1 3 King Harry Lane 306 5 Stansted 9 3 King Harry Lane 287 4 Lexden St. Clares Drive 10

224 King Harry Lane 270 4 Lexden St. Clares Road 4 King Harry Lane 231 4 Great Chesterford 4 King Harry Lane 218 4 Hinxton 2 4 King Harry Lane 205 3 Brancroft 4 5 King Harry Lane 202 4 Salford 2 3 King Harry Lane 177 3 Salford 4 3 King Harry Lane 156 3

Approximately 25 different types of brooch are represented dominated by Colchester,

Colchester Derivatives, Langton Down, Nauheim Derivatives, Thistle, Rosette and

Plate brooches dating to the late first century BC and early decades of the first century

AD (Feugere 1985; Stead & Rigby 1989; Hawkes & Hull 1947) (Table 5.4). There are

also a handful of sites which appear to be dominated by an earlier series of brooch

types including Nauheim, Alesia, Feugere 2 and the Feugere 8/Almgren 65 (Dawson

forthcoming; Fitzpatrick 1997). These brooches can be dated to as early as the late

second century BC to the late first century BC (Duval 1974; Feugere 1985; Miron

1991; Ettlinger 1973; Kramer 1971; Stead 1976).

Table 5.4: List of brooch types deposited in mortuary contexts

Feugere 2a Thistle/ Feugere 19a-d/KHL type F/ Hawkes & Hull X Feugere 2b Rosette/Feugere 20a-b/KHL type G/Hawkes & Hull XI Feugere 4/5bl Lion/Feugere 19/KHL type H/ Hawkes & Hull X Feugere 1 la Nertomarus/FeugSre 14b2/KHL type J Nauheim/Feugere 5a Knee/KHL type K Nauheim derivative/Feugere 6/KHL type A & KHL type L/Feugere 18a4/Hawkes & Hull T/Hawkes & Hull VTI & II type XI & XIII Alesia/Duval/Feugere 21/22 Aucissa/Feugere 22b/KHL type M/Hawkes & Hull XVII Feugere 6b/KHL type S Hod Hill/KHL type N Almgren 651 Knotenfibel / Feugere 8/Stead/KHL type Plate/KHL type P R Simple Gallic/Feugere 14a/KHL type B KHL type X-miscellaneous hinged brooch Colchester/KHL type C/Hawkes & Hull HI Penannular/KHL type Z Colchester derivative/KHL type D/ Hawkes & Hull IV Polden Hill Langton Down/Feugere 14blb/KHL type E & W/Hawkes & Hull XII

225 The most frequently deposited metal object at the King Harry Lane cemetery,

Verulamium are the 237 brooches recovered from 150 of the 453 cremation burials

(33%). The assemblage contains the largest and most varied collection from a cemetery site in Britain (Stead & Rigby 1989, 87-102 King Harry Lane Types A-Z) with 188 copper alloy brooches (79.3%) and 49 iron examples (20.7%). Brooches of the Colchester type: copper alloy, iron and derivatives (KHL types C, V and D),

dominate the assemblage totalling 44% (105 examples). Other frequently deposited

types include Langton Down (29 copper alloy and 1 iron 12.6%), Thistle and Rosette brooches (38 copper alloy 18.9%). The remainder of the brooch types each make up

between 0.5% and 5% of the total number. Twenty graves contained three or four

brooches, with a single grave (306) comprising five of which at least one was burnt.

However, the majority were deposited largely intact with very few demonstrating

evidence of being burnt on the cremation pyre.

The brooches from King Harry Lane comprise the largest and most wide ranging

assemblages from a British cremation cemetery. The report, assigned the earliest start

date to AD 1 but acknowledged that the cemetery could have come into being as early

as c. 15BC (ibid. 83-4). The discovery of an increasing number of King Harry Lane

R/ Feugere 8 brooches from numerous cremation burials across the south-east

highlights the date for the earliest deposition at King Harry Lane and a date closer to

15BC seems plausible. There is also a striking absence of well-known post-conquest

types with a single Colchester Derivative (Grave 316) and no standard Hod Hill types,

The cemeteries of Deal, Kent (Parfitt 1995, 99 & Fig.42) and Stanway, Essex

(Crummy & Crummy 2000, 78, Grave CF7) include King Harry Lane R/Feugere 8 brooches, as well as later types such as Nauheim Derivatives, Colchester, Colchester

226 Derivatives, Langton Down, Hod Hill, Rosette, and Plate brooches. The assemblages from these two cemeteries serve to demonstrate the longevity of the mortuary rites conducted there. A significant number of the cemetery sites comprise a similar range of brooch types to those produced from the King Harry Lane cemetery, although

Feugere 8 is absent including Bancroft, Buckinghamshire (Williams & Zeepvat

1994); Alton, Hampshire (Millett 1987); Lexden cemetery, Essex (Hawkes & Hull

1947; Hawkes & Crummy 1995); Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire (Luke 2000);

Verulam Hills Field, Hertfordshire (Anthony 1968); and Stone, Kent (Cotton &

Richardson 1941).

There are also an increasing number of cemetery sites that represent an earlier set of

brooch types, which suggest a date in the early first century BC for the introduction of

cremation rites in southeast Britain. The Westhampnett cemetery was in use for

approximately 40 years between c. 90-50BC and represents one of the largest

collections of brooches from a first century BC site in Britain. Only 30 of the 161

graves (18.6%) contained brooches; iron types dominate the assemblage with 28

examples (71.8%) but there are also ten (25.7%) copper alloy and a single silver

brooch (2.5%). The brooches were recovered in an extremely fragmentary state, only

three complete brooches (20132, 20169, and 20571) were found, probably as a result of being burnt. Of the 39 brooches, there are eight pairs, four in iron and four of copper alloy (20252, 20408, 20479, 20484, 20541, 20601, 20629, 20675). Only one grave (20484) produced evidence for more than two brooches comprising a pair of copper alloy Feugere 2b brooches and a copper alloy brooch of indeterminate form.

227 The brooches from Westhampnett are types, which are widely distributed across continental Europe, and for that reason Feugere's (1985) typology was employed throughout the excavation report. The most frequent brooch type recovered from sixteen graves is Feugere type 2 including four possible pairs of brooches. Two iron brooches of Feugere 5 a, a sub-division of the Nauheim brooch, were recovered from

two graves at Westhampnett (20169 and 20235). A date as early as the later second

century BC is suggested for these types on the continent, they pass out of use around

25BC. A single iron brooch classified as Feugere type 4 or 5bl was recovered in a

fragmentary condition, which adds to the difficulties of classification. However, it

appears that these types appeared as early as the later second century BC and may

have passed out of use by 40/30BC (Fitzpatrick 1997, 91-97; Miron 1991; Lambot et

al 1994). The only other brooches identified from the cemetery are the seven Almgren

65 or Feugere 8b brooches (see below for a full discussion of the type). These include

a pair of iron brooches (Grave 20601), two copper alloy pairs (20629 and 20675) and

a single silver brooch (Grave 20622) recovered from four graves. A further nine

brooches recovered from eight graves were so fragmentary that is proved impossible

to classify them but there was nothing to suggest that they differed dramatically to the

types discussed above (Table.5.5). Ten brooches derived from a group of four

cremations at Salford, Bedfordshire provide further evidence of an early assemblage

(Dawson forthcoming). The brooch types include Nauheim forms, a possible Alesia

brooch, Feugere 1 la and Feugere 8. On balance none of the brooch types appear to

date much later than c. 25BC suggesting that a small group of cremation burials were

deposited towards the northern extent of the cremation tradition sometime in the mid

first century BC (Feugere 1985; Duval 1974, 67, Fig.2.3).

228 Table 5.5: Brooches from Westhampnett burials

Type Material Quantity % of assemblage Feugere Type 2a Copper alloy 18 46.2% Feugere Type 2b Iron 2 5.1% Feugfcre Type 4 or 5bl Iron 1 2.6% Feugere Type 5a or Nauheim Iron 2 5.1% Feugere Type 8b or Almgren 65 Iron, silver and copper 7 17.9% alloy Indeterminate Iron and copper alloy 9 23.1%

To conclude the discussion of brooches one type in particular, that with a variety of mouldings on the bow, demands a detailed examination since it is important in extending the start date of the cremation rite in southern Britain. This brooch type has been the subject of discussion by a number of scholars but it has never been satisfactorily defined (Kramer 1971; Ettlinger 1973; Stead 1976; Feugere 1985; Miron

1991). The basic type has a four-coil spring with internal chord, though external chords are known, a variety of stylistic mouldings, which can range in position on the bow, along with a framed catch-plate. This form, cognate with and often loosely classified as Knotenfibeln, Almgren 65, Ettlinger 8, Feugere 8 have been defined by

Stead (1976), as the type fossil for the earlier Welwyn phase cremation burials, dating from the second half of the first century BC. The distribution of this brooch type has significantly increased in recent years with numerous examples recovered from cemetery and domestic contexts across southern Britain. It is possible to suggest that these brooches were in use in Britain between c. 70-20BC (Fitzpatrick & Megaw

1987,437; Gebhard 1991, 94; Oliver 1988, 35-6; Mackreth 1989, 129; Fitzpatrick

1997, 96; Dawson 2001, 32-3; Hill 2001a, 1-2; Hill 2001b, 320).

Stead (1976) identified 24 brooches including six pairs from ten different cemeteries

(these figures include the example that is probably from Stanfordbury). The number of brooches has since doubled with an additional 25 brooches, including six pairs

229 (fifteen copper alloy, three silver and seven iron) from a further eleven cemeteries. In total 21 cemetery sites across the southeast have revealed 49 brooches: 29 copper alloy (seven pairs), eleven silver (three pairs), and nine iron (two pairs) (Table 5.6).

At Stead's time of reporting the majority of the cemeteries had been found situated

south of the river Thames in Kent with just four examples to the north: Stanfordbury,

Bedfordshire; Guilden Morden, Cambridgeshire; Hitchin, Hertfordshire; and Great

Chesterford, Essex. In subsequent years only two sites have been added to the list

from Kent (Alkham and Chilham Castle), whereas the significant increase in numbers

has been from cemeteries situated north of the river. Four sites from Essex and

Hertfordshire have revealed brooches of this type including Stanway, Maldon Hall

Farm, Billericay, and King Harry Lane. Furthermore, individual cremation burials and

larger cemeteries situated on the northern and western margins of the late Iron Age

cremation tradition have also produced Almgren 65/Stead brooch types. These include

Hinxton, Cambridgeshire; Salford, Harlington and Shillington, Bedfordshire; and

Westhampnett, West Sussex. They have been recovered from isolated graves and

small cemeteries but examples were also deposited in a limited number of graves at

the larger cemeteries of Westhampnett, West Sussex and King Harry Lane,

Hertfordshire. They have been recovered from a number of burials associated with

either decorated mirrors or wooden and metal bound buckets. Four brooches probably

of this type have recently been excavated from pyre features at Elms Farm,

Heybridge, Essex (Mark Atkinson pers. comm.). They have not been included in the

figures because their identification has not be confirmed, however, it would not be

surprising to find them associated with cremation debris deposits.

230 Table 5.6: List of Feugere 8/Almgren 65/King Harry Lane R brooches from cremation burials

Harlington Bedfordshire 2 (iron pair) Salford Bedfordshire 2 (bronze) Shillington Bedfordshire 1 (silver) Standfordbury B Bedfordshire 1 (bronze) Guilden Morden Cambridgeshire 1 (iron) Hinxton Rings Cambridgeshire 1 (iron) Great Chesterford Essex 4 (2 silver pairs) Maldon Hall Farm Essex 1 (silver) Noak Hill, Billericay Essex 2 (bronze pair) Stanway Essex 1 (bronze) Hitchin Hertfordshire 1 (iron) King Harry Lane Hertfordshire 2 (iron) Alkham Kent 4 (bronze) Aylesford Kent 2 (bronze pah") Chilham Castle Kent 2 (bronze pair) Deal Kent 6 (bronze) Folkestone Kent 2 (silver) Faversham Kent 3 (silver pair, 1 bronze) Borough Green Kent 2 (bronze pair) Swarling Kent 2 (bronze pair) Westhampnett West Sussex 7 examples (2 bronze pairs, 1 iron pair, 1 silver) = 49 examples (9 iron), (11 silver), (29 bronze) *sites in bold italics are those discovered since Stead 1976

Stead identified three sub-divisions which are applicable for categorising the British examples:

A. Two-coil spring with external chord and simple head

B. Four-to-six coils with internal chord and simple head

C. Brooches with the head of the bow expanded into a trumpet-like shape to hold down the internal chord.

Table 5.7: List of Stead type brooches by sub-division

Type A TypeB TypeC Deal 1 Deal 4-6 Harlington 1-2 Folkestone 2 Folkestone 1 King Harry Lane 124 Great Chesterford 1-4 Faversham 1-2 King^ Harry Lane 270 Shillington 1 Borough Green 1-2 Hitchin 1 Chilham Castle 1-2 Guilden Morden 1 Aylesford 1-2 Hinxton 1 Stanfordbury B Swarling 1-2 Alkham 4 Salford 1-2 Maldon Hall Farm 1 Westhampnett 4-5 (20629J Billericay 1-2 Deal 2-3 Westhampnett 6-7 (20675) Alkham 1-3

6 silver, 9 copper alloy, 1 iron 3 silver, 12 copper alloy, 1 iron 1 silver, 6 copper alloy, 5 iron

231 In addition, to the brooches listed in Table 5.7 there are five examples which could not be allocated to a particular group: Faversham 3 (Stead 1976, 406); a copper alloy example from Stanway, Essex (Crummy & Crummy 2000, 78 Grave CF7); and 3 from the Westhampnett cemetery (Graves 20622-silver brooch and 20601-pair iron brooches Fitzpatrick 1997, 96). It is evident that brooches of copper alloy and silver were far more popular than iron examples. Copper alloy examples dominate each sub­ division (A: 9; B: 12; C: 6) with less frequent numbers of iron and silver brooches (A:

7, B: 4, C: 6). In addition, at least twelve pairs of brooches were identified with

examples from Westhampnett, Great Chesterford, Harlington and Shillington attached by short length of chain.

A pair of iron brooches with trumpet shaped heads recovered from the cremation

cemetery at Harlington (Dawson 2001, 32-4, Fig.9.25) are similar to the Hitchin

example (Stead 1976, Fig.3.4) and the two brooches recorded from the King Harry

Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989, 96, Fig. 110 Grave 124.4 & Fig. 141 Grave

270.4). All four brooches are of iron, between 90-115mm in length, and belong to the

Type C class (Fig.5.3). The Deal cemetery produced an assemblage of six brooches; a

copper alloy pair (Stead 1976,404; Parfitt 1995, 99, Fig. 42.13-14) displayed only a

slight trumpet expansion of the head but are comparable in size (102mm) and in the

angle of arch from the head to the bow to the Harlington brooches. The discovery of a

silver brooch from a small cemetery at Maldon Hall Farm, Essex (Lavender 1991,

205-6, Fig.4.1) is comparable to those discovered from Aylesford (Evans 1890; Stead

J976 Fig.1.1) and Swarling (Bushe-Fox 1925; Stead 1976, Figl.2). They share the 4 same trumpet shaped expansion of the head and four-coil spring with internal chord,

although the Maldon Hall Farm brooch appears to be unique in its zoomorphic aspect.

232 Fig.5.3 Feugere 8/Stead Type C brooches: 1. Hitchin (Stead 1976, Fig.3.4); 2. King Harry Lane Grave 270 (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.141.4); 3. Maldon Hall Farm (Lavender 1991, Fig.4.1;4. Aylesford (Stead 1976, Fig.1.1); 5. Swarling (Stead 1976, Fig.1.2) o

Fig.5.4 Feugere 8b/Stead Type A brooches: 1. Deal 1 (XI) (Parfitt 1995, Fig.42.9); 2. Chilham Castle (Parfitt 1998, Fig.3); 3. Great Chesterford (Stead 1976, Fig.3.3); 4. Westhampnett Grave 20675 (Fitzpatrick 1997, Fig.107); 5. Westhampnett Grave 20629 (Fitzpatrick 1997, Fig.103) 234 The two-coil spring with external chord (Stead's Type A and Feugere 8b) (Fig.5.4) is a variant that occurs on four separate cemeteries in Kent. It occurs at Deal (Stead

1976; Parfitt 1995, 99, Fig.42.9); Folkestone (Winbolt 1925b, 65; Stead 1976, 404-6,

Fig.2.6); on a pair of brooches from Chilham Castle (Parfitt 1998, 345-47, Figs.3-4);

and on at least one of the Alkham brooches (J.D. Hill pers. comm. British Museum

Acquisition Record PI 990, 7-1, 28 Burial 4). The most exquisite brooches of this type

are the two silver pairs linked by chains from Great Chesterford, Essex (Neville 1857,

84-7; Kramer 1971, 124-7; Stead 1976, 406, Fig.3.3), whilst a probable cremation

burial from Shillington, Bedfordshire revealed a similar silver brooch with chain

attached associated with a decorated mirror (J.D. Hill pers. comm.). Four of the five

brooches from the Le Catillon hoard, Jersey were associated with Type A whilst the

fifth has no surviving spring (Fitzpatrick & Megaw 1987). The brooch assemblage

from the Westhampnett cemetery includes seven brooches, though the springs are

broken or missing on three (Fitzpatrick 1997, 95-96 Graves 20601 and 20622). The

remaining four brooches comprise two pairs of copper alloy (ibid. Fig. 103 Grave

20629 and Fig. 107 Grave 20675); the pair from Grave 20675 have four-coils and an

external chord rather than the standard two-coils. There is just one other brooch

attributed to this type from Hinxton, Cambridgeshire (Hill et al 1999, 255) which has

an external chord but it was not possible to establish the number of coils.

Finally, the four-or-six coil spring with internal chord brooch (Stead's Type B and

Feugere's 8a) occurs on nine cemetery sites across the south-east including a single cremation burial from Essex, four sites in Kent and three in Cambridgeshire and

Bedfordshire (Fig.5.5). A small cemetery of four cremation burials at Salford,

Bedfordshire produced two copper alloy Feugere 8a brooches which were found in

235 Fig.5.5 Feugere 8a/Stead Type B brooches: 1. Borough Green (Stead 1976, Fig.3.2); 2. Deal 4 (X4) (Parfitt 1995, Fig.42.11); 3. Guilden Morden (Stead 1976, Fig.3.5); 4. Salford Grave 4; 5. Salford Grave 2 (4-5 Dawson forthcoming) 236 association with other early types including Alesia's, Nauheim's, and Feugere 1 la

(Dawson forthcoming). Two of the four cremation burials from Alkham, Kent (J.D.

Hill pers. comm.) are associated with brooches of this type found in association with wooden buckets with metal fittings similar to those from Aylesford and Swarling. The remaining three brooches from the Deal cemetery are examples of this sub-division

(Parfitt 1995, 99, Fig.42.10-12; Stead 1976); one of which has an unusual catch-plate with four small circular perforations. Other examples from Kent include a silver pair from Faversham (Smith 1871, 7; Stead 1976, 406, Fig.3.1); a second silver example from Folkestone (ibid. Fig.2.5); and bronze pair of brooches recovered from a cremation burial at Borough Green associated with four bronze bracelets (Warhurst

1953; Stead 1976, 406, Fig.3.2). The only iron example of the group occurs at

Guilden Morden, Cambridgeshire towards the periphery of the known distribution of late Iron Age cremation burials (Fox & Lethbridge 1924-5, 52-3, Fig.5a; Stead 1976,

408). Another example from the northern periphery includes a bronze brooch

associated with one of the 'Welwyn-type' burials from Stanfordbury, Bedfordshire

(Dryden 1845). There is no question regarding its type (four-coil spring, internal chord and moulding on the bow) but the pottery from the burials was confused with material from the nearby Shefford cemetery and its provenance is therefore uncertain

(Stead 1976, 414). Finally, a third cremation burial associated with a bronze mirror and the fragmentary remains of two bronze four-coil spring with internal chord brooches were found at Billericay, Essex (Weller et al 1974; Parley 1983, 288). All that survived of one brooch was the spring, chord and approximately 9mm of the bow but the second brooch was much better preserved and included a moulding on the bow. It seems likely that a pair of brooches accompanied this dual cremation burial of a young adult, possibly female and infant (Sam Weller pers. comm.).

237 Difficulties remain in defining this brooch type and only the discovery of more examples will determine consistent patterns and chronological understanding. There has also been debate concerning the origins of the type with Italian influences proposed (KrSmer 1971; Ettlinger 1973; Werner 1977), as well as suggestions that it should be considered as a widespread Iron Age type with regional variations

(Fitzpatrick & Megaw 1987, 437-8).

5.5 Grooming and Personal Hygiene

A group of objects closely associated with those discussed in the last section include items used in grooming and personal hygiene. This group includes mirrors, shears, razors, toilet instruments, cosmetic sets, surgical instruments and glass unguentarium which are all associated with the appearance and health of the individual. Mirrors occur in both inhumation and cremation burials across the British Isles from Scotland to the Isles of Scilly (Smith 1909; Fox 1948; 1958; Fox & Pollard 1973; Stead 1979;

Fitzpatrick 1996) (Table 5.8, Figs.5.2 & 5.6, Appendix C.2). They are generally

bronze, though examples occur in iron sometimes with bronze fittings. There are 42

mirrors made from bronze alloys, five of iron, six of iron with bronze fittings and a

single bone handle. The reverse is often decorated with an intricate design infilled

with a pattern of alternating horizontal and vertical strokes called basketry; though

undecorated mirrors are also known (Lowery et al 1976). A substantial number of

complete mirrors have been recorded but many others have been recovered in a

fragmentary condition with either only the plate or the handle surviving. They also

demonstrate considerable variety in handle form with 50 known examples. Fox (1948)

identified three types: the bar (Type I), the unique shaped handle from Balmaclellan

238 A Burial with mirror

Burial with sword * Burial with sword & mirror

Fig.5.6. Distribution map showing Iron Age burials with swords and mirrors from Southern Britain and Ireland 1 Bryher Island, Isles of Stilly 12 Sutton Courteney, Oxfordshire 24 Aston, Hertfordshire 2 St. Keverne, Cornwall 13 Birdlip, Gloucestershire 25 WGC, Hertfordshire 3 Stampford Hill I-II, Devon 14 Llanwnda, Wales 26 Verulamium, Hertfordshire 4 Isle of Portland I-H, Dorset 15 Harlech, Wales 27 Great Chesterford, Essex 5 Portesham, Dorset 16 Gelliniog Wen, Wales 28 Billericay I-ffl, Essex 6 Bridport, Dorset 17-18 Lambay Island, Ireland 29 Colchester, Essex 7 Bulbury Camp, Dorset 19 Latchmere Green, Hampshire 30 Kelvedon, Essex 8 Bradford Peverell, Dorset 20 Owslebury, Hampshire 31 Chilham Castle, Kent 9 Whitcombe, Dorset 21 Dorton, Buckinghamshire 32 Deal, Kent 10 Ham Hill, Somerset 22 Old Warden I- II, Bedfordshire 33 Ashford I-H, Kent 11 St. Lawerence, Isle of Wight 23 Shillington, Bedfordshire 34 Shouldham, Norfolk

239 (Type II), and Type III which he subdivided into the collared/uncollared single loop variety (Type IIIA) and the multi-looped (Type IIIB).

Fox and Pollard (1973) recorded 33 Iron Age mirrors from the British Isles with the exception of Nijmegen mirror which was found in Holland but probably originated from Britain (Dunning 1928). Over the last thirty years 21 mirrors have been found which can be added to Fox and Pollard's original figure. The finds include discoveries from Dorton (Parley 1983), a third handle from Billericay (Weller 1974; pers. comm.), along with examples from Aston (Rook 1982), Portesham (Fitzpatrick et al

1996), Chilham Castle (Parfitt 1998), Latchmere Green (Fulford & Creightonl998),

Bryher Island (Mellor 2000), and Shillington (J.D. Hill pers. comm.). Two examples have recently come to light from Wetwang Slack and Wetwang Village, East

Yorkshire (Dent, 1985; Hill 200 Ib, 2002), along with a handle from Thetford

(Gregory 1992, Fig.l 16.10), a fragmentary mirror from Stanway (Crummy pers. comm.), a second mirror handle from Rivenhall (Rodwell & Rodwell 1993, 29-35), and two unprovenaced finds from Rickling and Hyderabad Barracks, Essex (Andrew

Fitzpatrick pers. comm.). It should be noted that six of the cremation burials from the

King Harry Lane cemetery, Verulamium (Graves 9, 13, 66, 138, 222 and 325) are associated with simple disc mirrors, which belong to a popular Roman type (Lloyd-

Morgan 1981, 30 (Type F)). They consist of an undecorated bronze mirror plate, slightly domed in shape and highly polished on the convex surface (Stead & Rigby

1989, 103). If the examples from King Harry Lane are included twenty mirrors are known from cremation burial assemblages across south-eastern Britain, as well as six unprovenaced finds and four from settlement contexts (Table 5.8).

240

& &

1973 1973

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1975, 1975,

comm.

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no.6

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undecorated undecorated

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Complete Complete

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Age Age

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timbers, timbers,

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copper copper

burials

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8 8

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Provenance Provenance

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No No

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Colchester Colchester

Billericay2

Billericay Billericay

Buckinghamshire

Billericay Billericay

Dorton, Dorton,

Shillingstone

Old Old

Bedfordshire

Old Old Table Table

9.4; 9.4;

& &

1958 1958

& &

Fig. Fig.

Fox Fox

Fox Fox

Fox Fox

& &

5.7; 5.7;

P1.I.D P1.I.D

Fig.5.1; Fig.5.1;

Fig.7.3; Fig.7.3;

Fig. Fig.

90.13

16

& &

& &

& &

no. no.

Fig. Fig.

Fig.98.66.3

1948 1948

Fig.157.13

Fig.91.6

Fig.112.138.3

PLVIIb

5

10

P1.I.A P1.I.A

P1.I.G P1.I.G

P1.I.C P1.I.C

1973 1973

103, 103,

103, 103,

103, 103,

103

Fox Fox

103, 103,

103, 103,

no.5 no.5

Fig. Fig.

116. 116.

1948 1948

1948 1948

1948 1948

15

14

1989, 1989,

1989, 1989,

1989, 1989,

1989, 1989,

1989, 1989,

1989, 1989,

Fig. Fig.

1973 1973

n& n&

144

Pollard Pollard

no. no.

no. no.

Fox Fox

Fox Fox

Fox Fox

Fig.5

PLXLHI; PLXLHI;

PL PL

& &

1992, 1992,

Rigby Rigby

Rigby Rigby

Rigby Rigby Rigby Rigby

Rigby Rigby

Rigby Rigby

1938, 1938,

1973 1973

1973 1973

1998 1998

Fox Fox

Pollard Pollard

1909; 1909;

1909; 1909;

1909 1909

1909; 1909;

& & 1982 1982

& &

& &

& & & &

& &

& &

55; 55;

Stead Stead

Stead Stead

Smith Smith

Stead Stead

Stead Stead

Smith Smith

Stead Stead

Stead Stead

Smith Smith

Smith Smith Gregory Gregory

Hughes Hughes

Rook Rook

Pollard Pollard

Parfitt Parfitt

PI. PI.

Fox Fox

Pollard Pollard

in in

mirror mirror

mirror mirror

mirror mirror

mirror mirror

mirror mirror mirror mirror

mirror, mirror,

mirror, mirror,

decorated decorated

decorated decorated

decorated decorated

decorated decorated

mirror mirror

bronze bronze

bronze bronze

bronze bronze

bronze bronze

bronze bronze bronze bronze

(lost)^

bronze bronze

bronze bronze

bronze bronze

bronze bronze

metal metal

decorated decorated

decorated decorated

handle

fragmentary

fragmentary

small small

Bronze Bronze

plate plate

Bronze Bronze

fragments fragments

Complete Complete

plate plate Complete Complete

Bronze Bronze

Complete Complete

mirror

A A

plate

mirror Undecorated Undecorated

plate

mirror

Undecorated Undecorated Complete Complete

Undecorated Undecorated

plate

Undecorated Undecorated

plate mirror

plate

Undecorated Undecorated

plate

Undecorated Undecorated

a a

of of

a a

cup, cup,

squat squat

and and

a a

and and

(mirror (mirror

bulk bulk

molten molten

matching matching

spindle- spindle-

vessels

nigra nigra

Museum Museum

and and

a a

2 2

Age Age

Road Road

and and

two two

pottery pottery

brooches, brooches,

brooch, brooch,

copper-alloy, copper-alloy,

and and

jar, jar,

brooches

7 7

terra terra

a a

2 2

Iron Iron

Museum Museum

vessels

4 4

Museum Museum

beaker beaker

of of

jar jar

from from

region

squat squat

Liverpool Liverpool

brooch, brooch,

and and

excavation

molten molten

Attimore Attimore

in in

handle

British British

platters, platters,

Lagena, Lagena,

pottery pottery

Lagena, Lagena,

barrel barrel

group group

at at

British British

probable probable

pottery pottery

sherds sherds

2 2

a a

a a

a a

a a

2 2

jugs jugs

a a

the the

now now

spoon, spoon,

beaker, beaker,

the the

bone bone

pieces, pieces,

at at

with with

with with

with with

with with

with with

at at

with with

with with

with with

Canterbury Canterbury

from from

backfilled backfilled

Kent

alloy alloy

honeypot

platters, platters,

burnt burnt

barrel barrel

brooches

discovered discovered

the the

8 8

gaming gaming

from from

collection, collection,

2 2

site

collection collection

small small

copper copper

collection collection

associated associated

associated associated

bowls, bowls, associated associated

associated associated

associated associated

associated associated

associated associated

associated associated

a a

recovered recovered

finds finds

burials burials

beakers, beakers,

Faversham, Faversham,

decorated decorated

unknown)

Mayer Mayer

and and

disc, disc,

jars, jars,

Gibbs Gibbs

Disney Disney

burial burial

burial burial

burial burial

burial burial

burial burial

burial burial

burial burial

burial burial

of of

and and

brooches, brooches,

jar

the the

from from

cup cup

iron iron

occupation occupation

2 2

a a

the the

the the

alloy

Stead/Feugere Stead/Feugere

metal-detecting metal-detecting

included included

cremation cremation

of of

of of

of of

of of

nails nails

provenance, provenance,

Gallo-Belgic Gallo-Belgic

material material

whereabouts whereabouts

Part Part

Part Part

which which

Part Part

Found Found

Roman Roman

Cremation Cremation

consisted consisted

No No

pair pair

Four Four

copper copper

2 2

Cremation Cremation

whorls, whorls,

Cremation Cremation

cordoned cordoned

Cremation Cremation

knife

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

pedestal pedestal

nine nine

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

vessels, vessels,

13

138

325

222

66

9

City

Kent

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Norfolk

Castle, Castle,

Garden Garden

Hertfordshire

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Disney

Gibbs

Mayer

Thetford, Thetford,

Northamptonshire

Desborough, Desborough,

Chilham Chilham

King King

King King

Welwyn Welwyn

King King

King King

King King

King King

Aston, Aston, to Elsewhere across the British Isles bronze decorated mirrors are recorded from

settlement contexts, inhumation burials, and occasionally from votive and hoard

deposits (Fox & Pollard 1973; Bulleid & Grays 1911; Cunliffe 1972, Fig. 3.5;

MacGregor 1976) (Appendix C.2). One of the finest examples accompanying an

inhumation burial was discovered at Birdlip, in Gloucestershire (Bellows 1880;

Staelen 1982) with additional examples from cist burials including St. Keverne

(Rogers 1873), Stamford Hill (Bate 1866; Fox & Pollard 1973) and Bryher, Isles of

Scilly (Mellor 2000; Fitzpatrick pers. comm.). Mirrors first appear in inhumation

burials across east Yorkshire dating from the fourth century BC but these examples

are iron and undecorated (Stead 1979). The bronze decorated mirrors which occur

across southern Britain have been ascribed a date in the late first century BC or early

first century AD (Fitzpatrick 1996). However, the sword from the Bryher burial has

been dated to c. 100BC (lan Stead pers. comm.) which has significant implications for

the introduction of mirrors in southern Britain. If the date is accepted then the Bryher

mirror is probably the earliest example known outside of Yorkshire raising questions

about the origin of mirrors and perhaps even the style of decoration. Furthermore,

cremation burials from Chilham Castle, Billericay, Latchmere Green and Shillington

all from the south-east contain a mirror of the single looped variety and Feugere

8/Almgren 65 type brooches which could be as early as 70BC. The dating and

sequencing of the mirror series is fraught with difficulties but the recent finds are beginning to establish a date in the early first century BC, if not the late second century for their appearance in southern Britain. However, it should be remembered that both brooches and mirrors could be heirlooms that are deposited in graves some considerable time later.

243 Mirrors are mysterious and magical objects in many cultures, and indeed they have

curious properties: like water they reflect an image with left and right reversed. It is

important to consider that the means of seeing one's own image during this period

was largely limited to reflections in water. It is suggested that watery places were

perceived as positioned between the natural and supernatural world and in light of this

perhaps mirrors were also considered an entry point to the abode of the ancestors.

Alternatively, it may be assumed that the soul of the deceased was perceived as

trapped within the mirror and therefore remaining dangerously among the living.

Across Europe there is a long tradition of turning mirrors to the wall or covering them

over when someone dies, so that they can no longer reflect the image of the deceased.

This could suggest one possible explanation for the deposition of these valuable

objects in Iron Age cremation and inhumation burials. On a functional basis the

polished plate can be used to reflect a bright beam of light and heat onto a person or

object, and even to signal over distances.

A minimum of 27 glass vessels are known from seventeen burials and one mortuary

chamber including bottles/phials (14), bowls (3), jars (6) and others of unknown form

(4). All of the vessels can be used as containers and may have actually been incorporated into the mortuary rites. The majority are small tubular bottles used for perfumed oils and unguents, which were probably used during the anointing and washing ceremonies prior to cremation. It is suggested that these objects were interred with the dead or deliberately destroyed during the rites because they were imbued with the bodily essence of the deceased. The Stanway burials revealed nine glass vessels, all post-conquest and imported from the continent including bottles, jars, and two high-quality table pieces. An amber-coloured bowl was recovered from one of the

244 ' Welwyn-type' cremation burials (BF64) along with two unguent bottles and the remains of a polychrome dish or plate were recorded from the mortuary chamber in

Enclosure 5 (CF42) (Crummy 2000,101-04). A heat-distorted fragment was also

recorded (BF64) which the excavators described as residual but the King Harry Lane

cemetery contained a number of graves with similar burnt and distorted glass

fragments. Four graves (25, 153,217 and 445) from King Harry Lane contain melted

lumps which appear to result from vessels burnt on the pyre and deposited in the

graves (Stead & Rigby 1989,108-9). In addition, three of the 'Welwyn-type' graves

contained glass vessels: a bottle from Mount Bures, Essex (Smith 1852), a ribbed

glass bowl from Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire (Holmes & Frend 1957; Hiissen 1983),

and three vessels from Stanfordbury B, Bedfordshire (Dryden 1845) including a glass jar and two bottles. The remaining cremation burials associated with glass vessels

include examples from Hurstbourne Tarrant (Hawkes & Dunning 1930, 304-9) and

Alton, Hampshire (Millett 1987), as well as Stevenage (Holmes 1952-54) and

Verulamium (Niblett & Reeves 1990), Hertfordshire.

Toilet instruments are common objects of the Roman period (Crummy 1983; Stead &

Ribgy 1986) but the numbers recorded from late Iron Age contexts demonstrate that

they were used by some people before the conquest. They are extremely rare from

early and middle Iron Age contexts although a small number of iron toilet instruments

have been recovered from some of the Arras burials (Stead 1979). It is suggested that these objects were employed in the preparation of the corpse by the middle Iron Age but perhaps use was restricted and the objects were discarded with the body.

Examples are known from twenty cremation burials and three mortuary-related contexts (Table 5.9, Fig.5.7 & 5.8) dating from the late first century BC onwards

245 across south-eastern England (Stead & Rigby 1989; Parfitt 1995; Hill et al 1999; Partridge 1979; Rudling 1990; Crummy & Crummy 2000, 15).

Table 5.9: Toilet objects found in mortuary contexts from south-east England

Complete Sets Deal XI 1 Copper alloy Boxford 9 Copper alloy Alkham4 Copper alloy King Harry Lane 203 Iron Alton 3 Copper alloy Alton 5 Copper alloy Tweezers King Harry Lane 242 (plus part of an Iron additional object) King Harry Lane 122 (2 pairs) Iron King Harry Lane 86 (plus part of an additional Copper alloy object) Stansted 12 Copper alloy Hinxton2 Copper alloy Stanfordbury B Silver Hertford Heath (possibly 2 pairs) Iron Biddenham S356 Copper alloy Nail Cleaners Welwyn Garden City 1 Copper alloy Thorley 1194 Copper alloy Alton 4 Copper alloy Stansted 12 Copper alloy Hinxton 2 Copper alloy Bancroft 4 Copper alloy Biddenham S358 Copper alloy Stanway Enclosure 5 ditch ?Copper alloy Billericay Secondary School ditch context 6 Copper alloy (5) Puckeridge ditch Fl (2) Copper alloy Ear Scoops/Picks King Harry Lane 422 Iron Biddenham S3S6 Copper alloy Biddenham S358 Copper alloy Pestle and Mortar King Harry Lane 203 Copper alloy

The examples from the southeast are usually of bronze though a limited number of iron and silver examples are known. The analysis suggests a number of interesting analogies relating to preparation, appearance and adornment of the body in late Iron

Age society. They include tweezers, nail-cleaners and small ear-scoops/probes which

246 8

10 11

Fig.5.7 Toilet sets and instruments: 1. Alton Grave 5; 2. Alton Grave 3; 3. Alton Grave 4 (Millett 1986); 4. Boxford Grave B (Owles 1967, Fig.l4.F); 5. Deal Xll (Parlitt 1995, Fig.48.1); 6. Stansted Grave 12 (Havis & Brooks forthcoming); 7. Welwyn Garden City (Stead 1967, Fig.15); 8. Hertford Heath (Hussen 1983, Fig.22); 9. Bancroft Grave 4 (Williams & Zeepvat 1994, Fig.145.112); 10. BiUericay Secondary School (Rudling 1990, Fig.15.2) 11. Puckeridge (Partridge 1979, Fig.7.3) 247 a a

a b Fig.5.8 Toilet instruments from King Harry Lane: 1. Grave 122 two pairs of iron tweezers (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.l09);2. Grave 86 copper alloy tweezers and component of a toilet set (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.l03);3. Grave 203 remains of an iron toilet sct( Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.126); 4. Grave 422 an iron ear-scoop(Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.175); 5. Grave 242 remains of an iron toilet set (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.136) (scale 1:1) 248 often came in sets, known as chatelaines, suspended from a ring for attachment to a belt, although they are frequently found as individual items. Toilet instruments occur in a number of the 'Welwyn-type' graves including Welwyn Garden City (Stead

1967) (Fig.5.7.7), Hertford Heath (Hiissen 1983, 19) (Fig.5.7.8), and Stanfordbury B

(Dryden 1845). They also appear to occur in graves that are accompanied by a number of pottery vessels and/or small personal items (Stead & Rigby 1989; Luke 2000; Last

& McDonald 2001, 41; Hill et al 1999) (Fig.5.8). They were used in a variety of delicate procedures such as cutting or removing body hair, cleaning nails, and applying ointments or cosmetics particularly concerned with caring for the hands, feet and face. They could have been used for removing or applying cosmetics, or for administering medicinal remedies to the eyes, ears or nose (Hill 1997). One of the graves from Stanway (CF47) revealed a set of medical instruments comprising the elements of a basic surgical kit probably used to explore wounds or make incisions.

The set of thirteen instruments includes two iron scalpels, a saw, two blunt hooks, a sharp hook, two pairs of forceps, three needles, a scope probe, and an unidentified copper alloy instrument (Crummy 1997a; 1997b; Crummy & Crummy 2000, 81-83 &

91).

The study has identified 70 individual objects from mortuary contexts which are connected to practices used to groom or adorn the body. The objects include mirrors from twenty graves, toilet instruments from 23 mortuary-related contexts (28 objects in total), razors/knives from fourteen graves, and shears in six instances.

Table 5.10: List of triangular iron razors/knives from cremation burials

King Harry Lane 123 Welwyn Garden City King Harry Lane 1 82 Westhampnett 20055 King Harry Lane 259 Biddenham Loop 358 King Harry Lane 316 Ivinghoe 1

249 King Harry Lane 384 Owslebury41 King Harry Lane 455 Alkham2 Snailwell Deal X3

It is difficult to identify blades which were specifically used as razors but from a total of 32 knives identified during the research at least fourteen consist of triangular blades

(Table 5.10 & Fig.5.9). Boon is confident that these triangular blades were razors, and emphasised that their handles 'are really only terminals, and not suited to the application of force, pressure or leverage' (Boon 1991, 28), although their use in food preparation should not be discounted. Shears have been recovered from graves at

Hertford Heath (Hiissen 1983, 17), Alton (Millet 1987 Grave 5), Hitchin (Birchall

1965, 249, 306-7), Alkham (J.D. Hill pers. comm.) and King Harry Lane (Stead &

Rigby 1989, 106 Graves 242 and 384) (Fig.5.10). They could have been used for trimming beards, moustaches and hair but it is noted that one of the pairs from King

Harry Lane (Grave 242) is too small for practical use. Furthermore, a copper alloy cosmetic set was found with the remains of an iron toilet set from Grave 203 at King

Harry Lane (ibid. 104, Fig.126). Jackson (1985) suggested that they were pestles and mortars for mixing and applying very small quantities of cosmetics. They belong to a class of predominately first and early second century AD bronze objects unique to southeast Britain. All of these objects can be associated with grooming, adornment and the appearance of the body. More importantly it is noted that they are frequently recovered from burials, mortuary and ritual contexts rather than on domestic settlement sites during the first century BC. This may suggest that they were used during the preparation of the deceased in pre-cremation rites. They were subsequently buried or perhaps burnt with the corpse because of concerns of their polluting nature or alternatively as prestigious items related to the appearance and identity of the individual.

250 Fig.5.9 Iron triangular knives: 1. King Harry Lane Grave 384 (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.168) (scale 1:2); 2. King Harry Lane Grave 455 (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.179) (scale 1:1); 3. Snailwell (Lethbridge 1953, Fig.23.2) (scale 1:2); 4. Deal Grave X3 (Parfitt 1995, Fig.49.2) (scale 2:3); 5. Welwyn Garden City (Stead 1967, Fig.23.1) (scale 1:2); 6. Westhampnett Grave 20055 (Fitzpatrick 1997, Fig.68) (scale 1:2) 251 Fig.5.10 Iron shears: 1. King Harry Lane Grave 242 (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.136) (scale 1:1); 2. King Harry Lane Grave 384 (Stead & Rigby 1989, Fig.168) (scale 1:2); 3. Alton Grave 1 (Millett 1986) (scale 1:2)

252 In this context it is necessary to consider the occurrence of these objects with other

items that are encountered in the archaeological record in the late Iron Age,

particularly drinking and eating vessels. They seem to signify the wider changes that

were evidently taking place in late Iron Age society and this is clearly demonstrated

through mortuary activity. These shifts are clearly of symbolic importance signifying

some people's increasing concern with their personal hygiene, appearance and sense

of identity. These changes suggest that in the late Iron Age certain people were

actively seeking to distinguish ways in which they presented themselves in their

experience with others. These changes in lifestyle and personal aspiration were

constantly reproduced and changed through human action, particularly evident in the mortuary record (Hill 1997).

5.6 Leisure and Warfare

It is possible to identity a number of inhumation burials which appear to have a

common element; they contain a range of weaponry equipment (Collis 1973; Dent

1983; Whimster 1981; Stead 1991). A sword is the most common artefact, along with

a number of subsidiary items including shields, spearheads and suspension fittings.

The objects recovered from these inhumation burials is not restricted to weapons and

a variety of artefacts include pottery vessels, tools, mirrors, bronze vessels,

headdress/crown and brooches have been recovered (Table 5.11). The range of

equipment is matched by a preference for placing the spear and the sword by the side of the body, or in some cases across the chest, and the shield when present, was often placed over the chest and head. The graves are distributed across the British Isles with examples from Yorkshire, Norfolk, Kent, Essex, Hertfordshire, Dorset, Somerset,

Oxfordshire, Hampshire, Dorset, the Isle of Wight, the Isles of Scilly, Wales, and the

253 345

352

351

1981,

1981,

comm.

pers.

1981,

1991

28;

1981,

Whimster

1981,

Whimster

pers.

1996;

1991

1950,

comm.

comm.

Whimster 1950;

Lynch

Whimster

1994;

Whimster

Whimster

Sealey

Whimster

353; pers.

pers.

1969;

28;

Piggott

Fitzpatrick

125-6;

1973;

Piggott

39;

1929;

1979;

1981,

Jones

1950,

1909;

Johnson

2000;

1973, Johnson

1955;

1968;

1995

1985,

346

&

AJtken&Aitken

Piggott Collis 345;

1981, Stead comm.

Collis

Stead

Mellor

349 Casper

1981,349

Casper

Parfitt Whimster Clarke

Macalister Hughes Whimster

or

disc

ring

and iron

circular

vessel

burials

shield

binding,

iron

iron

brooch,

wattle

contained

boss, jars

ring

the bronze

rim

brooch,

perforated

bronze pottery

object

scatter

was

alloy

from

of

1

1.

for

2

fragment;

shield

iron

inhumation iron

pedestal

hammer-head,

and

bronze

2

made

fragmentary

and of

small

an

copper

fittings,

suspension

end

fitting, belt-hook,

bronze

brooch

Skeleton

rings,

Ashford

cast by

and fragments

box,

(too

shield

to

series

a

rings, strap

iron

ferrule,

a

possibly and

bronze

bronze

bronze

of

spearhead,

silvered

1

plates

vessels.

or

belt-hook;

wooden

and

from

with

penannular

scabbard

England

a

and

iron structure

spears,

handle

circular rings,

'coffin'

and accompanied

triangular

3

remains

and

suspension

pottery

and

of

tinned

iron

with

from

3

shield-boss

ferrule

objects

and

and

pin head-band/crown,

'coflin' scabbard weapon

ring,

construction

tankard

boss,

bowl

southern and

form

brooch

bent a

rings,

fittings,

ring

boss

other

suspension

as

and

two

alloy

bronze sherds

scabbard

probably mirror,

alloy

plank

some shield skull,

bronze

similar

pommel

iron bronze

a

spear-head, shield

shield

Wales

Pottery chalk Two copper sword), Copper fittings tool, suspension

Iron Spear, Iron butterfly-shaped Bronze boar's Spear,

within suspension narrow fittings, with Leather/wood Iron described

Numerous Leather

Ireland,

guard

with

sheath

from

hilt

bronze

bronze

scabbard

wooden

scabbard

hilt

binding

with

a

weapons

of

anthropoid bone

decorated bronze

sheath

wooden a

a

other

sword

traces

in

in

in in

with with

and

binding

iron

sword

Sword

sword Sword sword

sword sword sword

sword sword sword

sword

bronze-scabbard

bent

and leather Iron Iron Iron Iron Iron Iron scabbard

Iron A Iron Iron ?Iron Iron

Iron

swords

with

Wight

of

Dorset

burials

Ireland

Scilly

Wales

of

Isle

of

Dorset

Norfolk

Hampshire

Kent

Kent

List

Essex

Peverell,

Wen,

Island,

1,

2,

Isles

Courteney,

5.11

Kent

Lawerence,

Owslebury,

Bryher, St. Sutton Gelliniog Kelvedon, Sbouldham, Oxfordshire Whitcombe, Lambay Ashford Bradford Ashford Deal,

Table east coast of Ireland (Table.5.11, Figs.5.6 & 5.11). A minimum of six inhumation burials accompanied by weapons are recorded from the geographical area of the study. They all contain iron swords which in some cases are associated with scabbards of wood, leather, iron and copper alloy; along with iron spears; shield fittings and bosses; suspension rings and belthooks. One of the examples is an unpublished find from Kelvedon, Essex (Paul Sealey pers. comm.) the focus for cremation rites during the first centuries BC and early decades of the first century AD. In addition, an inhumation burial from Soham, Cambridgeshire (Fox, 1923; Whimster 1981, 23 and

229), a possible burial from Verulamium, Hertfordshire (Ros Niblett pers. comm.) and one of the three barrows (II) from Woolley Down, Berkshire (Peake & Padel 1934) were associated with iron spearheads.

It is apparent that each of the 'weapon' burials comes from an area otherwise

characterised by a regionally specific Iron Age burial rite or a complete absence of

burials. For instance, the Whitcombe burial lay amongst standard Durotrigian graves

(Aitken & Aitken 1991) and the Owslebury example was found amongst a group of

cremation burials (Collis 1968; 1973; 1994) (Fig.5.11). At Owslebury, an extended

adult male inhumation (39) accompanied by a group of weapons was located towards

the centre of a ditched enclosure surrounded by three cremations burials. The weapons

comprise of an iron spearhead, with an iron butt end, and a circular bronze ferrule from the shaft. The iron sword with traces of a wooden scabbard was probably

suspended from a baldric to which it was attached by a leather strap and two bronze rings; the baldric was buckled by a belt hook of continental type. The bronze shield

255 Owslebury, Hampshire

1 Iron spearhead, ferrule and bronze strip 2 Iron sword 3 Bronze rings from sword belt 4 Silvered bronze belthook 5 Bronze shield boss

Whitcombe, Dorset

1 Copper alloy brooch 2 Copper alloy D-shaped ring 3 Iron spearhead 4 Chalk spindle whorl 5 Iron sword 6 Iron file 7 Iron hammerhead 8 Copper alloy strip 9 Two iron rings from sword belt 0 1m

Fig.5.11 Inhumation burials with weapons from Owslebury, Hampshire and Whitcombe, Dorset (After Collis 1973, Fig.l)

256 boss consisted of three parts, the main boss and its wings, which were attached to the shield itself by a number of studs and two crescent shaped pieces, as well as fragments of wood found underlying the fittings. Similarly, an extended inhumation of an adult male (112) was excavated from the extensive cemetery at Mill Hill, Deal

(Parfitt 1995). The skeleton was accompanied by an impressive assemblage of mainly bronze grave goods including an iron sword in a decorated bronze scabbard, the

remains of a shield, a small cast bronze coral-decorated brooch, a circular cast bronze

suspension ring and a cast bronze triangular strap-end. The most elaborate grave good

accompanying the burial was a bronze head-band. It was still around the skull of the

individual and seemed to form part of some kind of crown or headdress. It has been

suggested that this example may have been worn by a military or religious leader.

It is difficult to establish a precise chronology for these burials and any dating

evidence is confined solely to the associated metalwork. It was first thought that the

rite was limited to a small number of graves in the Yorkshire Wolds (Stead, 1965, 68),

with a further example in East Anglia, at Shouldham (Clarke & Hawkes 1955). The

Shouldham find was of an extended inhumation accompanied by a iron-hilt sword lying across the chest of the skeleton. The burial has been ascribed a date within the third century BC on the grounds of the sword-type and it appeared that it was the only example outside Yorkshire of this early date. The majority of the burials from southern Britain belonged to the last decades of the first century BC and early ones of the first century AD (Collis 1973). However, a number of discoveries over the last ten years have provided a wider geographical sample and the finds from Deal, Kent

(Parfitt 1995), Kirkburn, Yorkshire (Stead 1991), Bryher Island (Mellor 2000) and

Ashford, Kent (Casper Johnson pers. comm.) have extended the chronology,

257 particularly in southern Britain. The grave goods from Deal, Kirkburn and Bryher compare well with one another and provide a collective date ascribed to

approximately 200BC. Likewise the pair of burials excavated during 1999 at Ashford,

Kent have tentatively extended the date towards the conquest period on the basis of

the associated butt-beakers found in the graves (ADS 0-50) (Casper Johnson pers.

comm.). It is now possible to envisage a somewhat sporadic inhumation rite which

cross-cuts all the regional Iron Age burial traditions found across the British Isles for

at least two, possibly three hundred years.

However, it should be noted that there is a clear absence of weaponry associated with

the cremation burials from the south-east. It is possible that swords and other weapons

were burnt on the funeral pyre but unfortunately there is no direct evidence to

substantiate this explanation. There are repeated instances of Iron Age artefacts from a

variety of contexts being deliberately broken or rendered non-functional, 'ritually

killed', before burial or deposition (Bradley 1990). Burning objects on the funeral

pyre would effectively deactivate and alter the nature of any offering thus making

them virtually invisible to both the prehistoric mourner and the modern day

archaeologist. The objects recovered from the pyre features at Westhampnett, West

Sussex (Fitzpatrick 1997) and Elms Farm, Essex (Mark Atkinson pers. comm.)

demonstrate that metalwork and ceramics was frequently burnt during the cremation

rites. It seems that token deposits of pyre material or deliberately broken objects were included on occasion in both graves, mortuary chambers and other mortuary-related deposits (see chapter 4 and 5.8). This is surely of some significance and perhaps the altered state and even invisibility of an object, is not dissimilar to the transformed nature of the actual corpse (see chapter 6.4). It is suggested that perhaps it is the

258 altered state and fragmentary nature of the objects rather than their intact and recognisable form which is important.

A total of five cremation burials have revealed the fragmentary remains of weaponry.

Two 'Welwyn-type' burials Snailwell (Lethbridge 1953) and Stanway (CF64)

contained the remains of shield bosses; the Stanway (CF64) burial also contained an

iron spearhead. A second Stanway cremation burial (CF72) was associated with two

possible iron spearheads (Crummy & Crummy 2000, 80 & 89), whilst the cremation

deposit from Ham Hill, Somerset was accompanied by an iron dagger in a bronze

sheath (Walter 1923). Finally, one of two 'Welwyn-type' burials from Stanfordbury,

Bedfordshire (A) is recorded as being associated with a bronze shield boss and thin

pieces of iron, some riveted together suggestive of a possible mail garment (Dryden

1845). This is not the only instance of mail, similar occurrences are known from at

least three other cremation burials. At Baldock, Hertfordshire a small rectangular pit

located at the centre of a large square ditched enclosure revealed a quantity of burnt

material, including bone, charcoal, wood, droplets of bronze, and melted bronze

objects. In addition, several pieces of iron mail, possibly cut into fragments were

identified (Burleigh 1982; Selkirk 1983). The mortuary chamber beneath the tumulus

at Lexden revealed pieces of iron mail scattered in heaps across the floor. Two bronze

buckles, two bronze hinges and five silver studs are thought to be fittings associated

with the mail (Foster 1986, 82-5). It was suggested by Laver (1924) that the mail was

divided into pieces and in some cases folded prior to burial but Foster in her re-

evaluation work, cast this interpretation in some doubt. In addition, seventeen pieces

of leather probably represent the remains of leather garment, perhaps a jerkin worn

beneath the mail (Foster 1986, 139-42). The discovery of iron mail from Baldock and

259 Lexden is similar to that from Folly Lane, Hertfordshire (Niblett 1999). A small pit located approximately half a metre north-east of the mortuary shaft was found to contain a mass of heavily burnt debris including charcoal, solidified molten copper alloy and silver, numerous fragments of iron and nails, burnt clay, amphorae sherds and cremated bone. In this mass of material was a large lump of iron mail, the remains

of a once complete tunic burnt on the pyre (Gilmour 1999,159-67). The small

Kirkburn cemetery, Yorkshire revealed a cart burial accompanied by a complete mail

tunic dated to the third century BC; the earliest example from Britain (Stead 1991,

56). Mail is also known from four other contexts in Britain (Maiden Castle, Stanwick,

Woodeaton and Hayling Island), as well as several continental European examples

from Hjortspring, Denmark; Tiefenau, Switzerland; and Ciumesti, Romania.

The final group of objects under discussion are those related to pastimes and

entertainment. The evidence is rather limited but a small group of objects shed light

on to the type of activities which may have been conducted either as an integral

element of the mortuary rites and/or pastimes in general. The chapter has previously

considered the notion of feasting and the importance of display in late Iron Age

society and perhaps gaming and music were synonymous with those events. There are

just two incidences of graves containing possible musical instruments: from a

'Welwyn-type' grave at Stanfordbury, Bedfordshire and from one of the cremation

burials at the extensive King Harry Lane cemetery, Verulamium. In his 1845 report,

Dryden alludes to a bone flute recovered from Stanfordbury A which consisted of six

perforated segments, measuring c. 245mm in length and approximately 27mm in

diameter (Dryden 1845). The object recovered from the King Harry Lane cemetery

(Grave 310) comprised five hollow lengths of bone with numerous perforations, in a

260 rather fragmentary state each with one original end and one broken (Stead & Rigby

1989, 108, Fig. 151). Finally, two melted cast copper alloy cylinders and a number of fragmentary pieces were recovered from the cremation debris of the burial pit at Folly

Lane, Verulamium. The published report provides three possible interpretations for these rather enigmatic tubes: part of a musical instrument, part of a sceptre, or a furniture fitting. They could have formed two sections of a wind instrument such as a trumpet or even a carnyx. The segments do not reveal perforations or anything that resembles a mouth piece and so its identification as a instrument remains speculative

(Foster 1999, 155-6, Fig.59.21).

Another group of objects which demonstrate evidence for possible pastime activity

enjoyed by some individuals are a small number of gaming boards and counters.

Seven of the thirteen graves are from Verulamium: six from the King Harry Lane

cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989) and one from an isolated grave of Claudian date

found close to the Silchester Gate (Niblett & Reeves 1990). The remainder were

found at the sites of Stanfordbury A, Welwyn Garden City; Stanway (3 examples) and

Alton. Among the most extraordinary items recovered from the Welwyn Garden City

burial was a number of iron objects which may represent the fittings of a wooden

gaming board and 24 glass gaming pieces. The counters are blue, yellow, white and

green in colour, domed in shape with a smooth surface, and flat base. The iron fittings

comprised two hinges, a boss, four clamps and six nails and could have belonged to a

single board, some c. 600mm square with the boss occupying a central position, possibly a cup for the gaming pieces (Stead 1967). Stanfordbury A did not reveal evidence of a gaming board but five possible gaming pieces were recorded. They

261 comprised four white stones and a single black example, oblong shaped, convex at the top, with a flat base (Dryden 1845).

The two 'Welwyn-type' burials (BF64 and CF47) from the Stanway cemetery, Essex revealed evidence of gaming boards and sets of counters. In one example (CF47), a substantial part of the wooden board had survived intact comprising two pieces of wood, protected at each corner by a copper alloy fitting and with hinges at the junctions. The gaming board had been placed in a long wooden box which had been deposited in the deepest part of the grave. The board was open and 26 gaming counters, thirteen white and thirteen black, were found set out and a few pieces moved as if the game was in progress. The cremated remains had been placed on top of the gaming board either heaped in a pile or contained within some sort of bag. In the second instance (BF64), the gaming board consisted of a piece of timber with four right-angled comer copper alloy bindings and two junction pieces or hinges, hi this case twenty glass counters, nine white and eleven black, were found in a pile next to the board, perhaps originally in a small bag. In addition, to the 'Welwyn-type' graves

from Stanway which produced gaming equipment one of the mortuary chambers

(CF42) revealed a dark blue glass gaming counter that probably originated from a board game (Crummy 1993; 1997a; 1997b; Crummy & Crummy 2000, 80-4). At

Alton, Hampshire one of a small group of burials (2) partly examined in 1860 and

substantially excavated in 1980 contained a range of grave goods including gaming equipment (Millet 1987, 53-8). Of particular interest are the nine glass gaming

counters, a die (now missing) and the remains of a probable gaming board represented by four copper alloy plates. A drop handle, affixed by means of split pins, enabled the board to be carried or hung away when not in use. There is a slight suggestion that

262 two of the King Harry Lane graves (Graves 117 and 309) may have been associated with possible gaming boards although no corresponding counters were found. The graves revealed evidence of possible hinged boards, one of which was originally covered in leather (117), and represented by two copper alloy hinges and a handle.

Five other graves are associated with gaming pieces including fragments of two burnt

bone dice (20); two plano-convex glass counters (9); the remains of burnt bone pegs

(38 and 148); and 21 unburnt bone pegs (249) (Stead & Rigby 1989,108-10).

Likewise, the grave found near the Silchester Gate in Verulamium contained twenty

paste gaming counters scattered over the contents of the grave (Niblett & Reeves

1990).

5.7 'Wehvyn-Type' Burials

The Welwyn group, named after the type-site in Hertfordshire (Stead 1967; Smith

1912), has a fairly tight distribution north of the Thames. The majority of burials

concentrate in Hertfordshire, Essex and Bedfordshire although the known distribution

extends to Buckinghamshire in the west, and Cambridgeshire in the north. In 1967

Stead listed sixteen 'Welwyn-type' burials characterised as cremation burials usually

placed in large rectangular grave-pits housing a wide range of grave goods of British

and continental manufacture (Stead 1967). There is always at least one amphora along

with a quantity of pottery and usually imported bronze, silver or glass vessels. Stead

categorised eight definite cremation burials as well as a farther eight probable

examples; this number has subsequently risen to a minimum of 23 (Table 5.12). Stead

included the Harpenden burial as a probable example but it is omitted here on the basis that an amphora was not recorded from the grave. Over the course of the last 35 years four more 'Welwyn-type* burials have been recorded including Baldock,

263

4 4

845)

and and

studs

3 3

bottles; bottles;

plating, plating,

1 1

oak oak

missing missing

floor floor

with with

2 2

2 2

bracelet

3.05m, 3.05m,

No No

end end

Beds.

x x

knobbed knobbed

sheet sheet

(now (now

small small

B, B,

recorded

grave grave

shale shale

a a

bowl; bowl;

tiles. tiles.

Dryden Dryden

Tbox/litter

(TTitus); (TTitus);

strap strap

4.05 4.05

unrecorded unrecorded

with with

the the

brooches; brooches;

by by

associated associated

bone bone

of of

urn; urn;

with with

from from

2 2

coin coin

with with

?samian

handles, handles,

beads; beads;

bars bars

tweezers tweezers

2 2

deep, deep,

staples- staples-

noted noted

unknown

iron iron

beads

1.50 1.50

iron iron

staples; staples;

4 4

amber amber ?

Pedestal Pedestal

Roman Roman

but but

2 2

Stanfordbury Stanfordbury silver silver

Quantity Quantity

Fittings Fittings

cremated cremated

Buckle Buckle

2: 2: terminals terminals

Rectangular Rectangular

pottery pottery covered covered

box- box-

of of

spits; spits;

grave

floor floor jug; jug;

hooks hooks

3.05m, 3.05m,

2 2

Beds.

x x

1845)

14

recorded recorded

A, A,

bowl; bowl;

samian samian

grave grave

boss

stone stone

fragments fragments

tiles. tiles.

3 3 (missing (missing

4.05 4.05

Dr. Dr.

5 5

attached attached

the the

smashed smashed

1 1

bone bone

firedogs; firedogs;

throughout throughout

iron iron

Dryden Dryden

with with

counters

of of

shield shield

only only

mail mail

of of

with with

shallow shallow

in in

flute, flute,

recorded

least least

deep, deep,

rings; rings;

at at

mass mass

pairs pairs

gaming gaming

1.50 1.50 Bone Bone

riveted riveted

& &

noted noted

?

2 2

Large Large

6: 6:

tripod tripod

pottery pottery patella; patella;

scattered scattered

cups cups

Cremated Cremated

Rectangular Rectangular

covered covered

Stanfordbury Stanfordbury A A

in in

from from

urns

found found

hoops hoops

Beds.

vessel

bone bone

vessels

pedestal pedestal

Hill, Hill,

bucket bucket

shale shale

unknown

iron iron

shale shale

wooden wooden

2: 2:

a a

2 2

2 2

Cremated Cremated

the the

Quints Quints

Type Type

Beds.

mirror mirror

Warden, Warden,

details

?coins

IIIB

l:Dr.lB

Decorated Decorated

No No

Old Old

burial burial

Beds.

surface

from from

quantity

Moor, Moor,

Cremation Cremation

burials

1.2m 1.2m

unknown

1: 1:

Unknown Unknown

?samian

finds finds

Probable Probable

Maulden Maulden

'Welwyn-type' 'Welwyn-type'

of of

List List

Pottery

objects

bones

objects

objects

Objects objects

Pottery

5.12: 5.12:

objects

Other Other

Glass Glass

Animal Animal

Wooden Wooden

Iron Iron

Bronze Bronze

Silver Silver

Local Local

Imported Imported

Amphorae

Grave

Table Table

to ON

3 3

Essex

burial burial

mounts; mounts;

with with

swing swing

bowl

details

handle handle

cremation cremation

bucket bucket

& &

bands, bands,

Chesterford, Chesterford,

IB

bronze bronze

further further

l:Dr. l:Dr.

Great Great

small small

Wooden Wooden

Probable Probable

no no

handle, handle,

bronze bronze

all all

& &

litter litter

angle angle

& &

grave

4 4

were were

the the

iron iron

platters, platters,

sheep sheep

cremated cremated

remains remains

1.95m 1.95m

bone bone

the the

spikes, spikes,

of of

& &

cremated cremated

to to

x x The The

buckle, buckle,

knife knife

plating plating

spikes, spikes,

cups, cups,

object

bowl, bowl,

iron iron

& &

4 4

beakers

with with

close close

centre centre

irons. irons.

structure structure

bones, bones,

this this

2.85m 2.85m

triangular triangular

Cremated Cremated

Cambs.

with with

butt butt

in in

decorative decorative

bronze bronze

the the

remains, remains,

dominating dominating

armlet; armlet;

box box

armlet armlet

bird bird

hooks, hooks,

& &

mixed mixed

found found

in in

angle angle

boss; boss;

7-11

2 2

or or

deep. deep.

more more

ox, ox,

Gallo-Belgic Gallo-Belgic

Dr. Dr.

bowls

or or

5 5

1.2m 1.2m

11: 11:

remains

hooks, hooks, Shield Shield

toggles toggles contained contained

tooth cremated cremated

Pig, Pig,

associated associated

studs

structure structure

Litter Litter embossed embossed

toggles, toggles, irons

flagons flagons

Buckle Buckle

3: 3: Snailwell, Snailwell,

2: 2:

remains; remains;

knife; knife;

Rectangular Rectangular

heaped heaped

a a

6- 6-

a a

& &

with with

cremated cremated

from from

vessels

Cambs.

3 3

vessels

fire-dogs fire-dogs

associated associated

Tumulus; Tumulus;

recorded recorded

gang-chain

of of

least least

unknown

1: 1:

Pair Pair

man man

At At

large large

Barton, Barton,

pottery pottery

Finds Finds

bone bone

a a

& &

mirror

125g 125g

in in

the the

below below

carinated carinated

the the

IIIB

unidentified

timber timber

held held

level level

remains

1.5m 1.5m

with with

rounded rounded

& &

Type Type

contained contained

2-4 2-4

box box

with with

which which

1.9m, 1.9m,

charred charred

ground ground

mirror mirror

x x

Dr. Dr.

of of

cremated cremated

bone bone

box box

Buckinghamshire

band band

multi-cordoned multi-cordoned

& &

IB, IB,

wooden wooden

2.4m 2.4m

large large

flagons

Dr. Dr.

lengths lengths

: :

: :

8 8

charcoal

Wooden Wooden

mirror mirror

1 1

corners

Oblong Oblong

Decorated Decorated

cup

3 3

small small

2: 2:

cremated cremated

Oval Oval

undisturbed undisturbed

Dorton, Dorton,

Beds.

burials

Abbey, Abbey,

2-4

details

Dr. Dr.

2: 2:

Woburn Woburn

No No

of'Welwyn-type' of'Welwyn-type'

List List

Pottery

objects

bones

objects

objects

objects

Objects

Pottery

5.12: 5.12:

objects

Other Other

Glass Glass

Animal Animal

Wooden Wooden

Iron Iron

Bronze Bronze

Silver Silver

Local Local

Imported Imported

Amphorae

Grave

Table Table

O\ N) 1m

on

which

copper

a

box

4

piece

(149g)

copper-

to

2.00m,

gaming

nails

flagon,

&

board alloy strainer 8

20-30

x

13

fragments

Essex

remains

box

iron

a

Gallo-Belgic

iron

wooden

pan;

with

2.45

studs;

4

in

bead;

attached copper

counters

textile

bowls

gaming Gaulish

CF47,

tray

board

large brooches; jet

kit; &

alloy

bowl,

alloy

the

7-11

brooch;

Cremated

2

with

rings

rods;

placed

of South

gaming

Dr.

iron

1:

13:

Stanway

Rectangular deep.

was

top samian 1

Copper platters alloy

bowl;

wooden

copper

fittings; Wooden

board

26

surgical

Annular

alloy

&

the

a

iron

blue

bowl

of

box

shield

blue

2.0m,

remains

copper

1

platters

cup

x

gaming

bowl; Essex

brooches

&

bowl;

small

2

possibly

centre

with

20

Gaulish

additional

a

armlet;

2.6m

beaker

fragmentary

(140g)

glass

clear

the

Gaulish

pan; &

2-4

BF64,

Cremated

1

bead;

board

bottle

furniture

object

from

alloy

on

fragments South

coloured

held floor

Gallo-Belgic

point;

of

fittings;

jug;

deep. 8

Flagon

Central

white

Dressel

1m

1

10:

Stanway

Rectangular

heaped grave

2:

bowls; Copper &

boss; spear Fittings which alloy gridiron Gaming

wooden

& counters; piece Amber Textile unguent

(4)

&

a

least

sheet

small

of

at

a

9-11

long

bone

one

of

bowls

link,

10

?Gallo-

Dr.

pairs

Essex

contained

&

2.

survive

bead

least

2

of

&

at

&

hinge,

not

(1)&

cremated

excavated,

spit;

which

remnants

Bures,

bead

platters deep

IB did

bars:

No

bottle

quantity

fully

box

Dr.

45m

iron

handles,

1.

Mount

wide. Vast recorded Not Belgic 6: which firedogs

oak glass 2 plating- probable

2

Bottle,

burial

type

details

Essex

cremation

further

?2:Dr.lB& globular/Spanish Lindsall,

Probable no

base

burial

bronze

&

sheet

&

burials

Essex

rim

handle

shallow

details

cremation

2-4

patera

handle,

further

Dr.

1:

fragment fragments; ?3

Jug

pan;

Heybridge, Probable no

of'Welwyn-type'

List

Pottery

objects

bones

objects

objects

Objects

Pottery

5.12: objects

objects

Imported Amphorae Glass Local Silver Bronze Wooden Other Grave Iron Animal

Table

ON Ox remains

2.4m,

bottom

x

Herts.

cremated

grave

2.7m

of

on

IB

Dr.

1

suggestion Mardlebury, Rectangular

deposited

?2:

Herts.

IB

Hadham,

Dr.

1

details

Little

No ?2:

at

to

&

bead

shears;

a

jars,

wide,

bronze

handles

attached

pins,

of

amongst

suffered

cover;

rods,

studs,

&

2m

glass

handle

fragmentary

iron

adhering

with

x

barrel

Herts.

sheath;

part

had

&

the

found

Cremated

handle

hooks,

bands,

bronze

white

enamel

plating

2.6m

urns,

wooden

alloy

with

which

&

ring

Heath,

leather

iron

structure

with deep.

(7.5g)

a

roundels

associated

bowl;

alloy

IB

clamps,

impressions

with

iron

&

1m

ring

pedestal copper

shears

bronze

:

plate

1

1 l:Dr.

fragments

least Hertford disturbance Rectangular ironwork remains copper the associated 21 strips, sheet bowls Knife

perhaps nails, tweezers; to box/litter Ribbed

Iron

textile the

at

an

&

grave

burnt

with

probably with

3 mixed

remains

the

the

Herts.

in

in

bead

ring-handles;

diameter

Cremated

buckets

dishes

in

cauldron

iron

skeleton;

glass

cremated

phalanges

2

deep.

Baldock,

centrally

1.6m

& pig

contained

attachments

wooden

shallow

bear

1A

bronze

green

0.6m

Tene human

of

rim of

Dr.

burials

1:

iron least (10g) Large 2pairoffiredogs cauldron pair Pair bronze The remains Circular Unburnt Small brown

intrusive with

Welwyn-type'

of

List

Pottery

objects

bones

objects

objects

Objects

Pottery 5.12:

objects

objects

Local Bronze Amphorae Glass Imported Silver Wooden Animal Iron Other

Grave

Table

to ON Herts.

1

details

Westmil],

No

3?Dr.

the

&

46-

with &

in

screen

Herts.

vessel

floor

bead

charred

grave

fittings;

2.20m

vessel

bear

Cremated

6

bronze

cleaner;

x

the

phalanges

brooch

brooch

City,

the

bowls,

on

possible

fittings; with

of grave

nail

flagon

deep.

tripod

bear

bronze

a

burnt

3.20m

back-fill

urns,

&

the

distorted

cremation;

iron

knife counters,

&

possible

Garden fittings

with the

sector

bowl;

cups,

from

heaped

fragments

1.20m

brown

together

in

IB

with

mat; with

iron

platters

flagons

pedestal

studs

gaming

Dr. least 2

vessels

burnt

Welwyn Rectangular at

5:

remains mixed phalanges 3: lid, northern 33: Strainer;

Cup beakers,

Triangular 48

2 Straw partitioning board with 6 found 24 bracelet fragments

timber

ring

sizes;

handle

2

deep

tazza

in

&

1.5m

tankard

Herts.

studs

urn

B,

frame

jug;

IB knob;

a

Dr.

Pedestal

cups

Rectangular 5:

Welwyn Patera;

2: Firedog with 2

face

handle

human

deep

bowl;

tazza

&

of

1.5m

Herts.

urn

miniature

A,

3

handle

IB

offiredogs

&

jug;

a

Pedestal

pair

burials

1

l:Dr.

of

Base

Rectangular

Welwyn 2: masks

'Welwyn-type'

of

List

Pottery

objects

bones

objects

objects

Objects

Pottery 5.12:

objects

objects

Amphorae Imported Local

Other Silver Bronze Animal Glass

Iron Wooden Grave

Table

ON

oo Hertfordshire (Stead 1968; Stead 1986), Dorton, Buckinghamshire (Parley 1983), and two from Stanway, Essex (Crummy 1993; 1997a; 1997b; Crummy & Crummy 2000).

In addition, four probable examples are added which include Dressel 1 amphorae:

Heybridge, Essex (Peacock 1971, 184), Great Chesterford, Essex (Fitzpatrick 1985,

324), Old Warden, Bedfordshire (ibid. 326) and from nearby Quints Hill (Fox, 1923,

98-9, Pl.15.3; Whimster 1981, 355).

The majority of the graves are rectangular and compare favourably in size with one another: Hertford Heath, Welwyn Garden City, Snailwell, Stanway BF64, Stanway

CF47 and Mardlebury range from 2.5-3.20m in length and between 1.95-2.20m in width (Figs.5.12 & 5.13). The majority of the graves appear to have a depth of between 1-1.5m where measurements are available. The Stanfordbury burials were substantially larger than the rest; the dimensions of the Welwyn burials were not recorded; and Mount Bures was not completely excavated. A burial discovered at

Baldock, Hertfordshire (Stead 1986; 1971; 1986) (see title cover image this thesis) and another from Dorton, Buckinghamshire (Parley 1983) (Fig.4.10) were assigned to the 'Welwyn-type' although they were found to occupy roughly circular grave pits.

The Welwyn Garden City, Snailwell, Dorton, Baldock and Stanway burials contained the most complete grave groups. It is, however, difficult to make similar comparisons with the other discoveries because they were either not completely excavated or details were not fully recorded. In addition, a number of the graves were surrounded by small clusters of cremation burials including Hertford Heath, Welwyn, Welwyn

Garden City, Stanway, and Baldock. At Hertford Heath and Welwyn Garden City there are some indications that the graves may have been associated with enclosing ditches or barrows.

269 Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire

1 Gaming pieces 2 Beads and bracelet fragments 3 Silver cup 4 Bronze strainer 5 Bronze dish 6 Bronze nail cleaner 7 Bronze studs 8 Wooden vessel 9 Wooden vessel 10 Wooden board with iron fittings 11 Wooden vessel with iron fittings 12 Triangular iron knife 13 Wooden object with iron fittings A Amphorae

Snailwell, Cambridgeshire

1 Bronze Armlet 2 Iron knife 3 Bronze Buckle 4 Iron structural fittings 5 Bronze bowl 6 Shield boss A Amphorae J Jug P Platter TTazza

2m

Fig.5.12 Plan of the 'Welwyn-type' cremation burials from Welwyn Garden City (After Stead 1967, Fig.4) and Snailwell (After Lethbridge 1953, Fig.l )

270 It has proved difficult to date the * Welwyn-type' burials accurately but Stead used the

occurrence of imported bronze and pottery vessels to establish two distinct phases

(Stead 1967). An earlier 'Welwyn Phase' defined by the presence of bronze vessels

and silver cups and dated to 50 10BC. The Lexden Phase is characterised by the

presence of imported Gallo-Belgic or samian pottery and dates to c. 10BC - AD50.

Welwyn or Phase I: Baldock, Welwyn A and B, Hertford Heath, Welwyn

Garden City, Dorton

Lexden or Phase II: Mount Bures, Snailwell, Stanfordbury A and B, Stanway

BF64 and CF47

The combination of objects deposited in the Stanway and Baldock graves along with

their location immediately suggests comparison with the other 'Welwyn-type' burials.

Perhaps of greater significance is the fact that they are associated with complex

mortuary-related landscapes and occur at opposite ends of the chronological

timeframe. A single amphora of the Dressel 1A type was recovered from the Baldock

burial. This type of amphora appears early in the second half of the second century

BC and is not replaced until the occurrence of the IB variant c. 50 BC (Peacock 1977;

1981; 1984). This is the only example of the early variant to have been found in a

cremation grave in Britain (Stead 1986, 51-61). Those from the other burials at

Welwyn, Welwyn Garden City, Hertford Heath (Stead 1967), Mardlebury, Little

Hadham, West Mill (Peacock 1971), Great Chesterford and Old Warden (Fitzpatrick

1985) are Dressel IB. The amphora could have been an odd survival, but its presence here raises the possibility that the Baldock grave belongs to the first half of the first century BC, if not the second century (Stead 1986).

271 At Hertford Heath the only imports are the amphora and glass bowl and the pottery vessels comprise local products similar to the Welwyn burials (Hussen 1983, 8-13).

Welwyn Garden City has similarities with the Welwyn burials in its silver cups, pottery and amphorae. The grave contained 36 pottery vessels, only three of which were imports. Gallo-Belgic wares were distinctly absent from the assemblage suggesting a date in the final quarter of the first century BC (Stead 1967). The Dorton burial also provides difficulties in precise dating; there are no bronze or glass vessels and only three ceramic ones. The pottery consists of two double-handled flagons, one of which is closely paralleled by the white slipped flagon in the Welwyn Garden City burial (Stead 1967, Fig.9.41). The petrology suggests that the fabric originated in the

Massif Central, suggesting an origin in Central Gaul (Parley 1983). The third vessel, a grog-tempered carinated cup, is a locally manufactured vessel (Thompson 1982 type

El-1). The burials from Welwyn, Hertford Heath, Welwyn Garden City, and Dorton are all devoid of Gallo-Belgic wares and are attributed to the Welwyn Phase. The

Dorton burial is perhaps the latest and straddles the Phase I-II transition.

The finds from Stanfordbury (AD35-45) were considered to be the latest of the

Lexden Phase burials until the discovery of the Stanway examples. The Stanfordbury burials were certainly associated with samian ware but unfortunately it was confused with similar pottery from the nearby cemetery of Shefford (Dryden 1845; Stead

1967). During the 1990s a range of mortuary-related features distributed within five ditched enclosures including at least nine cremation burials were excavated from

Stanway (Crummy 1992; 1993; 1997a; 1997b; Crummy & Crummy 2000). They were all accompanied by grave-goods, in most cases modest in number and form, but in two cases (BF64 and CF47) burials fitting the 'Welwyn-type' criteria contained

272 numerous objects and vessels, including samain ware and imported material. The graves have been dated to between c. AD40-60. The Mount Bures burial is believed to have contained a large quantity of pottery vessels including Gallo-Belgic forms along with only one Dressel IB amphora out of six. It cannot be more precisely dated than c. 10BC- AD50 and is therefore attributed to the Lexden Phase (Smith 1852; Stead

1967).

Three of the 'Welwyn-type' burials comprise Gallo-Belgic wares as part of their respective assemblages and consist of a range of the most popular table wares including drinking cups and platters in terra sigillata, terra rubra, terra nigra. The vessels from the Snailwell burial comprise thirteen pottery vessels including just two locally made bowls. The remainder of the group comprises Gaulish imports including two single-handled flagons, three two-handled lagenes and six Gallo-Begic platters,

cups and beakers (Lethbridge 1953; Thompson 1982). A similar occurrence is

apparent at Stanway, Grave BF64 consisted of at least twelve pottery vessels almost

certainly all imports. The vessels included eight Gallo-Belgic pottery vessels: six terra nigra bowls and platters, a large terra rubra pedestal bowl, a small terra rubra bowl, a terra sigillata slip-coated cup, a terra sigillata bowl, a beaker and a flagon.

The other Stanway burial (CF47) consists of eleven Gallo-Belgic platters and cups, partly in terra rubra and terra nigra, along with a south Gaulish flagon and a decorated samian bowl. It is suggested that the vessels in these three burials represent the pinnacle of style and fashion and are regarded as individual dinner services or sets

(Crummy 1993; 1997a; Crummy & Crummy 2000).

273 0.5 1 metre gaming, potfery counter flagon beaker /

gaming board copper-aBoy pan brooch wooden box amber glass bowl copper-alloy 8fTOl8t bead iron spearhead

amphora ?§ridiron wooden object

wooden i-"-1 object

olwoodanJxut

Fig.5.13 'Welwyn-type' Burials BF64 (top) and CF47 (bottom) from Stanway, Essex (After Crummy 1997a)

274 The burials include a rich and varied collection of material including ceramic, bronze and silver vessels, amphorae, glassware, hearth furniture, board games and counters, musical instruments, brooches, jewellery, medical instruments, toilet instruments

decorated mirrors, gang chains, shield bosses, and evidence of textiles and organic

material. It is evident that many of the deposited objects focus on the notion of

feasting, and it could be argued particularly on the consumption of alcohol. Alcoholic

consumption plays a ritual role in many societies; it is a mood-altering substance,

which is employed to induce a trance-like state to assist communication with the

supernatural world and the domain of the ancestors. The range of feasting associated

equipment accompanying these burials is extremely variable. Bronze pans, bowls,

cauldrons, strainers, cups and jugs, silver cups, bronze and iron-bound buckets are all

associated with mixing, pouring, and consumption of beverages. Amphorae were used

not only to transport wine from the Mediterranean but also olive and fish oils

(Williams & Peacock 1983). Pottery vessels range from large lageneas and flagons to

beakers, along with jars, drinking cups and platters, both locally made and imported

from Gaul. One of the most recently excavated ' Welwyn-type' burials from Stanway,

Essex (CF47) highlights the emphasis placed upon objects associated with feasting

and ceremonial display (Crummy 1997a; 1997b).

The grave contained a 'dinner service' of eleven Gallo-Belgic platters and cups,

which were carefully laid out covering a quarter of the floor. Close to this

arrangement of pottery, a tray or low table with copper alloy fittings had been placed

in the grave. It overlay an imported flagon, and resting on its surface was a decorated

samian bowl, a large copper alloy handled pan and a copper alloy strainer bowl. The only other strainer vessel associated with a 'Welwyn-type' burial was that recovered

275 from the Welwyn Garden City burial (Stead 1967). Remarkably, a small quantity of

well-preserved pollen consisting largely of artemesia was found in the spout of the

Stanway vessel which may have had hallucinogenic properties. The presence of the

pan and the strainer vessel, along with the surgical kit suggests that the objects may

have been used in the preparation of medicinal/herbal remedies or to flavour wine,

mead or ale. Strainer type vessels could have been used to remove additives such as

spices and the organic material preserved in the Stanway vessel is probably the

residue from the last infusion prepared in the bowl. The majority of the 'Welwyn-

type' burials are associated with a combination of similar bronze, silver and glass

vessels which could have been used in the preparation of a whole range of beverages.

The Baldock burial is the only cremation burial from Britain associated with a bronze

and iron cauldron. Ceramic vessels, apart from the Dressel 1A amphora, were absent

from the grave but the cauldron along with the bronze bowls and bronze-bound

wooden buckets could be regarded as a full drinking set used during feasting

ceremonies. Furthermore, a number of the probable ' Welwyn-type' burials are

associated with various bronze vessels. At Heybridge, a fragmentary jug and pan were

recorded (Essex County Council SMR Record 7814), whilst the Great Chesterford

burial contained the remains of a wooden bucket and a bronze bowl (Fox 1923, 105;

Stead 1971).

Other objects associated with the notion of feasting comprise pairs of iron fire-dogs,

spits, and tripods representative of hearth furniture and fittings which were recovered

from six 'Welwyn-type' burials: Barton (Clarke 1821; Fox 1923, 92; Stead 1967, 60);

Stanfordbury A; Welwyn A and B; Mount Bures and Baldock. The Stanfordbury grave included the largest group of hearth-related furniture with two pairs of iron fire-

276 dogs and roasting spits probably used for cooking large cuts of meat. There was also an elaborate iron tripod standing to a height of c. 1.30m, an iron bar attached to a connecting bolt, was used to suspend a number of rings and hooks used to hang vessels for cooking (Dryden 1845,16-7). Interestingly, animal remains were recovered from only two of the burials, although this could be result of adverse soil conditions.

A beef joint, two of pork and a probable chicken were placed amongst the pottery vessels in the Snailwell grave (Lethbridge 1953, 37). Similarly, the Baldock burial yielded a joint of pork surviving as a few articulated bones (Stead 1968; 1986, 53).

The burials are also accompanied by an array of personal ornaments and grooming

objects including a number of brooches, beads, armlets, garment toggles, toilet

instruments, a bronze mirror, knives and a pair of shears. Fragments of a distorted

bronze object, possibly a brooch and the burnt remains of six terminal phalanges of a

brown bear were also found mixed with the cremation (Stead 1967, 42). Similar

evidence was found at Baldock, Hertfordshire and it is possible to suggest that the

bodies were wrapped in bear-skins before being placed on the cremation pyre (Stead

1986, 53). In the 'Welwyn-type' graves the cremated human remains were not

recovered from pottery vessels, as they are in many of the simpler cremation burials

from the region. Instead they have been found heaped towards the centre of the grave

pit enclosed by a variety of structures including small boxes, and a cauldron, as well

as substantial wooden and metal forms. In one of the Stanway burials (BF64) the

calcined remains were found heaped in the centre of the grave surrounded at a short

distance away by an array of objects. The immediate area surrounding the human

remains was clear of any apparent material suggesting that originally they may have

been enclosed within an organic container which has long since perished (Crummy

1993, 495).

277 In a number of the burials it is interesting to consider the various metal fittings which appear to belong to substantial wooden objects. These objects could be interpreted as a device intended to protect the cremated remains and to define an inner burial area.

In effect dividing the grave from an outer area where the majority of the grave goods were deposited. In the Welwyn Garden City grave it is evident that many of the objects and in particular the pottery was crowded together on the floor of the grave in its southern half. The cremated remains were placed centrally within the northern sector and the immediate area surrounding it seems to have been kept clear, although it may have been originally filled with organic material. Immediately below this area

an oblique line appears to run across the grave defined by a scatter of ornamental bronze domed studs, which acts to divide the cremation from the majority of the grave

goods (Fig.5.12). Stead suggests that these studs originally decorated an ash board

apparently forming a barrier across the grave (Stead 1967, 28-29). This object may have been a screen or even a box structure similar to those identified in a number of the 'Welwyn-type' burials. Similar ornamental studs have been found at Welwyn B,

in two different sizes (Smith 1912, 23; Stead 1967, 28) and at Hertford Heath where at

least 21 studs of a more elaborate type were found (Hussen 1983, 13-4; Holmes &

Frend 1959, 7-8; Stead 1967, 28-9).

At Hertford Heath a tiny amount of human cremated bone (7.5g) was recovered from the disturbed western part of the grave pit (Hussen 1983, 5-6). The remains were found amongst a considerable amount of ironwork and bronze fittings including decorative studs. The studs were found both complete and fragmentary and each consists of a dome-shaped body enclosing a bronze frame infilled with opaque red glass, or enamel. Very similar decorative roundels were recovered from the Lexden

278 Tumulus together with a mass of iron bands of different widths, some decorated with bronze, from a possible litter or box (Foster 1985). The Hertford Heath burial also contained numerous iron bands and fittings found amongst a quantity of sheet bronze.

It is probable that the majority of the metal elements belong to a single object and in the absence of nails or nail-holes it seems that they must have bound a circular object.

This suggests an oval tub-like construction occupying the north-eastern sector of the grave (Hussen 1983, 17-20). At Dorton there is evidence of a substantial wooden structure but in this case it appears to have been burnt on the pyre before the charred remains were deposited in the grave. Eight pieces of timber, as well as a heavily mineralised iron band survived. In addition there were two lines of charcoal which almost certainly represent timbers that had been charred on one side before deposition. The iron band clearly lay in the same plane as one of the timber pieces

(408) and the possibility that it bore a functional relationship to the box-like object in the fill cannot be entirely ruled out. Perhaps the fragmentary remains formed some

sort of box or bier, which had been partially charred on the pyre (Parley 1983, 271-8).

Charred timber was also recovered from the backfill of the Welwyn Garden City

grave although its form was indeterminate (Stead 1967, 5). In one of the two burials from Stanfordbury (B), two identical iron bars were found in the south-eastern and

south-western corners of the grave, standing almost upright, c. 0.43 m high and passing through a number of iron staples. In addition two bronze studs were recorded and it is possible that a substantial structure may have originally existed in this grave

(Dryden 1845, 19; Stead 1967, 45).

The graves which provide the most significant evidence of substantial structures come from Stanway (CF47) and Snailwell where some of the grave goods and cremated

279 remains are enclosed in large wooden boxes. At Snailwell the main floor space of the tomb had been taken up by a wooden construction, which had lain approximately east and west along the major axis of the pit, and rather closer to the south side (Fig.5.12).

This wooden construction was indicated by heavy angle irons at its four corners and by iron spikes along its sides. It measured roughly 187.5m long by c. 1.10m wide. The cremated remains were found in the centre of the structure mixed with burnt bone garment toggles (see chapter 4.2). The box also housed a bronze armlet, an iron knife and a bronze buckle. It probably functioned as a litter and the many small fragments of bronze plate and studs may have originally decorated it (Lethbridge 1953; Stead

1967, 45). Finally, the Stanway burial (CF47) contained a wooden box represented by

staining and iron nails which had been placed in the deepest part of the grave fitting tightly across one end (Fig.5.13). A maple gaming board with copper-alloy comer pieces was placed open, with a set of 26 glass gaming counters in position, inside the box. The cremated remains had been placed on top of the gaming board either heaped

in a pile or contained within some sort of bag. Three brooches, a large annular jet bead, a surgical kit and a collection of iron and bronze rods and rings had also been deposited in the box. The remainder of the grave goods, which consisted largely of the pottery and bronze vessels, had been placed on the floor outside of the inner burial area (Crummy 1997a, 338)

At Hertford Heath numerous other iron fittings were found attached to wood by bronze-capped iron nails. Some of these fragments suggest that the fittings may have belonged to a much smaller wooden box (Hiissen 1983, 19). Likewise Stanway BF64 contained a number of iron nails, a copper-alloy lock and two drop-handles representing the presence of a hinged wooden box which probably held the glass bowl

280 (Crummy 1993, 495; Crummy & Crummy 2000, 81). During conservation work on material recovered from the Dorton burial traces of wood fibres and fragments of calcined bone were noted adhering to a clay lump. The remains represent a small oak box approximately 350mm long x 255mm wide x 125mm high, which enclosed the bronze mirror as well as the calcined remains (Parley 1983, 278-81). Two other

'Welwyn-type' burials from Mount Bures and Stanfordbury B contained fragmentary

remains of small boxes which had held glass vessels, beads and toilet instruments

(Smith 1852, 28; Dryden 1845, 18; Htissen 1983, 22; Parley 1983, 281). In both

graves the exact whereabouts of the cremated human remains was not established and

it is not impossible that they may have been enclosed in these small boxes.

The majority of the burials were carefully laid out and the grave goods were deposited

intact but in a limited number of cases some of the objects were smashed or broken in

situ. The burials from Hertford Heath, Snailwell, Stanfordbury (A and B) and

Stanway (CF47) demonstrate limited signs that some of deposited material was

subjected to deliberate damage or fragmentation. Dryden suggested that much of the

pottery from Stanforbury had been smashed in situ (1845, 17 & 19) but others such as

Welwyn Garden City did not produce any evidence of intentional damage (Stead

1967). The majority of the pottery recovered from Snailwell was very fragmentary

and Lethbridge suggested the deliberate smashing of the pottery vessels (Lethbridge

1953, 30). Philip Crummy suggests that the grave (CF47) containing the surgical kit

from Stanway may have been sealed by a wooden lid, which was probably jumped

upon breaking and pushing together a number of the vessels. The strainer had been

flattened, the samian dish split in two, and the bronze dish and flagon had been pushed into one another. In addition, the saw from the surgical kit had been carefully

281 broken and then laid in place (Crummy pers. comm.) This is significant in view of the

Folly Lane Rite to be examined below where the majority of objects are extremely

fragmentary with only token elements of the original objects deposited.

5.8 Fragmentation and the Folly Lane Rite

Deliberately broken and fragmented artefacts, along with disarticulated human and

animal remains form part of many Iron Age deposits, particularly those relating to the

treatment of the dead. Moreover, anthropological studies have pointed out that ritual

practice acts to symbolise the regeneration of life through an endless series of

transformative cycles (Van Gennep 1960; Turner 1967; 1969; Bloch & Parry 1982).

During the late Iron Age cremation rites highlight the notion of transformation from

one state to another through the process of deliberate fragmentation and burning. This

is evident at a number of stages during the course of the mortuary sequence:

Human corpses, animals and inanimate objects were burnt on the funeral pyres

(see chapter 3)

There is limited evidence that some grave goods were deliberately damaged or

broken

In a small number of burials a token deposit of pyre debris was deemed a

significant offerings (see chapter 4)

Token deposits of highly fragmented objects along with cremated bone were

incorporated into the backfill of mortuary chambers (Table 5.13.A-C)

Until the discoveries at Folly Lane, Hertfordshire (Niblett 1999) and Stanway, Essex

(Crummy 1992; 1993; 1997c; Crummy & Crummy 2000) evidence of late Iron Age

282 cemeteries associated with mortuary shafts/chambers similar to those in north Gaul

(Metzler et al 1991, 139; Lambot et al 1994, 200; Bruneaux 1996; Fitzpatrick 2000,

18-20) were unknown. The only possible example was that from Lexden, Essex

(Foster 1986, 167-9) which remained enigmatic since there was no comparable British examples. Niblett (1999, 394) used the evidence from Folly Lane to distinguish a set

o f char acteri stic s:

A large sunken chamber with an associated timber structure

The systematic destruction of the material connected with the mortuary rites

The inclusion of a token amount of human cremated bone and fragmentary

artefacts scattered throughout the backfill of the shaft

The 'Folly Lane Rite' suggests that it was the rituals involving the actual cremation

which were the most symbolic aspect of the mortuary process (Niblett 1999, 394).

This section draws together the evidence from Folly Lane, Stanway and Lexden

which has transformed understanding of the sequence of mortuary practices, leaving

no doubt of the complexity and sophistication of late Iron Age British society.

At Folly Lane, the objects selected for inclusion in the mortuary chamber (Fig.5.14)

consisted of a large quantity of ceramic sherds, as well as numerous fragmentary

pieces of metalwork and a tiny quantity of calcined remains (Table 5.13.B). A

substantial quantity of vessels dated to c. AD50 were found scattered across the base

of the shaft, on the floor of the central structure, and on the surface of the walkway

surrounding it. The assemblage is dominated by platter forms, including sherds of

South Gaulish samian, Gallo-Belgic and local wares. There are also 56 sherds from at

283 Turf mound

\ Burial pit t?''1**^^

to 00

Gravel step

5m

Fig.5.14 Diagramatic section of the mortuary shaft, burial pit and turf stack from Folly Lane (After Nibtett 1999, Fig.22) least four Italian amphorae (Dressel 2-4), and five locally manufactured pottery vessels. Only three sherds show signs of burning all of which came from the backfill of the shaft (Niblett 1999; 44; Rigby 1999,182-193; Williams 1999, 193). Over 60 fragments of metalwork were recovered from the shaft distributed in a similar manner to the pottery. The majority of the metalwork consisted of small pieces of iron and tiny fragments of silver and copper alloy, including 22 droplets of solidified molten bronze. Like the ceramic sherds, none of the copper alloy fragments apart from the

'droplets' displayed signs of burning, while in the case of the ironwork it was not possible to determine whether it had been subjected to burning (Niblett 1999, 45;

Foster et al 1999, 133-182). The amount of cremated remains recovered from the base

of the shaft was tiny (31.4g) and it was not possible to determine whether it was

human or animal. However, the adjacent 'burial pit' contained a slightly larger deposit

(140.6g human and 23.7g animal) which revealed that the human bone was of an

adult, although sex could not be determined due to the paucity of remains (Mays &

Steele, 310). The shaft appears to have been an instrumental feature in the mortuary

proceedings and it is likely that the chamber was used to store body/bodies prior to the

actual cremation. This suggests that the unburnt but fragmentary objects were broken

up and a small proportion deliberately left behind in the base of the shaft. Once the

cremation had taken place, a small quantity of cremated bone, pottery and metalwork

fragments were collected from the pyre debris and scattered into the chamber during backfilling. The ceramics from the Folly Lane shaft date from the period AD45/50-65,

a date with which the remainder of the material from the shaft corresponds. The

excavator of the site suggested a date of around AD55 for the final activity associated with the mortuary shaft (Niblett 1999).

285 This type of activity implies proscribed and ritualised deposition rather than accidental or residual inclusion. This is very similar to the activity conducted at

Lexden and Stanway, Essex where evidence of fragmented material along with a token quantity of cremated remains was found deposited in similar features (Table

5.13.A). Four of the five ditched enclosures excavated at Stanway, Essex are associated with mortuary-related features including four chambers, nine cremation burials and a number of pyre and pyre-related features. The rites associated with the four mortuary chambers (AF25, BF6, BF24, and CF42) (Fig.2.10) involved deliberate breaking and/or burning of objects and depositing only a token portion of the original

in the chamber (Crummy 1993; 1997c). The fragmentary material included small

amounts of cremated human and animal remains, numerous ceramics sherds, burnt

iron and copper alloy material. It is also reasonable to assume that one of the final

ceremonies performed in or near the mortuary chambers was the consumption of a

funeral feast. The floors and backfill of the chambers are associated with numerous

ceramic vessels. The chambers (BF6 and BF24) situated in Enclosures 3 and 4 each

contained sherds from at least twenty different vessels, all of them imported (Crummy

1993, 493-4; 1997b, 337; Crummy & Crummy 2000, 17-19). The Folly Lane chamber

revealed sherds from at least 43 ceramic vessels most of them from amphorae and

tableware (Niblett 1999, 44). The Lexden chamber included a minimum of seventeen

amphorae and up to ten pottery vessels (Rigby 1986, 110-23; Williams 1986, 124-32).

In addition, a number of fragmentary objects including jewellery, gaming counters,

decorative studs, horn veneer, glass and bronze vessels were deposited in the Stanway

chambers. It is suggested that a jewellery box associated with the bead necklace might

have originally existed in one of the chambers (BF24) (Crummy 2000 & Crummy,

286 83). Likewise two tiny fragments of iron stained horn from Lexden (Foster 1986, 142) and a small silver handle from Folly Lane (Foster 1999, 153, Fig.58.17) might have

decorated similar objects. The Stanway chambers contained small quantities of adult

human remains similar to the amount recovered from Folly Lane with deposits of just

18g (AF25), 51g (BF6), 85g (CF24) (Mays & Steele, 310; Simon Mays pers. comm.).

The Lexden chamber revealed a larger deposit of adult calcined human remains,

approximately 346g (Foster 1986, 133-9). These deposits represent only a small

amount of a complete adult cremation which weighs somewhere in the region of

between 1000-2400g (Mclvinley 1997, 68). Interestingly, the chamber (CF42) situated

in Enclosure 5 at Stanway did not reveal human remains but a burnt deposit of

cattle/horse teeth (200g) (Wade 2000, 55; Simon Mays pers. comm.). It is apparent

that the burial of substantial quantities of cremated bone in the shafts did not

constitute an important part of the mortuary ritual.

Table 5.13: List of material recovered from the Stanway, Folly Lane and Lexden mortuary chambers

A. Stanway, Essex Enclosure Chamber Contents 1 Chamber A/ 2 smashed local pottery vessels AF25 Small fragments of iron, copper-alloy and organic material Cremated bone (unidentified 1 8g) Burnt animal bone (5g-cattle/horse teeth) 3 Chamber B/ 24 (minimum) smashed imported pottery vessels BF6 Amphorae sherds 2 Dr. 2-4 (1 Spanish) Cremated bone (adult 5 Ig) ?Burnt animal bone (1 lOg-horse teeth) Distorted fragments of copper alloy- small fragments possible remnants of a suite of brooches Small copper-alloy pedestal base-figurine Fragment of stout copper-alloy shaft-strainer vessel ?Bone and copper-alloy object Iron buckle loop, implies the presence of a leather strap-garment/armour c. 50 iron nails Straw 4 Chamber C/ 20 (minimum) smashed imported pottery vessels BF24 Cremated bone (adult 85g) Small burnt fragments of iron, copper-alloy and mineral-replaced wood Iron nails

287 Clear tubular unguent bottle 37 beads; 31 small light green opaque glass paste spacer beads, 4 long translucent dark green barrel beads, self-coloured hexagonal-section cylinder bead, and a possible iron clasp-necklace of South Gaulish or Italian manufacture 4 extremely thin plaques of sawn horn veneer, 3 roughly rectangular and 1 triangular- veneers from a Tjewellery box Chamber D/ Smashed pottery (approx. 10 vessels) CF42 ?Burnt animal bone (200g-cattle/horse teeth) Copper-alloy round-bowled spoon, Roman form c. SO nails 3 smashed glass vessels- clear tubular unguent bottle; polychrome dish, blue and white with yellow splashes; numerous small amber chips Dark blue glass gaming counter 3 blue and yellow/blue and white glass studs, all perforated at one end, and one with a narrow iron shank Fragments of iron, lead, and organic material Animal tooth fragments (200g)______

B. Folly Lane, Hertfordshire Contents • Pottery sherds from 3 imported vessels- beakers and flagon • Pottery sherds from at least 19 local vessels- platters, cups, bowls, jar, and kostrel • Samian sherds (75) from at least 13 possibly 17 vessels- platters and bowls • Amphorae sherds (56) at least 4, possibly 6, Dr. 2-4 • Cremated bone (33g)- it was no possible to determine if human/animal • Pressure flake ovate • Metalwork over 60 fragments • Droplets of solidified copper alloy • Terminal iron firedog (14*) • Square sectioned iron bar- chair/stool (16*) • Z-shaped wrought iron bar- latch lifter (41*) • Rectangular iron plate with overlapping wood fragments (43*) • 15 iron nails • Copper alloy stud (30*) • Copper alloy rivets (34, 35, 37*) • 2 copper alloy domed rivets fixed to strip of copper alloy sheet- bucket binding (35*) • Fragment of heavy curved bronze bar (46*)______• The numbers relate to the catalogue of finds in the excavation report (Niblett 1999)

C. Lexden, Essex______Contents______• Amphorae sherds (1,055) at least 6 Dr. IB and 11 Dr. 2-4 • Pottery sherds of at least 10 vessels (5 provenance uncertain) • Cremated bone (adult male & perhaps second young adult 346g) • Copper alloy foot (4*), iron bars (131-9*), 6 copper alloy pins with red glass inlay (17-22*)- stool/chair • 6 Copper alloy studs (9-14*), 4 round-headed iron pins (122-25*)- couch/litter • Bronze discs (26-46), bronze bracket (47*), iron bars & plates (70-107*), iron studs (108-10*)- large box/casket • Copper alloy fragment- vessel (48*) • Copper alloy handle (50*), 2 silver buckles (51-52*), silver bars (53-55*)- small box • Copper alloy axehead (49*) • Copper alloy pedestal- figurine (15*) • Copper alloy stand- candleabrum (16*) • Copper alloy cupid figurine (1 *) • Copper alloy boar figurine (2*)______

288 Copper alloy bull figurine (3*) Copper-alloy jug (8*) Copper-alloy griffin- handle/mount (5*) Copper-alloy vine leaf plates or escutheons- bowl (6-7*) Copper-alloy studs- furniture fittings (23-24*) Iron chain-mail (56) with associated bronze buckles (57-58*), 2 hinges (59*), 5 silver studs (60-64*) Iron ferrules (112-16), hollow iron bars (117-21)- large wooden structure 65 iron nails (126-30*) 2 silver grain stems (65*) 60+ silver trefoil ornaments-garment/cloth ornaments (66*) 216 short silver bars- garment/cloth ornaments (67*) Silver medallion of Augustus (68*) Gold thread- garment/cloth (69*) 17 leather fragments 2 tiny fragments of worked horn Textile fragments adhering to axehead (49*) Grass fragments adhering to pedestal base (15*) 4 pieces of charcoal Uncharred wood fragments______The numbers relate to the catalogue of finds in the excavation report (Foster 1986)

All four Stanway chambers revealed similar deposits but the amount of debris varied considerably from chamber to chamber. A scatter of cremated bone (18g), burnt cattle/horse teeth (5g), sherds from two grog-tempered pottery vessels and a small quantity of fragmentary iron, copper alloy and organic material were found scattered on the floor and throughout the backfill of the chamber located in Enclosure 1. The largest mortuary chamber (BF6) was the example located in Enclosure 3, measuring c.

4 x 3.4 m in area and c. 1.0 m deep (Crummy 1993, 492). The finds included c. 50 nails, a small copper alloy pedestal, droplets of molten copper alloy, and a small quantity of cremated bone (5 Ig). Scattered throughout the backfill but concentrated towards the lowest levels and the floor were fragments of at least 24 smashed pottery vessels. Fragments of four glass vessels were recovered from the chamber within

Enclosure 5 (CF42) including a bottle, a large dish, and an unidentified amber- coloured vessel, as well as a bottle from the chamber (BF24) in Enclosure 4. These vessels are extremely fragmentary, and had clearly been deliberately smashed during the mortuary rituals (Crummy 2000, 101-4). The two 'Welwyn-type' burials (BF64

289 and CF47) from Stairway contained intact wooden gaming boards and counters but a single gaming piece was also recovered amongst the objects from the chamber (CF42) in Enclosure 5. It appears that the gaming board and counters suffered a similar fate to the many of objects associated with the chambers (Crummy & Crummy 2000, 84).

The activities conducted at Stanway represent a complex and continuous mortuary tradition with a sequence of deposits dating from at least c. 50BC to c. ADSO.The chamber situated in Enclosure 1 is the earliest and smallest of the four discovered across the site. The absence of imported vessels from the chamber and two associated cremations burials (AF18, AF48) suggests a date in the first century BC. The vessels present in all three contexts are wheel-thrown and the types are not convincingly early, the dating is broadly 25BC to AD60. The chamber in Enclosure 3 contained amphorae fragments of two vessels of form Dressel 2-4 and fit into a narrow chronological band of c. AD20-60. The mortuary chambers associated with Enclosure

4 and 5 contained large quantities of imported pottery dated c. AD60-80. The evidence suggests that deposition began in Enclosure 1 during the first century BC

and ended as late as AD60-80 with deposits Enclosures 4 and 5 (Crummy 1997c; pers.

comm. Crummy & Crummy 2000).

The Lexden tumulus was investigated in the early 1920s by Laver who described a large barrow over 30m in diameter sealing a central grave surrounded by an oval ditch

(Laver 1927, 242). However, Jenny Foster's re-interpretation of Laver's comprehensive records in the 1980s elaborates upon the original discovery which has particular relevance to Folly Lane and Stanway. Foster suggested the presence of a large shaft rather than a formal grave beneath the barrow, approximately 2.15m deep and 8m square. Furthermore, it is probable that a rectangular timber chamber

290 occupied the shaft measuring c. 5m by 7.5m (Foster 1986, 169-70). The material deposited in the Lexden chamber is also very similar, largely broken, unbumt, and in several instances incomplete (Table 5.13.C). However, the most significant difference between the Lexden and Folly Lane/Stanway chambers is the volume of material. The chamber contained the often incomplete remains of pottery vessels, amphorae, various iron and copper alloy furniture fittings, copper alloy vessels and figurines, iron chain mail, silver ornaments, gold thread, a silver medallion, and a quantity of organic material. Numerous fragmentary, broken or incomplete pieces of furniture form the basis of the assemblage, which was placed on the floor around the outer edges of the chamber with a largely empty space towards the centre. A middle Bronze Age

axehead was recovered from the chamber (ibid. 77-80) and it certainly appears to have been a deliberate inclusion. It is interesting that a flint pressure flaked ovate

dating from the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age was recovered from the lowest fill

of the shaft at Folly Lane (Niblett 1999, 45). It appears that perhaps these much older

artefacts played an unknown but significant part in the rituals. In the northern half of the grave amphorae sherds were abundant and Foster suggested that they were broken up and the pieces incorporated at different levels in the backfill. Small heaps of cremated remains were found scattered across the floor of the shaft, amounting to

346g (Foster 1986). During the excavation, Laver felt that the stratigraphy of the entire northern part of the grave had been disturbed. The condition of the finds from the grave appeared to Laver to support the theory of robbing (Laver 1927). In light of the discoveries from Stanway and Folly Lane and along with those from the continent, it seems likely that the Lexden objects were deliberately broken and deposited during the mortuary rituals. The pottery vessels and amphorae are all broken, some very fragmentary, and the bronze, silver and gold objects are either small pieces or

291 fragmentary. The date of the assemblage is largely based upon the association of

Dressel IB and Dressel 2-4 amphorae which suggest a date in about the last 15 years

BC. Likewise, a denarius of Augustus provides a terminus post quern of 17BC, and therefore a date of c. 15-10BC is suggested for the deposit (Foster 1986, 178; Niblett

1999).

The 'Folly Lane Rite' was made up of a number of elaborate rituals not least the

probable exposure of the deceased, together with the practice of burning offerings on

the pyre and burying a small proportion of the debris in the mortuary shaft. At this

stage it is not possible to ascertain if the chambers were built for a single individual or

used for a succession of people who were accorded certain mortuary rituals. In

Britain, three sites have been identified and these can be compared to similar

mortuary rites known from northern France and Luxembourg dating to the late La

Tene and Augustan periods (Metzler 1989, 139; Metzler et al 1991; Lambot et al

1994, 200; Bruneaux 1996; Fitzpatrick 2000, 18-20). At Clemency, Luxembourg a

timber burial chamber in a large, rectangular pit (4.2m by 4.3m and nearly 1m deep)

contained broken pottery vessels and metalwork, although substantial parts remained

in the chamber. The objects had been placed near the walls of the chamber, with a

largely empty space in the centre. The chamber was enclosed within a square ditched

enclosure and the chamber was sealed by a low mound. There are obvious similarities between Clemency and the 'Folly Lane Rite', with a particular likeness to the Lexden tumulus (the raised barrow and the positioning of the objects). Although one major difference is apparent, 2kg of cremated human bone had been collected from the pyre site and deposited in a heap at the centre of the chamber. Unlike the early and middle

La Tene chambers on the continent, the British examples are not burial chambers;

292 indeed care was taken to avoid the inclusion of large quantities of cremated remains

(Metzler et al 1991; Niblett, 1999, 396-7; Fitzpatrick 2000; 18-20). Similar rites may have been practised at Vieux-les-Asfeld in the Ardennes, where three circular enclosures, each with a central, timber-lined shaft have been excavated (Lambot et al

1994). The shafts contained the fragmentary remains of pottery and metal work, dating

from the first century BC. Two of the shafts (3 and 5) contained small quantities of

cremated human bone, but no human remains were recovered from a third (shaft 1),

reminiscent of Stanway (Chamber CF42). As at Lexden and Clemency, the excavator

suggested that the fragmentary nature of the material had been caused by grave

robbers. In light of the discoveries from Folly Lane, it seems probable that the

destruction was deliberate at the time of the funeral. Timber-lined shafts containing

cremation burials are known from a number of cemeteries in the

Champagne/Ardennes area, notably at Wederath and Goeblingen-Nospelt in

Luxembourg (Roymans 1990; Haffher 1971, 1974, 1978). However, the deposited

material is unburnt and largely intact; it appears that the rite reflected in these burials

is more comparable to the 'Welwyn-type' graves (Stead 1967; Hussen 1983).

5.10 Observations

This chapter has examined the range and type of objects recovered primarily from

grave and chamber features raising a number of interesting issues concerning mortuary behaviour and the nature of resulting deposits. The observation section

draws together some of the broad themes and preliminary conclusions which form the basis of the study:

293 It is apparent that a proportion of the population employed a two-stage mortuary practice. The primary stage involved the cremation processes (chapter 3) followed by the secondary deposition of the remains and a series of associated offerings.

The secondary activity is displayed through a series of cremation burials, particularly the 'Welwyn-type' graves along with the Tolly Lane Rite'.

The objects are deposited into the archaeological record during a sequence of complex mortuary-related rites including offerings burnt on the funeral pyre, material incorporated into mortuary-related features and as 'grave goods'.

A wide range of objects were incorporated into the mortuary repertoire especially those associated with feasting and cuisine, personal adornment and appearance, furniture and fittings, and to a lesser extent objects associated with warfare and leisure activities. However, there are very few objects which represent production processes and warfare such as coinage, tools, weaving equipment and weapons.

There is also a clear distinct between those deposited as intact grave goods in a series of'simple', 'modest' and 'Welwyn-type' burials and the fragmentary deposits associated with the mortuary shafts and the 'Folly Lane Rite'.

It appears that the objects operated within a complex system of values, they can be understood to have held functional, economic, and symbolic merits, additionally many are exquisite 'pieces of art'. It is important to consider that the use and meaning of an object varies considerably depending on the context from which it is recovered. This is particularly so in mortuary contexts because death is imbued

294 with so much meaning represented by both the deceased and the living who

conduct the rites of passage.

• The selected artefacts centre around equipment involving feasting and personal

appearance and like its user, many were burnt, broken and buried at the end of its

life. It is possible these objects are discarded because they were used during the

mortuary sequence and were perceived as polluted like the dead themselves.

However, it is worth considering that it was necessary for an object and indeed a

corpse to be physically or metaphorically transformed so that it could successfully

enter the abode of the ancestors perpetuating the cycle of regeneration and rebirth.

• Transformation is achieved through a number of processes including burning on a

pyre, burial in the ground or immersion in water, action which render offerings

invisible and inaccessible. It is suggested that fire and water are dual agents

imbued with life-giving and life-taking properties, they consume material cast into

them serving as transformative vehicles between the earthly- and spirit-worlds.

Similar, behaviour is evident within the grave contexts objects were carefully

selected, deliberately deposited, with no intention to retrieve rendering them

invisible. The elements of fire and water, as well as inaccessible domains (in this

case graves, mortuary shafts, ditches and pits) may have been employed to

reinforce beliefs concerning transformation and regeneration.

• There was perhaps a concern with image and identity in the late Iron Age

negotiated through spheres of ritual and ceremonial activity. Implements such as

mirrors enabled the user to identify with their own body and image, whilst objects

295 such as toilet instruments, shears and razors allowed individuals to groom and alter their appearance. It is suggested that only certain objects appear in grave contexts, especially those concerned with the appearance or preparation of the corpse. Objects such as toilet instruments, mirrors, shears, knives, surgical kits, glass vessels containing unguents and lotions may all have been employed in the washing and preparation rites accorded the dead. Razors, shears and toilet instruments may have been used to cut, trim or shave hair, whilst toilet instruments were employed to clean nails and pluck hair. These objects are all associated with changing the appearance of the corpse and in effect initiating the transformation of the dead. They may have been discarded either on the funeral pyre or deposited in the grave due to their perceived transformative power and polluting influence to the living.

The corpse may have been wrapped or dressed in a bearskin, chain mail suit or garment adorned by bone toggles, belts or brooches. The body may also have been dressed with pieces of jewellery including bracelets, necklaces, and rings. Each of these specific acts may have served to alter the appearance of the deceased to that assumed in life.

Furthermore, it has been noted that objects associated with the consumption of

alcoholic beverages including wine, mead and ale were frequently deposited in the graves and mortuary chambers. The range of objects include bronze and silver vessels, amphorae and a plethora of pottery vessels used for storing, mixing, pouring and consumption of beverages. It has already been suggested that an essential element of the mortuary sequence was to aid transformation of the

296 deceased and associated objects from one state to another. It is not unreasonable to assume that the mourners were also an integral part of the transformative processes and perhaps alcohol was employed as a mind-altering substance during

the mortuary rites.

The practice of deliberate breakage and fragmentation of inanimate objects, human and animal remains, physical structures and even the contemporary landscape was used to facilitate transformation from one state to another. Human status is constantly evolving and is transformed at critical points in the lifecycle from childhood to adulthood, on marriage and in death. These rites of passage are often acknowledged by the performance of special ritual ceremonies including weddings, christening and funerals.

It seems significant that many of these objects required the use and manipulation of fire in their manufacturing process. Fire has the ability to transform raw materials into functional objects, and vice versa. In addition, the cremation rites were employed to transform the human body and offerings placed on the pyre.

The process ultimately resulted in reduced, unrecognisable, and in many cases the complete disappearance, of the items originally selected for burning These ceremonies would have been visible, noisy, and intense affairs part of a wider set of beliefs executed to safe guard fertility and the life cycle of the community. It can be argued that perhaps the most important element of the mortuary rites conducted during the late Iron Age was the actual cremation processes resulting in the fragmentation, transformation and ultimately regeneration of the deceased and associated offerings through the power of fire. It should be considered that the

297 mortuary rituals themselves are just one element of a series of rites of passage and wider social behaviours governing everyday life and existence in late Iron Age society.

298 Chapter 6

Remembering the Dead: Human Remains and Other Features

6.1 Introduction

The content of the thesis has focused on detecting aspects of the wider mortuary

sequence in the archaeological record and on their relationship to the act of interment.

In the final chapter the focus turns to consider some of the enigmatic features found on mortuary-related sites (6.2) along with the analysis of the inhumed (6.3 and

Appendix D) and cremated human remains (6.4 and Appendix E). It is evident that

careful consideration of the variety of features and deposits is critical to developing a

greater understanding of the late Iron Age mortuary process and ritual activities.

Haselgrove (1997, 66) has pointed out that archaeologists may well have failed to

recognise structures or locales for what they are, simply because they and any

associated offerings did not seem particularly unusual at the time of excavation.

Evidence is beginning to accumulate from sites such as Baldock, Deal, Westhampnett,

Folly Lane, Stanway, Thorley, Biddenham and many others, which offer a glimpse of

the wider mortuary activity. At Westhampnett a number of features could be

interpreted as potential mortuary structures as well as some evidence to suggest that a

series offences or structures were used to enforce a strict spatial organisation on the

cemetery. At Folly Lane, Stanway, Lexden, and probably Baldock there is evidence

for mortuary chambers where corpses could have been stored prior to mortuary rites.

At Deal a subterranean shrine and a number of features could be interpreted as

mortuary platforms. At Thorley, Elms Farm and Puckeridge ditches and pits are

associated with human and animal remains, pottery and metalwork which hints at

ritual deposition. The final two sections of the chapter examine the inhumed and

299 cremated bone deposits from the 120+ sites included in the research. The examples

discussed demonstrate that the disposal of human remains was a complex affair

conducted through a series of protracted acts, which hint at a highly ritualised

archaeological landscape. Key to any study of Iron Age mortuary practice is the

ability to look beyond the interment of the calcined remains or the inhumation burial

and attempt to identify the wider sequence of events and behaviours associated with the disposal of the dead.

6.2 Mortuary Structures

At Westhampnett, it appears that to a large extent particular activities were conducted

within discrete and well-defined areas, so that the different types of features tended to

be grouped together. The majority of the 161 cremation burials appear to have been

set out around a semi-circular space. The main cemetery was flanked on the east by a

series of pyres and small ditched structures, while the western margins may well have

been defined by a series offence or post structures. The excavator suggested in the

report that the spatial patterning was maintained largely unchanged throughout the life

of the site, which appears to have been in use from c. 100-40 BC. Some 50 postholes

were recorded over the extent of the site with at least 38 concentrated in eight discrete

clusters on the western margins (Fitzpatrick 1997, 32,35,234) (Fig.6.1). These

groups consisted of between three and eight post settings located in an area largely

devoid of other features. The five clusters positioned on the westernmost margins of the excavated area appear to be arranged in a series of roughly parallel lines running approximately north to south-east (Groups 1,2, and 3) and east-south-east (Groups 4 and 5). A sixth group of five loosely clustered postholes was revealed at the north­ western limit of the cemetery (Group 6). The majority of the postholes were small,

300 20433 Group 6 •• 2/244

GrouP 4 • Groupies*-' V

2051^ * 20429 20617 * s'20435 Group 20516^ » e> — ^^ • 20521 ® / M J**»^** % *. 20/25 * . •-».-.».'; ^20361 GroupV/ ....:.*. •/.;•/*-u * e 20607 ftp . *•...*>. Group 9^0192*^^-^^_T, • ••..a. «*y * 2030S ^20694 • • • •20711

• •

20698 KEY:

^^ Shrine

^fe Pyre/pyre-related feature

• Cremation burial © Posthole

Fig.6.1 Plan of the late Iron Age cemetery at Westhampnett marking the position of postholes settings (1-9) (After Fitzpatrick 1997, Fig.2.9)

301 averaging c. 0.3m in diameter and contained moderate quantities of charcoal, pottery, as well as occasional fragments of cremated human bone. Their role in the cemetery is not clear but their pairing in parallel lines in the western area represent a facade or a boundary fence delimiting the cemetery. Two further groups of pestholes were situated on the eastern edge, one arranged in a line of three (Group 7) and the other a row of six (Group 8) which were aligned approximately north to south. The latter were between 0.5 and 1.5m west of pyre sites 20717 and 20776, and may have acted as a barrier to distinguish the crematory area. The pestholes varied from 0.55-0.75m in diameter and had similar fills containing occasional fragments of charcoal, fragments of cremated human bone, burnt flint, and pottery. Two further pestholes

(20808 and 20689) were positioned immediately west and south of two pyre features

(20717 and 20687), these may have played a role in supporting the pyre structure or an object consumed in the cremation process. Only one group of four postholes

(Group 9) was positioned close to the main concentration of burials which perhaps served to delimit the extent of the actual burial area. Finally, six isolated postholes

(20444, 20361, 20560, 20607, 20698, and 20711), which are not visibly associated with any other features, were recorded at various locations across the cemetery. The various groups of postholes may have played a role in defining the actual extent of the site and specifically in maintaining boundaries between the cremation and burial sectors.

At least two other cemeteries display limited evidence of posthole structures including

Verulam Hills Field, Verulamium (Anthony 1968) and Deal, Kent (Parfitt 1995). At

Verulam Hills Field the cemetery was enclosed on two sides by substantial lengths of ditch. One of the ditches (II) running in a south-easterly direction was associated with

302 two pestholes (0.3m in diameter) located on its north-eastern slope. They could have supported a small platform or wooden structure possibly used to gain access to the ditch. At the bottom of both ditches a number of skeletons was deposited and subsequent covering layers show a very regular pattern of black occupation material alternating with clean natural clay. This suggests that the ditches were left open and material was deposited, perhaps as a sequence of episodic or seasonally performed rites. Several groups of pestholes found widely spaced across the hillside at Mill Hill,

Deal could be reconstructed as four-or-six post structures. There are two groups of posthole settings in the South-East cemetery, one of four and another of six, situated

2m to the south of a cremation burial (5) (Fig.6.2). There is no precise dating evidence, but it seems clear from their overlapping position that one was a replacement of the other. A third example was located to the south of the Central cemetery and two others were found on the northern margins of the site. Such arrangements are common on Iron Age settlements but not all pestholes are connected to agricultural use and a host of functions could be suggested (Ellison & Drewett

1971; Kniisel & Carr 1997). This includes their possible use on mortuary-related sites where they may have been used to temporarily place the dead prior to cremation or to conduct mortuary rites, such as preparing the corpse or collecting and sorting the calcined remains. It is possible that they functioned in an agricultural role at Mill Hill since there are traces of Iron Age settlement across the hillside but their occurrence adjacent to the cemetery is probably significant.

A number of cemetery sites including Westhampnett, Stanway, Biddenham Loop, and

Thorley, have recorded small square and rectangular structures which have close parallels with a number of mid-late Iron Age structures found on hillfort and

303 G3

Key: 0 10m ^^ Iron Age graves ( ) Other graves

Fig.6.2 Plan of the South-East Cemetery, Deal showing cremation burials 2 and 4, inhumation burials 3 and 5, and the four- and six-post structures (After Parfitt 1995, Fig.7)

304 settlement sites. At Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire a post-built structure approximately 3m2 was recorded surrounded by a sub-square ditch 6m2 (Luke &

Dawson 1997, 4-5) (Fig.6.3). The structure was located a short distance from an extensive area of late Iron Age settlement activity and associated cemeteries. The combination of elements along with the ground plan suggests that the structure could

be a small shrine. Several similar structures identified on sites at Heathrow (Grimes &

Close-Brooks 1993), Stansted (Havis & Brooks forthcoming), Danebury (Cunliffe

1984) and Cadbury (Alcock 1972) (Fig.6.3) have been given a ritual or religious

interpretation. The temple structure at Heathrow measured less than 10m2 and

consisted of a central cella defined by trenches in which a planked wall was built,

with posts at each corner. At Stansted, a small structure constructed using foundation

trenches, with a posthole at each corner, formed a building approximately 7m2. At

Danebury several square structures were excavated and at least one (RS2) was of

plank construction (Cunliffe 1984, 81-7), whilst at the centre of Cadbury hillfort, a

cella with a porch was recognised. Furthermore, archaeological and environmental

investigations conducted at Maxey, Cambridgeshire have revealed at least nine Iron

Age square-ditched enclosure features measuring approximately 6-8m2 (Pryor et al

1985, Fig.44) (Fig.2.2). A group of extensive cropmarked features recorded at

Diddington, Cambridgeshire included a square ditched enclosure (F550-1) closely

paralleled in size and form to those from Maxey (Jones 1998; Jones 2000, 136 &

Fig. 11.8). The Cambridgeshire features probably date from the mid-late Iron Age but

they are still closely comparable to those from Westhampnett, Stanway and Thorley.

They are of similar dimensions, and contain very little associated material including

human remains. However, the possibility that the Cambridgeshire examples represent

305 Heathrow, Middlesex Stansted, Essex

6

Danebury, RS1 Hampshire Danebury RS2, Hampshire

Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire

Fig.6.3 Small Iron Age 'shrines' from southern Britain (not to scale) (After Havis & Brooks forthcoming, Fig. 134)

306 small barrows similar to those from East Yorkshire (Stead 1979; Stead 1991) should not be discounted.

The five ditched enclosures from Stanway, Essex provides evidence of a complex sequence of mortuary activity conducted during the first centuries BC/AD (Crummy

1992; 1993; 1997a; 1997b; Crummy & Crummy 2000). A host of features including nine cremation burials, four mortuary chambers, a number of pits, probable pyre sites, and two square sub-enclosure features were recorded from the five ditched enclosures

(Fig.2.10). The southern half of Enclosure 4 was dominated by a square sub-enclosure

(BF28-31) defined by a shallow ditch approximately 6m2. A slightly shallow burnt

depression was located towards the centre of the feature containing charcoal,

numerous tiny fragments of molten copper alloy, iron nails, scorched copper alloy belt

or garment fittings and a possible stud (Crummy & Crummy 2000). The eastern ditch

(BF30, B522) contained 0.7g of cremated bone (Mays 2001) as well as a large

quantity of burnt and fragmentary pottery (14kg) (Rigby 2000; Oilman 1992, 108).

The sub-enclosure was placed prominently in the southern half of the enclosure

providing a visual balance to the mortuary chamber situated to the north. The ditch

could define the site of a funeral pyre, which would provide an explanation for the

scorched depression and associated burnt material (Crummy 1993, 493-94; Oilman

1992,108). A similar but smaller enclosure (BF43-6) measuring about 4.5m2

occupied the centre of Enclosure 5. Unlike, the feature associated with Enclosure 4 there were no traces of burning or features to provide clues to its function (Bennett

1997, 221), although the ditch fill produced fragments from two Dressel 2-4

amphorae (Sealey 2000). A number of possible interpretations can be suggested for these features including the remains of a small building, the outer ditch of a square

307 barrow, or a small enclosure defining a pyre site. The structures have similarities with those excavated at Westhampnett, where two of the four of the enclosures are associated with deposits of pyre debris (Fitzpatrick 1997, 15-16). Finally, two features located within Enclosure 5 deserve a brief mention: a slot (CF96) set parallel to the eastern side of the mortuary chamber (CF42) and a shaft positioned in the extreme south-western corner of the enclosure. The slot feature contained two Roman coins

(Neronian and Claudian examples) which provide a date for the last known use of the enclosure suggesting that the feature is associated with a closure deposit. The shaft

feature (CF23) was over 3.5m deep and contained few surviving deposits, although a

small amounts of charcoal, decayed unburnt bone and organic material was recovered

(Wade 2000). It is difficult to interpret many of these features but they highlight the

diversity of features and activities performed on mortuary sites.

Four comparable small ditched enclosures (Enclosures 20657, 20277, 20761, 20562)

(Fig.6.4) (a fifth enclosure 20706 is discussed in chapter 2) were recorded grouped

together on the eastern margins of the Westhampnett cemetery (Fitzpatrick 1997, 15-

18, 229, 331, Figs. 7-10, & PI.8). The majority of the pyre and pyre-related features

are scattered in this area and it is possible that some sort of association functioned

originally between them. Extensive examination of the enclosures was not possible

and in most cases only partial excavation of the ditches and interiors took place. In two (20277 and 20761) of the four examples a quantity of burnt material very similar to the deposits recovered from the pyre-related features was encountered towards the centre of the feature. The enclosure (20277) situated closest to the concentration of cremation burials had been truncated by an Anglo-Saxon burial enclosure (20210) but enough material survived to establish its form. The rectangular feature measured

308 Enclosure 20657

Enclosure 20761

Enclosure 20562

Fig.6.4 The Westhampnett Enclosures: 1. Enclosure 20657 measuring 5.2m x 3m; 2. Enclosure 20761 measuring c. 6.0m x 4.0m; 3. Enclosure 20562 measuring c. 6.5m square (Not to scale) (After Fitzpatrick 1997, Figs.8-10)

309 approximately 2.5m east-west by 2m north-south, with narrow openings at its south­ eastern and south-western corners. Close to the centre of the structure an amorphous spread (20066) of burnt soil and charcoal, possible pyre debris, had been deposited. A similar feature (20761), also severely truncated, was situated some 12m to the east- south-east. The rectangular enclosure measured approximately 6m east-west by 4m wide, defined on four sides by a shallow ditch 0.8m wide. It was possible to excavate only a small section through the north-western corner of the ditch which produced two iron nails, four sherds of Iron Age pottery and one probable intrusive Romano-British sherd. A shallow circular feature (20747) located towards the centre of the enclosure,

approximately 0.9m in diameter and 0.12m deep, contained charcoal, a small quantity

of cremated human bone (29. Ig, adult), and a number of iron nails. A third rectangular ditched enclosure (20657) situated on the northern limit of the site was

severely truncated but its orientation and form suggests it was contemporary with the

other enclosures. It was of a similar shape and size to the previous examples

measuring 5.2m east to west by 3m wide, defined by a ditch c. 0.3m wide and up to

O.lm deep. In the centre of the enclosure there was the faint trace of a linear slot

oriented east-west, measuring 2.2m long by 0.2m wide, but there was no direct

evidence that the structure had enclosed a burial.

The fourth enclosure (20562) recorded immediately east-south-east of Enclosure

20761 differed slightly to the other three. This square enclosure had an entrance measuring 1.5m wide cut through the centre of the south side and measured roughly

6.5m2. The ditch was only partly excavated measuring 0.56-0.85m wide and up to

0.2m deep, it produced a number of Iron Age pottery sherds along with a copper alloy sheet fragment. At the time of excavation this enclosure was closely compared in plan

310 and size to rectangular trench-built structure 2 from Danebury and the Heathrow temple. Significantly, one of the three oblong enclosures (B) recorded at Thorley is associated with numerous features including human burials, deposits of animal remains and a small square sub-enclosure (Last & McDonald 2001, 42-3) (Fig.2.11).

The enclosure ditches and many of the associated features survive to a very shallow depth suggesting a fair degree of truncation. Six pits located towards the northern

extent of the enclosure (1353, 1349, DA25, 1497, 1351, and DA73) contained mixed

deposits dominated by pottery and animal remains. The southern half of the enclosure

is associated with at least six human burials (1245, 1271, 1327,1406, 1431, and 1346)

as well two pits which produced animal deposits (1396 and 1482). It is evident that a

series of 'special' deposits, which focused on animal remains, were placed at either

end of the enclosure. However, the most prominent feature positioned towards the

northern extent of the enclosure comprised a small rectangular structure (B9). This

sub-enclosure orientated east/west with an entrance to the south measured roughly 4 x

3.2m. It was defined by a narrow gully (1392) containing probable first century AD

pottery sherds and animal bone, including a pig tibia, fragmentary remains of a

domestic cat, and six unidentified fragments (Johnstone & Jacques 2001, 86-7). On

the western side of the entrance two short stretches of gully (1417, 1419), forming a

small enclosed space, produced pottery including a mortarium perhaps of the

Verulamium industry (second century AD). The sub-enclosure was associated with

four features: a circular pit (1451) cutting the northern gully as well as pit (1425), a circular pesthole (1421) positioned close to the western gully and a central stakehole

(1423). It is worth noting that at an Iron Age earthwork enclosure subjected to limited excavation work near Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire (Dunnett 1973) revealed a pit

311 containing an interesting deposit of animal remains. The pit was situated towards the centre of the north side of the enclosed area and a trial trench revealed that it had been carefully dug at least 2m deep. Almost at the centre of the fill a second, smaller pit contained the articulated remains of three superimposed horse skeletons. The dating of the material is uncertain and although the deposit could be modern the possibility remains that the feature is contemporary with the enclosure. The fill of the enclosure ditch contained charcoal deposits and animal remains, whilst three late Iron Age cremation burials were recorded from its interior. The 1971 excavations were extremely limited in extent and consequently only tentative conclusions can be drawn but the evidence suggests that the earthwork delimited a complex ritual site.

An open-ended enclosure measuring approximately 120m long by 20m wide and comparable to the Thorley example was situated towards the south-eastern margins of the late Iron Age complex at Baldock (Burleighl995a, 106; Burleigh 1995b, Figl6.2).

A small circular posthole structure, roughly 5m across, was positioned at the eastern

end of two parallel ditches along with a small number of cremation burials. A

somewhat similar ditched enclosure is known from Acy-Romance in the Ardennes

(Fig.6.5), which dates from the mid-second to mid-first century BC. The small enclosed cemetery 'La Croizette' lies outside the contemporary Iron Age settlement and is associated with 21 cremation burials. The majority of the burials are situated within a rectangular ditched enclosure, c. 80m long x 21m wide clustered around a central 9m2 posthole structure (Lambot et al 1994; Fitzpatrick 2000, 20). The details regarding the Baldock discovery are scant and the associated mortuary structure is circular rather than square/rectangular, however it adds to the number and diversity of those recorded. These small post-built structures and ditched features are somewhat

312 Acy-Romance

Fig. 6.5 Acy-Romance 'La Croizette': plan of the burial enclosure and associated mortuary structure (After Fitzpatrick 2000, Fig.2.4)

313 enigmatic but they add to the repertoire of features archaeologists should be looking for when excavating British cemeteries. It is possible that some of the examples originally contained burials or functioned as small structures/buildings involved in different stages of the mortuary sequence. They may have been places where the deceased were prepared and displayed prior to cremation, they may have housed the

cremated remains before interment, or they could have functioned, as shrines were

rites were performed. The examples form a small but comparable group of mortuary

structures which highlight the apparent complexity of mortuary-related behaviour and disposal of the dead during the late Iron Age.

One other feature discovered at Baldock during the excavation of the large ditched

enclosure (UWC1) from Upper Walls Common deserves a brief note. During the

geophysical survey of the enclosure an anomaly thought to be a possible entrance

proved to be a natural solution hollow in the chalk (Burleigh 1995a; Niblett 1999,

396). This large circular hollow, c. 18m in diameter and 2m in depth, appears to have

been modified during the late Iron Age. The remains of two individuals had been

deposited on its base, although there was evidence for earlier activity involving the

deposition of fragmentary human bone dating back to as far as the fifth century BC. A

small chalk-floored structure was erected over the inhumations measuring

approximately 4m x 3m, sealed by a sequence of largely fragmentary and burnt

material. The deposits included a large quantity of charcoal, burnt bone and pottery,

melted bronze and glass, human bone fragments, brooches, amphora sherds and nails,

along with quern fragments, loom weights, spindle whorls, a pottery 'counter', daub,

and a fragment of painted plaster. The modification of the hollow and the multi-

phased deposits appear to be broadly contemporary with the use of the burial

314 enclosure. Together the enclosure and the shaft may represent a wider sequence of mortuary activity associated with the cremation and interment of the dead. Burleigh has suggested that the chalk-floored structure in the base of the hollow could represent a mortuary chamber used to store bodies prior to cremation. This raises similarities with the structures excavated at Folly Lane (Niblett 1992; 1993; 1995; 1999) Stanway

(Crummy 1992; 1993a; 1997b; Crummy & Crummy 2000) and Lexden (Laver 1927;

Foster 1986) where broken, burnt and fragmentary objects were also incorporated in the shaft fills. Some aspects of the rites, which culminate in the activity conducted at

Folly Lane and Stanway early in the first century AD may originate in the features represented at Baldock.

It is clear that an extensive burial site covered the prominent chalk ridge at Deal,

Kent. Material has been collected since at least 1885 and in conjunction with the rescue excavations conducted between 1984-1989 an extensive multi-period

landscape has been unearthed. The features recorded include a Bronze Age barrow, a

series of Iron Age inhumations and cremation burials, along with a number of

pestholes and a curious subterranean shaft (F58). A small underground shaft located

roughly mid-way between two cemeteries (Central and South-East) at the south­

eastern end of the site is perhaps relevant to the mortuary activity (Fig.6.6) (Parfitt

1986; 1991). It consists of a vertical chalk-cut shaft, some 2.5m deep, leading to an underground chamber. In plan, the top of the shaft was oval, measuring some 1.80m

(north-west/south-east) by 1.60m (north-east/south-west) with footholds in the north­ west and south-east sides. On the south-west side, at a depth of 1.60m below the

surface, there comprised a small underground side-chamber. In the north-west wall of the chamber a rectangular niche had been cut, some 0.25m high, 0.26m wide and

315 S£<| Loam a crushed chalk

--

.,

Fig.6.6 Plan of the underground chamber from the Mill Hill cemetery, Deal and the associated chalk figurine (After Parfitt 1986)

316 0.22m deep with a forward sloping base. A chalk figurine 188mm high with a recessed carved face, a long slender neck and a plain rectangular body was recovered from the fill of the chamber (Parfitt & Green 1987; Parfitt & Halliwell 1986). Its base had been deliberately cut so that it slopes backwards which would have allowed it to stand upright in the carved niche. The shaft and chamber were filled with layers of chalk rubble and brown clay-loam deposits, which produced quantities of Roman domestic rubbish in the form of pottery, bone, shell, tile and quern-stone fragments.

Substantial quantities of rodent bones were recovered from the lowest levels

suggesting that the shaft was probably open for some time before it was backfilled.

The shaft produced over 140 pottery sherds from at least 46 different vessels dating

from the late first to early second century AD. It is probable that the shaft was dug

some time in the later part of the Iron Age- or early in the Roman period. The presence of footholds in the shaft clearly indicates that some access to the chamber

was intended and it is conceivable that it was connected with mortuary or

cosmological rituals. It is evident that a continuous sequence of activity was

conducted at Mill Hill with evidence of a series of inhumation burials dating from as

early as the third century BC and subsequent cremation burials continuing into the

early Roman period.

In summary, the identification of a series of diverse mortuary-related features and

associated deposits distributed across the geographical extent of the study hints at the wider sequence of activities conducted on Iron Age cemetery sites. For example, it is

apparent that at Westhampnett a strict spatial arrangement was imposed on movement and access to different parts of the cemetery. Furthermore, sites such as Deal,

Stanway, Folly Lane, Thorley and Westhampnett demonstrate a range of features

317 including sub-enclosures and shafts which may have been used to prepare or display the deceased prior to burial or cremation rites. In view of the amount of time, resources and labour involved in the efficient cremation of an individual it should be no surprise that traces of a complex and organised set of acts are evident in the archaeological record. It is impossible to ascertain the function of these structures but it is not unreasonable to assume that they included the storage of material, the display of the deceased, preparation of funeral feasts, and the performance of ceremonies involving the mourners. This section reiterates the themes of chapter 2 emphasising the visual nature of the mortuary-related monuments and architecture which formed a single element of a complex and 'ritualised' Iron Age landscape.

6.3 Inhumation Burials (this section should be read in conjunction with Appendix D)

Cremation rites are not the only method of disposal of the dead evident in the archaeological record during the late Iron Age. There is evidence for the presence of a significant number of inhumation burials which appear to represent three different types of rite:

• Small inhumation cemeteries

• Inhumations associated with cremation burials and often interred in ditches and

enclosures

• Isolated inhumation burials often associated with weapons.

Small inhumation cemeteries of late Iron Age date with between four and perhaps as many as twenty burials have been found at Highstead, Kent (Kelly 1978, 267;

Thompson 1982, 820-21); Radwell, Bedfordshire (Hall 1973); as well as Mucking and

Ardale, Essex (Wilkinson 1988; Going 1993, 19-20; Sealey 1996, 58). The

318 introduction of the inhumation rite in the region remains unclear, although the discoveries from the Deal cemetery, Kent help shed some light on the possible origins

(Parfitt 1990; 1991; 1995; Woodruff 1904). A small group of four burials was found situated c. 300m from a late Iron Age ditched enclosure at Radwell, Bedfordshire. The bones were in a poor state of preservation and displayed no regular system of orientation. Very little material was found associated with the bodies, although iron nails were recovered from three of the burials (2-4) suggesting that they could have been interred in coffins. A single pottery jar found with one of the corpses (2) is characteristic of the second quarter of the first century AD and suggests a late Iron

Age date for the cemetery (Hall 1973). Two small inhumation cemeteries situated on the north bank of the Thames at Mucking and 8km west at Ardale, Essex are comparable to Radwell. At Mucking a group of eight inhumation burials were aligned along a substantial enclosure ditch on the west side of the extensive Iron Age site

(Going 1993) (Fig.6.7). The evidence included silhouettes of flexed inhumations probably in coffin-structures, one of which contained a small flask (Thompson 1982,

782-3 Type E3-5). Similarly, a small cemetery of the early first century AD was established parallel to an enclosure ditch at Ardale, Essex covering an area 9m north- south by 8m east-west (Wilkinson 1988). The eight grave-like pits (1302-5, 1344,

1350, 1352, and 1354) contained no trace of coffins or indeed bodies and only two of the features (1302-3) contained accompanying objects. In spite of the lack of bone and no trace of body stains, the shape of the pits and evidence of collapse argues in favour of inhumation deposits. The details of a cemetery at Highstead, Kent which could be compared with Deal was never properly recorded, but it appears that during the late

Iron Age as many as twenty individuals were interred along with six cremation burials

(Kelly 1978, 267; Thompson 1982, 820-21).

319 » ,r' / {*'' 652

0 10m I j

KEY:

\ / Inhumation burial

Fig.6.7 Plan of the small inhumation cemetery from Mucking (After Clark 1993, Atlas Plan 12)

320 During excavations conducted at Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire three small cremation cemeteries and two isolated inhumations were recorded (Luke 2000). The bodies were those of an older adult male (S560) and female (S275) placed in flexed positions. The burials and cemeteries from Biddenham Loop are just one element of an extensive Iron Age occupation site criss-crossed by trackways and field systems

(Luke & Dawson 1997). It is suggested that rather than isolated features, the

Biddenham inhumations, should be viewed as deliberate deposits positioned close to

field boundaries and trackways which represent a transitional area between the world

of the living and the dead (Bevan 1999, 140-3). Analysis of the remains highlighted

that the individuals had suffered fractures to the lower right leg (S560) and lower right

arm (S275), which were well healed at the time of death. In addition, a foetus bone

(scapula fragment) was found with the adult female (S275); similarly an unburnt

foetus bone was included with one of the Biddenham Loop cremation burials (S353).

It is suggested that it was perhaps inappropriate on the grounds of age or development

to bury children individually and instead a 'token' element of the child was retained

and buried at a later date with a suitable adult.

There is some limited evidence to suggest that a similar 'token' deposit was sufficient

for some adult individuals. At Broadstairs, Kent two inhumation and two cremation

burials are associated with a number of shallow chalk-cut depressions into which

disarticulated remains, particularly long bones and a number of skulls had been

carefully deposited (Kurd 1909, 427-28). Likewise a large quantity of ceramics,

metalwork and animal remains (48kg) is reported to have been found together with

the unburnt, disarticulated remains of at least fourteen individuals in a ditch traced

across Wickham Hill, Puckeridge (Partridge 1979, 30-32). The human bones do not

321 appear to have been deposited in any regular order and are generally mixed together with the other debris, although some of the bones display fine cutmarks. Furthermore, archaeological investigations conduct in early 2000 in the grounds of Eton College during the construction of a new rowing lake revealed the remains of about twenty individuals interred on sandbanks in the ancient course of the Thames during the Iron

Age. Margaret Cox who examined the skeletal material identified fine cutmarks on some of the limb-bones (Charter 2000, 19). It can be suggested that these deposits share similarities with the, often partial, human remains deposited in disused pits across southern Britain from the eighth/seventh to the first century BC (Cunliffe 1984

1993; Alcock 1972). The 'pit-tradition' involved the curation of human and animal remains along with inanimate material, which appears to relate to a series of integral, repetitive rites to appease and reciprocate the spirit-world (Cunliffe 1992). It is suggested that a similar set of activities are evident in late Iron Age south-eastern

England were individuals are deposited in, or situated in close proximity to, ditched enclosures, trackways or field systems. It is clear that the deposition of human remains occupied an integral position within Iron Age landscapes placed in, or close to boundaries in order to define the land occupied by the local community (Bevan

1999a; Briick 1995, 257). Furthermore, deposits close to boundaries and trackways would allow the living the opportunity to encounter their ancestors on a frequent basis creating an additional link between the world of the living and the dead.

The examples examined thus far suggest that a small number of individuals were selected and disposed of through a series of rites which involved deposition or alignment in ditches, enclosures and boundary features, along with interment in small cemeteries with sparse or no grave furnishings. However, at Mill Hill the predominant

322 Iron Age burial rite was inhumation and the number of individuals from one cemetery is currently unparalleled in south-eastern England. Some 43 inhumations and a small number of cremation burials have been discovered since quarrying work disturbed the site in nineteenth century (Woodruff 1904; Parfitt 1990; 1991; 1995). The majority of burials were excavated during investigations conducted by the Dover Archaeological

Group in the mid 1980s. They were found spread across the site in three discrete clusters: the Central, South-West and South-East cemeteries (Fig.6.8). An isolated and

tightly crouched inhumation burial (Grave 5 South-East cemetery) dated by carbon-14

(HAR-8444 2390 ± 60 BP) to between the eighth and fourth centuries BC signals the

start of deposition on the chalk ridge (Parfitt 1995, 153). Approximately two centuries

later, probably early in the second century BC, a second isolated individual (112) was

interred some 50m north-west of a prominent Bronze Age barrow. This is the first

extended inhumation on the site introducing a long and continuous burial sequence

with deposits made throughout the Iron Age and early Roman period.

The first of the cemeteries (South-West Cemetery) situated at the western limit of the

site adjacent to the southern chalk quarry comprised at least 28 graves. The burials

were all essentially extended inhumations aligned roughly north-south and clearly

formed part of a once much larger cemetery. It is not clear how many burials have

been destroyed by quarrying but an extended inhumation of an adult female

associated with a pair of bronze 'spoons' was recovered early in the twentieth century

(Woodruff 1904). None of the graves produced certain evidence to suggest the presence of a coffin and only eight included grave goods. Six of the graves (47, 50,

108, 122, 123 and 127) contained La Tene II or III type brooches dating from the mid- second to mid-first centuries BC. Interestingly, the cemetery included eleven children

323 (After

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to under fifteen years of age (48, 52, 55, 107,113, 116, 117, 118, 122, 126, and 128), although the skeletal remains were very poorly preserved and in three cases no bones survived at all (55,116 and 128). A second Iron Age cemetery (Central Cemetery) underlying one of Anglo-Saxon date and located immediately south of the Bronze

Age barrow contained twelve inhumation burials as well as three late Iron Age cremation burials (130-32). Six (Graves 15, 20, 26, 30, 31 and 44) are likely to date between the third century BC and the first century AD, and five others (24, 28, 41, 42,

43 and 110) are Iron Age or Roman. In direct contrast to the South-West Cemetery

there were no burials of children under the age of fifteen and the few associated

objects are conspicuously different. Five of the burials (15, 26, 30, 44 and 110)

included accompanying grave goods, particularly noteworthy is the complete absence

of brooches in favour of pottery vessels, an Iron Age coin, a knife blade, a finger ring

and a bronze handle. At the south-eastern extent of the 1984-89 excavations a cluster

of six graves (2-7) was recorded (South-East cemetery). This group included four Iron

Age graves consisting of two inhumations (3 and 5), and two cremation burials (2 and

4), as well as two second century Roman burials (6 and 7). It is worth noting that the

earliest inhumation burial (5) from the site is situated amongst this small cluster of

graves. It is cut by one of the later cremation burials (4) which implies that it was

originally marked in some way, perhaps by a small barrow. This would not be

dissimilar to a ring-gully recognised in association with one of the graves from the

South-West cemetery (123).

The exception to the above inhumation rites, are a number of burials accompanied by

weapons, particularly swords, that are spread across the whole of the British Isles

(Collis 1973; Whimster 1981, 129-146; Stead 1991). An extraordinary example (112)

325 was recorded at Mill Hill in an isolated position on the north-western limit of the site

(Parfitt 1995). The sub-rectangular grave pit aligned roughly north-west by south-east contained the remains of an adult male, aged between 30 and 35 years (Fig.6.9). The individual was wearing a fine bronze headdress accompanied by an impressive collection of metal work including a sword in a finely decorated scabbard and three coral decorated objects. The objects represent one of the most important assemblages of British La Tene I/II metalwork and parallels lie with other 'weapon' burials, such as those from Shouldham, Norfolk (Clarke & Hawkes 1955, 206); St. Lawrence, Isle of Wight (Jones & Stead 1969) and Kelvedon, Essex (Sealey 1996, 58; pers. comm.).

Furthermore, an extended inhumation burial discovered in the last century at

Newnham Croft, Cambridge (Greenwell 1906, 268; Fox 1923, 81; Fox 1958, 10-11;

Cra'ster 1973) compares favourably with the Deal individual (112). The body was

accompanied by a number of fine metal objects including a coral decorated brooch,

bronze decorated bracelets, as well as the remains of a probable bronze crown (Gilbert

1978, 172-4; Parfitt 1995, 81-3). This particular burial with accompanying metalwork

is very unusual in a British context for the third or second centuries BC and therefore

provides an interesting parallel to the furnished burials of a similar date from Deal

(112 and X2). In the past sparsely equipped inhumation burials such as those from

Radwell, Highstead, Biddenham Loop, Deal, Broadstairs, and Mucking would have

attracted little attention and would probably have been confused with interments of

Anglo-Saxon date. It is evident that a complex mortuary sequence operated in south­

eastern England during the later Iron Age, which did not focus solely on cremation rites. It is critical that new discoveries of Iron Age inhumations are given careful consideration and equal importance, with cremation burials, if understanding of mortuary behaviour is to advance.

326 3 decorated bronze head-band

2 Shield 1 Iron sword & decorated bronze scabbard

6 Bronze coral-decorated triangular strap

5 Bronze coral-decorated suspension ring

4 Bronze coral-decorated brooch

Fig.6.9 The Deal 'weapon' burial (Grave 112) and associated grave goods (Parfitt 1995, Fig.3) 327 A number of cemeteries have produced a combination of cremation and inhumation burials which are largely deposited within, or aligned upon, the ditches of burial enclosures. The examples include three cemeteries from Verulamium (Stead & Rigby

1989; Niblett 1999; Anthony 1968), as well as incidences from Owslebury,

Hampshire (Collis 1968; 1973; 1977; 1994); Stotfold, Bedfordshire (Steadman 1995;

1996); Mucking, Essex (Going 1993 & pers. comm.; Lavender 1991, 208-9) and

Thorley, Hertfordshire (Last & McDonald 2001). hi some cases the inhumation burials appear to be contemporary with the construction of the enclosures being simply placed on the ditch bottom, with no sign of grave cuts and with few or no accompanying objects. In other instances it appears that the inhumations were

secondary interments cut through the ditches sometime after their initial construction

and use as cremation burial enclosures. It is possible that the accordance of these rites

is suggestive of differences in social class with the inhumations being the poorer

retainers. However, a possibility that should not be discounted is that the dead were

exposed in the ditches or interred in graves for a period before cremation rites were

carried out. This interpretation proposed by Niblett (2000, 101) and when considered

in light of ethnographic and archaeological evidence is one that appears plausible. The

bodies could have been interred for an unknown period before they were removed and

accorded cremation rites. In modern Balinese rites the cemetery is a place where the

dead are interred and placated with offerings until they are removed and cremated. In

many instances they remain interred in the graveyard and are never accorded a

cremation ceremony, the most commonly stated reason being the high financial

expense (Downes 1999, 20).

328 At Stotfold, Bedfordshire four roughly elongated, oval pits (1199-1202) appear to have been deliberately cut c. north-south through three sides of a ditched enclosure

surrounding a central late Iron Age cremation burial (LI 28). A fifth individual in a

crouched position (1203) was recovered from the base of a deep, sub-circular pit

located to the east of the graves (Gl 201-1202), where the fourth arm of the enclosure

originally lay (Steadman 1995; 1996). The inhumations were associated with very

little material but part of a Nauheim type brooch (Grave 1999) and numerous pottery

sherds from the backfill of the graves were pre-dominantly late Iron Age. Situated to

the south-west of the burial enclosure an inhumation burial (3563) was found lying

directly on the base of the eastern arc of a penannular ditch (LI44). The remains

comprised a tightly bound adult female wearing a coiled bronze finger ring of first

century AD. All the skeletons display signs of trauma sustained in life and/or

debilitating conditions including degenerate bone disease (1199, 1201, 1202, 1203),

iron-deficiency (1200, 1203) and possible tubercular infection (1203, 3563). One of

the individuals (1201) in particular had suffered multiple injuries including a fracture

of the right radius which had resulted in osteoarthritis and possibly an habitual pincer

grip in the right fore-finger. In addition, his ribs had well healed fractures of a kind

usually caused by a fall or a direct blow, while the left foot bones exhibited signs of

trauma, possibly as a result of repetitive blows. It is apparent that these individuals

suffered from a number of debilitating conditions and it is possible that this was the

reason for their selection and subsequent deposition in the enclosure ditches.

Similarly, the bodies of three women were found interred on the base of the enclosure ditch surrounding the mortuary features at Folly Lane (Fig.2.9). The individuals placed close to the entrance and contemporary with the construction of the ditch

329 exhibit signs of degenerative conditions which no doubt severely restricted their mobility (Niblett 1999). Likewise, a group of eight bodies was deliberately placed in the bottom of two ditches enclosing 21 cremation burials at Verulam Hills Field

(Anthony 1968). There are very few datable objects associated with them; one interment was found with a fragmentary iron knife blade (2) and another with an iron arrowhead (8). The overall impression is that they were buried during the mid-first century AD since the pottery in the levels above included forms of the late first century AD. They were in a poor state of preservation but it was possible to detect that they all suffered some pathological condition and in general the lesions are those

associated with physically strenuous work and/or poor health. In many of the

examples it is difficult to determine if the bodies represents deliberate burial of the

remains, or whether the bodies were left exposed in the base of the ditch to be covered

by a accumulation of deposits and debris.

A third cemetery from Verulamium, King Harry Lane, produced evidence of

seventeen inhumation burials (Fig.2.8); the preservation of the bones was very poor

and human remains survived in thirteen cases (Keepax 1989, 244-46). In three

examples (254, 318, and 319) graves had been cut through the ditches of the burial

enclosures, in another four (36, 261, 286, 326) individuals had been deposited within

the actual enclosures, and the remaining ten were found widely scattered across the

extent of the cemetery. The graves were orientated on the alignment of the enclosures,

in a general north-west/south-east position, with only one marked exception (88: north-east/south-west). In the examples where bone survived the majority of the bodies were placed in an extended position with no sign of a coffin structure. Once more the deposition of accompanying objects does not appear to have been an

330 essential element of the burial rite with associated material recorded in only four instances (194, 261, 318 and 332). However, the interment of children does appear to have taken place at King Harry Lane, although in very limited numbers. In one instance the remains of a child aged c. eight years was recorded (64); whilst a small rectangular grave associated with a box or coffin but with no surviving human remains, was too small to accommodate an adult (Stead & Rigby 1989).

The presence of three bodies (94, 109-10) in the ditch fill of a late Iron Age burial enclosure (6733) (Fig.2.4) from Mucking, Essex (Going 1993; Lavender 1991) suggests a further parallel with the examples above. Another ditched enclosure with a mortuary-related context has recently been unearthed at Thorley, Hertfordshire where the associated features included three inhumation burials (1406, 1431 and 1346)

(Fig.6.10). The bodies do not appear to have been interred within coffin-type structure and there were no accompanying objects (Last & McDonald, 2001). At Hinxton,

Cambridgeshire three extended inhumations (I-III) (Fig.2.12) in shallow graves were closely associated with a group of eight late Iron Age cremation burials (Hill et al

1999). Five of the cremation burials (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) were surrounded by ring-ditches rather than rectangular or square ditched enclosures. The inhumation burials were positioned either between the ring-ditches (I-II) or in one case the grave (III) had been cut sympathetically to the curve of the ring-ditch (4). Only one of the bodies (I) was deposited with accompanying objects: a copper alloy finger ring of early Roman date.

An unusual late Iron Age double inhumation burial from Viables Farm, on the outskirts of Basingstoke deserves special mention in the present discussion. Two women were placed together in a large pit towards the centre of an Iron Age enclosure

(Millett & Russell 1982; Merryfield 1987, 66) and were accompanied by what appears

331 1346

0 1m

1431

Fig.6.10 The human inhumation buriak (1431,1406 and 1346) from Thorley B (After Last & McDonald 2001, Fig.27)

332 to be paired deposits which include: two terret-rings, four antler combs (two decorated, the others plain), the remains of two horses, two sheep and two cattle. The primary interment lay in an extended position (2) and was the younger of the two; the older female (1) was crouched on top of her legs with her head on the younger one's pelvis. The careful arrangement of the double burial, with one of the bodies in what

could be considered a subservient position and the associated paired deposits must

have held particular symbolic meaning. To specukte on that meaning is difficult but it

is tempting to suggest that perhaps the older woman was the faithful attendant of the

younger one (Green 2001, 165).

An extensive settlement site at Owslebury, Hampshire revealed two connecting

ditched enclosures containing between them 21 cremation and four inhumation burials

(Collis 1970; 1977). The western enclosure contained a centrally placed grave of an

extended mature male inhumation (39) (Fig.5.11) positioned with his head to the

north and accompanied by a number of weapons (Collis 1973; 1994a). Sometime

during the second century AD three unaccompanied inhumation burials (40, 51 and

63) were cut through the enclosure ditches. The association of an inhumation burial

accompanied by a range of weapons is paralleled by numerous examples distributed

across the British Isles but only one other site is currently known, outside of east

Yorkshire, where the burials are enclosed. During recent work on the extension of the

Channel Tunnel Rail-Link in Ashford, Kent, the skeletons of two young men each

placed within a small square ditched enclosure came to light (Casper Johnson pers.

comm.). The first enclosure surrounded a centrally placed grave of an extended adult male, c. 18-25 years old (1). He was orientated approximately north-south with his head placed at the southern end of the grave and interred in some sort of organic

333 coffin/bier, probably made from a woven material. The object deposited along side him consisted of an iron sword, a spear, a shield boss, suspension rings, a copper alloy brooch, three pottery vessels and a pig skull. A second small squared ditched enclosure immediately west of the first consisted of a centrally placed north-south aligned grave containing the poorly preserved remains of an adult male (2). The individual was provided with a number of objects including an iron sword and spear, the remains of a shield, a bronze ring and a pottery vessel. The burials have been tentatively dated to c. AD30-50 on the basis of the associated pottery found in the graves. Other tentative examples from the south-east include a group of material

including a sword disturbed during gravel extraction at Kelevdon, Essex but no

human remains were recovered (Sealey 1996, 58; pers. comm.). Similarly, an iron

spearhead recovered from a possible grave feature at Verulamium yielded no skeletal

material (Ros Niblett pers. comm.) but an individual recorded from Soham,

Cambridgeshire was discovered with the remains of two dogs and an iron spearhead

(Fox 1923, 81; Whimster 1981, 229). This distinctive type of inhumation burial is not

restricted to south-eastern England and examples occur across the length and breadth

of the British Isles including Yorkshire, north Wales, southern England, and the east

coast of Ireland and Cornwall. It is also apparent that each example comes from an

area otherwise characterised by a different burial tradition or a complete absence of

burials. The Whitcombe burial (Fig.5.11) lay amongst standard Durotrigian graves

(Aitken & Aitken 1991), whereas the Sutton Courtenay example (Whimster 1979) is

located in an area associated with the 'pit-tradition'.

• The research has established that inhumation burials were deposited alongside the

predominate cremation rite practised across the south-east during the late Iron

334 Age. There is a case to suggest that inhumation rites were practised across the region since at least the third century BC and continued in small numbers into the

Roman period. Three main rites appear to have been practised: small inhumation cemeteries associated with contemporary settlement activity, individuals interred within ditches and burial enclosures, and inhumations burials accompanied with a repertoire of fine metalwork including weapons.

It is difficult to say anything certain regarding the age and sex of the interred individuals due to the difficulties and discrepancies of the archaeological data.

However, the majority of the individuals buried with weaponry objects appear to be adult men (Stead 1991, 33, 35). The sample is small and archaeologically biased due to insufficient recording of features and poor preservation of human remains in many cases. The low numbers of children under the age of fifteen years of age implies that generally they were not afforded inhumation rites and are largely invisible in the late Iron Age archaeological record. There is a slight suggestion that more women than men were interred in this manner; the largest and most reliable sample comes from the Deal cemetery where 30 of the 43 skeletons were sexed with 18 females and 12 men (ratio 2:1 inclusive of probable determinations). Adults in their middle to mature years often with some sort of debilitating condition dominate those associated with enclosure and ditch deposits.

Furthermore, those individuals associated with the ditched enclosures tend to favour one sex or the other in as far as can be established:

Stotfold 4 females 1 male Folly Lane 3 females Viables Farm 2 females Owslebury 4 males

335 Verulam Hills Field 1 female 7 males Thorley 2 females 1 indeterminate

The objects which are present in limited numbers include pottery vessels (at least ten graves), brooches (at least nine graves), jewellery (at least 5 graves) and other rare objects such as knives, spoons and a Iron Age coin. The exception to this is of course the 'weapon' burials, along with the Viables Farm (Millett & Russell 1982) and Newnham Croft deposits, which include a variety of fine objects. The individuals appear to have been laid in shallow graves or directly on ditch surfaces; many of the graves in the Deal cemetery appear to have been too short to accommodate the bodies. There is h'ttle to suggest that coffins were used, although they may have consisted of organic structures like those from Ashford and/or the bodies may have been wrapped in a shroud. A small number of the bodies (6 examples) are associated with animal remains particularly the remains of dogs and horses. At King Harry Lane the skull of a horse was selected as a suitable deposit for one of the individuals (194), while dog skeletons were recorded at Soham,

Cambridgeshire (Fox 1923; Whimster 1981) and Deal (47) (Parfitt 1995). The repeated association of human, horse and dog remains is frequently attested to in

Iron Age deposits; at Danebury horses and dogs were buried alongside human remains in disused grain silos (Cunliffe 1993). At Deal (Graves 53 and 54), the

skeleton of a horse and a man, perhaps the owner, were discovered in adjacent graves. A parallel discovery was encountered during construction work to the

Jubilee Line in East London, where a third century BC grave, was found to contain the skeleton of a man and a horse (Green 1992, 99; 2001,45).

336 The choice of inhumation for a particular section of the population, together with a lack of grave goods and evidence of poor health in some cases could indicate that these were persons of low status. Where the information is available, it is apparent that a number of individuals, especially those interred in ditches, exhibit signs of physical abnormality or debilitating conditions. The bodies from Verulam

Hills Field, Folly Lane, Stotfold, Owslebury and Biddenham Loop all display evidence of severe trauma or degenerative conditions which would have resulted in increasing disability. In a limited number of cases there is some suggestion of restraint with evidence of hands and ankles tied together (Verulam Hills Field 8,

Stotfold 1999 and 2001). In another example (Thorley 1346) a large stone was found near the pelvis of the corpse but whether this was used symbolically to pin down the body is a matter of conjecture. There is evidence from Danebury, along with a number of the European bog-bodies, to suggest that restraint and violence was inflicted on some individuals (Cunliffe 1993; Van der Sanden 1996; Green

2001). The selection of these individuals for inhumation rites may have been made on the grounds of physical abnormality, low and/or servile status. It is evident that these individuals would have stood apart from their contemporaries and may have been considered symbolically inferior to the remainder of the population. In particular one of the women interred in the Folly Lane enclosure ditch displayed signs of a condition known as 'Eagles Syndrome' which would have caused facial pain and swallowing difficulties (Mays & Steele 1999, 312). It was perhaps due to this condition and the difficulties she would have suffered in communicating both facial and verbal expressions that sealed her fate.

337 6.4 Cremated human remains (this section should be read in conjunction with Appendix E) It is important to consider that 'cremation' and 'cremation burial' represents two completely different elements of the mortuary process; the former concerns the actual burning of the corpse and the associated offerings and the latter includes the burial of the burnt remains (McKinley 2000). It is important to use clear and concise

terminology or the same errors are repeatedly applied to the archaeological data.

Many of the known Iron Age cremation burials and cemeteries were excavated before

the 1960s when cremated bone was frequently discarded or received little analysis

because it was perceived as having no value or potential in advancing archaeological

knowledge. The lack of consideration and general attitude with which deposits were

considered is expressed by Fox and Lethbridge (1924, 53) who refer to pottery vessels

from the Guilden Morden cemetery which 'contain nothing but bone and charcoal'.

In many of the older site reports there is no discussion of the cremated bone and

deposits were rarely examined by an osteologist In the early 1960s two influential

papers, one by Wells (1960) and the other by Gejvall (1963) established the methods

for analysing cremated bone deposits suggesting that the results should be routinely

included in excavation reports and papers. However, discrepancies remained in the

amount of interpretative work produced regarding cremation in general compared to

inhumation burials and the neglect has only been addressed in the past fifteen years.

This is largely the result of research conducted by Jacqueline McKinley (1989; 1994;

1997a; 1997b; 2000) whose osteological analysis not only considers the demographic

and pathological aspects but demonstrates the depth of knowledge that can be gained

from the cremation debris associated with the disposal of the dead in the prehistoric

period. It is suggested that rather than being the 'poor retainer' cremation deposits

338 have the potential to be the 'star witness' enabling aspects of pyre technology and

accompanying offering to be deduced along with an increased understanding of the

demography and pathology. In this respect a weakness of inhumation rites is exposed,

they may provide excellent demographic and pathological evidence but very little insight regarding the wider mortuary sequence is revealed.

The research incorporates over 120 sites, the majority of which are associated with

burials and features yielding calcined remains. The difficulties encountered when

collating the data together in this study included the level of disturbance some

deposits and features had suffered, insufficient recording during excavation and the

omission of post-excavation analysis. Unfortunately many were investigated during

the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when emphasis was placed on the

recovered objects rather than the human remains (Dryden 1845; Smith 1852; Ranson

1889; Evans 1890; Smith 1912). Even those excavated and published in the latter

decades of the twentieth century fail to contain adequate scientific analysis of the

calcined bone (Anthony 1968; Dunnet 1973; Mathews 1976; Thompson & Holland

1976; Dix 1980; Burleigh 1982; Niblett & Reeves 1990; Wymer & Brown 1995).

However, a significant number of cemeteries published in the last fifteen years

contain detailed bone reports, which provide a firm basis on which the research in this

section is conducted (Lavender 1991; Williams & Zeepvat 1994; McKinley 1997b;

Fulford & Creighton 1998; Parfitt 1998; Shotliff& Crick 1999; Hill etal 1999; Niblett 1999).

It is important to reiterate that cremation burials are not the only features from which calcined bones are recovered. Pyre and pyre-related features (chapter 3) along with a

339 series of contexts including ditches, postholes, pits, and mortuary structure have all revealed deposits of burnt human remains. The burnt bone from these features may yield very little information about the individuals but the significance lies in the wider role human remains played in the Iron Age landscape. Cremated bone is recorded

from a number of features and contexts on cemetery sites:

• Pyre sites often comprise small amounts of in situ deposits and pyre/cremation-

related features often consist of deliberately redeposited pyre debris.

• Unurned concentrations of cremated bone are found on the base of the grave pit,

sometimes with a small quantity scattered through the backfill. It is probable that

at least some of these deposits were originally placed within some form of organic

container.

• Cremated remains are also found buried within pottery vessels although deposits

have been recovered from buckets, boxes and other vessel types.

• In a limited number of examples single burials have been discovered with part of

the calcined remains contained in an urn and an unurned concentration.

• A concentration of calcined remains weighing between 0.1 -30g deposited in a pit

and associated with accompanying objects usually with only slight or no sign of

disturbance.

The expected weight range of collectable bone from an individual cremated at a

modern crematoria is between 1000-2400g, with an average of c. 1650g (McKinley

1997b, 68). There is often considerable variation in the quantity and quality of cremated bone recovered from late Iron Age archaeological contexts, ranging from

340 over a kilo to a few grams. The weight of a cremated bone deposit is affected by a number of factors including firing temperature; weather conditions; difficulties of retrieving the remains from a large volume of pyre debris; comminution of bone prior to burial; the burial conditions; and the levels of disturbance (McKinley 1997a;

1997b; Foster 1986; Stirland 1989). Many of the bone assemblages including those

from Little Waltham, Essex (Drury 1978), Thorley, Hertfordshire (Waldron 2001, 83),

Westhampnett, West Sussex (Fitzpatick 1997) and West Mersea, Essex (Thompson

1981) comprise a proportion of each skeletal area (skull, axial skeleton, upper and

lower limb) symbolic of the entire body.

Some cremated bone deposits are found buried directly on the base of the grave,

although they may originally have been contained within some sort of organic bag or

pouch which has long since perished. The eight cremation burials from the Hinxton

cemetery, Cambridgeshire (Hill et al 1 999) were deposited in concentrated heaps on

the bottom of the grave and in some cases there is a slight suggestion that the bones

were wrapped in a cloth bag. Likewise, the nature of the Stotfold deposit, lying in a

concentrated pile at the centre of the grave pit, suggests that the remains may

originally have been held in a container of some kind (Steadman 1995; 1996). In the

majority of cases the burials excavated from the Westhampnett, North Shoebury

(Wymer & Brown 1995), Deal (2, 4, 130 and 132) (Parfitt 1995) and Biddenham

Loop (Groupl: S470-72 and Group 2: S564 and S1410) (Luke 2000) cemeteries

consist of unurned bone deposits. Alternatively, a large number of cremation burials

from the south-east were placed in pottery vessels including a large number of those

from the King Harry Lane cemetery (Stead & Rigby 1989). The calcined remains

341 were not restricted to pottery vessels other objects including boxes and metal vessels functioned as containers for the dead.

The bulk of the bone from the Dorton burial was recovered from a small wooden box which also contained a bronze mirror (Parley 1983). Other graves holding the calcined remains in boxes include three of the nine early Roman graves from Alton, Hampshire

(2, 7, and 8) (Millett 1986), an example from Owslebury (12) (Collis 1997, 27), along with the 'Welwyn-type' burials from Snailwell (Lethbridge 1953) and Stanway

(CF47) (Crummy 1997a; 1997c). A number of cremation deposits have also been

recovered from bronze bound wooden buckets including amongst others Alkham

(Philip 1991; J.D. Hill pers. comm.), Aylesford (Evans 1890; Stead 1971 260-72),

Swarling (Bushe-Fox 1925; Stead 1971, 280), Old Warden (Dryden, 1845, 20; Fox,

1923, 98-9; Stead 1971, 279), and Hurstbourne Tarrant (Hawkes & Dunning 1930;

Stead 1971, 274). Similarly, the tiny amount of cremated remains (10.5g) from the

burial at Tene, Baldock was recovered from a iron and bronze cauldron (Stead &

Rigby 1986, 53). In some cases the act of placing calcined remains within pottery

vessels aided survival and details of provenance. At Billericay Secondary School

(Rudling 1990) and Ickelton Road, Great Chesterford (Crossan et al 1990) a number

of pottery vessels recovered from disturbed contexts contained calcined remains

whose survival and subsequent interpretation was safeguarded as a result of being placed in the vessels. There are also a small number of graves where a proportion of

the cremated bone was placed with a pottery vessel and a smaller quantity was deposited loosely either within the fill or on the base of the pit. There are two possible examples from the Westhampnett cemetery (20199 and 20479) (Fitzpatrick 1997, 161

& 182), the King Harry Lane cemetery included at least seven examples (42, 66, 131,

342 233, 338, 345, 438) (Stead & Rigby 1989). Likewise, an isolated grave (2379) from

Elms Farm, Heybridge contained an urned deposit (392g) as well as a small quantity recovered from the backfill (44g) (Mark Atkinson pers. comm.).

The weight of cremated bone from 656 grave contexts forms the basis of the research

(Appendix E), varying from O.lg-2249g. The largest group represented by 392 grave deposits (59.75%) weighed between O.lg-499g, whereas only 88 graves (13.3%) contained deposits in excess of lOOOg. At the lower end of the scale isolated cremation burials include Dorton (125g) (Parley 1983), Little Waltham (161g) (Drury

1978), Cunning Man, Berkshire (c. lOOg) (Boon & Wymer 1958), and Lake, Isle of

Wight (284g) (Rebecca Loader pers. comm.). At the Westhampnett cemetery a maximum 161 graves were excavated, 36 (22.4%) of these features, comparable in

form, location and content to those containing cremated bone, contained either no

surviving bone (20 graves) or less than lOg. The remaining 125 graves contained

some cremated bone, although the majority yielded small quantities between lO.lg-

999.2g (McKinley 1997b, 63). Over 80% (130) of the graves contained cremated bone

deposits less than 500g, evidently it was not deem necessary in the majority of cases

to collect the remains of the whole body from the pyre. Only eleven graves (6.9%) were found to contain cremated bone weighing in excess of 500g and none exceed the

lOOOg mark. The largest deposit of 999.2g came from grave 20089, an older mature adult accompanied by two pottery vessels and an iron brooch (Fitzpatrick 1997, 149).

The deposits of cremated bone associated with the Chilham Castle, Kent (822g)

(Parfitt 1998) and Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire (649g) (Medlycott 1994) burials are compatible with the upper limit of those from Westhampnett.

343 Table 6.1: Range and weight of calcined bone deposits from King Harry Lane, Westhampnett and the remainder of sites included in Appendix E

Weight King Harry Lane % Westhampnett % Other % 0.1-lOOg 46 1178 53 32.9 32 25.4 101-249g 59 15.2 48 29.8 24 19.1 250-499g 75 19.3 29 18 26 20.6 500-749g 73 18.8 8 5 17 13.5

750-999g 67 17.2 3 1.9 9 7.1

1000-1499 57 14.6 0 0 12 9.5

1500-2249g 12 3.1 0 0 6 4.8 Totals 389 burials 141 burials 126 burials

The analysis of the cremation burials from King Harry Lane is based on 388 of the

original 455 deposits (5 contained no bone and 62 which were mislaid before

analysis) (Stirland 1989). The deposits from the graves were considered as a whole

(irrespective of phase or disturbance) and 180 (46.3%) held deposits weighing less

than 499g, but a far greater percentage (53.7%) than the examples from Westhampnett

exceed the 500g category. The deposits included 69 graves (17.7%) yielding more

than lOOOg with twelve examples (3.1%) weighing over 1500g. Among a number of

isolated burials containing a considerable portion of calcined remains is Marston

Moretaine with 1040g (Shotliff & Crick 1999), a deposit of 1750g recorded from

Aston, Hertfordshire (Rook 1982) and the cremation burial from Stotfold comprising

some 1566g (Steadman 1995; 1996). A number of the smaller late Iron Age

cemeteries tend to display similar fluctuations in the amount of bone deposited in each

grave. One of the three enclosures from Thorley (B) was associated with at least three

cremation burials (1245, 1271, and 1309), while a fourth (1327) pit contained a small

quantity of cremated bone which was not recorded (Last & Mcdonald 2001, 44). The

weight of the deposits ranged from 1064g to 14g and were deemed to be the remains of adults though it was not possible to determine the sex in any case. Similar occurrences are noted at the Maldon Hall Farm and North Shoebury cemeteries where

344 three cremation burials are associated with a ditched enclosures. In each case one grave contained a substantial deposit of calcined remains (Maldon Hall Farm 3:

662.7g and North Shoebury 1232: 990g) and the remaining two held significantly smaller quantities (Lavender 1991; Ken Crowe pers. comm.). Comparable variations have been noted from the cemeteries of Hinxton (Hill et al 1999) Stanway (Mays

2001), Alton (Millett 1986), Biddenham Loop (Mike Luke pers. comm.), and

Bancroft (Williams & Zeepvat 1994) where graves with substantial and very small

deposits occur.

The cemeteries associated with extensive settlements from Owslebury (Collis 1968;

1970; 1977; 1994), Biddenham Loop (Luke & Dawson 1997; Luke 2000), and

Stansted (Havis & Brooks forthcoming; Brooks 1989; Havis & Brooks 1991, 41;

Havis 1999) display evidence of continuous occupation during the Iron Age and

Romano-British periods. The late Iron Age cremation burials are distributed across

four separate areas of the Stansted (1-13, 19, 32, 36-38, 39-43) and Biddenham Loop

sites (Group 1: S470-72; Group 2: S564 and S1410; Group 3: S344-58), while the

relevant examples from Owslebury are associated with two ditched enclosures. The

burials from Owslebury had suffered extensive disturbance in many cases but

evidence from the less disturbed examples suggest that the majority of the interred

cremated remains were very small (less than 50g). Of a total of eighteen cremation

burials, nine were identified as young adults/adults, two males (19 and 41), one as

female (45), and one as a probable female (Collis 1977; Wells et al 1986). The

largest group of burials from Biddenham Loop consists of fifteen burials and a probable pyre feature (Group 3) (Fig.3.7). The main cluster comprised eleven graves

(S344-S354) with four others situated to the west and north of the main group (S355-

345 S358). The cremated bone deposits varied in quantity from 5g (S349) to 1836.5g

(S358) and were dominated by adult individuals. Three of the burials (S349, S351,

S355) contained less than 20g which is probably a reflection of some disturbance, whilst four others contained more than lOOOg (S350, S352, S357, S358). Most of the individuals are incomplete with an average weight of 501.2g, whereas the mean weight for the undisturbed, unurned single adult burials from Westhampnett was considerably lower at 301.1 g (McKinley 1997b, 68). At King Harry Lane, the largest number of burials with 105 examples weighed between 0-249g, with a median reading within the 500-749g range (Stirland 1989). The group of late Iron Age burials from

Stansted (Group 1: 1-6, 8-13, 32) display consistently substantial deposits, only three of the twelve burials contained less than lOOg of bone and two of these are from

disturbed deposits (4 and 6). The remaining nine deposits are between 427g-1485g with a mean weight based on the eleven undisturbed graves of 798.6g (Havis &

Brooks forthcoming).

In relation to the quantities of bone recovered from the late Iron Age cremation

burials the deposits associated with two probable pyre sites from Puddlehill,

Bedfordshire (Mathews 1976,163-170) and Handley, Dorset (White 1970) present

interesting analogies. At Puddlehill, the calcined remains of an adult possibly female were spread along an elongated feature cut into the base of an enclosure ditch. The

369g of cremated bone demonstrated variations in the efficiency of burning, it was white in places but a considerable quantity of carbon remained. It is suggested that the colour and condition negated against its collection because it was difficult to differentiate from the ash and charcoal. At Handley, a small round barrow sealed a probable pyre site, represented by a spread of pyre debris including ash, charcoal, and

346 115g of calcined human remains. In both deposits elements representing most parts of the skeletons were left behind, although it appears that a large proportion were collected and disposed of elsewhere. This alludes to the fact that like the actual burials, where the complete body is rarely deposited, it was not deemed necessary to collect the entire skeletal remains from the pyre site.

The nine cremation burials (AF18, AF48, BF64, BF67, CF7, CF47, CF403 and

CF115) from Stanway are substantially incomplete with the largest weighing 624.5g

(AF18) and the smallest just 3.4g (AF48). Likewise, three of the four mortuary

chambers (AF25: 18g; BF6: 49g; BF24: 82g) produced tiny quantities of adult calcined remains scattered into the chambers as part of a probable closure deposit. In the fourth chamber (CF42) no human remains were produced although a rare deposit of calcined horse teeth had been included with the deposited material (Mays 2001). A

similar deposit of calcined remains was recovered from the mortuary chamber at Folly

Lane, Hertfordshire (Niblett 1999). The bone weighing less than 32g was in an

extremely poor condition and it was not possible to determine whether it was human

or animal. However, the associated 'burial' pit located immediately to one side of the

shaft produced a calcined human bone deposit of 164.3g, including 23.7g of animal bone representing four different species (cat/hare, pig, cattle and sheep/goat) (Mays &

Steele 1999, 307 & 310). At both Stanway and Folly Lane it is possible that the cremation burials may have suffered some damage as a result of later activity but this seems insufficient to account for the tiny quantities of bone, especially those deposits within the deep mortuary chambers. Finally, it appears that the deep feature sealed beneath the Lexden Tumulus, Essex is probably a chamber similar to those recorded from Stanway and Folly Lane (Foster 1986, 169). The body of associated material

347 from the chamber includes a deposit of highly fragmented human remains (adult, at least one male) weighing 346g (ibid.133-139). This is substantially larger than those recovered from Stanway and Folly Lane but it still represents little more than one sixth of the largest late Iron Age deposits. It appears that burial of substantial quantities of cremated bone did not warrant particular attention in the mortuary sequence. If large proportions of bone were retrieved from the pyres, it is obvious that during transfer to the burial place, a proportion was removed and deposited in an archaeologically invisible manner.

In addition to the tiny quantities of bone associated with the mortuary chambers/shafts at Stanway, and Folly Lane it is evident that many of the cremation burials also comprise what could be described as 'token' deposits. Factors such as soil acidity and levels of disturbance must be taken into consideration and may account for the loss of some material. However, given that the human remains in many of these burials are largely placed on the base of the grave it is unlikely that substantial amounts are missing. A large number of the individual burials contain deposits weighing less than

lOOg but at the lowest extreme a significant number have produced less than 30g of cremated human remains. These deposits which Jacqueline McKinley (1989, 71;

1997b, 71-72; 2000, 42-43) has referred to as 'token' or memorials occur as isolated features but the majority appear amongst the larger cremation cemeteries. At the King

Harry Lane cemetery 46 graves (11.8%) contained less than lOOg of human remains and of those 29 comprised less than <25g (7.5%) (Stirland 1989; McKinley 2000, 43).

Over 45% of the graves from the Westhampnett cemetery contain either no cremated bone (20 graves) or weighed less than lOOg (53 graves); sixteen (9.4%) producing cremated bone weighing lOg or less. The existence of similar features with lOg or less

348 have been recorded at the late Iron Age cemeteries of Hinxton (Hill et al 1999),

Biddenham Loop (Luke 2000), and Stanway (Mays 2001). At Hinxton an unurned deposit associated with a pottery vessel and a possible brooch produced lOg of cremated remains and at Stanway one of the graves (AF48) was found to contain just

3.4g of calcined bone associated with a wooden bucket or box and a copper alloy finger ring. Each of three clusters of burials found distributed across Biddenham Loop contained at least one or two 'token' burials. One feature (S472) associated with two

cremation burials contained just 4g of bone, while two isolated, shallow pits (S564:

4.7g and S1410: 0.35g) which had suffered truncation contained tiny quantities. Two

features from the main cemetery (Group 3: S349 and S355) also contained surviving

deposits of less than lOg. It is suggested that these deposits represent 'memorials'

rather than burials and it is possible that they operated as markers within the

landscape.

At least two of the ' Welwyn-type' burials were associated with very little or possibly

no human bone although they were still referred to as 'cremation burials' (Stead 1967;

Stead 1968). At Hertford Heath, where the grave had suffered some truncation, a tiny

quantity (7.5g) of bone was recovered from the western part of the grave pit amongst

numerous iron and bronze fittings (Hussen 1983, 5-6). Another example from

Baldock yielded only 10.5g of burnt bone, the majority of which comprised brown

bear (Ursus arctos) phalanges, with no specific mention of identified human remains

in the report (Stead & Rigby 1986, 53). The grave had suffered disturbance before

archaeological investigation was conducted but given that burnt and unburnt animal remains were recovered it would be particularly unusual for the human remains to disappear completely. It is interesting to note that in three other 'Welwyn-type'

349 burials with recorded amounts of cremated remains no more than c, 150g of bone was deposited: Stanway BF64 140g; Stanway CF47 148.7g (Mays 2001) and Dorton 125g

(Parley 1983). It is apparent that cremation burial deposits demonstrate considerable

variation and in some circumstances the deposition of a substantial amount of human

remains does not appear to have been an essential factor of the mortuary ritual. These

deposits are obviously closely associated with the sequence of activities surrounding

the disposal of the dead but their role requires careful consideration and it should not

be automatically assumed that they represent 'burials' in the same way as any other

(McKinley 1997b, 2000).

The assemblages are clearly dominated by adults but the nature of calcined bone,

small size, distortion and shrinkage, make it very difficult to assign actual age and sex

in the majority of instances (Appendix E). For example, the small quantity and

crushed nature of the calcined bone from the Dorton burial presented considerable

difficulties in determining the age or sex of the individual: little could be said of the

deposit except that it is probably an adult (Parley 1983). At the two largest known

cemeteries, Westhampnett and King Harry Lane, the majority of identifiable remains

are those of adults (King Harry Lane 243 adults and 42 subadults; Westhampnett

minimum of 95 adults and 20 subadults). It appears that children (under 12 years old)

were not excluded from the rite of cremation but their numbers are consistently small

across the known cemeteries. The cremation process largely consumes the bones of

very young infants and children and surviving fragments are often extremely small

and delicate. At Westhampnett, a minimum of fourteen individuals were classified as

immature (McKinley 1997b, 63) and at King Harry Lane at least 24 immature

individuals were recorded (Stirland 1989, 242). It also appears that this rite was

350 deemed appropriate for neonates, three examples were recorded at King Harry Lane

(162, 255, 471) as well as a single occurrence from Westhampnett (20637). The fragile condition of the bone may be subject to loss in aggressive burial conditions.

McKinley suggests (1997b, 64) that some of the features where no bone or tiny fragments of bone are recovered may have held the remains of young infants originally. In addition, to the discoveries from King Harry Lane and Westhampnett, there are a limited number of finds revealing the remains of children including

Boxford, Suffolk (Owles 1967, 105), Biddenham Loop, Stanway, and Hinxton. One

(S470) of a group of three features (Group 1: S470-72) from Biddenham Loop produced the cremated remains (183g) of ajuvenile aged between 2 and 10 years old.

Whereas an unburnt femur bone from a foetus was interred with the calcined remains

of an adult male (S353) in the larger cemetery (Group 3: S344-S458) (Luke 2000).

One of the two 'Welwyn-type' burials (BF64) from Stanway provides a comparative

deposit; the cremated remains of an adult individual were deposited along with an

unburnt long bone fragment from a child (Mays 2001). None of the burials from

Stanway produced evidence involving the cremation of children but a pyre-related

feature (BL16) contained a burnt mandible fragment from a child (Mays 2001). The

evidence suggests that children did receive cremation rites similar to those of the adult population. The small number of instances of (child) cremation could be the result of numerous factors including the fragile nature of the remains, they may never have been collected from the pyre and if deposited unurned in the grave pit aggressive soils could be responsible for their disappearance. It is also suggested that similar to adult cremation deposits it was not deemed necessary to bury the complete remains which appears to be emphasised by the 'token' deposits of unburnt child remains.

351 There is also limited evidence for dual cremation burial: a deposit where the calcined remains of two individuals have been identified, frequently including a combination of an adult and an immature individual, although two adults together are not unknown

(McKinley 1997a, 13-31; 1997b, 67-70). The corpses are likely to have been burnt together on the same pyre and should not be confused with double cremation burials, where the remains of two persons burnt individually are buried as separate deposits within the same grave. At Westhampnett, three dual cremation burials (20095, 20207 and 20459) were identified containing the unurned remains of an adult or subadult and an immature individual. A tentative fourth example (20469) yielded the remains of two older adults placed unurned in two concentrations on the base of the grave pit and

from the backfill (Fitzpatrick 1997, 178). There was also one double burial from the

cemetery (20637) which contained the urned remains of a newborn and a small

unurned deposit of a probable adult male (ibid.,195). Nine (53, 69, 90, 125, 165, 200,

221, 317 and 367), possibly ten (66), dual cremations were excavated from the King

Harry Lane cemetery equating to 2.6% of the buried population. Of the ten examples

seven consisted of the combined remains of an adult and an immature individual, the

three remaining graves (69, 90 and 221) held two adults. Other late Iron Age

examples include a deposit from Noak Hill, Billericay where the calcined remains

(615g) of a young adult, possibly female and an infant or young child were recovered

from a pottery jar (Weller 1981; & pers. comm.). At Latchmere Green, Hampshire an

isolated grave pit produced an urned deposit containing two individuals (465g), an

adult over 30 years old and a young child less than 5 years old (Fulford & Creighton

1998). The Hinxton cemetery includes eight cremation burials, two (2 and 4) of which contain a small quantity of calcined remains of an immature individual mixed with those of an adult (Hill et al 1999). The combination of calcined child and adult

352 remains and the deposition as dual burials implies one or more scenarios including the possibility of dual-body burning and/or the retention of the child remains for later interment with a suitable adult (McKinley 1997b, 69-70). This suggests either that children did not warrant individual burial or that they could not go unaccompanied into the afterlife, although there are a small number of examples of children deposited individually.

The majority of human remains analysed from late Iron Age cremation burials appear to have been efficiently burnt suggesting that pyre technology was well organised and access to resources and fuel was plentiful. The degree of efficiency is reflected by the resulting colour and condition of the bone; white compact bone which displays signs

of distortion and shrinkage is consistent with exposure to a sustained high

temperature. Whereas grey/blue to black bone indicates a reduced burning time and

removal from the pyre before the organic components were fully oxidised (Stirland

1989). The colour and condition of the calcined bone deposits from the majority of the

cemeteries including Westhampnett, Stotfold, Biddenham Loop, Hinxton, Stanway,

Owselbury, Boxford and Salford, Bedfordshire (Dawson forthcoming) suggests that

the bone was well burnt and for considerable lengths of time. At King Harry Lane

17% of the cremation burials are described as 'badly burnt' (Stirland 1989, 241),

whilst Maldon Hall Farm 3 and the burial from Marston Moretaine were also poorly

burnt. In the case of Maldon Hall Farm a larger quantity of bone (662.7g) was

selected for interment compared to the other two graves from the cemetery (Grave 1:

65g and Grave 2: 87g). Similarly a large deposit (1040g) containing black and even unburnt fragments was deposited at Marston Moretaine. There are several reasons why this may occur: the type of fuel used or the weather conditions was not suitable;

353 or if the skeleton had been defleshed or was particularly emaciated, then there may not have been enough fat to assist combustion; or if the pyre had collapsed and cut off the air supply, the fire would have died out quickly (Shotliff & Crick 1999). It is suggested that the larger deposits of poorly burnt remains could be equated with a concern that transformation had not been successfully completed and so a greater portion of the individual was retrieved and subsequently buried. At present the lack of examples hinders this interpretation which serves to demonstrate that detailed analysis and recording of new material is critical to the development of Iron Age mortuary studies.

In summary, notions concerning 'tokenism', fragmentation and the fundamental concept of transformation are at the centre of any discussion regarding cremated remains and have been a focus of this study. The presence of incomplete deposits of human remains in grave features indicates that it was ideologically acceptable to

fragment and disperse a corpse. In previous chapters (3, 4, and 5) the notion of transformation has been regarded as an instrumental factor in the sequence of mortuary-related rites and activities, hi chapter 5 it was suggested that the transformation of the dead was initiated immediately on death through a series of rites involving the washing and preparation of the corpse. It was also argued that some of the objects used during the mortuary rites were either burnt or deliberately broken rendering them non-functional before burial. In chapters 3 and 4 it has been demonstrated that the cremation pyre becomes the focus of attention. The corpse/s and associated offerings are surrendered to the consuming flames continuing the dramatic change from a visible/recognisable to invisible/unrecognisable entity. By its very nature fire is power and the transformation of a human corpse would have been a

354 slow, dramatic and visible spectacle engulfing the assembled mourners in a powerful sensual experience. A well-known and perhaps powerful member of the living community would be consumed by the flames into clean, white unrecognisable

fragments of bone. If the emphasis was placed on the transformation of the human

body freeing the spirit from its earthly connections it is easy to envisage that the

deposition of a substantial quantity of burnt human bone was not the most important

element of the mortuary rites (Barber 1990; Graslund 1994; Fitzpatrick 1997).

It has already been noted that the majority of Iron Age pyres contained much less

residual cremated bone than might be expected given the relatively small size of most

of the cremation burials (see chapter 3). This suggests that substantial quantities of

bone were retrieved but that they were stored or deposited elsewhere possibly over

open ground and/or into water. In modern Balinese and Indian cremation rites the

cremated area is thoroughly cleaned and all trace of the processes and rituals involved

are systematically removed, with the calcined bone scattered into water (Downes

1999 & Parry 1994). Furthermore, the practise of depositing objects, including fine

metalwork and human remains, into marshy areas and rivers is well attested

throughout the Iron Age. The numerous recorded instances include deposits from

Fiskerton, Eton, and the Thames at Walbrook (Bradley 1990; Field 1983; Field &

Parker Pearson in press; Charter 2000; Marsh & West 1981; Maloney 1990; Isserlin

1997). Finally, the burial of small quantities of burnt bone could be the result of a

tradition of distributing the human remains between relatives, and/or several different

groups of mourners. In nineteenth century Aboriginal Australia there are recorded

cases of the ashes of the dead being smeared on the body and face as a sign of

355 mourning as well as the grinding down of the calcined remains which were worn as amulets by close relatives (Hiatt 1969, 105 & 108).

A final point relates to the fragmented condition in which the majority of calcined

bone deposits are recovered. This could be a result of spontaneous or deliberate action

on the pyre, during collection and burial, or excavation and post-excavation treatment.

Furthermore, deliberate fragmentation of human remains after cremation and retrieval

could have been performed as a final symbolic act of transformation from living to

dead. The notion of transformation has been reiterated throughout the study and

nowhere is this more exaggerated than through the act of cremation as a means of

disposing of the dead. These themes will be expanded upon in the concluding chapter

(7).

356 Chapter 7

Conclusion men's souls and the universe are indestructible, although at times fire and -water may prevail.

(Strabo, Geography 4, 4, 4)

7.1 The Visible Dead: Towards an Understanding of Late Iron Age Mortuary

Practice

The purpose of the research has been to investigate the mortuary practices of late Iron

Age south-eastern Britain traditionally associated with the ' Aylesford' cremation burials. This final chapter is intended to summarise the research findings on the whole of the evidence produced as well as suggesting areas of future research. It is clear that a cremation tradition was introduced into the region probably during the earlier first century BC. In recent years there has been an increasing realisation of the complexity of archaeological data and mortuary-related evidence is no exception. It is apparent that there is little point in attempting to study mortuary practice without trying to interpret something of the sequence of rites and associated ritual activity. There are a number of key areas were the research identified features relating to the wider sequence of mortuary practice including evidence of ditched enclosures, arrangements of post-holes, mortuary-related structures, pyre features and pyre debris incorporated into pits and ditches. There are also instances of inhumation burials occurring across the region: alongside cremation burials, as isolated burials associated with a variety of objects and in small inhumation cemeteries. Varying quantities of calcined human bones have also been noted in many of the cremation burials, which range from a

'token' amount (a few grams) to the substantive remains of an individual. A number

357 of dual cremation burials or attendant burials have also been identified such as those recorded from Westhampnett and Hinxton Rings. Furthermore, a small percentage of deposits contain not only the cremated bone but also the residue of pyre offerings providing an opportunity to analysis the objects placed on the pyre with the body.

The material provides a wealth of information regarding the treatment of the Iron Age dead offering a snap-shot of the wider mortuary sequence. For example, pyre sites can provide a wealth of evidence concerning pyre technology including construction processes and fuel utilisation, as well as offering a glimpse of the rituals involved and the objects committed to the flames. Mortuary rites would have been initiated immediately after death and are evident, to a greater or lesser extent, in the archaeological record. A sufficient labour force would have been required to dig graves and enclosures, build pyres, erect barrows and construct mortuary chambers and related features. The corpse needed to be prepared as well as transported to the site of cremation or deposition. The assembly of the mourners, perhaps the organisation of a large feast and access to various objects involved in the rites would need to be arranged. The various objects committed to the fire or interred in the graves may have been especially manufactured or travelled a considerable distance to be incorporated into the rituals. The cremation pyre would have required tending and the calcined remains and perhaps a quantity of burnt material may have been retrieved from the pyre and accorded secondary rites. In addition the site may have been cleared of any resulting deposits, which may have become incorporated or sealed in other contexts such as pits and ditches. The mortuary process was a protracted affair, which required access to resources and labour as well as the preparation and transportation of the corpse and organisation of the mourners and materials.

358 The objects incorporated into the mortuary repertoire have also been carefully examined and a diverse range of material has been recorded. Many basic similarities have been identified with pottery and brooches forming significant parts of most assemblages. Imported material such as Gallo-Belgic pottery, amphorae, glassware and metalwork were also incorporated culminating in the assemblages recorded from

Folly Lane, Stanway and Lexden. There are numerous reasons why such objects were included in burial deposits or burnt on the pyre: they may represent gifts from the mourners, or possessions of the deceased, or they may serve to equip the dead for the next world. It is possible that objects used during the mortuary rites were either burnt

or deposited in the ground because of their association with the dead and fear of pollution to the living. Their inclusion might also vary according to political and

ideological currents in society, this may be particularly significant in the period the

study embraces with the increasing influence of the Roman world.

The deposits that have accumulated in the archaeological record represent the

interaction between everyday practices and subsistence activities along with the

broader cosmological codes that shaped social, political and economic relationships.

Late Iron Age southern and eastern Britain saw an increase in large scale nucleated

sites, characterised by dynamic socio-political complexity and diverse land use with

specialised areas reserved for agricultural production, craftworking and burial.

Bounded spaces, field systems, earthworks and cemeteries form an integral and

prominent component of the Iron Age landscape imposing human order on the natural

environment. It is clear that access and movement was controlled by a series of

earthwork and field systems and in some instances ditched mortuary enclosures,

359 cemeteries and individual burials were associated with them. Furthermore, many of the mortuary sites occupied a dominant position within the immediate landscape with commanding views and were located near to rivers or situated on important routeways. Some of the places where the dead were situated are associated with territorial markers perhaps regarded as liminal locations representative of zones positioned between the living community and the dead ancestors. It is suggested that

visits to cemeteries and the performance of mortuary rites may have been

incorporated into a seasonal round of subsistence and communal activities which

served to establish links between people and places renewing the established order to

reinforce identity. These ceremonies would have remained prominent in the

consciousness of the living who continued to work and travel in the vicinity of the

cemetery and burial areas thus Unking together past and present, as well as the living

and dead.

In a time when communities were essentially rural in nature and reliant on farming

and fertility of crops it is possible to suggest that cosmology was embedded in a cycle

of regeneration and rebirth. In ancient times, like in many contemporary societies

today, beliefs concerning death are mixed with fears of pollution and its dangerous

influence to the living. The staging of mortuary rites permits a period of separation, to

be followed, after a period of transition or liminality, by incorporation of the deceased

into the world of the dead. This results in turning the negative aspects of death away

from the surviving community. It is in this context that the significant role of fire and

cremation can be seen; fire is a transformatory agent which is powerful and could consume the malignant forces of death. It is also worth considering that once the

corpse had been burnt on the pyre it was transformed into an unrecognisable pile of

360 ash and bone. Other materials which had been deliberately burnt, broken or destroyed may have been viewed in a similar manner to the remains of the dead and deemed appropriate material to be interred along with the calcined remains. It is suggested that the elements of fire and water were viewed as vehicles of transformation between the natural and supernatural worlds during the Iron Age. Mortuary rituals were perhaps designed to address a larger purpose then the disposal of the dead perhaps timely, periodic acts performed to rationalise and control death and promote fertility and regeneration. This was performed through a series of acts including construction of bounded spaces, strategic timing of activities, the deliberate deposition of material and the directed movement of mourners.

To conclude, for many years the late Iron Age was described as being the period of

the invisible dead and although there are still areas were the appearance of mortuary

rites remain elusive there is a growing body of substantive evidence. The study draws

together the evidence that has slowly accumulated in the archaeological record,

focusing on the cemeteries and burials that have been investigated in the last ten

years, to present a comprehensive and dynamic approach to Iron Age mortuary

studies. Recently a number of exciting discoveries located outside the south-east

region have included a cist burial from the Isles of Scilly and a cart burial from

Ferrybridge, West Yorkshire. These finds along with the discovery of the pyre

features from Elms Farm and Westhanpnett, the Folly Lane and Stanway mortuary

chambers and the Ashford inhumations continue to advance knowledge of Iron Age

mortuary practice in terms of characteristics, chronology, and geography. It is the first

time that the evidence of calcined bone deposits, pyre debris, ditched enclosure, pyre

sites, mortuary enclosures, inhumation burials and cremation rites have been drawn

361 together in a comparative study of south-east Britain. The evidence demonstrates that interpreting mortuary practice in the late Iron Age south-eastern Britain as a pre­

dominantly straightforward cremation rite restricts interpretation and instead it is clear

that a range of rites were employed, involving a sequence of ritual acts. Over one

hundred years ago when Arthur Evans made his discoveries at Aylesford the focus of

recovery was on the objects deposited in the grave pits but archaeological enquiry has

since transformed its ability to detect something of the wider sequence of activity involved in disposing of the dead.

7.2 Future Research

This concluding section indicates a number of lines of enquiry which could follow on

from this study. It would be valuable for the focus of this research to be applied to

another area of Britain. The number of cist burials from western Britain have slowly

mounted over the years, especially those from Cornwall, and a detailed study would

generate a valuable addition to the knowledge of Iron Age mortuary practice.

Likewise the number of burials and cemeteries from the continent, particularly

northern Gaul, have significantly increased and demonstrate similar complexities to

those in Britain regarding the treatment of the dead. A parallel study with either the

burials of East Yorkshire or south-east England may provide an answer to the long

standing debate over the notion of migration into Britain during this period. There is

also evident need for a more detailed investigation of spatial patterning within

individual graves and cemeteries. Furthermore, GIS analysis of the location of

cemeteries in relation to the wider landscape, particularly settlement and religious

sites, may reveal wider cosmological and socio-political relationships. Finally, there is scope for new research on small finds material associated with the cremation burials,

362 especially the vast number of brooches, and with a current lack of work in this area a study would generate a valuable addition.

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Westall, P. 1930. The Romano-British cemetery at the Grange, Welwyn, Herts. Transactions of the St.Albans and Hertfordshire Archaeology and Archaeological Society (1930), 37-55.

Westall, W.P. 1931. A Romano-British cemetery at Baldock, Hertfordshire. ArchaeologicalJournal 88, 247-301.

Westall, W.P. 1935. Bronze objects found in Hertfordshire. The Antiquaries Journal 15, 349-51.

Westall, W.P., & Applebaum, E.S. 1933. Romano-British Baldock: Past discoveries and future problems. The Journal of the British Archaeological Association 38, 235-77.

Whimster, R. 1977a. Iron Age burial in southern Britain. The Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 43, 317-28.

Whimster, R. 1997b. Harlyn Bay reconsidered: the excavations of 1900-1905 in the light of recent work. Cornish Archaeology 16, 61-88.

Whimster, R. 1979. A possible La Tene III inhumation from Sutton Courtenay, Oxfordshire. Oxoniensia 44, 93-6.

Whimster, R. 1981. Burial Practices in Iron Age Britain: A Discussion and Gazetteer of the evidence c. 700 BC - AD 43. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports 90, Volumes 1-2.

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Whitford, A. 1922. Late Celtic burial, Abbots Langley, Hertfordshire. Antiquaries Journal 2, 259-60.

Wilkinson, T.J. 1988. Archaeology and Environment in South Essex: Rescue Archaeology along the Grays By-pass 1979/80. Chelmsford: East Anglian Archaeology Report 42.

395 Williams, D.F. 1981. Roman amphora trade with late Iron Age Britain. In H. Howard & E. Morris eds. Production and Distribution: A Ceramic Viewpoint. Oxford: British Archaeological Report International Series 120, 123-32.

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397 Appendices to Thesis

398 the

the

2m

to

gully,

burial

in

in

into

of

the

least

burials

cut

pyre

large

At

at

a

shallow

away

sub-square

centre

appeared

a

situ was

a

cremation

in

discovered

site

in

of by found

that

143m

with the

ditch

burial

c.

enclosure.

was

inhumation

of

burials

burials

5

centre

burial

pit

defined the

ditch

pyre

end by

the

enclosure;

of

enclosure

situ

cremation

later

in

cremation

cremation

Cremation

occupy enclosure cut

6

enclosure ditched

& prominent [Description

interior 3

northern

deep

The silted

5

&

burials

burials burials

burial

features

pyre

2

cremation

cremation

cremation

cremation

1

Features

inhumation

7 &

3 1

an

.

2

50

with

0.2m

ditches

southern

south­

area

enclosure 130m

measuring

complex

than bank on

c.

an

a

diameter

13m,

of

profile

less

in

open

with

&

earthwork area

enclosure,

2.5m

western

enclosing

penannular

wide

U-shape

a

sub-rectangular

8m,

diameter,

ditch

28.75m diameter

internal

ditch

of

ditched

side

x

in

hi

0.45m

an

Dished

to

27.5

sides

Size 3

with 9m. Northern Square deep up c. 13.0m Sub-rectangular comprising internal metres eastern

entrance,

to

and

Ivel

137m

&

upper

along

facing

ditches,

c.

ground

main Ouse

River

Chiltern the

River

trackway,

ritual

the

flat adjacent

burials

the

the

the

south

the

hilltop

features

on

River

of

of

of

of

across Fen

&

enclosure

Age

the

east

gentle

chalk

Ridge

Way

west of

a

a

relatively

prehistoric

valley

with

settlement, Colne

activity

Iron

mile

on

on on

the at

to

the

dry

north-east

%

Earith

to

escarpment

&

boundaries

at

Chiltern

Icknield

junction

with

now

Located

field

Located

Hills

associated Topography slope relating contour industrial Fen the

facing Gade. chalk Located & the Located the

associated

bounty

Buckinghamshire

Bedfordshire Bedfordshire

Cambridgeshire

enclosures

A

ditched

of

Combe

Name

List

Stotfold Puddlehill 1. Site

Ward's

Appendix Colne

vo to

the

the

ditch

or

or

the

with

sherds

of

at

square

central

site

the

square

14 a

small

a

north- assigned

inside

by

burials cremation

with

from

enclosure,

infant

pits.

margins

inhumation the

enclosure

fragmentary

&

of

3

deposited

ditch

from

ditch

in

under

extensive

conjoined

&

of

the

enclosed

of

adult

this

groupings

pyre

cremation

centre

debris

ditched

recovered

comprising

additional

of

an

located revealed

of

in

(1010-1013)

from

6

of

bottom

enclosure

group

fabric

cremations

&

were north-western

part cut barrow

cremation

3

ditch

the

2

the

&

entrance

cremation

number pottery

linear

vPRIA ite, Rectangular

mrials

A astern round nclosures ditched remations

>urials

Grave west

remains A pyre-related

near of no

On

fill

enclosure A

3

burials

&

burial

burials

feature

pits

6

pyre

inhumation

cremation

cremation

cremation

1

burials

burial/pyre-related

3

Cremation

deposits 3 &

5

1 inhumation

a

of

x

to

wide

V-

with

long

15.0m,

(average

10.5m

in

727)

80m

deep

(average

x

a

measuring

c.

&

4.9m entrance

&

surrounding

enclosure when

of

rounded

c.

a

23.5

enclosure 8.80m

1.20-1.

The

wide

high

part

single

c.

(104/6

deep

a

0.52-0.25m

enclosure

Ditch

enclosure,

deep

0.88-1.74m

enclosure

.00m 1969.

ditched

barrow,

from

1

ditch

0.45m

enclosure 0.2m

measuring with

in

measuring

forming

depth

of to

&

ditch

&

ditched

ditched

up

round of ditch

ditched square

varied

wide

23.5m

2

south-west.

x

entrance 0.76-0.60m

0.40m)

lengths

15m

small

excavated diameter 1.32m) ditch & Square

wide, 2 originally 19 Enclosure rectangular of width

Square

the shape,

Small

no

4.2m

is

by

or

views

ridge of

OD),

east

Valley

Woodcutts

immediate

probable

m ground

hillfort

&

low

bank.

enclosure

capped

Thames

slope

a

its

contour

39

hill,

complex

of

north-south

views

of

a

to

The

a

bank

(c.

castle Clay

north

river's

Chelmer

of

highest

(30m commanding

on

Handley,

its

with

spur

the

the

northern

Kent to

a

the

highest

system

Royal. on

lies

crest

irregular

locally estuary

Hill

on

on on point, Maiden on

London

the

an

terraces the

of the hill)

to of

of

above

Tollard

jart

Billericay

gravel

Situated

north Gussage

& south below ridge northwards earthwork Located available Located overlooking

Located gravel Boyn Overlooking crossing south See along

Dorset

Dorset

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

6733

1010

Farm

Secondary

Enclosure

Enclosure

Hall

Castle

Billericay

Mucking

School Maldon

Maiden

Mucking

Handley

o o

an an

an an

bronze bronze

of of

of of

urn

iron, iron,

its its

onto onto

line, line,

Double Double

a a

of of

to to

large large

cremation cremation

trace trace

trace trace

north­ north­

settlement, settlement,

square square

in in

marking marking

no no

no no

burial

burial

the the

tacked tacked

the the

pedestal pedestal

set set

piece piece

site

in in

located located

of of

& &

was was

was was

linear linear

content: content:

boundary. boundary.

the the

surrounds surrounds

of of

intervals intervals

burials burials

of of

there there

there there

field field

brooch, brooch,

south

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

grave grave

enclosure enclosure

situated situated

7m 7m

trackway trackway

group group

of of

part part

boundary boundary

tweezers, tweezers,

at at

enclosure enclosure

1010

15060

1010

15060, 15060,

15060, 15060,

cremation cremation

ubstantial ubstantial

fhe fhe

immediate immediate

ditched ditched

bronze bronze

Cemetery Cemetery

1232

eastern eastern

spaced spaced Second Second

associated associated eastern eastern

Details Details

3 3 See See See See

See See enclosure enclosure

See See

associated associated

See See Colchester Colchester

burials

burial

burial

burial

burials burial

burial

trace

trace

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

[ [

^Jo ^Jo

1 1

1 1 3 3

1 1

1 1 3 3

No No

x x

x x

x x

a a

x x

long long

with with

with with

with with

with with

with with

long long

long long

long long

3.6m 3.6m

no no

with with

8.65m 8.65m

long long

measuring measuring

least least

with with

5.1m 5.1m

shallow shallow

4.7m 4.7m

4.3m 4.3m

5.45m 5.45m

at at

c. c.

c. c.

c. c.

& &

c. c.

4.9m 4.9m

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

wide

c. c.

wide

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

measuring measuring

enclosure enclosure

7.5m 7.5m

enclosure enclosure

narrow narrow

19m 19m

ditched ditched

ditched ditched

ditched ditched

ditched ditched

ditched ditched

wide

x x

sides sides

measuring measuring

by by

measuring measuring

measuring measuring

measuring measuring

measuring measuring

similar similar

3 3

least least

a a

measuring measuring

at at

long long

ditched ditched on on

wide

cremation

of of

4.0m 4.0m

square square

square square

rectangular rectangular

square square

square square

square square

wide

wide

wide

wide

& &

x x

entrance entrance

entrance entrance

entrance entrance

entrance entrance

entrance entrance

29m 29m

1m 1m

1m 1m

1m 1m

3.9m 3.9m

long long

gullies gullies

Sub-rectangular Sub-rectangular

c. c.

Small Small

Small Small

long long

5. 5. no no

represented represented

Small Small

Small Small

5. 5. no no

no no

Small Small

4.7m 4.7m

no no

entrance entrance

Square Square

4. 4.

central central

Traces Traces

Small Small

x x

no no

an an

a a

of of

field field

ditch

level, level,

site site

sea sea

was was

addition addition

Barling Barling

boundary boundary

cemeteries, cemeteries,

the the

flat flat

above above

settlement settlement

system system

the the

8m 8m

trackways

with with

with with

c. c.

& &

on on

field field

east-west east-west

above

above

above

above

extensive extensive

above above

above

systems systems

Terrace, Terrace, An An

associated associated major major

developed developed

existing existing

Located Located

See See

See See

See See

See See

See See

See See

See See

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

1013

1012

1011

Club

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Social Social

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Shoebury

Mucking Mucking

15069

Stansted Stansted

1S058

15067

15060

Mucking Mucking

North North

Mucking Mucking

Mucking Mucking

Mucking Mucking

Mucking Mucking Mucking Mucking

& &

3 3

date date

by by

the the

MIA MIA

of of

the the

into into

a a

burial burial

same same

2 2

later later side side

into into

others others

a a

cut cut

centrally centrally

century century

other other

the the

out out

2 2

12 12

cut cut

surrounded surrounded

At At

of of

2nd 2nd

the the

with with

set set

were were

by by

was was

share share

represents represents 3

3 & &

cremation cremation

Enclosure Enclosure

5 5

one one

burial burial

& &

& &

2) 2)

burials. burials.

1 1

& &

1 1

(51) (51)

during during

burials burials

4 4

1& 1&

3-5). 3-5).

ditch

placed placed

3, 3,

associated associated

smallest smallest

enclosures enclosures

groups, groups,

surrounded surrounded

ditch ditch

& &

2 2

'weapons' 'weapons'

cremation cremation

as as

was was

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

western western

3 3

inhumation inhumation

centrally centrally

inhumation inhumation

ditched ditched

10) 10)

Enclosure Enclosure

>y >y

farmstead

the the

2 2

placed placed

AD

northern northern

an an

(Enclosures (Enclosures

5 5

(Enclosures (Enclosures A. A.

earliest earliest

side side

Enclosure Enclosure

alignment

See See

See See

1 1

& &

3 3

& &

& &

burials burials

burials

burials

sub- sub-

chamber chamber

chamber

& &

mortuary mortuary

pyre- pyre-

features features

cremation cremation

sub-enclosure

mortuary mortuary

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

3 3

lurials, lurials,

vlortuary vlortuary

inhumation inhumation

inhumation inhumation

enclosure

chamber chamber

burials, burials,

2 2

related related

2 2

chamber

& &

& &

mortuary mortuary

c. c.

x x

c. c.

wide

with with

vary vary

long long

long. long.

apparent apparent

The The

ditch ditch

narrow narrow

wide

). ).

3-5m 3-5m

2.5-3m 2.5-3m

No No

95m 95m

2 2

No No

ditch ditch

ditch ditch

78m 78m

measuring measuring

ditches ditches

enclosure enclosure

incorporated incorporated

c. c.

incorporated incorporated

with with

x x

narrow narrow

narrow narrow

enclosure enclosure

measuring measuring

from from

eastern eastern

long. long.

100m

2-2.5m 2-2.5m

long. long.

The The

The The

roughly roughly

with with

with with

. .

. .

wide wide eastern eastern

eastern eastern

c. c.

the the

2m 2m

2

2

1 1

square square

x x

enclosure enclosure

12.7m 12.7m

into into

enclosure enclosure

into into

into into

from from

earthwork earthwork

enclosure enclosure

roughly roughly

63m

64m 64m

70m

vary vary

measuring measuring

earthwork earthwork

x x

(roughly (roughly

entrance

c. c.

c. c.

c. c.

cut cut

cut cut

cut cut

wide wide

enclosure enclosure

vary vary

enclosure enclosure vary vary

linear linear

roughly roughly

wide wide

wide wide

linear linear

a a

ditches ditches

entrance entrance

Rectangular Rectangular

16.15m 16.15m

20m 20m

Rectangular Rectangular into into

entrance

apparent apparent

into into 2-2.5mwide

entrance entrance

Square Square

Rectangular Rectangular measures measures

measures measures

entrance entrance

The The

Square Square

measures measures

entrance entrance

ditches ditches

ditches ditches

92m 92m

wide

Large Large

no no

by by

of of

valley valley

west west

the the

bounded bounded

area area

southern southern

system

to to

the the

the the to to

an an

associated associated

Gryme's Gryme's

settlement settlement

by by

on on

of of

multiple-ditched multiple-ditched

close close

plateau plateau

covers covers

downs downs

river river

Colchester; Colchester;

south south

spur spur

earthwork earthwork

Roman Roman

spur spur

2

flat flat

of of

site site

& &

& &

& &

on on

on on

chalk chalk

east east

The The

Roman Roman

200m

of of

enclosures, enclosures,

Age Age

above

above

above

above

southern southern

the the

the the

[ron [ron

See See

with with

trackway trackway

situated situated

edge edge

See See

See See

See See

about about

of of

Dyke. Dyke.

the the

south-west south-west

Located Located

on on

Hampshire

Hampshire

Essex

Essex

Essex

Essex

5

4

3

1

Western Western

Eastern Eastern

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure

Owslebury, Owslebury,

Enclosure

Stanway Stanway

Owslebury, Owslebury,

Stanway Stanway

Stanway Stanway Stanway Stanway

of of

as as

been been

central central

burial

ditch ditch

towards towards

in in

contained contained the the

the the

the the

shape, shape,

burials. burials.

of of

into into

have have

same same

of of

construction. construction.

2

feature feature

that that

The The

the the

& & probably probably

situated situated

centrally centrally

1 1

ditch ditch

road road

satellite satellite

pyre pyre

enclosure enclosure

inhumation inhumation

6 6

& &

alignment alignment

originally originally

burial burial

mound mound

into into

the the

exactly exactly

by by

a a

a a

UWC UWC & &

placed placed

suggested suggested

Incorporated Incorporated

of of

during during

is is

diameter diameter

information

double double

of of

may may

by by

burial burial

in in

other other

settlement

centre centre

trace trace

2m 2m

unique unique

^Jo ^Jo

s(o s(o

the the

enclosure. enclosure.

Cremation Cremation

deposits deposits

settlement surrounded surrounded

a a enclosure enclosure

Pit Pit

covered covered

Excavator Excavator

Enclosures Enclosures Incorporated Incorporated Central Central the the orientation orientation

destroyed destroyed

burial

burials burials

cremation cremation

pyre-related pyre-related

trace

1 1

12 12

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

inhumation inhumation

)urials

1 1

c. c.

& &

feature

7 7 burials Wo Wo

2 2

& &

V- V-

2 2

12m, 12m,

2

c. c.

top top

the the

with with

x x

towards towards

of of

side

20m

the the

enclosure enclosure

c. c.

10m 10m

7-7.5m

at at

south-east. south-east.

measuring measuring

middle middle

chalk

enclosure enclosure

wide wide

Entrance Entrance

the the

south-east south-east

the the

the the

2m 2m

on on

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

rectangular rectangular

the the

c. c.

corners corners

sides. sides.

into into

ditched ditched

of of

3 3

side

towards towards

on on

ditched ditched

ditched ditched

ditched ditched

entrance entrance

50m

roughly roughly

ditches ditches

0.65m 0.65m

square square

x x

rounded rounded

2 2

middle middle

c. c.

Square Square

the the Square Square

defined defined

entrance entrance

south-east south-east Square Square

cut cut

shape shape

simple simple

33m

41.5 41.5 Large Large

with with

of of

the the

se-nw se-nw

branch branch

on on

At At

boundary boundary

extent extent

& &

burial burial

Way, Way,

main main

chalk chalk

of of

Hills Hills

Ivel Ivel

situated situated

settlement settlement

the the

prehistoric prehistoric

low low

north-facing north-facing

complex complex

Way

cemeteries. cemeteries.

northern northern

series series

the the

on on

the the

Icknield Icknield

River River

a a

of of

Chiltern Chiltern

Romano-British Romano-British

the the

and and

with with

HOmOD

the the

by by

the the

& &

at at

farmstead farmstead

alongside alongside

the the

along along

of of

Icknield Icknield

LIA/Roman LIA/Roman

ate. ate.

bedrock bedrock

of of

above

Age Age

above

site, site,

the the

the the

of of

Situated Situated

See See

See See

associated associated

earthworks

source source

trackway, trackway,

intersection intersection delimited delimited

enclosures enclosures

Major Major

situated situated

ridge ridge

chalk chalk

slope slope

Iron Iron

enclosed enclosed

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hampshire

A474

A497

Icknield Icknield

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

Farm

Enclosure

Baldock, Baldock,

Baldock, Baldock,

Baldock, Baldock,

UWC1

Baldock, Baldock,

Viables Viables

UJ o

1 1

of of

a a

into into

is is

& & the the

ditch ditch

7 7

grounc grounc

traces traces

ditch ditch

17 17

the the

in in

sunken sunken

south south

covered covered

'corridor

burials burials

& & with with

Mortuary Mortuary

placed placed

(195) (195)

pit pit

in in

(41) (41)

1,2,3,4 1,2,3,4

by by

6, 6,

5m 5m

gravel gravel

(22) (22)

above above

5, 5,

cut cut

north-west north-west spans spans

northern northern

burial burial

of of

deposit, deposit,

small small

8 8

grave grave

& &

enclosures enclosures

distance distance

burials burials with with

& &

enclosure enclosure

18m 18m

centrally centrally

cremation cremation

entrance. entrance.

burial burial

into into

Enc* Enc*

of of

inhumation, inhumation,

of of

Enclosures Enclosures

45 45

group group

short short

surrounded surrounded

deposit deposit

example example

1 1

extended extended

cut cut

The The

placed placed

rows, rows,

barrow

a a

is is

found found

by by 2 2

cremation cremation

& &

enclosure cremation cremation

side side

rectilinear rectilinear

chamber chamber

in in

centre centre

& & ditch

group. group.

them. them.

area. area.

8 8

ditch

form form

inhumation inhumation

site site

cremation cremation

the the

further further

(241) (241)

3 3

northern northern

to to

a a

probably probably another another

centrally centrally

substantial substantial

eastern eastern

least least

pyre pyre

inhumation inhumation

mounded mounded

)etween )etween

and and

within within

The The

level level

northern northern t>y t>y

with with

cremations cremations

further further

corridor corridor

western western

grave grave

form form

southern southern turf, turf,

arranged arranged

chamber chamber containing containing

of of

At At shaft. shaft.

on on

Towards Towards

mortuary mortuary

1 1

2 2

3 3

& &

& &

burials

& &

burials

chamber, chamber,

feature, feature,

cremation cremation

cremations

cremations cremations

cremation cremation

inhumation inhumation

24 24

47 47

19 19

1 1

inhumation

inhumation inhumation

mortuary mortuary

Pyre Pyre

up

2 2

wide

7m 7m

from from

long

wide wide

c. c.

of of

long long

1.2m

south­ south­

5m 5m

long long Ditch Ditch

slight

north­ north­

B241, B241,

a a

B41, B41,

c. c.

of of

18m 18m

north-east

river, river,

measuring measuring

& &

small small

with with

17.5m 17.5m

largest largest

13m 13m

c. c.

centre centre

of of

deep, deep,

Single Single

a a

x x

x x

Enc. Enc. the the

Enc. Enc. covering covering

been been

in in

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

The The

ditch ditch

enclosure

of of

wide wide

entrance. entrance.

of of

long, long,

with with

entrance

entrance entrance

wide wide

wide. wide.

centre centre

wide wide

have have

maximum maximum

6m 6m

facing facing

east east

an an east east

In In

2.3-2.9m 2.3-2.9m

& &

north. north.

to to

170m 170m

measuring measuring

facing facing

sides sides

north-east/south-west. north-east/south-west. ditched ditched

ditched ditched

entrance entrance

enclosure enclosure

ditched ditched

may may

3.2m 3.2m

the the

facing facing

7.5m 7.5m

the the

14-16 14-16

x x

side side

3 3

was was

up up

the the

c. c.

to to

to to

substantial substantial

deep deep

bank. bank.

ditch ditch

on on

in in

north north

long.

there there

wide wide

north north

a a

there there

side side

ditch ditch

running running

cemetery cemetery

0.4m 0.4m

20m 20m

with with

measuring measuring

Situated Situated

rectangular rectangular

side side

internal internal

to to

wide, wide,

with with Situated Situated

measuring measuring

rectangular rectangular

x x

annexe annexe

the the

defined defined

Rectangular Rectangular

117m 117m

wide

causewayed causewayed

south-west south-west

west west

U-shape U-shape

west west

axis axis

hectares, hectares,

Rectangular Rectangular

& &

the the

Prea Prea

of of

in in

pre- pre-

Folly Folly

north north

River River

of of

side side

position position

the the

Roman Roman

defences defences

the the

cemetery cemetery

of of

overlooking overlooking

from from

the the

on on

north-east

later later

of of

area

Ver Ver

area area

earthworks earthworks

western western

VHP VHP

the the

700m 700m

the the

of of

south-west south-west prominent prominent

to to

the the

the the

the the

a a

river river

on on

in in

town town

1km 1km

settlement, settlement,

the the

with with

700m 700m

north-east north-east

within within

above

above

between between

of of

complex complex

surrounding surrounding

See See

See See

Roman Roman

some some

Lane, Lane,

Ver Ver

the the

Wood, Wood,

Located Located

the the

side side

town town

Roman Roman

Situated Situated

500m 500m

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Lane, Lane,

Lane, Lane,

Lane, Lane,

3

2

1

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Lane

King King

Enclosure Enclosure

King King

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

King King Folly Folly

ol ol

1 1

by by

1 1

the the

least least

least least

the the

8)

1 1

the the

2 2

of of

bone bone

mixed mixed

at at

1 1

at at

were were 1 1

other other

& &

centre centre

least least south south

310-12)

by by

by by

& &

at at

were were

the the

ditch ditch north north

scattered scattered

the the

the the

human human

by by

of of

entrance

was was

inhumation inhumation

in in

to to 10-16, 10-16,

the the

represents represents

bone bone

3 3

represents represents

ditch ditch

(307-8, (307-8,

(1 (1

8.5m 8.5m

the the

of of

cremation cremation

299 299

& &

c. c.

ditch ditch

the the

inhumations inhumations

surrounded surrounded

fill fill

13 13

surrounded surrounded

of of

individuals individuals

animal animal

burials burials the the

burials

burials burials

burials

by by

the the

burials

positioned positioned

probably probably

surrounded surrounded

probably probably

14 14

burials burials

surrounded surrounded

marking marking

of of

disarticulated disarticulated

Situated Situated

limit limit

2 2

northern northern

interment interment

deposit deposit

deposit deposit

148 148

117 117

309 309

325 325

least least

pottery, pottery,

into into

at at

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

remations remations

iroughout iroughout

jurials; jurials;

western western

objects. objects.

with with

of of

Unburnt, Unburnt,

enclosure enclosure 8 8

central central

7 7 Grave Grave central central

Grave Grave 5 5

Grave Grave

surrounded surrounded

Central Central inhumation inhumation

Grave Grave enclosure enclosure

cut cut

cremation cremation

6 6

9 9

1 1

3 3

2 2

& &

& &

least least

least least

burials

14 14

burials

& & burials

burials

at at

burials

burials

at at

of of

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

cremation cremation

1 1

lemains lemains

1 1

14 14 cremation cremation

individuals individuals

cremation cremation

inhumation inhumation

inhumation inhumation

8 8

Unknown Unknown

Unknown Unknown

cremation cremation

a a

ol ol

a a

of of

of of

wide wide

river

with with

5.5m 5.5m

sides sides

east east

away away

defined defined

group group

x x

traced traced

2 2

9m 9m

the the

south­ south­

enclosure enclosure

B299, B299,

B148, B148, the the

long long

curve curve

running running

comer comer

on on

runs runs

lengths lengths

Hill Hill

the the

to to

wide wide

least least

area area

it it

facing facing

traced

13m 13m

Enc. Enc.

Enc. Enc.

of of

rectangular rectangular

(Fl) (Fl)

at at

slight slight

southern southern

x x

towards towards

short short

enclosure enclosure

enclosure enclosure

of of

of of

4.5m 4.5m

in in

defined defined

was was

north north wide; wide;

the the

sides sides

ditch ditch

small small

distance distance

a a

north-west north-west

corridor corridor

east east

east east

wide wide

Wickham Wickham

2 2

entrance

a a

of of

least least

west west

B241, B241,

of of

ditched ditched

3.3m 3.3m

ditched ditched

the the

the the

the the

the the

9m 9m

at at

downhill downhill

with with

measuring measuring

short short

in in

to to

most most

to to

east- east-

a a

Enc. Enc.

end end

enclosure enclosure

facing facing

enclosure enclosure

V-shaped V-shaped

75m, 75m,

defining defining

long long

traced

of of

sides sides

B272, B272,

c. c.

3 3

enclosures, enclosures,

9m 9m

north north

around around eastwards eastwards

for for

roughly roughly

were were

Wide Wide

Situated Situated ditch ditch

west west

a a

Situated Situated measuring measuring

rectangular rectangular

x x

entrance

rectangular rectangular

Situated Situated on on

long

of of measuring measuring

ditched ditched

Western Western

Situated Situated ditched ditched

Enc. Enc.

1 1

c. c.

LIA LIA

valley valley

of of

OD, OD,

clay clay

occupation occupation

small small

85m 85m

of of

in in

Hertfordshire. Hertfordshire.

at at

boulder boulder

river

directly directly

boundaries boundaries

on on

Hill Hill

& &

the the

situated situated

eastern eastern

Rab Rab

within within

of of

length length

concentration concentration

above

above

in in

above

above

above

Wickham Wickham

River River

km km

on on

overlooking overlooking

of of

settlement settlement plateau plateau

Located Located High High

See See

See See

See See

See See

See See

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Lane, Lane,

Lane, Lane,

Lane, Lane,

Lane, Lane,

Lane, Lane,

8

7

6

5

4

Road, Road,

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Puckeridge

Station Station

King King

King King

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure Enclosure Enclosure

King King

King King

Enclosure Enclosure

King King Enclosure Enclosure to

B

for

fine

to

of

the

was

due

oblong

H

burials

3

located

system

an

excavated;

evidence

internal

within lengths

Enclosure

with

Ditch

significant

2

features

&

to

enclosure

also

field

lay

site

in

were

little

(1194)

the

is

some enclosure

the

most

comprises the

finds

in

4-8

of

the

internal

&

&

of

burials

burial

There

I

of

(A-C)

compared of

deposits,

rectilinear

period

area

lack

suggests

inhumations

Ditch

truncation;

north

signs

8

losures

north-east

in

special

cremation

cremation

-3

later

Pew

17m

litch a

features

LIA/R-B

end

or occupation. extensive the

Relative

short-lived

21

enclosed

&

8

3

&

burial

&

burials,

burials

structure

deposits

trace

cremation

cremation

cremation

1

*Jo

3 inhumation

animal mortuary

(B9)

21 inhumation

I

8m.

from

x

16-

15-

north­

end.

Ditch

north­

x

deep

x

18

deep.

Ditch

c.

north­

Ditches

n-w

48

50

each

varied

0.38-1.08m

0.36-0.96m

at

the

oriented 0.25m

ditch,

2.43m

to

to

deep

deep

ditches.

oriented

ditches

oriented

up

0.90-

measuring

measuring

between

measuring

between

&

1.2-0.60mdeep;

enclosed

both

enclosure

enclosing

are

are

entrance

40m,

curving

of

an

wide

30m,

c.

enclosure

enclosure

0.20-0.24m

by

of

c.

&0.10-0.37m partially

broad &

ditches

ditches

width

traced

sides

18m,

17m, Open-ended west/south-east The

Oblong wide

west/south-east Oblong

The wide framed

west/south-east

0.6-0.7m

2

II

3.65-4.60m

traced

The

at

a

the

OD

the

flat

at

KHL chalky

south­

79.55m

the

89.90m

of

is

on

85m

to

site to

away.

outside

c.

slopping

from

side

700m

the

side

to

Stort

terrain

of OD

flowed

250m

rises

west

The

c.

Verulamium,

river

end

95m

the situated

Ver

side

eastern

field

of

is

c.

the

on

immediately

clay.

of

on

southwards

of

of

gate

River

above

above

northern

western

height

Situated valley See

boulder the See

gently

Situated

cemetery

Surface south on west. north-eastern

contour

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

C

A B

Field

Hills

Enclosure

Enclosure

Enclosure

Thorley

Thorley

Verulam Thorley

o o\ a

a

of

apart

with

with

date

by

by

4-5m

centre

later

within

which

within

burial

pyre- burial

eastern

a

c.

interments

the

uncertain

covered

at

46

covered

the

are

in

mortuary

on

5

set

centrally

centrally

cemetery

added

&

burials,

barrows

inhumation

possibly burials

suggested,

inhumation

possibly

the

3

&

burial

&

been

160

situated of

placed

all

placed

The

date

features

of

have

extended

Age

extended

below

elated

An

>eriphery

weapons enclosure, mound.

An weapons

enclosure, mound

Cremation

contained

enclosure

enclosures

Dating ton

Description

See

could

buria

burial

burial

burial

trace

inhumation

inhumation

cremation

cremation

1

[

1

No

1

Features

&

&

with

to

with

to

c.

0.4-

2.7m

2

2

2.7m

up

up

&

6m

6m

rounded

&

deep

are

c.

are

c.

Ditch

wide

wide

diameter

diameter,

.

corners

m

deep

2

deep.

with

in

in

deep

four

0.25

orientated

orientated

0.35m

4.4m

0.35m

ditches

ditches

2m

2.4m

24m

30m

of

&

0.15m

c.

c.

c.

c.

c.

c.

enclosures

enclosures

to

&

&

enclosure

each

burial,

burial,

up

ditch

ditch

in

&

measuring

depth

depth

barrow

diameter

barrow

ditched

ditched

north-south

north-south

square

in

in

in

high,

high,

wide

Square

Square

central inhumation 0.5m

central inhumation

5m

0.5m Ditched

Small corners,

Pestholes 0.6m

Size

Ditched 2.4m

wide

3.5m

wide

the

is

the to

it

on

burials

earlier

soils,

150-

OD.

of

been

an

recovered OD

hill,

2km

seasonally.

at

Age

Clay

38m

spur

have

situated

at

surrounding

only

(23m

between

grave

water

Iron

site weald

flooded

the

may

area

rise

low

prominent

&

a

southern

which

with

LIA

that

Downs

flat

have

with

but

on

on

drained

bogy

Downs

OD

from

may

above

above

Extensive joorly

See

date suggested

South

relatively Area rather Situated associated Topography area

See

contour)

Located Berkshire north 210m

associated

Sussex

barrows

Berkshire

Berkshire

County

or

Kent

Kent

West

1

2

1

2

Barrow

Barrow

ring-ditches

20706

Enclosure

Enclosure

of

Down,

Name

List

Enclosure

Ashford,

Westhampnett,

Ashford,

2.

Site

Wooley

WooleyDown, by

the

4

.50m

&

into

against

sealed

3,

1.50-3

cut

2,

mound

c.

of

were

linear

inserted

ring-ditches

in

0.30-0.5mhigh.

5

c.

centres burials

all

mounds,

inhumation

weathered

&

of

a

&

probably

that

aligned

clustered

of

upcast

form

above

above ditch,

above

above

above

foot

diameter

ightly

n

lirectly

ee

ee

le

ee

See

Plan

suggests

slight

in

arrangement,

See

ring

burial

burial

burial

1

&

cremation

cremation

inhumation

cremation

cremation

cremation

burials

1

Dual mrial

2

Dual lurial

1

inhumation

V- to

V-

V-

fill

m,

x

x

0.40-

0.40-

0.40-

0.20-

0.20-

deep

diameter,

6.15m,

deep

6.70

3.60

5.60m,

4.45

&

&

surviving

surrounding

in

profile

profile

wide

wide

between

between

between

29m

diameter

ditch

diameter

diameter ditch

diameter

c.

diameter

barrow

shallow

0.20-0.65m

0.20-0.65m

0.20-0.65m

&

a

1.05m

1.05m

profile

profile

profile

&

&

&

of

shaped

high

0.40-

0.40-

ditch

ditch

V-shaped

ditch

V-shaped

wide

wide

deep

wide

deep

ring-ditch,

ring-ditch,

ring-ditch,

ring-ditch,

ring-ditch,

sterile

traces

15m

0.

1.05m

c. faint

Irregular 1.05m

ditch Small shaped

quite

}.65m

Small shaped 1.05m

Small 3.00m, between 0.65m Small

Small shaped

4.20m, between

Cam

25-

area

Great

at

Hall,

evidence

River

south

the

gravels

the

Hinxton

Wandlebury

immediate

to

at

settlement

lies

the

terrace

in

3km

LIA

alongside

&

north

OD.

upstream

above

above

above above

above

lst/2nd

located

See

Situated on 28m is 2km See 6.5km hillfort Chesterford See

See

See

Berkshire

Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire

3

Barrow

1

2

3

4 5

Hinxton

Hinxton

Hinxton WooleyDown,

Hinxton Hinxton

o oo

in in

a a

8m 8m

& &

pyre pyre

have have

old old

a a

norm- norm-

by by

earliest earliest

to to

2.4m 2.4m

each each

horse horse

with with

8 8

the the

& &

Lane Lane

70-90m 70-90m

found found

& &

suggestion suggestion

skeleton skeleton

in in

& &

with with

c. c.

2 2

mirroring mirroring

the the

a a

said said

2 2

of of

Cremation Cremation

distribution distribution

deep deep

is is

position

chamber chamber

pit pit

aligned aligned

for for

were were

Folly Folly

1 1

below below

are are

subsequent subsequent

a a

possibly possibly

1.2m

containing containing

vaults vaults

burial burial

102. 102.

pottery pottery

superimposed superimposed

of of

southerly southerly

2.4m 2.4m

.8m .8m

linear linear

2 2

25 25

There There

from from

1 1

point point

distance distance

flint flint

IA IA

alignment alignment

& &

vault vault

bones

skeletons

others others

'sitting

fire-marked fire-marked

a a

vessel vessel

containing containing

barrows barrows

2 2

of of

& &

mortuary mortuary

a a

most most

covered covered

features, features,

3 3

2: 2:

a a

spread spread

the the

ditch ditch

pin, pin,

skeletons

focal focal

those those

flint flint

in in

.5m

of of

display display

of of

cremation cremation

is is

the the

inhumations inhumations

horse horse base base

1 1

1; 1;

of of

surface. surface.

to to

& &

across across

depth depth

4 4

is is 3: 3:

pottery pottery

pebble pebble

containing containing

a a

bone bone

barrow barrow

this this

line line

NNW-SSE NNW-SSE

IA IA

group group

: :

lat lat

imilar imilar

Tie Tie

ites

Matures Matures

pread pread

iroviding iroviding

mrial mrial

ground ground

Barrow Barrow

Stanway

with with

1 1 with with unburnt unburnt

northward northward Also Also

A A

cremation; cremation;

skull; skull;

south. south.

contained contained westerly westerly

wooden wooden

mound; mound;

superimposed superimposed

the the skeletons skeletons

on on deep deep

Pebble Pebble

1 1

burial

& &

burial burial

burials

burials

pyre-related pyre-related

34 34

cremation cremation

inhumation inhumation

cremation cremation

inhumation inhumation

cremation cremation

I I

features

i i

mrials

aurials

2 2

Inhumation Inhumation

& &

inhumation inhumation

2 2 2 2

cut cut

high high

high high

an an

the the

c. c.

2 2

to to

in in

by by

15m 15m

diameter diameter

high

0.9m 0.9m

2. 2.

feature feature

in in

cremation cremation

ditch

0.6m 0.6m

a a

13.5m 13.5m

2.4m 2.4m

Barrow Barrow

thick, thick,

covered covered

stood stood

& &

(2934) (2934)

oval oval

of of

30.8m 30.8m

adding adding

an an

barrow

0.75m 0.75m

pyre pyre

(25230) (25230)

barrow barrow

by by

a a

details details

diameter diameter

each each

surrounding surrounding

diameter diameter

wall wall

the the

in in

mound mound

of of in in

with with

have have

it

above

details

1924 1924

approximately approximately

6.7m 6.7m

ring-gully ring-gully

burial burial

& &

surrounded surrounded

In In

into into

A A

diameter diameter

See See

Circular Circular earthen earthen

& & height height

Only Only

24.7m 24.7m

No No

& &

was was

Age Age

dyke dyke

north north

3 3

north north

sloping sloping

a a

burial burial

roman roman

by by

situated situated

Iron Iron

the the

90m 90m

4 4

on on

enclose enclose

terrace terrace

land

and and

the the

arrangement

the the

To To

steeply steeply

system system

of of

Colchester Colchester

dykes dykes

features

1-3

lying lying

gravel gravel

the the

cremation cremation

linear linear

Colne Colne

the the

settlement settlement

field field

a a

bank bank

settlement settlement

estuary. estuary.

The The

low low

the the

the the

in in

approximately approximately

on on

higher higher

approximately approximately

of of

surrounding surrounding

within within

north north

main main

between between

Roman Roman

above

& &

pyre-related pyre-related

extensive extensive

the the

the the

Whittlesford Whittlesford

barrows barrows

valleys valleys

rivers

system system

plateau plateau Blackwater Blackwater

settlement. settlement. miles miles

Lying Lying

34 34

containing containing

an an

slightly slightly

of of

on on

IA IA

See See

of of

Located Located

Located Located

3 3

Essex

Essex

Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire

Cambridgeshire

1-3

5

4

1-3

Barrow Barrow

Barrow Barrow

Barrows Barrows

Barrow Barrow

Farm

Lexden

Whittlesford, Whittlesford,

Whittlesford, Whittlesford,

Elms Elms

Whittlesford, Whittlesford, Thriplow, Thriplow,

are are

that that

of of

placed placed

have have

the the

there there

the the

inhumation inhumation

but but

groups groups

evidence evidence

burials burials

In In

3 3

28 28

centrally centrally

a a

South-West South-West

of of

ditch. ditch.

surrounding surrounding

123 123

a a

enclosed enclosed

with with

cremation cremation

conclusive conclusive

of of

area area

consists consists

containing containing

was was

no no

Grave Grave

few few

is is

barrow barrow

a a

recovered

traces traces

grave grave

mrials

jrave jrave

faint faint

Cemetery Cemetery been been

There There

Cemetery Cemetery immediate immediate

interment

the the

burials; burials;

Small Small

burial

burial

burial

cremation cremation inhumation inhumation

cremation cremation

1 1

1 1

1 1

a a

1m 1m

but but

or or

ring ring

8. 8.

by by

show show

grave grave

slight slight

might, might,

a a

small small

suggesting suggesting

the the

also also

barrow barrow

a a

ring-ditch ring-ditch

in in

a a

of of

show show

enclosed enclosed

which which

high

been been

site site

diameter, diameter,

ground ground

mark mark

grave

.Om .Om

in in

1 1

the the

in in

photographs photographs

existence existence

partially partially

have have

the the

of of

clay-with-flints clay-with-flints

rise rise

123 123

not, not,

circular circular

4.50m 4.50m

aerial aerial

former former

diameter, diameter,

small small

the the

mound

gully gully

Grave Grave

enclosing enclosing

might might

area, area,

small small

distinct distinct

Contours Contours

hi hi

A A

on on

of of

Hill Hill

from from

an an

in in

the the

Test Test

little little

towards towards

mile mile

valley valley

a a

Ladle Ladle

on on

settlement settlement

a a

sloped sloped

are are

a a

offered offered

on on

the the

River River

hill hill

& &

gravel gravel

point point

ridge ridge

the the

over over

plateau, plateau,

The The

hillforts hillforts

to to

Walbury, Walbury,

located located

north north

the the

glacial glacial

chalk chalk

multi-period multi-period

Hill Hill

highest highest

view view

Lea

the the

site site

of of

side, side,

in in

close close

coastline

to to

the the

contour. contour.

proximity

east east

River River

edge edge

south south

burial burial

Beacon Beacon

prominent prominent

Extensive Extensive

the the

& &

100m 100m

the the

extensive extensive

below below

gently gently

the the

Situated Situated

close close

& &

Situated Situated

its its

Kent

Hertfordshire

Hampshire

Tarrant

Heath

Deal

Hertford Hertford Hurstbourne Hurstbourne &

of

knife

the

copper-

most

of quantity

remains to

fibulae,

possible

of

&

cremated

tapered

burnt

of

part

a

rivet,

3g

nail-cleaner,

melted

copper-alloy

probably

of

c.

with

&

ring

&

(beads adhering

including

are

brooch

remains

with

probably

fragmentary

possibly

copper-alloy

melted

mixed

bone,

&

of

beads

found

lugged

deposit

copper-alloy

consisting

pig

ear-scoop the

&

burnt

large

sheet,

bone,

slag

of

fragments glass &

of

pin,

residue

associated

number

plank

chain

top

copper-alloy

a

two

unburnt

pair

bone

on

&

brooches, a

pottery

iron

fuel-ash

of

cremated

brooch

with

of burnt

vitrified

copper-alloy

deposit,

charred

of

copper-alloy

&

The

a

of

obect

placed

cremated

mixed

vitrified

burnt

knife,

bone

iron

possible

from

brooches,

remains

bone. scatter

fragments

bones

curved

of

copper-alloy

burnt A

a &

of

tiny

III

iron brooch

bone

5

fragment with

brooch

bone

of

been

human

several

containing

Tene items. plate

bone,

amount

burning)

bone,

recovered

&

brooches,

mixed

fourth

bones,

La

unidentified

calcined

of

two

skeleton,

a

fragments

additional

remains

cremated

pig

burnt having

Small

brooch was

of

animal wire,

the

iron

calcined

pig

key,

unburnt

An animal

of

the

animal

of

of

two

of

with

fusing

burnt

lift type

of

evidence

&

signs

containing

copper-alloy

pair

remains

unburnt

vessel,

iron

1

unburnt (365g).

larger

a

3

uriburnt

brooches. 200g

mixed

section

unburnt

2

containing contained

copper-alloy

shows

&

showed

remains

pottery

bone

burnt

III

a

vessels,

unclassified

of

possibly

fibula,

vessels, bone cleaner,

vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessels,

vessels,

vesels,

vessel

circular

of

including of

bone,

which

&

Tene

nail

iron

lump

of

brooches

cremated pottery

La

pottery

pottery

pottery

pottey pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

fragmentary

of 1 point

cremated handle objects 2 of 2 10

2 alloy iron 7 (Description \5 the burnt one brooch,

2 human fragments

remains

3

&

adult)

adult)

adult)

young

adult

debris

(55g)

(320g,

(678g,

or

(330g,

(900g,

(400g,

836.48g/adult)

1

Deposit

( Unumed

Umed ?adult) Urned Unurned Umed Unurned(1125g,

Umed adult)

Urned

infant)

Umed

goods

Shape

pyre

visible

Grave

Circular

Square

Oval

Circular Oval

Circular

Circular

Circular

Not

No.

containing

S358 1 Grave

9

10

9

4

4 11 9

burials

B

Loop

cremation

of

Name

Harlington

Site Biddenham Bancroft Bancroft

List Puddlehill Bancroft

Appendix Puddlehill

Salford

Bancroft in

to

&

from

of

&

of &

a

of

lenghts

due

bone

1

8

copper-

series

burnt

brooch,

nondescript possible

plating a

3

fragments;

cremated

small

include

were

sequence

fragments

broken encountered

of

copper-alloy

melted bone

vessels,

the

A

fill

form cremated

were

Colchester

of

toggles

sheet

and

was

body

bronze them

to

sheet

the pin,

both

fragments,

bone

grave

burnt.

bone

brooch,

piece

pottery

with small

Numerous copper-alloy

with

minimum

bowl, with

2

cremated

with

the silver objects

melted a

15

iron

distorted

nail.

being of buckle burnt

c.

&

burnt

burnt

the

copper-alloy

with

mixed

or

of

disc, ditch.

brooch

cremated a distorted

Mixed

bronze

top mixed

copper-alloy

tiny

Colchester

of

&

& rod

remains,

the

fragments objects, &

iron

bronze the iron

signs

mixed

Objects

in

covering

representing

tweezers,

iron

burnt fragments,

with

structure, vessels,

description:

charcoal

sheet

consisted

bottom

5

burnt

tray.

fittings

armlet,

attachment.

& brooch, of a

&

remains,

cremated showed bone,

the

planks

brooches

copper-alloy

some

iron

small

Mixed

toggle-type pin

to

pottery

wooden

a

from sectioned

5

of

of burnt with

25

a

burial 14 bronze

encountered iron

which

burnt

nail-cleaner,

animal

trumpet animal

quantity

&

copper-alloy

of near,

of was

with of

representing

least

was

1

remains, or

square

boss,

mixed

burnt

at

fittings

fragment.

perhaps

number

large

silver

ring

on,

a

centre

worked

unburnt

bone,

brooch,

cremation

amphorae,

in

of

plate sheet

burnt, shield fragment;

objects animal

iron

sequence

3 bone,

lid,

rivets,

copper-alloy

metalwork

of

brooches,

A an

are

the

&

iron

animal

strip 3

&

fill

placed

fragmentary copper-alloy pyre. The deposited

representing contained

curved

part

&

vessel

fragmentary

animal

unburnt

2

containing

&

pennanular

fragments

the

toggles.

bones,

rivets;

bone

burnt pave

containing worked of

covering

vessel,

on

fragments

fragments

remains vessels

of vessels, remains

of

vessel

vessels, vessels,

the

vessels,

vessels,

bone

box

possible metalwork. The

contained

of spring

animal series

burnt

sheet

fragments copper-alloy planks

a

&

decorated top

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

1 of Cremated studs, being

Cremated which 5 copper-alloy 8

fragments 10 alloy dome-headed burnt lumps. possible

5 burnt

fragments 7

discs, copper-alloy brooch distorted were

the

bone No brooch,

adult)

adult)

adult)

adult)

adult)

adult)

(adult)

Ig

within

(427g, (>600g,

(70

box

(1177g,

(990g,

(662.7g

Unurned, wooden

Urned Umed(278g) Urned

Urned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

known

visible

visible

visible

Rectangular

Not

Rectangular

Ditch Not Rectangular

Not Circular

Not

2-3

1

1 1232

Contexts

3 12

9 13

32

Farm

Secondary

Peverel

Hall

Shoebury

Hatfield School North Billericay Maldon

Snailwell

Stansted

Stansted

Stansted

Stansted

to a

12

of

&

by

of

was

by

sherd, burnt

small

glass

bottle, an

copper-

high

from

armlet,

2

of

pyre

of

charcoal

fragments

of

few

&

glass

part

fragments

bronze

charcoal

with

bone

board,

molten

fragments

smashed unguent

(?residual)

pieces

3

surrounded

veneer,

accompanied

vessels

was

vessels,

fragments

cremation

with

burnt

lined

2

copper-alloy

glass

a

many

bone

spoon;

pyre

15

&

gaming

horn

of

pit

&

bone

several

cremated

&

lined

the

bucket,

pottery, vessel,

numerous

of

pottery from

Heat-distorted

&

of

wood

centre:

pit on

human

bone

vessels,

Only

grave

shield,

brooch

bracelet

its

bone,

intact.

fragment

remains pottery

at

wooden

pottery plaques

bucket burnt

copper-alloy

grave

smashed

iron

smashed

nails.

&

nails;

a

&

spear,

pottery

pig

of

calcined

fragments

pits

50

24 thin

bronze

loop, cremated

animal

&

4 iron

nails;

studs,

c. bone,

reburnt

vessel

bone

pan, from

&

tiny

a

smashed

&

& bronze

sherds

burnt

sides,

&

iron

shaped

a straw,

mineral-replaced

calcined

smashed

buckle

nails,

glass

burnt

&

at

jug

in

from

&

of

few

human

material

20

16

bone,

partially calcined

nails possibly

cremated

iron

iron

burnt

situ

a

of

object,

iron,

bone vessel

contained

the

in

in

17

790g the

BF6:

iron

AF25:

base,

vessel of

bone,

organic

rectangular

perforated

calcined

a

3 cremated glass with

many

presumably

copper-alloy a

burnt

of

two

backfill

calcined

minimum

8

of

brooches

Chamber

&

containing

pedestal

rim

mixed Chamber

nails,

copper-alloy

surrounding

of

with

evidence

to

cremated

copper-alloy,

counter,

least

contained

handle,

material,

to

& jar

vessels,

50

all

brooch

at but

&

pair

copper-alloy,

a

c.

chamber:

mail

largest

mirror

bones

a

contained

size

clasp,

pyre

bronze,

fragments

similar

bone

glass

& wall

of

gaming

pit

pottery

iron,

3

enclosure

organic

re-frozen

iron

chain

vessels

vessels

copper-alloy

of

&

fill &

brooches,

&

cup human Fill

possibly

&

wooden

vessels,

2

chamber: glass a

vessel,

in crushed

grave

vessels,

skull

decorated iron

chamber

square

pit.

&

fragments

&

lead,

recovered

representing

pottery

pottery

beads

pottery

melted

pottery

No >ronze >ottery

^arge

Large

No

Smallest Fragmentary 14 amphorae, strainer fragments Largest Similar

alloy

37 of

vessels, bead, iron, animal

also Central perhaps iron

Cremated

quality

burial fragment, burnt

4

&

adult)

adult) adult)

adult)

adult) adult)

adult

Ig,

(232g,

(444g,

(18g,

(84.5g,

(5

(140g,

(adult)

(465g,

bone

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned

Unurned Unurned Unumed

No

Urned Unurned

infant) Urned

Urned

Urned

visible

visible

visible

known

Funerary

Funerary

Not

shaft

shaft

Not shaft shaft Not Funerary Funerary Rectangular

Cirular barrow Rectangular Circular

Not

39

42 1

40 1 BF6 BF24 AF25

CF42

BF64

A&B

2

Tarrant

Green

Stanway

Stanway Stanway Stanway

Stansted

Stansted Stansted Stanway

Hurstbourne

Latchmere

Baldock Delffield

u> 9

ol

the

of

chain

with

of

fitting; burnt

case

1

was

bone

vessel

small

of copper-

molten

iron a

bone burnt

west

2 the

&

pole

along

amphorae of

by

in

the

burnt

There

cart game-pieces,

burnt

sherds

box;

pottery

mask; to

fastener;

cremated

3 1 floor,

clay,

recorded, 41

solidified

while

two

&

the it.

glass

placed.

fragments metalwork,

of

burnt grave

directly

surrounded Grave

possible

possible

keyhole

two from

of

undecorated on &

to

nail

nails

been

& among

charcoal 22)

burning,

copper-alloy

droplets

charcoal,

south

&

nails,

brass

of

by

(c. grave-groups

of

had B41 metal,

&

vessels

close

3m

burnt

numerous burnt

binding,

placed

nail,

(4.2g)

band;

No c.

mirror,

fragments &

fragments

signs

iron

bone

sheet

9, two

bar;

B41,

together

burials iron

brooch;

alignment)

of

& pottery nave

the

1880.

of

bone, copper-alloy 2

Enclosure

consisting

iron

bronze

brooch centrally

represented

c.

fragment

Grave

pottery,

burnt

showed of

a

mixed

pig

(same

glass,

copper-alloy

of fragment

&

harness from which

9

&

Enclosure cluster bone thick,

molten

focal

with

fragments

nails

on

objects

centre

22 objects

lockplate; brooches,

copper-alloy

molten

excavated

sherds

Grave fitting;

bronze 2

with

the

bone

human within

40mm

quantity

animal

burnt

burnt remains,

of

distinct

& board

copper-alloy

of

fragments

iron

in

from 4

to a

&

wooden

determine 64

&

numerous

bone,

up

east

nail,

bronze

of

piece

being

to

brooches

fragments

Situated

calcined Apart

molten

of cremated

calcined

within

wooden the

associated

copper-alloy

3 Fragments human

bone

possible

a

substantial &

silver,

burnt

to

animal

debris, fittings; a Positioned

held

a

&

bone.

signs

bronze burials

other remains,

possible

bone.

from

bead;

fragments

located

burials

was

0.8m

&

buckle;

burnt

handle

burnt calcined 2

glass. recorded).

the

heart-shaped

bone, not

cremated

c. of

which

containing

containing

shows

of

(2.5kg)

furniture

iron

iron

floor not

bone

least was

cremated 9

cremated

possibly

B41

cremation cremated

it

at vessels,

molten

vessel heavily

vessel

of Centrally vessel of vessel, cluster vessels,

none

shaft & of

a

&

& cremated

of

burnt

copper-alloy

cylinders;

positioned

brooches nails, a

of

of

the

(location

group

pottery

pottery

pottrey

pottery

pottery pottery

Mass copper-alloy sherds fragmentary copper-alloy alloy mail; pottery, ivory;

quantity On ironwork

A iron 7 1 iron also remains. 1 Enclosure dice, One 1

1 containing brooch Pile peg

2 number

adult)

(31.4g,

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult) (adult)

(adult) (adult)

known

adult) Unurned(140.6g,

Unurned

(Jnurned Not

Urned Urned

Unurned Urned Urned

Unurned Unurned

known

visible

Oval

Not

shaft

Funerary

Rectangular

?Circular Circular

Not Circular

Circular Oval Square

(disturbed)

31

shaft Funerary

9

20

25

26 32

38

40 41

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Hitchin

Lane Lane

Harry

Harry

Harry

Harry Harry

Harry

Harry Harry

Folly Folly Foxholes,

King

!Cing

•Cing

King

King

King King

King

to to

pot pot

that that

the the

box. box.

is is

(iron (iron

wooden wooden

of of

fragment fragment

enclosures

outside, outside,

nail

a a

copper- copper-

nails

wood wood

indicate indicate

surrounded surrounded

nail

foot foot

grave grave

& &

objects objects

from from

burnt burnt

found found

blackened blackened

burnt burnt

may may

the the

ditched ditched

The The

molten molten

cylindrical cylindrical

& &

2 2

burnt burnt

by by

of of

a a

was was

nail

& &

& &

B148 B148

metal metal

near near

Blackened Blackened

copper-alloy copper-alloy

which which

bone. bone.

nail

as as

object, object,

from from

group group

sealed sealed

fragments fragments

burnt burnt

bone bone

nails nails

brooches brooches

brooch brooch

a a

well well

brooch, brooch,

Pit Pit

molten molten

burnt burnt

iron iron

4 4

above above

A A

& &

Enclosure Enclosure

sheet sheet as as

south south

& &

& &

burnt burnt

cremated cremated

of of

& &

unrecorded)

4 4

nail. nail.

calcined calcined

unrecorded). unrecorded).

bone, bone,

bone, bone,

fragments fragments

117

length length

of of

with with

bones, bones,

nail

brooch brooch

brooch brooch

nail

B241

tweezers, tweezers,

north north

fragment). fragment).

perforated perforated

centre centre

burnt burnt

bone bone

bone, bone,

filling

& &

animal animal

animal animal

location location 7)

Grave Grave

bird bird

& &

the the

iron iron

iron iron

the the

(location (location

iron iron

burnt burnt

copper-alloy copper-alloy

isolated isolated

mixed mixed & &

& &

burnt burnt

& &

the the

quantity quantity

(c. (c.

burnt burnt

in in

& &

B41 B41

1 1

of of

an an

from from

bone bone

bone bone

remains, remains,

& &

pegs pegs

& &

bone, bone,

bone, bone,

calcined calcined

into into

(1.3g) (1.3g)

small small

human human

between between

bone bone

human human

with with

pairs pairs

brooch, brooch,

of of

human human

copper-alloy copper-alloy

burials burials

0.2m 0.2m

2 2

cattle cattle

bone bone

Located Located

c. c.

area' area'

slightly slightly

cremated cremated

Enclosures Enclosures

calcined calcined

calcined calcined

cremated cremated

along along

vessel, vessel, brooches brooches

17, 17,

bronze bronze

burnt burnt

3 3

calcined calcined

grave. grave.

majority majority

cremated cremated

calcined calcined

cremated cremated

2 2

hob-nail, hob-nail,

Bl Bl

fragmentary), fragmentary),

sunk sunk (unbumt (unbumt

lid, lid,

cremation cremation

brooches, brooches,

copper-alloy copper-alloy

grave, grave,

the the

2 2

of of

'corridor 'corridor

pottery pottery

iron iron

between between

had had

of of

very very

1 1

the the

containing containing

containing containing

containing containing

containing containing

platter platter

the the

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

pottery pottery

of of

area area

not not

molten molten

a a

from from containing containing

bone, bone,

containing containing

containing containing

containing containing

containing containing

containing containing

in in

Enclosure Enclosure

most most

if if

which which

presumably presumably

of of

number number

nails, nails,

by by

the the

a a

& &

floor floor

in in

sherds sherds

by by

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessel vessel

vessel vessel

vessel vessel vessel vessel

vessels, vessels, vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessel, vessel, vessel vessel

within within

the the

board board

burnt burnt

Located Located

cremated cremated

(?burnt, (?burnt,

3 3

amount amount

occupied occupied

(5.4g) (5.4g)

of of

inside

south south

1 1

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery

box box

Pile Pile

1 1

positioned positioned

1 1

1 1

knife, knife,

1 1

1 1

1 1

covered covered

2 2

Scattered Scattered

(0.2g). (0.2g).

Situated Situated

2 2

object object a a

2 2 4 4

alloy alloy

Small Small

wooden wooden the the

2 2

& &

accompanied accompanied

& &

adult)

adult adult

amount amount

(adult)

small small

(young (young

(adult) (?immature)

(child)

(adult)

(adult)

(young (young

Urned Urned

Umed Umed Urned Urned

Urned

Unurned

Unurned

?Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Umed Umed

urned urned

Urned Urned

Urned Urned

outside outside

Umed, Umed, adult)

visible

visible

visible

visible visible

visible

visible

visible

Circular

Not Not

Circular

Circular Not Not

Not Not

Not Not

(disturbed)

Not Not

Circular

Circular

Not Not

Not Not

Circular

Oval

146

135

148

118

122

120 105

119

73

72

58

69

67

44

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane Lane

Lane

Lane Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

King King

King King

King King

King King King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King King King &

the of

of

the

of

nail

within

of 3.00m

(46)

iron B241,

More

centre north

floor

north-west

brooches

burnt

with

nail.

distorted fragment

the

amphora

1

the

the

roughly

at

&

&

5.40m

cemetery

periphery

Positioned

to brooches, on

Enclosure

burnt studs)

bronze

some

148 2

copper-alloy

a

in the

2

loop

B241,

& melted

in

floor.

Located

roughly

241

outside

northern

copper-alloy

on

Grave

flagon, bones,

grave.

brooch,

A Situated glass, nails

nail

the

pig

burials

immediately

of cover.

241

B241,

bone

copper-alloy partially

Grave found focal

Enclosure

a

iron

of

molten

7

of

in

burnt

burnt

glass.

double-spiked the base

&

(8.4g).

1 molten 3 by

nails

were Grave

burials

towards

nail

calcined

&

&

iron

of

south

remains,

from

from number

cremated possibly

bone

remains, Enclosure

molten

nails

burnt focal

Located

pig

burnt

3

& pig

pig

with 1

fragments

Situated the

2.3m

&

fragments

&

3.00m

brooch, brooch, cluster

&

& plank,

remains,

brooch,

within

burnt

&

of greatest

(represented

(5.0g). 4

bone

5.4g.

the

& 0.20-0.35m mixed

large

bone,

bone, bone,

bone,

tray

bone,

human

a

human

241 bone, roughly

human

roughly

by

wooden

Located

cremated

a

copper-alloy

(6.9g)

north-east with

fragment

cremated

as

brooch

Grave

B148,

nail. wooden

B241,

cremated

cremated deposited cremated cremated calcined

calcined

cremated

calcined

of

cremated

copper-alloy

on

well

2.5m

1)

glass, iron

molten

surrounded

as

position, 7-1

of &

coantaining

& fragments

241

containing

Enclosure

burnt Enclosure molten

1

copper-alloy

roughly

(Dr. one

containing standing containing containing containing

containing

containing in bone containing

containing & & in

piece

containing

south-west

241

Grave

isolated

set

recovered,

an

B241,

molten

Enclosure

sherds vessel

vessel vessel vessel vessel

vessesl,

bone, vessel vessel

vessel

vessels

vessels,

vessel

focal 2.00m in

&

copper-alloy Grave brooch,

Situated calcined

Located

toilet

were

is

of

it

largest

pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

1

1 1 calcined 1 1 grave.

bronze

central Amphora 1 1 molten Enclosure 1 3 roughly (2.2g).

binding south 5

sherds heaped

the 1 shears, 2 site,

&

child)

&

inside

(adult)

(adult)

jar

(adult) (adult (child) (adult)

(adult) (adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

Cremation outside

Umed Urned Umed Urned

Urned Unurned

Umed Umed Urned

Unumed

Urned

Umed

visible

visible visible

visible

visible

visible

visible

Not Not Not

Circular ?Square

Circular Not Not

?Circular

Not

Sub-square

Circular

Not

153

154 165 174 196

206

217

229

234

235

241

242

248

Lane Lane Lane Lane Lane Lane

Lane

Lane Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Harry Harry Harry

Harry Harry Harry

Harry

Harry

Harry

Harry

Harry

Harry

Harry

£ing

King

King King King King

King

King King

King King

King

King

& &

& &

with with

floor, floor,

a a

close close

2 2

of of

sheet sheet

within within

in in

melted melted

brooches. brooches.

together together

& &

fragments fragments

mixed mixed

boards boards

Enclosure Enclosure

grave grave

2-4), 2-4),

wooden wooden

traces traces

iron iron

discs, discs,

of of

a a

on on

situated situated

hammerhead, hammerhead,

being being

B299 B299

2 2

ditched ditched

mixed mixed

(Dr. (Dr.

(2.3g) (2.3g)

of of

of of

positioned positioned

iron iron

apparently apparently

wooden wooden

position

cup

from from

and and

centre centre

empty

) )

(4.8g) (4.8g)

melted

of of

found), found),

copper-alloy copper-alloy

(2.7g) (2.7g)

signs signs

site

the the

Substantial Substantial

group group

tube, tube,

bone, bone,

Enclosure Enclosure

brass brass

amphora amphora

bone bone

copper-alloy copper-alloy

staples staples

the the

2 2

isolated isolated

partly partly

of of

pedestal pedestal

traces traces

5 5

iron iron

of of

hinges hinges

of of

molten molten

copper-alloy copper-alloy

south south

relatively relatively

& &

showed showed

within within

fragments fragments

by by

and and

was was

& &

is is

& &

lagenae. lagenae.

box, box,

cremated cremated

nail

centre centre

largely largely

complete complete

copper-alloy copper-alloy

cremated cremated

of of

belt belt

crushed crushed

a a

a a

molten molten

area area

a a

chain chain

brooch brooch

site

the the

vessels, vessels,

north north

in in

with with

from from

periphery periphery

fragments fragments Located Located

& &

burnt burnt by by

nail

pair pair

with with

at at

remains remains

bone bone

copper-alloy copper-alloy

a a

the the

& &

the the

iron iron

& &

type type

molten molten

site, site,

copper-alloy copper-alloy

pins pins

of of

(2 (2

pig pig

accompanied accompanied

by by

within within

& &

mixed mixed

burnt burnt

pottery pottery

found found

filling. filling.

brooch brooch

& &

the the

with with

9 9

13.0g 13.0g

immediate immediate

& &

northern northern

buckle, buckle,

Sitauted Sitauted

ajar ajar

of of

325

floor, floor,

board board

the the

Aucissa Aucissa

between between

molten molten

the the

the the

brooches, brooches,

burnt burnt

brooch brooch

in in

type) type)

brooch, brooch,

iron iron

accompanied accompanied

on on

bone bone & &

nails, nails,

1 1

bronze bronze

2 2

periphery periphery

human human

from from

on on

grave. grave.

be be

ring-headed ring-headed

(molten (molten

& &

Grave Grave

accompanied accompanied

iron iron

wooden wooden

to to

heap heap

found found

the the

possible possible

corridor corridor

of of

though though

Gallic Gallic

periphery periphery

bone, bone,

a a

bronze bronze

iron iron

box box

needle, needle,

in in

sherds sherds

A A

platter

remains, remains,

the the

remains, remains,

cremated cremated

by by calcined calcined

objects objects

(3 (3

position position

Colchester Colchester

also also

grave grave

a a

over over

burnt burnt

& &

grave grave

in in

iron iron

from from 2 2

pig pig

of of

bone bone

pig pig

by by

animal animal

burials, burials,

(simple (simple

north-eastern north-eastern

8 8

& &

bone bone

& &

nails nails

remains, remains,

north-east north-east

cover cover

Only Only

23 23

objects objects

bronze bronze

covered covered

the the

brooches. brooches.

a a

floor floor

isolated isolated

(4.9g), (4.9g),

pyre

north-eastern north-eastern

5 5

by by

pig pig

2m 2m

Located Located

nails; nails;

animal animal

pit. pit.

containing containing

containing containing

on on

an an

burnt burnt

iron iron

the the

burials

9 9

1 1

& &

calcined calcined

1 1

copper-alloy copper-alloy

human human

c. c.

animal animal

& &

of of

human human

containing containing

the the

the the

burnt burnt

brooches brooches

from from

2 2

and and

in in

Grave Grave

& &

on on

14 14

309 309

& &

& &

on on

on on

accompanied accompanied

grave. grave.

strip, strip,

bv bv

base base

brass brass

B325, B325,

wood wood

bone, bone,

bone bone

human human

bone. bone.

heap heap

vessel, vessel,

vessels, vessels, vessel vessel

bone bone

human human

308 308 vessels, vessels,

in in

vessels vessels

vessels, vessels,

the the

calcined calcined

surrounded surrounded

Grave Grave

box, box,

copper-alloy copper-alloy

sherds sherds

iron iron

cremated cremated

in in

the the

Situated Situated

of of

& &

to to

of of

of of

distorted distorted

Grave Grave

pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery

.4g). .4g).

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

1 1

1 1

Cremated Cremated

Pile Pile

Enclosure Enclosure

cremated cremated

close close surrounded surrounded

to to

Heap Heap

and and

4 4

Calcined Calcined

Cremated Cremated

enclosures

1 1

blackened blackened curved curved

board) board)

Calcined Calcined

wooden wooden covering covering

molten molten

B272 B272

One One

pottery pottery

scattered scattered 4 4

Cremated Cremated

(1 (1

4 4

box box

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

Unurned Unurned

Unurned Unurned Urned Urned

(adolescent)

Unurned Unurned

(adult)

(adult)

Disturbed Disturbed

Unurned Unurned

(adult)

(adult)

?wooden ?wooden

Unurned Unurned

Urned Urned

(adult)

Unurned Unurned

(adult) Urned Urned

Urned Urned

Unurned Unurned Umed Umed

pit

visible

visible

?Circular

Circular

Circular

Circular

Roman Roman

Not Not

Circular

Circular

Sub-square

Oval

Rectangular Circular

Not Not

323

324 321

309

306

308

299

295 280

278

111

270

252

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

King King

King King

King King King King

King King King King

King King King King

King King

King King

King King

King King King King

of of

with with

bone bone

jar, jar,

grave grave

mixed mixed

together together

other other

calcined calcined

been been

nail nail

quantity quantity

2 2

B325 B325

pottery pottery

burials burials

cremated cremated

associated associated

mixed mixed

had had

in in

of of

only only

large large

burnt burnt

south-eastern south-eastern

human human

platter

Unenclosed Unenclosed

with with

also also

& &

a a

nail

bone bone

are are

the the

nails

keys) keys)

with with

by by

board

cluster cluster

Enclosure Enclosure

on on

glass. glass.

were were

nails

lift lift

bone bone

brooch, brooch,

mixed mixed

burnt burnt

of of

vessel

(there (there

burnt burnt

1 1

& &

2 2

iron iron

mixed mixed

iron iron

bird bird

cremated cremated

& &

spindle-whorls spindle-whorls

distinct distinct

l.Og) l.Og)

2 2

wooden wooden

& &

molten molten

& &

burials burials

2 2

Located Located

centre centre

a a

a a

(1 (1

nail

nail nail

the the

of of

spoon spoon

pottery pottery

& &

burnt burnt

bone bone

pig pig

1 1

accompanied accompanied

by by

of of

the the

cemetery cemetery

nail

nails

nail

at at

cover. cover.

by by

burnt burnt

brooch, brooch,

burnt burnt

within within

the the

bird bird

jar, jar,

1 1

vessel vessel

hob-nails, hob-nails,

& &

some some

in in

& &

of of

burnt burnt

burnt burnt

& &

2 2

burnt burnt

inhumation inhumation

covered covered

fragments fragments

calcined calcined

1 1

nails, nails,

1 1

2 2

associated associated

copper-alloy copper-alloy

4 4

(3 (3

copper-alloy copper-alloy

wooden wooden

Situated Situated

2 2

& &

situated situated

nails nails

& &

& &

& &

a a

strainer strainer

extent extent

bone, bone,

iron iron

bone, bone,

been been

human human

remains remains

certainly certainly

of of

(2.5g), (2.5g),

also also

disc, disc,

accompanied accompanied

bone bone

bone bone

bone bone

floor. floor.

burnt burnt

molten molten

cemetery

burials burials

had had

pig pig

bone bone

2 2

burnt burnt

beaker, beaker,

bronze bronze

iron iron

ditch, ditch,

were were

the the

& &

(4 (4

floor, floor,

cremated cremated

cremated cremated

cremated cremated

grave grave

butt butt

remains remains

of of

Grave Grave

bones, bones,

easternmost easternmost

on on

from from

in in

on on

cremated cremated

cremated cremated

cremated cremated

calcined calcined

bone bone

flask

cremated cremated

There There

nails

had had

cremation cremation

pig pig

copper-alloy copper-alloy

mirror, mirror,

Roman Roman

the the

objects objects

area)

1 1

pots. pots.

nail nail

a a

1 1

at at

2 2

bone bone

heap heap

(202g) (202g)

of of

burnt burnt

whorl, whorl,

grave grave

containing containing

containing containing

containing containing

periphery periphery

in in

animal animal

by by

vessel. vessel.

2 2

metal metal

burnt burnt

1 1

1 1

1 1

molten molten

bronze bronze

least least

& &

carinated carinated

calcined calcined

site

containing containing

containing containing

containing containing

& &

& &

& &

edge edge

The The

containing containing

at at

human human

bone bone

position position

by by

immediate immediate

the the

eastern eastern

spindle- spindle-

by by

the the

pottery pottery

bone bone

bone bone

bone bone

of of

vessels, vessels,

vessel vessel

vessels, vessels,

the the

vessel, vessel,

vessels, vessels, vesel vesel

vessel vessel

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessel vessel

human human

floor. floor.

on on

the the

the the

copper-alloy copper-alloy

in in

isolated isolated

accompanied accompanied

cremated cremated

calcined calcined

enclosure)

grave grave

an an

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

brooches, brooches,

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

graves graves

1 1

1 1

bone bone

1 1

1 1

1 1

towards towards

3 3

on on

surrounded surrounded

3 3

7 7

6 6

accompanied accompanied

Cremated Cremated

Cremated Cremated

with with

periphery periphery

this this

Calcined Calcined

in in

with with

4 4 molten molten

Cremated Cremated

outside outside

2 2

Located Located

(adult)

(adult)

(infant)

(child)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult) (adolescent)

(?child)

(immature)

(adult)

(immature)

Umed

Umed Umed

Unurned Unurned

Urned Urned

Urned Urned

Umed Unumed Unumed

Urned Urned ?Urned ?Urned

Urned Urned

Unurned Unurned

Unurned Unurned

Unurned Unurned Urned Urned

Umed Umed

Urned

visible

visible visible

visible

Roughly Roughly

?Circular

Not Not

square

Circular

Circular Circular

(disturbed)

Not Not

?Circular

Circular

Circular

Circular

Oval

Sub-circular Circular

?Circular

Not Not

445

365

436

373

372 416

414

370

393 441

351

375 437

348

329

325

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Lane

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

iCing iCing

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King King King

King King

King King

King King 00 5

of

a

&

grave.

&

burial

single

on

cup

the

eastern

extent

floor,

by

gaming

this

included

of

most

the

unburnt

silver

distorted

20097

brooches

2

grave from

on

a

remains

floor

&

objects

&

on

of

central

nails

the knife,

fragments,

easternmost

bronze

accompanied

the

on

animal

20083

2

Located

originate

the

iron

burnt

&

Unbumt

together

2

at

was

jar.

fragments,

bracelet

fragments

also

&

within

vessels

bowls,

20043,

together

& burials

bear.

human

a

mixed

may

with

nail

triangular

pottery nails

position

buckle

of

small

bead

a

set

pottery

graves

mixed

cremation

Situated

2

bone

6 in

burnt

iron

mixed

burnt

1

cremation

the calcined

by

ring

hammerhead

toilet

2

with

isolated

pieces,

&

of

of

&

vessel.

fittings

burnt

phalanges

an

feature

with

iron

iron

grave, remains,

nail-cleaner,

calcined

6

vessel

fragment

in

bone

most and

of

bronze

&

group

bone

gaming

pottery

bone,

associated mixed

but

bone,

glass

Roman

bronze

circular terminal

accompanied

pottery

calcined

a

centre

small

(9.4g)

glass

and

& Located

a

unburnt

in

single cremated

calcined

bowl,

dish,

fragments

24

brooch

by

An &

molten

single

in

&

cremated

found

cremated

bronze'

nails

remains,

&

iron

towards

brooch

iron

by

vessels.

of

nail

a

containing

cemetery

also

(

bowl

III

vessels,

nail

and

copper-alloy

burnt

heap

containing

containing

the

animal

2

a brooches. 1

1

lump

burnt

surrounded

in

pottery

site

sherd

&

containing

Tene

& bucket

containing

in

burnt

&

4

possibly

strainer

pottery

bronze

globules

but

La

molten

the

by

iron

accompanied

of

39

bone

of

bone vessels,

vessel vessels,

bone,

burials

bones

vessel

human

&

object, 'shapeless

vessel

amphora Colchester

of

bronze

floor

brooch,

20

cemetery

pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

1

Calcined

Cremated bronze

Dr.

4 Calcined

3 1 surrounded Fragmentary Iron amphorae, the Calcined

board, assortment Wooden melted

bronze

Copper-alloy cluster grave periphery

pottery

[Calcined

Ig,

adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(243.

(290.7g,

(adult)

(adult)

(adult)

(adult) (adult)

(adult)

recorded

Umed

Unumed Urned

Umed Urned Urned Urned

Unurned Unurned

Umed None Unurned adult)

mature/older

Unurned

visible

visible

visible known

visible

Not

Rectangular

Circular

Circular

Circular Circular Oval Not

Circular

Not

Circular

Not

Not

1

13 447 458 460

452 456 453 451

5

20021

20029

20039

City

Lane Lane Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane

Garden

Harry Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry

Harry

King

King

King King King

Welwyn Boxford

King

Swarling King

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett &

5

with

the

by

of

close iron

20083 of

preserved

fill

&

with

Situated

vessels

&

20043

short

pottery

one

grave-good

centre

a

melted

a

to

in

along

by

associated

mineral

as

20043

pottery

vessels.

20029,

&

cemetery

&

3

accompanied

found

3

calcined,

throughout

close

of

&

&

brooch,

bones, placed

by

with

20029,

iron collars,

brooch bone

(found

bone

bone

extent

interpreted

remains

accompanied

periphery,

scattered

with

III

calcined

& iron

associated

burials object

III

animal

board,

Tene animal

with

sherds calcined

accompanied

of cremated

northern bone

western

&

or

&

rectangular

La

the

pot

Tene associated

vessels

the

graves,

with

box

&

&

mixed

iron

La

cluster with

of

toggles

with human

5

towards

human

bone

calcined

vessel

copper-alloy

small

pottery

mixed

main

towards

graves

bone

along 2 brooch

grave,

with

bone,

cluster

charcoal

pin

of

of

the III by

from

together calcined

pottery

Situated

calcined

calcined

of

molten

floor

burnt

vessels

by

though

mixed

Tene

with

central

with

with centre

cluster

brooch

within

mixed

cremated

grave

La

vessels.

amount

the probably

vessels

long)

remains,

20095) iron

pottery

on

graves,

mixed in

within

with grave

mixed

mixed 2

accompanied (

central

III

of

large

fragmentary

20245

by

pottery (3mm

grave

accompanied

&

animal pottery

of

focal

2

20097

2 mixed

adhering, good, Tene brooch

and

&

brooch

brooch

within A

scattered &

Situated

cluster copper-alloy &

east, deposited

globules pair

focal

La

by

Iron

iron pyre iron horn

to

blade

the

fragment

bone

20338 fragment

human

III

bone,

(Ig), bone

III

III

to 20083 vessel.

vessels. central

Situated vessels)

than accompanied

with

close

foil

knife

sheet

Tene

Tene

Tene

Graves

Calcined Iron

within globule pottery

20029, Fragmentary rather wood

Copper-alloy 20097 oottery Iron

^very La grave, La

Gold

io vessel.

La accompanied

Calcined

pottery Calcined

Calcined distance

older

?older

older

adult)

adult)

(22.7g,

(167.39g,

(lO.lg, (450.4g,

(999.2g,

(252.5g,

(262g,

(565g, (118.5g, adult)

(142.3g,

(279.4g,

adult)

&

mature/older

Unurned(381.6g, adult) Unurned

adult) older Unurned

subadult/adult) Unurned Unurned

mature/older mature Unurned infant

Unurned sudadult/adult)

Unurned adult) Unurned mature/older Unurned subadult/adult)

sudadult/adult) Unurned adult) Unurned

visible

Circular

Oval

Circular Mot Circular

Circular

Rectangular

Irregular

Circular ?Square

Circular

Circular

20043

20055 20083

20087 20089

20095

20097

20132

20134

20142

20149

20169

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

to

o 3

2

by

by

iron

vessels

remains animal

Situated

20142 probably &

graves

to

iron

with

vessel

large

bone.

1 &

pottery

A

Graves

calcined

3

close

by

ironwork

rectangular

brooches,

to

accompanied

accompanied

mixed

by

nails

south-western

with

vessel

comer.

calcined

iron

with

close graves,

bone,

grave &

ffl

of

together

vessels structural brooch,

mixed

towards

the

pottery

vessel

of

accompanied

of

Tene

iron

recovered

vessels

accompanied

south-east

cemetery calcined

mixed

La

number

pottery III single

brooch

in remains

of

a

Located

also 2

of

&

wooden

corner

with

bone

by

iron

remains,

pottery

A end

Tene

area

pair

with found

4

together,

were

human

III

each

grave.

La

representative

of

brooch mixed

in

pyre.

vessels

north

brooch

animal

ring,

empty

along

Tene

with calcined

on mixed

&

iron

the vessels

whole

north

iron

wood, surrounded

iron

brooches

calcined

La

at

III

placed

pyre

the

with pottery &

III

the globules

bone

burnt

largely the

the

mixed 2

human the

to a

ring,

small

pottery

of

&

bone

Tene

over

2

Tene

by

for

with

situated

mixed

La preserved

molten &

one

La timbers

calcined

cemetery

placed

remains

grave

&

in used calcined

spread

&

iron of

with

grave

of mixed

Calcined

belt-hook,

(Ig)

mineral

brooches was copper-alloy

animal comer

surrounded

iron

extent

present

mixed timbers brooch

brooch, chain centre

containing &

brooch, grave-good)

brooch iron

with

Isolated

small

globule

(a

the

III

Iron iron iron

from of iron

iron

charcoal

in

of vessels, 20338

shank III cemetery human III

remains

of northern

III

III

probably vessels north-west

vessels. Tene

&

of

staples

cremation

in

nail

La

Tene Tene

Tene

Tene

20245

pottery

Dual

Fragments deposited pottery La La

Iron originating Copper-alloy towards 20142 fragment 2 quantity bone extent Calcined

fittings, repair pottery La

& La

Pair

Calcined

older

adult) fill,

2:

older

infant) lower

adult)

mature

adult)

16g,

upper

adult)

(23.9g

(121.0g (484.9g, (3

(3.7g, (59.2g,

(740.7g,

(406.2g,

(234.7g,

(127.8

(145g,

(467.7g,

&18.1g

subadult/ Unurned

Unurned Unurned adult) Unurned

mature/older Unurned subadult/adult) Unumed

Unurned adult) Unurned

subadult) Unumed

adult)

Unurned fill Unurned subadult/adult)

Unurned adult) young/younger

visible

lectangular

Mot

Circular

Circular Circular Square

Square

Oval

Square

Square

Circular

Circular

20170

20179 20235 20245 20191 20237 20252

20253

20338

20368

20408

20453

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

N) but

HI

&

chain

vessels

each

5m

the

pottery

pots.

in

&

southern

Tene

Grave

a human

iron

brooches,

animal

recorded from

La

copper-alloy

3m

by

vessel. of

remains

pottery

lifting

&

enclosure

3

III not

20484

grave

away,

on

towards

by

calcined

associated

positioned

the

length

2m

pottery

4

bone

bone

Tene

between

human

square

of

& &

Grave

lifter/key,

cremated

& originating

with

by

20493

copper-alloy

La

been

1m

position

accompanied

vessel

III

from

small

with

latch

animal

rings,

graves

had

centre

pair

calcined

disintegrated

calcined

Grave

&

of

the

toggles,

accompanied

together

the

of iron

probably

Tene

iron

of

3.5m

of

pottery

isolated

mixed

2 arc between

in

remains,

with an

c.

La

a

in

accompanied by

posthole

north

antler

human

of

mixed

staining,

south

a

by

sherds,

of

centre

(

rings,

together,

&

vessel

fragmentary knife,

Location

graves

mixed

5m

in (

calcined

of

a

pair

c.

Situated grave,

cemetery,

with

(5g)

Set

pottery &

mixed

of

of

immediate

vessel.

with

pottery

quantity

cemetery,

with

accompanied

products

burnt

fragments

surrounded

cluster

the

vessels

half

the

the

grave. fragments mixed

vessels.

copper-alloy &

20571

to

extent

broad-bladed small

brooch

vicinity

of 2

globules mixed

of

pottery

sheet

mixed

small

remains,

iron

iron

pottery

with

outside

corrosion

south

by

molten

from

iron Grave

pottery vessel

southern

2

fragments,

remains

bone

extent

margins

centre

single

III

3

its

by

in

southern

with

by

brooches in

&

brooches,

lying

to

with

by

at

(Ig),

mixed

calcined

Tene

copper-alloy

pottery

animal

animal

5m

iron

iron

placed

mixed recovered

southern La

&

vessel &

c.

found

surrounded

pyre,

III brooch

with

III

copper-alloy

aligned

&

coin,

easternmost

situated

copper-alloy

represented

globules

on

&

iron

remains,

the

Tene accompanied

shanks

Tene

human

human gold

pottery

bone

located

accompanied remains

attached

mixed

towards

III

at

grave

burnt

La

fragment

in

cemetery is La

roughly

nail

brooch,

brooch,

Age

of

ring

brooch,

of of

animal

Tene

iron

brooches,

Calcined

Calcined

Situated away, placed 30706) unid.

Iron remains,

20484 Isolated

end Calcined Pair vessel

Pair Copper-alloy

corner Calcined iron

brooch ?Iron La

timbers probably 2 and

with

older

older

&

adult) young

(286.7g,

(154.2g,

(275g,

(170.8g,

(118.8g,

(50.9g,

vessel;

(183.8g,

unurned

adult)

in

(45.7g,

(460.7g 39.0g mature Unurned adult)

Unurned adult) Unurned

subadult/adult) Unurned adult) Urned(158.6g, Unurned

juvenile/subadult) adult)

?

Unurned juvenile/subadult) ?(0.7g)

Unurned

adult/?female)

young/mature

Square

Square

Oval

Circular Circular

Circular (disturbed)

Circular Circular Rectangular

Square Circular

20479

20484 20493

20541

20543

20566

20571

20573

20583

20599

20601

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett arm

a

used

rings.

Tene

the

the

La

brooches

a

cuts

with timbers

unurned

isolated

represents

from

in

from

grave

copper-alloy

from

mixed

they

the

copper-alloy

that

small were

Situated

2 fragments in

vessels

&

recovered

originating

sheet

with

Tene

vessel.

unlikely

pyre

additionally

nails

iron

is

pottery La

the

It

of

of

and

brooches

probably

iron

on

pottery

together

2

cut.

pair

in

bone,

burnt

mixed

grave

the

holdfast,

fragments

2

vessels),

accompanying

the

copper-alloy

vessels

2

2

& iron

with deposited

grave

timbers

of

vessels

of

of

of

fragmentary

of

1

with

cemetery

(

pottery

mixed

staples

south

(in

with

a of

2

in

pottery

centre

vessels

the

3

by

end

were

in

with

in

together

urned

&

found globules

probably

together

they

pottery

rectangular

found iron mixed

ring 2

mixed

northern

brooch

remains

&

&

deposited

since

mixed

iron

deposit

iron

accompanied

iron 20717

remains bone remains

bone

remains

bones

III

bone

human

towards

vessel

site

brooch

pyre,

Tene

the iron

pyre

fragmentary

La

Calcined III Calcined

Calcined calcined Fragmentary 8 Calcined position

calcined

Calcined wooden for of

Calcined

&

older

older

fill)

adult)

2g,

adult) older

infant

uraed

from

11.

(362.8g,

(22.9g, & (360.1g,

(4

(160.8g,

subadult/adult)

urned

adult

8g,

adult)

Unurned (16.3g Unurned adult) Unurned Unurned 20.4g Unurned adult) young/mature Umed(102g, (24. adult)

Unurned

Irregular

Circular

Circular Circular Square Circular

Square

Circular

20605 20637 20629 20610 20675

20680

20729/20758

20750

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett

Westhampnett

to

& &

256- 256-

86-8; 86-8;

376

374

324; 324;

364; 364;

Stead, Stead,

1965 1965

Whimster Whimster

Freeman Freeman

413 413

1981, 1981,

1970b, 1970b,

1981, 1981,

1, 1,

1985, 1985,

255; 255;

355

1981, 1981,

1965; 1965;

82-3; 82-3;

41 41

371

Birchall Birchall

324

PL PL

1965, 1965,

1981, 1981,

Kennet Kennet

371

1976, 1976,

& &

Whimster Whimster

165; 165;

356

1981, 1981,

Whimster Whimster

& &

Birchall Birchall

Fitzpatrick Fitzpatrick

1985, 1985,

Whimster Whimster

81-2; 81-2;

Stead Stead

520-2 520-2

22; 22;

157 157

279; 279;

1981, 1981,

1958, 1958,

Birchall Birchall

305-6; 305-6;

Whimster Whimster

1986; 1986;

1965; 1965;

CrummyJOOO

comm.

1969, 1969,

Whimster Whimster

Fox Fox

1928, 1928,

1925, 1925,

1983

& &

1971, 1971,

1981, 1981,

98-9; 98-9;

326; 326;

377

137-48; 137-48;

Fitzpatrick Fitzpatrick

249-51, 249-51,

pers. pers.

Rigby Rigby

164-9

60; 60;

304; 304;

304; 304;

19

Whimster Whimster

Birchall Birchall

& &

1923, 1923,

59. 59.

1985, 1985,

Hill Hill

1981, 1981,

Selkirk Selkirk

comm.

1976, 1976,

Kuhlicke Kuhlicke

1971; 1971;

1965, 1965,

Crummy Crummy

1995, 1995,

1967, 1967,

1930, 1930,

1930, 1930,

Bagshawe Bagshawe

Whimster Whimster

Bushe-Fox Bushe-Fox

Fox, Fox,

Stead Stead

Fig. Fig.

J.D. J.D.

21-22; 21-22;

pers. pers.

373

373

Stead Stead

299-300; 299-300;

1995a; 1995a;

37-61; 37-61;

20; 20;

350; 350;

279; 279;

Stead Stead

205-7; 205-7;

158, 158,

Holland Holland

58; 58;

1898; 1898;

Birchall Birchall

1971; 1971;

1993; 1993;

Whimster Whimster

1925, 1925,

Fitzpatrick Fitzpatrick

& &

Crummy Crummy

105; 105;

Dunning Dunning

Dunning Dunning

1981, 1981,

1981, 1981,

1982; 1982;

1949, 1949,

1845, 1845,

1881, 1881,

1971, 1971,

& &

& &

& &

1971b, 1971b,

1949; 1949;

1993, 1993,

1996, 1996,

1912; 1912;

1897; 1897;

1968; 1968;

369

279; 279;

1967; 1967;

1991; 1991;

1923, 1923,

above

Britain

Stead Stead

1971, 1971,

1981, 1981,

Sealey Sealey

Watson, Watson,

Reference

Fox Fox

Dryden, Dryden,

Megaw Megaw

Oilman Oilman

Laver Laver

Smith Smith

Whimster Whimster

Stead Stead

Watson Watson

Whimster Whimster

Thompson Thompson

7; 7;

Hawkes Hawkes

Hawkes Hawkes

Hawkes Hawkes

Bushe-Fox Bushe-Fox

Stead Stead

Cussans Cussans

As As

Philp Philp

Burleigh Burleigh

Niblettl999, Niblettl999,

southern southern

in in

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial

contexts contexts

Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

?Burial

?Burial

?Cremation ?Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

?Burial

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Context

burial burial

from from

buckets buckets

Kent

Kent

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hertfordshire

Hampshire

Essex

Essex

Hampshire

Essex

Essex

Essex

Bedfordshire

Bedfordshire

County

Lexden

City

Warden

metal-bound metal-bound

Common, Common,

Tarrant

Bridge

Old Old

Southend-on-Sea

Baldock

Road, Road,

and and

Otterbourne

Berkhamstead

(B)

(AF48J

Garden Garden

Hill, Hill,

Walls Walls

Chesterford

Lane

Tene, Tene,

Clare's Clare's

C

Stanway Stanway

St. St.

Shoebury, Shoebury,

Great Great

Kelvedon

Welwyn Welwyn

Quints Quints

Alkham(B)

Alkham(A)

Welwyn Welwyn

Baldock

The The

Folly Folly

Dellfield, Dellfield,

Silkstead, Silkstead,

Upper Upper

Harpenden

Hurstbourne Hurstbourne

Felmersham Felmersham

Site

wooden wooden

of of

List List

3

11

10

5

1

18

17

16

15

13

12

4

14

8

7

6

2

9

No.

1. 1. Appendix Appendix

383-5

279; 279;

1981, 1981,

1971, 1971,

Whimster Whimster

Stead Stead

256

1971; 1971;

1970

Whimster Whimster

VI

222-8; 222-8;

1965, 1965,

Stead Stead

PL PL

1971; 1971;

102

Spratling Spratling

1887, 1887,

1973, 1973,

Stead Stead

5.2

301-5; 301-5;

Birchall Birchall

9.2; 9.2;

Figs.50, Figs.50,

99; 99;

Fig. Fig.

Fig. Fig.

1965; 1965;

& &

Pollard Pollard 243-7; 243-7;

1954

195, 195,

& &

& &

Cunnington Cunnington

1923, 1923,

6

1941

5.3

III-V

I.B I.B

5.5

I.H I.H

1965, 1965,

35; 35;

PL PL

PL PL

Fox Fox

Fig. Fig.

Farrar Farrar

Fox Fox

Birchall Birchall

101-3, 101-3,

Fig. Fig.

PL PL

; ;

390

Fig. Fig.

4-5, 4-5,

& &

7.2

9

48.14

1821, 1821,

Stead Stead

359; 359;

1948, 1948,

UK UK

1948, 1948,

1948, 1948,

1925; 1925;

1997, 1997, 1948, 1948,

1981, 1981, I.F I.F

Richardson Richardson

Fig. Fig.

Fig^5.4; Fig^5.4; PL PL

Fig. Fig. Figs. Figs.

Fig. Fig.

Fox Fox

Fox Fox

PL PL

3.5

& &

Fox Fox

1890, 1890, 1890; 1890;

Fox Fox

& &

& & & &

378-9

1; 1;

8; 8;

& &

L L

1973

above

above

1.2 1.2

6 6

5.6

1973, 1973,

Fig. Fig.

1973, 1973,

1975, 1975,

H. H.

m.l m.l

Fig. Fig.

Fitzpatrick

Fig. Fig.

Fig.3; Fig.3;

1981, 1981,

Whimster Whimster Fig^; Fig^;

Coalt-Hoare Coalt-Hoare

Cotton Cotton

Evans Evans As As Evans Evans

Bushe-Fox Bushe-Fox

Fitzpatrick Fitzpatrick

As As

1996

Fig. Fig. PL PL

PI. PI.

Fig. Fig.

Fig. Fig.

1972, 1972,

Pollard Pollard

Jones Jones

1873, 1873,

Pollard Pollard

1983

1909 1909

Pollard Pollard

1909, 1909,

1909, 1909,

& &

1966

comm. comm.

1948, 1948,

1948, 1948,

1960

1948, 1948,

1948, 1948,

1948, 1948,

& &

and and

& &

Fox Fox Smith Smith

Fox Fox Smith Smith

Fox Fox Fox Fox

Jones Jones

Fox Fox Fox Fox

Fitzpatrick Fitzpatrick Fox Fox

Cunliffe Cunliffe Fox Fox

Fox Fox Pers. Pers.

Rogers Rogers

Parley Parley Smith Smith

Reference

Dyer Dyer

burial

burial

burial

burial

burial burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial

burial

Ireland

?Cremation ?Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation

Cremation Cremation Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation Cremation

and and

Cremation Cremation

?Burial

Cremation Cremation Settlement Settlement

Inhumation Inhumation Inhumation Inhumation

Inhumation Inhumation Inhumation Inhumation

Hillfort

Settlement

Hillfort

Inhumation Inhumation

Inhumation Inhumation

Inhumation Inhumation

Cremation Cremation

Cremation Cremation

?Burial

?Burial

Context

Isles Isles

Sussex

British British

Suffolk

Wiltshire

West West

Kent

Kent Kent

Kent Kent

the the

Essex

Essex Dorset

Essex

Dorset

Essex Dorset

Dorset

Dorset

Dorset

Dorset

Devon

Devon

Devon

Cornwall

Bedfordshire

Buckinghamshire

Bedfordshire

Bedfordshire

County

from from

(20622)

1

2

mirrors mirrors

1

2

(Z)

(X)

1

1

2

Castle

Age Age

Hill

Batten Batten

Batten Batten

Chesterford

Warden Warden

Warden Warden

Kevrne

Iron Iron

Marlborough

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Elevdon

Swarling(lS)

Stone

Aylesford Aylesford

Aylesford(Y)

Aylesford Aylesford

Great Great

Billericay2

Billericay Billericay

Portland Portland

Portland Portland

Mucking

Jordan Jordan

Bridport Shillingstone

Portesham St. St.

Bulbury

Maiden Maiden Mount Mount

Holcombe

Mount Mount Old Old

Site

Old Old

Dorton

1 1

of of

List List

18

19

15

17

14

16 13

1

12

11

10

8

9 3

5

7

6 No.

2

4 2. 2.

26

25

24

23

22

19

21 20 YUa

VH.b

PI.

PI.

1993

8

1973,

Fig.

1973,

Rodwell

1973,

&

Pollard

Pollard

&

&

No.269

Pollard

15

Fox

Fox

Rodwell

&

273

1976

CF1

P1.IH.2

9.3;

No. Fox

&

Fig.9.4;

Fig. 1948

Fig.7.1;

grave

9.5;

& &

1976,

&

in

El

Pl.ffl.3

Fig.1.5

Hull

Fig.

MacGregor

&

EN

&

&

PILE

P1.I.D

1948,

mirror

Fig.9.6

PL

1948,

comm.

Fox

E100

&

1948,

1948,

MacGregor

P1.II.M;

Fox

P1.II.R

Fox

pers. 1948,

10

P1.XL

Fox

possible

Fox

271

272

1998

Fig.9.1;

P1.II.Q

Fig.2,

Fig.4;

1948,

Fox

116.

&

comm.

No.270; No.

& No.

&

5;

No.268;

1911,

XLII;

Fox

1948,

Fig.

1.4

H.P

Fitzpatrick

Fitzpatrick Fitzpatrick

Crummy

Fig.

PI.

pers. P1.XLIII;

1976, 1976,

1976,

1976,

1929

Fig.2

PI.

Creighton

P1.H.O Fox

Fig.l.l&Pl.II.J Fig.1.3 2002 Fig.

Grays

1928;

1975

1992,

1938

&

&

2000;

1909,

1909, 1998

1909,

1982

1979-80

comm. comm.

comm.

1985,

Weller

1954

1948,

1948,

1948,

1925;

1948, 1948,

2001;

Sam

Smith

Pers. Fox

Rodwell&Rodwelll993

Pers. Pers. Smith Fulford Rook Hughes

Mellor Smith Dunning Gregory Macalister Jope Parfitt MacGregor MacGregor Fox Macgregor Fox Bulleid Fox MacGregor Boon

Fox Fox Brewster Dent Hill

Burial

Burial Burial

Burial Burial

Burial Burial

Burial

Burial

Burial Burial

Burial Burial Burial

burial Burial Burial

Find Find

Cremation Cremation Settlement Settlement

Cremation Cremation Inhumation Unprovenanced Cremation Inhumation Settlement Inhumation Unprovenanced Inhumation Settlement Settlement Cremation Bog Bog ?Burial Cremation Cremation Hoard Settlement Unprovenanced Inhumation Unprovenanced Inhumation

Inhumation Inhumation

Inhumation Unprovenanced

Scilly

of

Scotland Scotland Somerset

Essex Scotland Scotland Wales Isles Yorkshire Yorkshire Yorkshire Yorkshire Ireland Scotland Wales Yorkshire Yorkshire Essex Hampshire Essex Essex Hertfordshire Ireland Essex Essex Hertfordshire Essex Gloucestershire Holland Kent Norfolk Northamptonshire

City

Uist

Barracks

Green

Fife

1

Connain

3 Slack

Village 2

Castle

Garden

Island

Crannog,

North Island

Slack

1

2

Mhic

Latchmere Bryher Aston Lambay Stanway Welwyn Chilham Thetford

Ballymoney Birdlip Nijmegen Merlsford, Ridding Desborough Wetwang Balmaclellan Valley, Ingleton Carlingwark Hyderabad Garton Ayrshire Arras Wetwang Bac Glastonbury Arras Llechwedd-ddu Lochlee Llanwandda

Rivenhall Colchester Rivenhall Billericay

32

30 31

29 33 34 35 28 36 37 27

38 39

26

40 25 50 41 51

24 42 46 43 47 44 45

23 48 49

22

21

20

to Fig.5.7

Fig.7.3

&

&

P1.I.C

P1.I.G

1948,

1948,

Fox

Fox

&

Fig.7; Fig.8

1909, 1909,

Foxl948,PI.I.A&Fig.5.1 Smith Smith

Unprovenanced

Unprovenanced Unprovenanced

Unprovenanced Unprovenanced Unprovenanced

Mayer Disney Gibbs

54

53 52

and and

foetus

early early

pottery pottery

a a

of of

AD

Age Age

from from

ring ring

flints

2 2

Iron Iron

brooch

ring

century century

alloy alloy

late late

and and

objects

type type

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

of of

fragment fragment

first first

finger finger

copper copper

stones stones

early early

scapula scapula

Nauheim Nauheim

bronze bronze

quantity quantity

inlay inlay

date

a a

jar jar

of of

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

small small

coiled coiled

pot-boiler pot-boiler

3 3

Artefacts

Unburnt Unburnt

part part

A A

No No

No No

No No

No No

A A

Enamel Enamel

No No

Roman Roman

Pottery Pottery

No No

No No

years

years

aged

years

years

years

years

50 50

18-25 18-25

mature

mature

18-25 18-25

mature

50 50

50 50

middle middle

36-45 36-45

mature

male, male,

female, female,

female, female,

female, female,

male, male,

male, male,

female, female,

?female, ?female,

female, female,

?male, ?male,

?female

male

female, female,

Age/Sex

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

the the

the the

on on

the the

at at

with with

and and

of of

of of

of of

ditched ditched

the the

coffins

of of

lying lying

the the

the the

arm arm

and and

arm arm

of of

arm arm

of of

burial burial

in in

through through

supine supine

orientated

of of

through through

5 5

Age Age

cut cut

state state

regular regular

cut cut

wrist wrist

Iron Iron

no no

eastern eastern

western western

southern southern

Flexed Flexed

poor poor

number number

Crouched Crouched

interred interred

a a

a a

south south

late late

cremation cremation

Extended Extended

the the

the the

south-east

the the

with with

south-west south-west

in in

north-south north-south

north-east, north-east,

the the

S2-4 S2-4

inhumations; inhumations;

with with

the the

the the

from from

placed. placed.

to to

3 3

cut cut

the the

where where

to to were were

central central

to to

from from

surface surface

trackways. trackways.

through through

to to

a a

through through

and and

been been

head head

300m 300m

the the

head head

cut cut

cut cut

and and

ring-ditches. ring-ditches.

ditch ditch

bones bones

with with

1201-2 1201-2

head head

associated associated

with with

have have

by by

north-east/south-west, north-east/south-west,

the the

of of

with with

the the

north north

recovered recovered

below below

inhumations inhumations

1201

site site

situated situated

all all

ditches ditches

north

enclosure

east east

cremations cremations

the the

together, together,

with with

.2m .2m

Supine Supine

8 8

Age Age

aligned aligned

enclosure enclosure

nails nails

1 1

supine supine

to to

the the

penannular penannular

the the

Flexed

the the

enclosed enclosed

probably probably

Grave Grave

of of

tied tied

a a

to to

of of

to to

of of

side side

Iron Iron

iron iron

secondary secondary

head head

boundary boundary

were were

west

ditches. ditches.

Found Found

Flexed Flexed

orientation, orientation,

would would

head head

of of

inhumations inhumations

left left

half half

ditch ditch

within within

mortuary mortuary

enclosure

the the

inhumation inhumation

with with

of of

of of

possibly possibly

located located

on on

enclosure. enclosure.

cemetery cemetery

side side

to to

three three

enclosure

extensive extensive

above. above.

number number

Group Group

Situated Situated

Small Small

southern southern

Supine Supine

system system

enclosure. enclosure.

ankles ankles

Lying Lying

ditched ditched cremations cremations

Supine Supine

right right

enclosure enclosure

least least

Grave Grave

cemeteries, cemeteries,

burial burial

northern northern

a a

Ditched Ditched

preservation, preservation,

the the

An An

Location

As As

head head

Burials

S275

S560, S560,

Bedfordshire

D

Loop Loop

Loop Loop

Bedfordshire

Cambridgeshire

199, 199,

1, 1,

1200

1 1

1201

1, 1,

Inhumations Inhumations

1203

1202

3

2

4

3563

of of

Stotfold Stotfold

Stotfold Stotfold

Biddenham Biddenham

Stotfold Stotfold

Bedfordshire

Stotfold Stotfold

Biddenham Biddenham

Site

Stotfold Stotfold

Stotfold Stotfold

Radwell Radwell

List List

Appendix Appendix

Hinxton Hinxton

Radwell Radwell

Radwell Radwell

Radwell Radwell 00

of of

terret

pan- pan-

flask flask

1 1

iron iron

rings

antler antler

bronze bronze

dogs

of of

parts parts

bone bone

vessels, vessels,

1 1

rings, rings,

bronze bronze

iron iron

brooch

two two

and and

bronze bronze

objects, objects,

ferrule, ferrule, pairs pairs

brooches, brooches,

2 2

cordoned cordoned

and and

of of

2 2

iron iron

?head-dress

a a

with with

pottery pottery

alloy alloy

3 3

iron iron

antler antler

horses, horses,

boss, boss,

terret terret

scabbard, scabbard,

sherds, sherds,

bronze bronze

two two

skeletons skeletons

copper copper

penannular penannular

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

ferrule, ferrule,

scabbard scabbard

fittings, fittings,

produced produced

shield shield

2 2

of of

and and

contained contained

worked worked

bronze bronze

and and

1 1

Age Age

wooden wooden

pottery pottery

iron iron

and and

shield shield

parts parts

in in

in in

graves graves

bronze bronze

II II

74 74

bronze bronze

Iron Iron

combs, combs,

1302-03 1302-03

bracelet, bracelet,

the the

iron iron

toggles, toggles,

late late

Tene Tene

sheep, sheep,

spearhead spearhead

of of

sword sword

sword sword

cattle, cattle,

hook, hook,

above

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

details

accompanying accompanying accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

La La

1 1

1303 1303

One One Iron Iron No No

bronze bronze No No

Graves Graves

vessel

spearhead, spearhead, See See fitting, fitting,

Iron Iron

two two

No No Iron Iron antler antler

belt belt disc

No No Two Two No No

weaving weaving

No No

No No

years

years

years

years

years

years

years

30-50 30-50

35-40 35-40

25-30 25-30

35-50 35-50

35-50 35-50

40-50 40-50 40-50 40-50

survived

?male female, female,

?female, ?female,

?male

male, male,

male, male, male, male, female, female, male

male, male,

details

details

bones bones

Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult

Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult

No No

No No Adult Adult

Adult Adult No No Adult Adult

on on

the the

the the

(87, (87,

of of

2

4

cut cut

on on

burials burials

4 4

the the

resting resting

centrally centrally

and and

and and

side. side.

an an

coffins

ditch ditch

orientated orientated

a a

to to

and and

perimeter

3 3

2 2

of of

north­ north­

in in

situated situated

head head

cremations cremations

cremation cremation

with with

side, side,

southeast, southeast,

head head

2 2

eastern eastern

2 2

inhumation inhumation

western western

with with length length

the the 3 3

left left

on on

a a

through through

with with and and

cremation cremation

enclosure

enclosure

settlement settlement

to to

probably probably

the the

north-west

a a

the the

ring-ditches ring-ditches

ring-ditches ring-ditches

cemetery cemetery

18 18

south-east/north-west

cut cut

10) 10)

with with

south-east/north-west

ditch ditch

1 1 cut cut

associated associated flexed

on on

4

the the

along along

head head

flexed flexed

Crouched Crouched the the

with with

western western

western western

surrounding surrounding

109, 109,

outside outside

of of

south, south,

with with

between between

between between

inhumation inhumation

oriented oriented

the the

the the

enclosure

fill

enclosure enclosure

aligned aligned

towards towards

orientated orientated

(94, (94,

inhumation inhumation

probably probably

in in

of of end end

crouched crouched

the the

north-west, north-west,

burial. burial.

enclosure enclosure

lying lying

side side

ring-ditch ring-ditch

(6733) (6733)

2, 2,

to to

back, back,

Skeletons Skeletons

ditch ditch

the the

AD AD

associated associated

head head

butt butt

eastern eastern

on on

burial burial

east-west east-west

to to

right right east-west east-west

burial

burial burial

Extended Extended

placed placed

corner corner

the the

head head

the the

mortuary mortuary

cemetery cemetery

the the

Thames Thames

through through

on on

with with

to to

(5633J. (5633J.

enclosure enclosure of of

head head

century century

inhumation inhumation

from from

inhumations inhumations

cut cut

the the

with with

st st

inhumation inhumation

3 3

1

burials. burials.

lying lying

enclosures enclosures

of of

Extended Extended

centrally centrally

close close

of of

supine supine

with with ditch ditch

orientated orientated

orientated orientated

and and

inhumation inhumation

south-west south-west

corner corner

enclosure

inhumation inhumation

inhumation inhumation

ditched ditched

and and

prone prone

with with double double

rectangular rectangular

inhumation inhumation

early early

bank bank

burial burial

Age/Romano-British Age/Romano-British

recovered recovered

pelvis pelvis

above. above.

deposited deposited

Large Large

Extended Extended

Isolated Isolated

As As

Iron Iron

the the

Flexed Flexed placed placed

western western

Extended Extended western western

inhumation inhumation through through

Flexed Flexed Square Square

98) 98)

Small Small

Two Two

north-east north-east enclosure enclosure Small Small

burials burials Isolated Isolated

north north

east-west east-west

Extended Extended

north-north-east Extended Extended

Isolated Isolated

1344, 1344,

Essex

Wight

of of

Essex

Essex

Hampshire

Isle Isle

Hampshire

Hertfordshire

1302-5, 1302-5,

1, 1,

2

109-110, 109-110,

1354, 1354,

14, 14,

39, 39,

63

51

40

Croft, Croft,

652-659, 652-659,

94, 94,

3

2

Farm Farm

Farm Farm

Cambridgeshire

School School

1352, 1352,

Lane Lane

Lawerence, Lawerence,

1350, 1350,

Owslebury Owslebury Mucking Mucking

Owslebury Owslebury

Owslebury Owslebury

Owslebury Owslebury Mucking Mucking

Soham, Soham,

St. St. Viables Viables

Ardale Ardale

Viables Viables

Folly Folly Cambridgeshire

Hinxton Hinxton

Newnham Newnham

Hinxton Hinxton

vo N)

beaker

butt butt

beads

a a

glass glass

from from

5 5

horse

a a

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

and and

of of

sherds sherds

ring ring

and and

vessels

cranium cranium

nails nails

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

pottery pottery

iron iron

No No

No No

No No

No No

No No

No No

No No

4 4

No No

No No

Copper-alloy Copper-alloy

No No

Unburnt Unburnt

No No

No No

3 3

No No

only)

years

years

years

years

years

years

years

bone

years

17-25 17-25

40 40

of of

years

35-45 35-45

20-25 20-25

25-35 25-35

> >

c. c.

years

16-25 16-25

years

17-20 17-20

fragments fragments

years

8 8

13-18 13-18

c. c.

survive

survive

c. c.

17-25 17-25

30 30

> >

35-45 35-45

c. c.

?male, ?male,

?female, ?female,

(teeth (teeth

?female, ?female,

male, male,

female, female,

female, female,

female

fragments fragments

bones bones

bones bones

Sub-adult, Sub-adult,

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Juvenile, Juvenile,

Sub-adult, Sub-adult,

Adult, Adult,

Adult, Adult,

Adult, Adult,

Tiny Tiny

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

No No

Adult Adult

No No

Adult Adult

of of

of of

with with

15, 15,

254. 254.

supine supine

south south

west- west-

be be

orientated orientated

of of

side side

Enclosure Enclosure

, ,

burial burial

not not

cemetery. cemetery.

Grave Grave

of of

south-east south-east

between between

Extended, Extended,

metres metres

supine, supine,

of of

of of

right right

west

south-east south-east

west-north­ west-north­

the the

of of

1m 1m

Extended, Extended,

65. 65.

Outline Outline

1 1

west west

orientated orientated

its its

could could

of of

top top

2. 2.

east- east-

c. c.

Extended Extended

0.5m 0.5m

on on

and and

the the

west/east

65 65

on on

and and

194. 194.

cemetery cemetery

7. 7.

part part

couple couple

Extended Extended

to to

and and

64 64

a a

and and

and and

south-east south-east

north-west/south-east

orientated orientated

3, 3,

the the

west/south-east

lying lying

2, 2,

247 247 64 64

of of

Grave Grave

Enclosure Enclosure

directly directly

orientated orientated

64-65 64-65

extended extended

of of and and

orientated orientated

Graves Graves

southern southern

situated situated

of of

1.60m 1.60m

burial burial

north- north-

east-south-east/west-north-west

Enclosure Enclosure

1 1

part part

1, 1,

in in

of of

c. c.

back back

Grave Grave

of of

and and

orientated orientated

Graves Graves

6 6

3 3

north-west

Enclosure Enclosure

of of

on on

burial burial

Graves Graves

inhumation, inhumation,

of of

west/south-east

and and

the the

ditch ditch

north-west/south-east

of of

north-west/south-east

south-east south-east

east east

north-east north-east

supine supine

orientated orientated

orientated orientated

inhumation inhumation

distinguished, distinguished,

Enclosure Enclosure

ditch ditch

Enclosures Enclosures

between between

north-west

2, 2,

south-west south-west

north- north-

Enclosure Enclosure

Enclosure Enclosure

extended extended

north-western north-western

south south

towards towards

the the

crouched crouched

5.30m 5.30m

5.70m 5.70m

located located entrance entrance

inhumation inhumation

a a

grave grave

Flexed, Flexed,

land land

the the

7m 7m

6.5m 6.5m

c. c.

c. c.

within within

east-south-east/west-north-west

east-south-east/west-north-west

north-east/south-west

Limits Limits

Double Double

orientated orientated

orientated orientated

62.Extended 62.Extended

lying lying

of of

within within

in in

c. c.

entrance entrance c. c.

within within

Extended, Extended,

between between

the the

head head

194. 194.

cut cut 88. 88.

cut cut

orientated orientated

towards towards

the the

into into

into into

above

above. above.

Grave Grave

and and

1 1

Situated Situated

Situated Situated

orientated orientated

Situated Situated

Grave Grave

inhumation inhumation

east-south-east/west-north-west orientated orientated

Cut Cut Situated Situated

Grave Grave

Grave Grave Grave Grave

Located Located

orientated orientated

Cut Cut Skeleton Skeleton

defined. defined.

Positioned Positioned

of of

Positioned Positioned Situated Situated

Enclosures Enclosures

As As north-west/east-south-east

west/east-south-east Positioned Positioned

with with

head head

As As Remains Remains

Unenclosed Unenclosed

Unenclosed Unenclosed

(i)

(ii)

62

88

64

194

36

65

94 94 5, 5,

94 94

286

261

254

253

247

318

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

16

15

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry Lane Lane

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Lane Lane

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

Harry Harry

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King

Hertfordshire

King King

King King

King King

King King

King King Folly Folly

King King

King King

Folly Folly

King King

U) o and

in

and

bronze

II

fittings,

bronze

brooch,

flagons

structure

spearhead,

spearhead

Tene

spearhead,

shield

and

alloy

La

iron

coffin

boss

pottery

sword,

sword,

or

bronze

objects

with objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects objects

objects

two

copper

iron

iron

shield

box

a

wood/leather

were

and

rings,

in

blade

scabbard,

vessels,

vessel,

associated

there

ring,

head-band/crown,

defined

boss,

arrow-head

knife

sword

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

skull

accompanying

accompanying

pottery

pottery

No

No

which

Nails

No

No

No

No

1

No No

Iron

No

Iron No

3 shield

No

pig

Iron decorated

bronze No

Possibly brooch

bronze

years

years

years

years

years

years years

years

years

years

years

years

years

35-45

>45

25-35

17-25

30-40

18-25

18-25

25-30 30-40

25-30

28-42

30-35

35-45

survive

male,

fragments

female,

female,

male,

female,

male, male,

male, male male, male

male,

male,

male,

bones

Adult

Teeth

No

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult Adult

Adult

?Adult

Adult

?Adult

Adult

Adult

at

I

head

right

supine

with

II

II

8

south­

two

with

with

326

survive

on

burials.

I

with

supine

II

Ditch the

and

and

and

Ditch

Ditch

in in

south-east

southern

Extended

back

in in

bones

probable

Ditch

Extended

319

Ditch

the

enclosure

enclosure

burial

the

burials

in

extended

in

the

to

Hill.

cremation

limb

Extended

of

3

318,

of

behind

7.

north-west/south-east

&

1406,

south-west south-west

ditches. Mill

head

only

ditched

ditched

coffin

north-west

north-west

burial

tied

to

to

a

cremation

the

north-west/south-east

cremation

north-west

with

the

the

in

north-west

grave

of

small

small

21

south-west

to to

containing

hands

north-west

the

of

Enclosure

covering

to

to

the

orientated

to

the

of

inhumation

cemetery

roughly

north-west

south-east,

to

supine

7,

cremation

north-east end

north-east

II

head

head

3

with

to

bottom

a

associated

probably

the

the

the

head

to

situated

central

central

ditch

II

head enclosing

the

of

to

with

with

to

enclosure

with

site

cemetery

Ditch

aligned

south-east

with

in

into the

Extended

with close

possibly

distance

side

Enclosure

side

ditch

Ditch

head

orientated orientated

head

Age

to

extent

Extended

of cut

of

entrance

south-eastern

south

north

south-east

west-north-west/east-south-east

short

right

right

Iron

ditch.

with

enclosure

supine with

prone prone

inhumation

inhumation

found

head

settlement

within

a the

beyond I

end

the

the

the

the

supine, supine,

on on

inhumation

south-east

lengths

to

to

at

with

Age

into

above

the Ditch

Situated Cut orientated enclosure Situated

Cutting side

Two inhumations Located in south-eastern Mortuary Extended

Extended Flexed

Flexed Extended Extended

Extended

Flexed Extended western Flexed

inhumations.

to Extensive supine head

head Iron

As

head

1,

2

3

5 6

8

4

7

19

3

326 332

Field

Field

Hertfordshire Field

Field

Field

Field

Field Field

Kent

Lane Lane

Lane

1,

2

Hills

Hills Hills

Hills

Hills Hills Hills

Hills

1346

1431

l,Kent 1406,

2

Harry

Harry

Harry

112

Verulam

Thorley

Hertfordshire

Verulam Verulam Thorley

Verulam

Thorley

Verulam

King

Verulam

Verulam King

Verulam

King

Ashford

Ashford

Broadstairs

Broadstairs

Deal

U> bronze

skeleton

and

dog

ring

and

objects

brooch

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

II

brooch

suspension

spoons

brooch

iron

Tene

strap-end

iron

III

bronze

n

La

bronze

of

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying Tene accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

Tene

triangular

Pair

brooch,

No

Bronze

No

No

La

No

No

No

La No

No

No

No

No

No

years

years

years

years

years

years

years

17-19

years

35-45

years

28-35 years

30-40

27-32

35-45 40-50

35-45

years

years

years

female,

13-15

6-10

5-10

1-6

1-2

0-4

female

male,

female,

?female,

female,

?male,

?male,

?male,

Adult

Adult

Adult

Juvenile,

Adult

Adult

Adult

Juvenile,

Adult

Infant,

Juvenile,

Adult

Infant,

Sub-Adult

Adult

years Infant,

to

head

came

19m.

north-

head

with

south-

south-

by

aligned

Cemetery

by

by

Burial

with

aligned

22m

child,

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

a

area

by

child,

by

by

by by

by

by

by

by

an

a

south-west

South-West

south-south-west

by

indicates

north-north-east

north-north-east

by

covering

indicates

grave

north

north-east/south-west.

north

thejpresent

aligned

aligned

north-north-east

north-north-east

north-north-east

north-north-east north-north-east

north-east

north-north-east

north-north-east

north-north-east

the

grave

of

north-north-east the

the

burials

of

to

to

the

south-south-west

area

supine

supine

of

size

aligned

orientated

aligned

aligned aligned aligned

aligned north-north-east

aligned

aligned

aligned

south

south south

north

north north

by

south north

south aligned head

head

the

size

south-south-west

the

the

the

the

the the

the

the

the

barrow

inhumation

with

with

to

to

to

to

to to

by to

to supine

supine

supine to

supine supine

supine supine

but supine prone supine

supine

supine

but

extended

extended

destroyed

27

Age

north

the

head

head

head

head

head head

head

head

head

south

bones

bones

least

the

Extended from

Bronze Extended

Extended

with Extended with Extended

with Extended At Extended with Extended to with Extended the south-west with Extended

No with north-north-east Probably south-west Extended with Extended Probably

north-east

No

i^with

13

14

15

16

107

108 47 50 1 46 48 51 1 49 52 1

54

55

1

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery Cemetery Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery Cemetery Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

West

South-West

South-West South-West

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-

South-West

South-West

X2

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-West

Deal

Deal

Deal Deal

Deal

Deal Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

OJ to ]

brooch

iron

in

Tene

La

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

objects

vessel

objects

objects

objects

objects

grave-goods

grave-goods

brooch

brooch

dogs,

iron

iron

pottery

III

II

joiner's

Age

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

pin

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

Tene

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

Tene

iron

Iron

No

No

No

No

Bracelet

La

5

and

No

No 1

No

La

No

No

No

No

No

years

years

years

years

years

years

years

years

10-15

years

years

years

years

20-25

40-50

35-45

45-55

30-40

years

28-35

years

years

22-27

25-30

30-35

30-35

years

9-11

11-13

6-7

6-12

?Female,

2-4

18-20

female,

female,

?female,

?female,

female,

male,

male,

male,

male,

?female,

Juvenile,

Infant,

Adult

Adult

Adult,

Juvenile,

Adult

Adult

Adult

Juvenile,

Juvenile,

Adult

Adult

Juvenile years

Adult

Adult

Adult

to

to

to

to

with

north-

head diameter

with

head

head

head

supine

in

with

with

burials.

with

with

south

aligned

south-east north-north-east

4.50m

south-south-west

the

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

south-south-west

by

south-west

Extended

to

by

child,

by

by

by

by

by

to

a

gully

aligned

cremation

south-west

south-west

south-west

south

north-west

south-west

2

6.5m

head

to

by

x

by

by

ring

to

the

teeth,

and

north-west

south by

with

to

2

indicates

north-east

23.5m

the

and

head

to

north-north-east

north-north-east north-east south-east north-north-east

roughly

north-east

north-north-east north-north-east

north-north-east north-east

north-east

grave

area

enclosed

aligned

with

an

the

south-west

head inhumations

2

to

side

of

aligned

side

fragments aligned aligned aligned aligned

aligned

aligned aligned

aligned aligned

aligned

aligned

south

south

north,

north

north north

of

over

size

south-south-west

left

right

the

the the

the

the

the

skull

north

south

supine

by

to to

to to

to

to

on

supine

supine

supine

supine

supine supine supine

supine supine

supine

but

supine

on

the

north-east

the

cemetery

small

to

to

head

head head

head head

head

south

south

south

south

bones

south-south-west

inhumations

12

Only Small

head by Extended Extended with Extended the Extended Extended with with Extended the aligned Extended Extended Extended with Extended Extended with the Extended

Crouched

with Extended

No north-east

the

head

17

18

19

121

122 1 123 1 124 1 125

120 126

127

128

3

5

15

20

24

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

West

West

West

West

South-

South-West

South-

South-West

South-

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-West

South-East

South-West South-

South-East

Central

Central

Central

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

Deal

UJ a

and

coin

vessel

bronze

1-10)

AD

pottery Age

c.

Age Iron

grave-goods

grave-goods

grave-goods

grave-goods

grave-goods

and

Iron

Eppillus

with

blade

vessel

King

handle

finger-ring

of

knife

sword

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

pottery

1

Bronze

No

(issue

No

No

No

No

Iron

Bronze

Associated brooch Iron

years

years

years

years

years

17-19

years

16-18

years

20-25

45-55

35-40

28-33

50-60

35-45

35-45

?male,

female,

?female,

male,

female,

?female,

female,

female,

male,

?male

details

Sub-Adult,

Sub-adult

years years

Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

No

Adult

to

to

to

head

with

north

20

by

to

head

head

head

with

and

south

north-

head

with

the

with

with

south-east

to

north-west

by with

roughly

cremation

south-west

head

6

to

south-east

south-west south-west

roughly

with

aligned

supine

by

to to

north-west

north-south

possible

a

north-east

supine

aligned

north

extended

aligned

with

north-east north-west north-east

roughly

north-south

the

north

aligned

to

burial

extended

crouched

supine

the

side

aligned aligned aligned

aligned

aligned

to

cemetery

head

left

burials

south

Age

head

with

probably

probably

on

supine supine supine

supine

supine

extended

inhumation

the

Iron

south

with

to

south

south

south

the

late

Extended

Disturbed south to

Extended south-east Extended Extended the the the Probably Extended head Disturbed Extended

A inhumation Isolated

1

10

1 26 3 28

30 41

42

43

44

Cemetery Cemetery

Cemetery Cemetery Cemetery Cemetery Cemetery

Cemetery

Cemetery

Norfolk

Kent

Central Central Central

Central Central Central Central Central Central

Deal

Deal

Deal Deal

Deal Deal Deal Deal Deal

Highstead,

Shouldham,

U) earscoop,

alloy

brooch

ring

copper

phalange

and

ear-scoop

remains

derivative

cleaner,

human

chain

and

remains

pig

nail

iron

pig

brooch

brooches

unburnt

alloy

unburnt

Colchester

remains

nail

and

a

unburnt

set-tweezers

and

pig brooches,

alloy

copper

Nauheim

and

and

Colchester

blade

toilet

brooch,

Stead

iron

?handle

disc,

iron knife,

copper

flint

unburnt

2

and

iron

objects

objects

objects

objects

charcoal

objects

and

and

and

iron

iron

2

bronze

and

alloy

and

oak

brooch,

copper

vessels, vessel, vessels vessel vessel

vessels

vessels vessels vessels, vessels

vessels vessels,

vessels,

vessels,

vessels, vessels, vessels

vessels,

bone,

alloy

?pin,

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

accompanying

pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery pottery

pottery

pottery pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery

pottery

1

1 Artefacts

1

Animal

No

No

No 3 No

2

7 4 3 3 6 2

2 Copper 7 5 iron

3

2

2

2

No

known)

years

(where

2-10

mature ?fernale

?female ?female

Indeterminate

Indeterminate Age/Sex Indeterminate Juvenile,

Adult

Adult Adult Adult Adult

Adult Adult Adult Adult

Adult

Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult

Adult Adult Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

determinations

sex

and

bone

age

191.2g

109.5g 169.9g 185.4g

1040.7g 18.7g 1393.8g 1220.4g

1836.5g 4.7g 5.1g 1040g 201.8g 0-35g Human 97g

404.4g 86g 4.15g 565g 372.8g

7-lg 320g

369g 655g

678g

weight,

with

?Urned

?umed Unumed Urned Urned Unurned Unurned Urned Umed Type Urned Urned Unurned Umed Urned Urned Unurned Urned Unumed Urned Unurned unurned Urned umed urned

umed

deposits

6 7

5

5

54

1

S344 S348 S352 S470 S564 S345 S349 S471 S1410 S346 S350 S472 S347 S3 S3 S3 S351 S355

S353 S358

E

Loop Loop

Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop Loop

9

1

7

cremation

Moretaine

1

2

1

3

of

Group

Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Group Group

Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham Grave Biddenham Biddenham Biddenham

Biddenham Biddenham List Harlington Marston

Puddlehill Salford

Appendix Puddlehill

u>

and and

and and

pig pig

type

S S

nail nail

bone

type

type

ox/horse

iron iron

sheep sheep

bones

mounts mounts

of of

Stead Stead

Type Type

alloy alloy

long long

cleaners, cleaners,

unburnt unburnt

1 1

mandible

Stead Stead

rib rib

bones, bones,

of of

1 1

alloy alloy

unid. unid.

KHL KHL

nail nail

Nauheim Nauheim

and and

unid. unid.

pig pig

unburnt unburnt

1 1

copper copper

and and

associated associated

contained

brooch

sheep sheep

la la

and and

and and

1 1

and and

plank

patella

alloy alloy

and and

and and

and and

copper copper

rivet, rivet,

were were

ox ox

2 2

fragments fragments

Down Down

unburnt unburnt

remains remains

type unburnt unburnt

an an

brooches-3 brooches-3

beads beads

remains remains

copper copper

and and

alloy alloy

Alesia Alesia

Nauheim Nauheim

meat meat

Feugere Feugere

few few

remains remains

wooden wooden

an an

timbers timbers

1 1

and and

of of

iron iron

8 8

sheep sheep

of of

fitting, fitting,

pig pig

glass glass

4 4

Langton Langton

sheep sheep

remains

burnt burnt

pig, pig,

copper copper

brooch

2-4, 2-4,

a a

part part

box

remains remains

a a

joints joints

remains, remains,

alloy alloy

pig pig

tweezers, tweezers,

and and

burnt burnt

unclassified unclassified

unburnt unburnt

brooches-2 brooches-2

and and

brooches-2 brooches-2

brooches- brooches-

and and

pig pig

2 2

and and

unburnt unburnt

the the

pig pig

bone

unburnt unburnt

from from

terminal, terminal,

alloy alloy

IB IB

and and

bones bones

ribs ribs

wooden wooden

of of

copper copper

alloy alloy

alloy alloy

alloy alloy

brooches, brooches,

bead bead

brooch brooch

calcined calcined

Colchester Colchester

Dr. Dr.

which which

sheep sheep

brooch, brooch,

a a

ox

ribs ribs

and and

bones

in in

calcined calcined

small small

sheep sheep

fragment, fragment,

brooches, brooches,

sheep sheep

copper copper

sheep sheep

and and

of of

2 2

alloy alloy

bones

moulded moulded

an an

burnt burnt

brooches, brooches,

a a

iron iron

of of

g g

copper copper

copper copper

copper copper

faience faience

disc disc

bag bag

razor/knife

of of

g g

3 3

2 2

3 3

fowl fowl

iron iron

a a

30 30

unburnt unburnt

least least

and and

alloy alloy

bird bird

and and

iron iron

discs, discs,

amphorae amphorae

objects

to to

at at

iron iron

copper copper

2 2

200 200

unburnt unburnt

unburnt unburnt

burnt burnt

3 3

vessels, vessels,

and and

and and

and and

bronze bronze

unburnt unburnt

and and

small small

and and

and and

key, key,

and and

ox/horse

radius radius

iron iron

a a

2 2

mirror mirror copper copper

lift lift

an an

brooch, brooch,

burnt burnt

bones

2 2

whetstone, whetstone,

of of

5 5

vessels, vessels,

pottery pottery

vessels, vessels,

vessels vessels

vessels vessels

vessels vessels

vessel, vessel,

vessels, vessels,

vessels vessels

vessel vessel

and and

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

attached attached

vessels, vessels,

vessels

vessel, vessel,

vessel, vessel,

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

iron iron

2 2

pig pig

type, type,

rib rib

plate plate

bronze bronze

accompanying accompanying

vessels, vessels,

least least

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

vessels, vessels,

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

vessels vessels

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

Stead Stead

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

2 2

1 1

1 1

10 10 5 5

2 2

2 2

2 2

7 7

3 3

perforated perforated

4 4

1 1

1 1 Single Single

1 1

3 3

cleaner, cleaner,

3 3

4 4

No No

bones

bones, bones,

4 4

3 3 probably probably

2 2

At At

4 4

2 2

9 9

unburnt unburnt

band, band,

2 2

child child

and and

male

male

immature

adult

adult adult

adult adult

?female

?male

female female

male

male

male

female

?male

?male ?female

?female

male

male

and and

bone

bone

?Adult

Indeterminate

Young Young

years Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

?Adult Young Young

Adult

Adult Adult

Young Young

Adult Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult Adult Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

No No

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

No No

bone

bone

lOOg

1125g

lOOOg

125g

1566g

lOOg

180g 160g

150g

580g

780g

660g

650g

900g 690g

330g

2000g

950g

55g

730g

30g

400g

c. c.

230g

No No

No No

wooden wooden

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Umed

urned

In In

unurned

Unumed unuraed

Unurned

urned

Disturbed urned

Urned

Unurned

Unurned Urned

box Urned

Disturbed Umed

Unurned Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Disturbed

1

1

1

3

2

4

1 1

10

6

5

8

7

12

14

13

9

17

16

15

Man Man

1240

1

2

3

2

4

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Cunning Cunning

Bancroft Bancroft

Stotfold Stotfold

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Salford Salford

Bancroft Bancroft

Salford Salford

Bancroft Bancroft

Salford Salford

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Bancroft Bancroft

Dortou

Bancroft Bancroft

Hinxton Hinxton

Hinxton Hinxton o\

vessel

charred charred

of of

chicken chicken

fragments fragments

remains

bones

pottery pottery

and and

traces traces

Colchester)

the the

ribs ribs

chicken chicken

chicken chicken

fill

and and

fragment, fragment,

pig pig

brooches

and and

inside inside

and and

pin pin

Rosette, Rosette,

ditch ditch

pig pig

cow cow

remains remains

bronze bronze

silver silver

unburnt unburnt

from from

visible visible

ox ox

2 2

Down, Down,

S

dog, dog,

and and

was was

disc, disc,

and and

unburnt unburnt

and and

pig, pig,

Type Type

and and

iron iron

fill

alloy, alloy,

fowl fowl stain stain

recovered recovered

fill

rod

(Langton (Langton

skull

handle, handle,

mandible

ditch ditch

iron iron

alloy alloy

pig pig

ditch ditch

fragment, fragment,

sheep, sheep,

copper copper

brooch, brooch,

remains remains

of of

brooches brooches

mirror mirror

from from

sheep sheep

brooches brooches

burnt burnt

brooch-KHL brooch-KHL

pig, pig,

from from

alloy alloy

a a

cooper cooper

Stead Stead

sheep sheep

brooch

lid

unburnt unburnt

a a

iron iron

and and

a a

iron iron

a a

three three

and and

2 2

grave

bronze bronze

iron iron

a a

and and

silver silver

unburnt unburnt

copper copper

burnt burnt

and and

and and

and and

fragments fragments

and and

, ,

and and

recovered recovered

the the

alloy, alloy,

recovered recovered

and and

vessel vessel

13

5. 5.

vessels

vessel

vessel, vessel,

and and

vessel vessel

vessel

vessel

vessel vessel

vessel vessel

vessels, vessels,

vessel

vessels

vessel, vessel,

vessels vessels

vessel

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessels

vessel

vessel, vessel,

vessels vessels

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessels

vessel

copper copper

vessel vessel

vessel vessel

covering covering

Table Table

burnt burnt

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

potter potter

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

3 3

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

3 3

2 2

3 3

Pottery Pottery

8 8

See See

8 8

3 3

timber timber

3 3

5 5

of of

bones

2 2

4 4

infant

?female

aged

aged

and and

male

years

immature

>12 >12

adult adult

middle middle

?male

?male

and and

?male, ?male,

female female

?male

male

?Adult

Indeterminate

Juvenile Juvenile

?Adult

Adult

Adult

young/middle young/middle

Adult Adult

Indeterminate

- Indeterminate

Adult Adult

Indeterminate

Mature Mature Adult/sub-adult, Adult/sub-adult,

Juvenile

Adult

Adult Adult

Indeterminate

Indeterminate

Adult

Adult Adult Adult, Adult,

Adult Adult

Adult Adult

Adult Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

quantity

161g

ll.lg

115g

10g

148g

86.6g

815g

Small Small

662.7g

712g

695g 317g

775g

648g

372.1g

990g

615g

65g

>346g

394g

48g

436g

-

-

395.5g

278g

210g

40g^

?Unumed

Urned

Urned Urned

Unurned

unurned

Unurned

Umed& Umed&

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned Urned

Unurned Urned

Urned

Urned Umed

Urned

Urned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Urned

Urned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

19

(28)

31

24

20

1(9)

61

3 3

15

13

11 11

1367

1232

Hill Hill

Hill Hill

Hill Hill

Hill Hill

Farm Farm

Farm Farm

Heybridge Heybridge

8

6

2

Noak Noak

Noak Noak

Noak Noak

Noak Noak

1

3

2

8

6

7

5

3

4

Hall Hall

Hall Hall

Tumulus

1

Shoebury Shoebury

Shoebury Shoebury

Shoebury Shoebury

Chesterford Chesterford

Chesterford Chesterford

Waltham

Farm, Farm,

Billericay Billericay

Billericay Billericay

Billericay Billericay

Billericay Billericay

Billericay Billericay

Billericay Billericay

Billericay Billericay

Handley

Great Great

2379

Elms Elms

Great Great

Hinxton Hinxton

Hinxton Hinxton

Lexden Lexden

Little Little

Hinxton Hinxton

Hinxton Hinxton

Stansted Stansted

MaldonHallFarm2(8)

Maldon Maldon

Hinxton Hinxton Stansted Stansted

Stansted Stansted

Hinxton Hinxton

Group Group

Maldon Maldon

North North

North North

North North OJ sheet

of

burnt

toggles

alloy

animal

of

iron

?vessel,

discs,

charcoal

fragments

series

bone

fragments,

a

burnt

burnt

series

base,

copper

with

alloy

alloy

of

and

burnt

and

5

fragments

binding

burnt

lined

brooch

5.4g+

copper

pedestal

copper

containing

pit

iron

alloy

pin;

chicken

charcoal

brooch

16

a

cleaner,

iron,

box

alloy

burnt

of

a

grave

and

of

with

5

nail

derivative

copper

?brooch

and

charcoal ?Rosette

ring

charcoal

numerous

from

copper

and

lined

remains

burnt

spring

brooch,

alloy

iron

pit

nails

with

with

plate

fragments

nail

chain,

Nauheim

fittings

tray,

iron

brooch

finger-ring

brooches,

tweezers

burnt

lined

grave

lined

and

alloy

iron

copper

toggles,

amphorae,

small material

?brooch

2

pit

pit

metal

strip

and

burnt

Colchester

alloy

alloy

few

wooden

grave

bone

iron,

burnt

16

a

brooch,

copper

iron

grave

grave

organic

nails copper-alloy

the

burnt

Colchester

a

fragments, vessels,

an

grave

jar,

nails

copper

burnt

copper

burnt

2

from

and

and

and

fragmentary

burnt

vessels,

iron

numerous

3

vessels vessels

brooch,

bar

the

and

and

and

of

iron

nail

nails

Colchester

pottery

alloy

covering

pottery

iron

charcoal,

brooch,

vessels,

vessels

pottery

perhaps

2

fragment

vessels vessels,

vessel iron pottery

pottery

burnt

vessels vessel

unburnt

vessels,

vessels,

vessels

of

vessel

iron

4

bucket

3

8

4

4

alloy

covering

fragment

planks

copper

ring,

?pennanular

a

smashed

least

pottery

least least

burnt

least

least

a

pottery pottery

pottery

pottery pottery

pottery

pottery

pottery

smashed

unburnt

pottery

10

2 6 1 iron

At 2

2

planks

5

and 7

Colchester

copper fragments 17

burnt Quantity of fragment, 2 1 1

At At

Fragmentary

At

2

At

bone, Wooden 24+

?female

male

Female

Indeterminate

Indeterminate

Indeterminate

Adult

Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Indeterminate Adult

Indeterminate

Indeterminate Juvenile

Adult

Indeterminate Indeterminate

Adult

Adult

Indeterminate

Adult

Adult Adult

quantity

fragments

1390g 849g

1485g

78g H77g

Small 891g

575g

107g

427g 18g

>600g

22g

237g 399g 323g

624.5g

444g

Tiny 460g

50.9g

3.4g

Disturbed

Urned

Disturbed Urned

Unurned

Unurned Umed Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Umed

Urned Umed

Unurned

Unurned ?Bucket Unurned Unurned

Unurned Urned Mortuary chamber

Mortuary

18

1

10 1

13

8 9

6

5

4

32

12

36

37 38

AF

39

AF25

AF48 40

42

BF6 41

43

2

3

4

Stansted Stansted Stansted

Stansted

Stansted Stansted

Stansted Group

Stansted Stansted

Stansted

Group

Stansted Stansted

Stansted

Group Stansted

Stansted

Stansted

Stansted

Stansted Stanway

Stanway

Stanway Stanway

00 3

thin

iron

glass

piece

die,

skull

kit,

alloy

2

4

6

glass

bottle

copper

iron

8

glass

object,

bones

from

fragments,

?finger

2

jug,

fragments

sheep

horse

bead,

remains

box;

clasp,

copper

spoon;

fragments

bird

rods,

surgical

and

counters,

unguent

iron

and

fragments

sheet

1

iron

bowl,

textile

glass

fittings

nails

and

sheep

iron,

bones,

alloy

pan

alloy

tooth

glass

glass

wooden

and

50

of

and

cattle

tooth

iron

alloy

9

copper-alloy

and

glass

ring

box,

studs,

Hill),

counters,

cattle

alloy

and

and

jar

horse

from

copper

box,

and

and

alloy

copper

26

beads

Hod

cattle

animal

alloy

finger

copper

1

1.4g

brooch

vessels,

glass

circular

sheep,

fragments

1

remains

copper

bone

inkpot

1

glass

1

board

vessels,

iron/4

fragments;

box,

fittings

board,

copper

material,

burnt

wooden

counter,

alloy

4

vessels

37

1

plate,

copper

and

small

Ig

burnt

brooch,

2

sheep

iron

boxes,

pottery

nails;

armlet,

textile

glass

pottery

ceramic

bead,

strainer,

gaming

glass

bead,

13

gaming

wooden

and

Hill

and

copper

2

organic

from

20-30

bottle,

3

knife

small

iron

Knotenfibeln

plate,

jet

and

alloy

vessels,

lid

boss;

pig

glass

brooches,

from

and

and

wooden

50

Hod and

and

with

bone,

bowl,

counters;

glass

vessels,

2

vessels,

nails,

alloy

set,

box,

brooch,

box,

set

alloy),

amphora,

a

shaft

circular

lead,

shield

knife,

alloy

set,

copper

fragment,

pottery

long

straw,

glass

iron

2

glass

Hill

shears,

3

glass

cleaner,

vessels,

strainer

3

wood

vessels, 2

20

wine

copper

from

iron

Colchester

alloy

iron,

object

alloy

copper

iron

2

cosmetic nail

Hod wooden

mirror

copper

and

2

and

ring,

juvenile

veneer,

rosette,

cosmetic

points),

brooches,

pottery

board,

Italian

pottery

pottery,

pan

(1

fragments,

copper

spoons,

copper

iron,

13

possibly

wooden

gold

horn

vessels,

vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessels vessels, vessels,

fragments

vessels,

(1

knife,

alloy

possible

vessel,

vessels

vessels

of

alloy

unburnt

alloy

loop,

alloy

gaming

point; (weapon

few

rings,

iron

nail,

smashed

smashed

fittings

mineral-replaced

brooches

pottery vessels,

furniture,!

pottery

pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

copper

pottery

amphora,

pottery

pottery pottery

1

1 10+

copper 2 1

spear

buckle

of

and

bead,

bottles,

16 20+

and

Copper 10

Six

14 studs

alloy

shaft

plaques

brooches

Iron 2

31

53

4

copper

remains 22

ring,

27 24

tooth

animal

female

+25

+30 ?female

burnt

Indeterminate

Indeterminate

?

200g fragments

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

-

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult Adult Adult

Adult Adult

fragments

bone

fragments

148.7g

1562g

1220g 1717g

160.7g

140g 67.8g

84.5g

57.8g

Few

39g

- 30g

228.3g 40

424g

445g

No

box

in

box

box

?Unurned

?unurned

?unurned

?Urned

chamber Urned Box - In

Disturbed Unurned

Urned Umed

Urned Mortuary

In

?Unumed

chamber

Mortuary

chamber

Unurned

1

15

CF47

CF72

CF1 CF403

CF7 CF42

BF24

BF67

BF64

1

5

3

6

8

2

7

4

Mersea

Stanway

Stanway

Stanway Stanway

West

Stanway Stanway

Alton Alton

Alton Alton Alton

Alton

Stanway

Alton Alton

Stairway

Stanway

UJ and

jaw

and

box

brooches-

pigs

brooches-3

iron

iron

2

wooden

knife,

a

bronze

bones

phalanges

or

buckets,

of

4

bear

brooch

remains,

razor

and

animal

bronze

pig

remains

iron

nails

brown

brooch

rosette

and

an

3

1

eroded

iron

fitting

and

2

calcined

and

disc

nails,

rosette

a

iron

wooden

highly

2

iron

of

790g

with

and vessels

an

mirror

remains,

fire-dogs,

plate

Colchester

bowls,

strips

and

nails

pig

mirror,

iron

articulated

pottery

whetstone

bronze

2

back

lids

7

of

iron

a

vessels

bronze

2

bronze

bronze

vessels

vessels

vessels,

and and vessels

and

2

unbumt bronze

2

Aucissa

and

pair

least

1

vessels

vessels

at

pottery

S

perforated

5.8

of

vessels

vessels vessels,

and

vessels,

pottery

pottery pottery

vessels vessel,

vessels pottery

vessels

vessels vessels

vessels

of

vessels, vessels

vessels,

5

8

4

3

two

amphora,

cauldron,

pottery

pottery

Type

7

4

chapter

1A

pottery

pottery

pottery

least

least

least

least

pottery

least

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

or

or

pottery

pottery pottery

pottery

1

12 12

32 4

KHL

4 7

8

7

13

Fragments

6

At

At

3

-

At

4

At

fragment

At

7 2

8 Colchester See

Dr.

bronze

and

?female

male

?female

years

years

years

30

30

5

adult,

adult

adult

adult

>

male

male

female

>

<

Young

child

_

- -

Adult

Young Young

Young

- - ?Adult

Adult

- Adult

- - - ?Adult

Adult

-

Indeterminate

?Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

of

of

small

bone

fragments

minute

fragments

of

shafts

of

survived

survived survive survive

survived

survive

survived

dozen

fragments

vault

fragments

fragment

fragments

unidentifiable

bone dozen

dozen

2

bone

bone

bones bones

bones bones

bones

bones

tiny

tiny

or

1

1750g

284g

10.5g

Several 465g

fragments 8 20

fragments

Small No

fragments No Few

long Few

cranial

No

Few

survived No No

No

No

No

Hundreds

649g

31.4

box

in

-

Urned Urned

-

Unurned ?Umed Unurned urned

- - -

Unurned

- - -

Unurned - Urned

-

Unurned

Unurned

Unumed Umed

Unumed

Unurned

F42

1

1

10

1

12 13

16

17

19

8

9

18

7

20 36

37 38

Green

41

44

45

3

Stortford

1

9

Baldock

Lane

Owslebury

Owslebury Owslebury

Owslebury

Owslebury Owslebury

Owslebury

Owslebury

Owslebury

Owslebury Owslebury Latchmere

Lakel

Owslebury

Owslebury Owslebury

Alton

Owslebury

Owslebury

Owslebury

Owslebury

Aston Tene,

Folly

Bishop

iron iron

2 2

of of

and and

and and

stool

bronze bronze

brooch brooch

quantities quantities

lamps, lamps,

bronze bronze

2 2

mirror

small small

Thistle Thistle

set, set,

tripod-folding tripod-folding

pottery pottery

4 4

bronze bronze

alloy alloy

toilet toilet

iron iron

yielded yielded

and and

bones

and and

vessels, vessels,

copper copper

bronze bronze

fowl fowl

vessels vessels

bones

stigils, stigils,

and and

brooches, brooches,

pottery pottery

bucket, bucket,

cleaner, cleaner,

2 2

iron iron

pottery pottery

fowl fowl

pig pig

of of

13 13

Stead Stead

nail nail

and and

wood wood

pair pair

vessels, vessels,

bones

pig pig

unburnt unburnt

alloy alloy

and and

5.12

5.12

bronze bronze

of of

limb limb

cemetery, cemetery,

samian samian

objects

objects

Table Table

Table Table

copper copper

vessels

bronze bronze

unburnt unburnt

brooch, brooch,

counters, counters,

pair pair

13 13

& &

& &

animal animal

13

5.7 5.7

5.7 5.7

5. 5.

cremation cremation

pottery pottery

and and

vessels

vessels, vessels,

vessels

vessels, vessels,

vessel, vessel,

vessels, vessels, vessels

vessels, vessels,

gaming gaming

bone

3 3

vessels, vessels,

20 20

flint

chapter chapter

chapter chapter

Table Table

accompanying accompanying

accompanying accompanying

least least

glass glass

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

1 1

- -

-

-

~

-

-

3 3 -

See See

3 3

At At 3 3 calcined calcined

3 3

2 2

Disturbed Disturbed

brooches brooches

No No

3 3

See See

4 4

No No

See See 4 4

bowl, bowl, burnt burnt

old

40-50 40-50

male

?female

male

years

years

years years

30 30 30 30

adult adult

adult

adult adult

adult adult

adult

?female

?female, ?female,

male male

?male

2-3 2-3

< <

?male

< <

Young Young Adult Adult

Adult Adult years Child Child

Young Young Adult Adult

Adult Adult, Adult,

Young Young

Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Young Young

Adult Adult Adult Adult

Adult Adult Adult

Adult

Young Young Adult

Adult

Adult Adult

small small

minute minute

small small

fragments

fragments

small small

fragments

fragments fragments

tiny tiny

dozen dozen

dozen dozen

hundred hundred

dozen dozen

dozen dozen

dozen dozen hundred hundred

dozen dozen

minute minute

dozen dozen

fragments

Few Few Few Few

Few Few

Several Several

Few Few

fragments Few Few

Few Few

fragments fragments

Several Several

Four Four

191g

fragments

1124g

Several Several

14g

271g

321g

265g

1064g

822g

-

54g

9

278g

164.3

7.5g

glass glass

wooden wooden

Urned Urned

Umed

Umed

Urned

Urned

Urned Umed

Urned

Umed

Unurned

Urned

Unurned

?

bucket Unurned

?

In In Umed Unurned

Unurned

? ?

Chamber

Urned Urned

Unurned

Mortuary Mortuary

jar

1

City City

1

4

130 132

131

2

Gate, Gate,

Deal Deal Deal Deal Deal Deal

Deal Deal Deal Deal

10

Castle Castle

1

8

7

9

Garden Garden 5

6

3 4

2

Heath

1271

1309

1245

Lane

Hill, Hill, Hill, Hill,

Hill, Hill,

Hill, Hill, Hill, Hill,

Boxford Boxford

Alkham4 Chilham Chilham

Thorley Thorley Welwyn Welwyn

Thorley Thorley

Boxford Boxford

Boxford Boxford

Boxford Boxford

Mill Mill

Mill Mill Boxford Boxford

Thorleyll94

Boxford Boxford Mill Mill Boxford Boxford

Boxford Boxford

Mill Mill

Mill Mill

Boxford Boxford Boxford Boxford

Thorley Thorley

Silchester Silchester

Verulamium

Hertford Hertford Folly Folly

staples

fragment

repair repair

iron iron

kon kon

blade

vessel

burnt burnt

knife knife

pottery pottery

iron iron

1 1

2a)

rectangular rectangular

vessel

toggles, toggles,

and and

with with

collars, collars,

unidentifiable

bone bone

2a) 2a)

& &

(Feugere (Feugere

pottery pottery

1 1

pair pair

vessel vessel

fragment

and and

foil foil

brooch brooch

ring

(?Feugere (?Feugere

rectangular rectangular

brooch, brooch,

brooch

sheep/goat sheep/goat

wooden wooden

iron iron

gold gold

iron iron

iron iron

iron iron

5 5

and and

iron iron

pig, pig,

and and

and and

brooch brooch

and and

globules globules

iron iron

vessels vessels

vessels

vessel

vessel

vessels

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessel

animal: animal:

vessels, vessels,

vessel vessel

vessels, vessels,

vessel

vessels

vessels

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessels vessels

vessels, vessels,

vessels vessels

vessels

III III

alloy alloy

Tene Tene

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

3 3

3 3

-

_

_

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

La La

2 2

1 1

1 1

Calcined Calcined

1 1

2 2

3 3

2 2

4 4

3 3

Copper Copper

5 5

2 2

3 3

years

adult

adult

adult

adult

adult

years

adult

older

adult

& &

adult

adult

adult

30-35 30-35

adult

adult

35-45 35-45

mature mature

?male, ?male,

infant/young infant/young

mature/older mature/older

mature/older mature/older

male, male,

mature/older mature/older

subadult/adult

mature/older mature/older

mature/older mature/older

mature mature

subadult subadult

mature mature

mature/older mature/older

Older Older

Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult

-

Older Older

Older Older

Older Older

Older Older

Adult Adult Subadult/adult

Older Older

Older Older

Older Older

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult Adult

Older Older Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

Young/mature Young/mature

Adult

Younger Younger

Mature/older Mature/older

Older Older

Older Older

Adult

Mature/older Mature/older

juvenile

fragments

fragments

dozen dozen

Ig

3g

O.lg

116.9g

140.3g

167.3g

lO.lg

154.8g

184.3g

182.2

153.8g

141.9g

152.2g

128g

Ug

86.9g

595.8g

8.2g

605.1g

999.2g

541. 541.

98.8g 359.79g

450.4g

44.8g

381.6g

290.7g

4.3g

252.5g 413.6g

Few Few

Five Five

427.1g

243. 243.

?Unurned

Unurned

?Urned

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned

Unurned

Urned Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned Unurned

Unurned

Unumed Unumed Unurned

Unurned Unurned

Urned

Unurned

Unurned

Urned

Unumed

Unurned

Unurned

Unumed

Unumed

Unurned

Unurned

18

20021

200 200

20025

20023

20010

20008

20005

20032

20031

20035

20060

20091 20001

20057

20089

20055

20087

20083

20051

20080

20045

20073

20043

20071

20039

20064

20095

20061

20092

20053

12

13

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Boxford Boxford

Boxford Boxford

Boxfordll

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett ;

in

present

2a) bones

box

a

ironwork

(?Feugere

from

5a) 5a)

unidentifiable

brooch

and

represent

2a) 2a)

probably

object

pig

iron

fragment

band

fittings

and

molten

(Feugere

sheet

brooch

(?Feugere

(Neuheim/Feugere

iron (Neuheim/Feugere

fragment

ring,

alloy

sheep/goat,

alloy

alloy

brooch

structural

sheet

brooch

alloy brooch brooch

material

2a) and

fragments iron

copper

4/5bl)

iron

iron copper

copper

iron iron

4

calcined

pyre

and

copper

and

and

and nails

and

and and

and

and

the

and

(Feugere

for (Feugere

vessel

vessels vessel

vessels

vessel vessels vessels

vessels vessels vessel vessel

vessel

vessel vessels,

vessel

vessel vessel vessels vessels vessels

vessel

vessel vessels vessels vessels vessels,

used

brooch

brooch

pottery

pottery

pottery pottery

pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery

pottery

pottery pottery pottery pottery 1 pottery

1

1 2

2

Iron 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2

1

1 Iron 1 2

3 1

2 1

2

3 2

3

timbers 2

adult

adult

adult

adult adult

juvenile

subadult/adult

adult

mature/older

mature/older adult &

mature/older

mature/older mature/older juvenile/young

infant/young Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult Subadult/adult Older

Adult - Subadult/adult Older Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult SubaduhVadult Adult -

Adult Subadult/adult

Adult Subadult/adult - Older Adult Adult Older

Adult Older subadult Older .

Infant Older

Older Infant

10g H8.5g 22.7g 142.3g 174g 65.1g 57.8g 133.5g 262g 564.9g 2.3g 121g 198.5g 30.9g 0.7g 0.2g 279.4g 23.9g 23.8g

248.3g 0.5g 271.3g 159.2g 697.3g 484.9g

49.3g 2.9g 381.6g 316.3g

3.7g

&

Unurned ? ?Unumed Unumed ?Unumed Unurned Unumed Unurned ?Unurned Unumed Unurned Unurned Unurned Unurned Unurned Unurned ?Unurned

Unumed Unumed Unurned

/Unurned Unurned ?urned

Unurned Unumed Unurned ?Unurned

Unurned Unurned Unurned Unurned

~"

89

16

142 149 101 146 134 174 169 170 132 179 182 183

185

196 199

20 201 20 20 200140 20148 20 20 20 20144 200167 20097 20 20 20098 20 20 20 20 20 2001 20191 20

20 20201

200202 20207 20208 20235

20237

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett

u>

of of

2a), 2a),

springs springs

ironwork ironwork

rectangular rectangular

the the

(Feugere (Feugere

to to

with with

represent represent

links links

fragments

brooches brooches

vessel vessel

iron iron

fittings, fittings,

2a)

2a)

molten molten

circular circular

of of

wooden wooden

iron iron

pair pair

Ig

larger larger

structural structural

2a), 2a),

by by

(?Feugere (?Feugere

(?Feugere (?Feugere

ring, ring,

and and

material, material,

globule globule

iron iron

pyre pyre

nails nails

attached attached

(?Feugere (?Feugere

brooches brooches

brooches brooches

alloy alloy

the the

iron iron

iron iron

chain chain

for for

belt-hook, belt-hook,

2a)

brooch, brooch,

brooch brooch

copper copper

pair pair

pair pair

iron iron

used used

iron iron

iron iron

iron iron

and and

and and

and and

broken broken

(?Feugere (?Feugere

staples

timbers timbers

of of

vessels

vessels vessels

vessel

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessels

vessel

vessels

vessels, vessels,

vessels

vessel

vessels

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessels

vessel, vessel,

vessel

vessel, vessel,

vessels

vessel

vessels

in in

brooches

repair repair

brooch brooch

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

2 2

2 2

1 1

1 1

fragment fragment

1 1

1 1

4 4

1 1 iron iron

1 1

1 1 2 2

1 1 3 3

both both

1 1

3 3

present present -

3 3

2 2

2 2

2 2

Iron Iron

2 2

3 3

adult

adult

mature mature

adult

adult

adult

adult

subadult

mature/older mature/older

mature/older mature/older

mature mature

mature mature

mature mature

Older Older

Older Older Subadult/adult Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult Subadult/adult

Older Older

Older Older

Subadult/adult

Infant/?juvenile

Adult

Adult Older Older

adult Adult

Young/mature Young/mature Young Young

Subadult/adult Adult -

Juvenile Adult Adult

Adult

Adult Adult

Young/younger Young/younger

Ig

145g

145.9g

154.6g

15.6g

120.2g

13.1g

161.8g

390. 390.

379.3g

267.5g

856.7g

71.6g 0-lg

65g

234.7g

59.2g

467.7g 21.4g

4.5g 387.7g

740.7g

29.3g 0.2g

44.6g

43g

40.9g

40.5g

416.1g

406.2g

?

?Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned

Unumed

?Unumed

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned Unumed

Unumed Unumed

Unurned

Unumed Unumed

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned

Unumed

Unumed Unumed

Unurned

14

12

20255

20253

20274

20268

20408

20338

20252

20384

20335

20457

20367 20320

203 203

20453

203 203

20451

20297

20420

20280

20337

20248

20368

20245

20242

20364

20239

20353

200351

20346

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett

alloy alloy

2

and and

brooch, brooch,

and and

and and

2a), 2a),

copper copper

wood wood

and and

ring ring

and and

pig, pig,

(Feugere (Feugere

alloy alloy

or or

unidentifiable unidentifiable

fragments fragments

1 1

preserved preserved

stater), stater),

copper copper

brooch brooch

2b), 2b),

sheet sheet

2 2

2a)

quarter quarter

mineral mineral

iron iron

sheep/goat sheep/goat

iron iron

board

toggles

gold gold

2a)

(Feugere (Feugere

and and

or or

brooches

brooches, brooches,

collars, collars,

44 44

(Feugere (Feugere

Ig, Ig,

calcined calcined

lifter/key, lifter/key,

65 65

antler antler

box box

alloy alloy

of of

and and

(Mack (Mack

brooches brooches

(?Feugere (?Feugere

latch latch

small small

pair pair

brooches brooches

a a

globules globules

copper copper

a a

Almgren Almgren

rectangular rectangular

iron iron

Coin Coin

shanks shanks

alloy alloy

of of

brooch

iron iron

?brooch

brooch brooch

from from

and and

alloy alloy

iron iron

iron iron

nail nail

Age Age

2 2

pair pair

iron iron

knife, knife,

of of

pair pair

fragments fragments

iron iron

iron iron

copper copper

bone

iron iron

2 2

Iron Iron

and and

and and

and and

and and

iron iron

copper copper

2 2

pair pair

and and

and and

probably probably

fragments, fragments,

molten molten

animal animal

vessels vessels

vessel

vessel

vessel

vessels

vessels vessels

vessels, vessels,

vessel

vessels

vessels, vessels,

vessels vessels

vessel, vessel,

vessels

vessels

vessel, vessel,

vessel

vessel

vessel, vessel,

vessel, vessel,

vessel

vessels

vessel vessel

vessel vessel

vessel, vessel,

5g

alloy alloy

alloy alloy

adhering adhering

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

2 2

1 1

2 2

horn horn

4 4

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

3 3

copper copper

1 1

2 2

2 2

globules globules

4 4

1 1

2 2

3 3

copper copper

-

2 2

unidentified unidentified

adult adult

adult adult

adult

adult

adult

adult

adult

adult

mature mature

mature/older mature/older

mature/older mature/older

mature/older mature/older

subadult/adult mature/older mature/older

mature/older mature/older

infant/juvenile

older older

infant/juvenile

& &

Older Older

Older Older & &

Older Older

Older Older

Subadult/adult Older Older

Young/mature Young/mature

Adult

Older Older Adult

Juvenile/subadult Adult >Infant

Juvenile/subadult Adult

Older Older

Adult

Adult

-

Adult

Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

Young/mature Young/mature

&813.2g

117-lg

118.8g

158.6g

183.8g 121.8g

170.8g

177g

199.7g

154.2g

133.2 133.2

12.2g

144g

168.1g

55g

0.7g

31.9g

26.4g

50.9g

25.3g

275g

91.4g

45.7g

532.6g

286.7g

251.9g

499.7g

& &

?Unurned

Unurned

9

?

?urned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

7

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Urned

Unurned

Unurned Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

Unurned

20479

20471

20484

20483

20544

20599

20593

20589

20585

20469

20583 20495

20573

20493

20571

20566

20601

20543

20541

20535

20497

20467

20463

20459

20564

20549

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett

Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett Westhampnett

2 2

2 2

and and

iron iron

and and

material

an an

rectangular rectangular

of of

pyre pyre

holdfast holdfast

the the

nine nine

brooches) brooches)

by by

for for

iron iron

65 65

ring

fragments fragments

used used

binding

iron iron

pyre, pyre,

two two

the the

iron iron

(Almgren (Almgren

represented represented

and and

timbers timbers

for for

2a)

possible possible

with with

in in

chain

a a

fitting fitting

used used

wood, wood,

tub tub

of of

brooches brooches

iron iron

present present

of of

(?Feugere (?Feugere

alloy alloy

brooches

timbers timbers

wooden wooden

structural structural

fragment fragment

65 65

in in

length length

fittings fittings

and and

brooch brooch

brooch

and and

copper copper

globules globules

and and

of of

iron iron

iron iron

present present

mineral-preserved mineral-preserved

iron iron

broken broken

Almgren Almgren

brooch brooch

rings, rings,

of of

pair pair

nails nails

and and

and and

?container/or ?container/or

65 65

and and

and and

alloy alloy

fittings fittings

alloy alloy

traces traces

and and

vessels vessels

vessels vessels

vessels

vessel

vessel rings, rings,

vessel

vessels, vessels,

vessels, vessels,

vessels

vessels

vessels

vessel

vessels

vessel

vessel

vessel, vessel,

vessels

vessel

vessel vessel

vessels

vessel

vessels

vessel

vessels

sherds

vessels

with with

copper copper

Almgren Almgren

copper copper

object

iron iron

nails nails

of of

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

pottery pottery

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

2 2

3 3

oval oval

Silver Silver

1 1

1 1

small small

1 1

2 2

1 1

2 2

1 1

5 5

3 3

1 1

2 2

1 1

2 2

Iron Iron

sheet sheet 4 4

staples staples

Pair Pair

2 2

2 2

4 4

2 2

pottery pottery

Pottery Pottery

adult

adult

adult

adult

adult

adult

& &

adult

adult

infant infant

mature/older mature/older

mature/older mature/older

mature mature

mature/older mature/older

Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult

-

Older Older

Subadult/adult

Subadult/adult

Adult

Adult -

Older Older

Older Older

Adult

Young/mature Young/mature

Mature/older Mature/older

Young/mature Young/mature

Young Young

Older Older

Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult Adult

Adult

Adult

Ig

Ig

118.6g

129.3g

157g

102g

160.8g

174.5g

112.3g

164.7g

12.5g

174.6g

Hg

HS.lg

647.3g

24.8g 68.4g

0.2g

228.1g

200. 200.

491.6g

411.2g 36.7g

22.9g

360. 360.

362.8g

278.7g

24.7g

?umed

?Unumed

Unurned

Unurned

Unumed

Unurned

Urned Unumed

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20729/20758

Westhampnett Westhampnett

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represent

to

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game-pieces

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19

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39

41

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9 24 25 26 27

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78 70

77

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It 00 a

indicate

may

fragment

fragments.

above

sheet

alloy

0.20m

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copper

length

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punch

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and

isolated

knife,

pegs,

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iron

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bone

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of

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1

1

14

110

125 127 128 129

1 112 1 115 120 123

131

132 134 135 149 137 139 156 140 157

142 159 143 160 144 147 148

154

141 158

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matter

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1 5 1 1 3 1 1

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male

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Umed Umed Umed Urned Umed Urned Urned Urned Urned Umed Umed Urned Urned Urned Urned Urned Urned Umed Urned Unumed Urned Urned

Urned Urned

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84

161

174 169 171 178 179 165 168 175 181 182 162 164 180 1 187 185 186 188

190 191 193 196

197 199

200

201 203 204 205

206 207 208

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o

the

in in

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fragments, fragments,

alloy alloy

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covered covered

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228)

and and

had had

molten molten

loop, loop,

tray tray

(see (see

70), 70),

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binding, binding,

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fragment

fragments

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of of

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double double

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4 4

alloy alloy

glass glass

possible possible

sherds sherds

iron iron

copper copper

a a

and and

remains remains

brooch

brooch

copper copper

brooches

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molten molten

the the

possibly possibly

a a

a a

a a

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from from

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board

objects

objects

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sherds

accompanying accompanying

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least least

pottery pottery

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above)

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17

223

224

221

220

2 2

214

241

240

239

238

237 226

213

236 225

212

211

235 229

210

234

209

233

232 227

231

230

228

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

Lane Lane

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Lane Lane

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alloy

brooches

material,

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needle,

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iron

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game

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shears,

by

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copper

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alloy

accompanying

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apparently 1

1

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and

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male

adult

adult

male ?female

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male

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male

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Adult

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Infant Young

Adult

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Adult

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Unurned

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248 249 251 252 255

242 243 244 245

256 257 258

259

260 262 263 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272

273 274 275 276 277

278 279

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Lane Lane Lane

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alloy

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unburnt

also

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and

me

had

strip,

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alloy,

over

ring,

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2

vessel

iron

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and

alloy

cover

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copper

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of

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bones.

1

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the

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a

a

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and

animal

of

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sheet

hammerhead,

of

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by

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iron

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the

and

tube,

defined

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copper

on

floor

alloy

board

fragments

the copper

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oo Appendix F: Site Catalogue List of sites consulted during the course of the research

Bedfordshire

Biddenham Loop References Luke & Dawson 1997, 2-5 Luke 2001

Felmersham Bridge, Sharnbrook References Watson, 1949, 37-61 Kuhlicke 1969, 81-2 Kennet 1970b, 86-8 Megaw 197 Ib, 299-300 Whimster 1981,356

Harlington References Dawson 2001

Harold References Dix 1980

Kempston References Whimster, 1981,355 Birchall, 1965,255 Simco, 1973, 5-22, Fig. 5

Limbury, Luton References Whimster, 1981,355 Dyer, 1976, 17

Marston Moretaine References Shotliff& Crick 1999

Maulden Moor References Lysons & Lysons 1913, 24 Stead, 1967, 60 Peacock, 1971, 182 Whimster, 1981,355

Old Warden References Dryden, 1845,20 Simco 1973 Dyer 1966; 1976 Spratling 1970 Parley 1983 Fitzpatrick 1985, 326 Birchall 1965, 255 Whimster 1981, 355 Fox, 1923, 98-9 Stead, 1971,279

Puddlehill, Houghton Regis References Whimster 1981, 354 Mathews 1976, 163-170

459 Radwell References Hall 1973

Salford References Hill et al 1999 Dawson 2000; forthcoming

Shillington References Pers. Com. J.D. Hill Dyer, 1976 Whimster 1981,356

Stanfordbury References Dryden 1845 Holmes 1958-1961, 101 Stead 1967; 1976, 414 Peacock 1971, 182 Whimster 1981, 356-7

Stotfold References Steadman 1995; 1996

Toddington References Pollard 1991, 103-105

Woburn References Bedford, 1834 Stead 1967, 60 Peacock 1971, 182 Whimster 198 1,357

Berkshire

Cunning Man, Burghfield References Boon&Wymer 1958 Whimster 1981,357

Wooley Down, Chadlworth References Peake&Padell934 Whimster 1981,391-2

Buckinghamshire

Aylesford-Chalgrove Gas Pipeline References Taylor & Ford 2000 Taylor 2000 30, 28

Bancroft References Williams & Zeepvat 1994

Dorton References Whimster 1981 Parley 1983 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324

460 Ward's Combe, Ivinghoe References Dunnett 1973 Whimster 1981, 358 Cambridgeshire

Colne References Whimster 1981, 360 Regan & Evans 1997 Hill etal 1999

Hauxton References Whimster 1981, 361 Stead 1973, 413 Fox 1923, 93

Hinxton Rings References Alexander & Hill 1996, 40-5 1 Hill et al 1999

Little Paxton References Jones 1995; 1998; 2000

Lord's Bridge References Clarke, 1821 Fox 1923, 92 Stead 1967, 60 Whimster 1981,359

Maxey References Pryor et al 1985, Vols. 1-2

Newnham Croft References Fox, 1923; 1958, 11 Cra'ster, 1973 Whimster 1981, 227-8 Parfitt 1995

Red Churh Field, Linton References Lethbridge 1927 Whimster 1981,362

Snailwell References Lethbridge 1935 Stead 1967 Peacock 1971, 183 Whimster 1981,361

Thriplow References Fox 1923 Whimster 1981,392

Whittlesford References Gentleman's Magazine 1819 Whimster 1981,392-3

461 Dorset Handley References White 1970 Whimster 1981,205-6, 393

Whitcombe References Aitken&Aitkenl991 Collis 1973 Whimster 1981

Maiden Castle Road References Smith etal 1997, 61 & 291

Essex

Ardale School References Wilkinson 1988 Sealey 1996, 58

Ardleigh References Erith 1960 Birchall 1965, 307 Whimster, 1981, 362

Billericay References Cutts 1873 Bayly 1879 Whimster 1981, 362-363 Birchall 1965, 311-12 Stead 1976, 413 Weller etal 1974; 1981 &pers. comm. Parley 1983 Rudling 1990 Medlycott 1998

Creeksea References Birchall 1965, 3 10-2 Whimster 1981,365

Elms Farm, Heybridge References Atkinson & Preston 1998 Atkinson 1995; pers. comm. Whimster 1981,366 Birchall 1965, 253, 308, 311 Peacock 1971, 184

462 Elmstead Hall References Eddy 1981 :orbishley&Tann!981

Great Chesterford References Neville 1857, 84-7 Fox 1923, 105 Stead 1971; 1976,406-408 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324 Crossan, Smoothy & Wallace 1990 Whimster 1981, 365-6

Great Wakering References Hawkes & Dunning 1930 Whimster 1981, 366 Stead 1976,413

Hatfield Peverel References Stead 1976, 413 Whimster 1981,366

Hamborough Hill, Rayleigh References Reader 1912 Birchall 1965, 309 Whimster 1981,368

Kelevdon References Stead 1985 Sealey 1996, 58;pers. comm.

Lexden Cemetery References Bushe-Fox 1925, 21-22 Hull 1942 Hawkes & Hull 1947 Fox & Hull 1948 Birchall 1965 Stead 1976, 413 Foster 1986 Whimster 1981,364-365 Hawkes & Crummy 1995, 164-169

LexdenTumulus References Laver1927 Foster 1986 Peacock 1971, 183 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324 Whimster 1981,364

Lindsell References Fox 1923,101 Stead 1967, 60 Peacock 1971, 184 Whimster 1981,367

Little Hallingbury References Birchall 1965, 308 Whimster 1981, 367

463 Little Waltham References Drury 1973; 1978 Whimster 198 1,367

Maldon Hall Farm References Lavender 1991 Sealey 1996, 57-8

Mount Bures References Smith 1852 Stead 1967, 50-1 Peacock 1971, 184 Fitzpatrick 1985, 325 Whimster 1981, 368

Mucking References Jones 1971; 1974a; 1974b; 1975; 1978; 1980 Jones & Jones 1975 Whimster 1981, 128 Thompson 1982, 782-3 Wilkinson 1988, 58 Lavender 199 1,208-209 Clark 1993, 19-20 Sealey 1996, 57-58

North Shoebury References Wymer & Brown 1995 Sealey 1996, 57

Shoebury References Laver 1897; 1898 Bushe-Fox 1925, 22 Birchall 1965 Whimster 1981, 369

Southminster References Whimster 1981,369 Birchall 1965, 253 & 308

Stansted Airport References Brooks 1987; 1989 Brooks & Bedwin 1989 Havis & Brooks 1991a; 1991b; forthcoming; Havis 1999 Sealey 1996, 58

Stanway References Crummy 1992; 1993a;1993b;1997a; 1997b; 1997c; Crummy & Crummy 2000 Bennett 1997, 221; 1998, 207 Oilman 1991, 159; 1992, 108; 1993, 205-7 Oilman & Bennett 1995, 23 1-3 Hawkes & Crummy, 1995 Mays, 2001 Mays & Steele, 1999

West Mersea References Thompson 1981

464 Hampshire and Isle of Wight

Alton References Millett 1986; 1987

Hurstbourne Tarrant References Hawkes & Dunning 1930, 304-9 Whimster 1981 Foster 1986, 189

Latchmere Green References Fulford & Creighton 1998

Owslebury References Collis 1968; 1970; 1973; 1977; 1994 Pearce 1998

Silkstead, Otterbourne References Hawkes & Dunning 1930, 304 Fox 1958, 165 Stead 1971 Whimster 1981 Birchall 1965

Viables Farm, Basingstoke References Millett & Russell 1982

Lake, Sandown (Isle of Wight) References Poole 1931; Poole & Sherwin 1932 Whimster 1981, 378

Ventnor, StJLawerence (Isle of Wight) References Jones & Stead 1969 Whimster 1981, 349

Hertfordshire

Abbots Langley References Whitford 1922 Whimster 1981,372

Aldbury References Stead 1976, 412 Whimster 1981,373

Aston References Rook 1982 Bryant & Niblett 1997

Attimore Road, Welwyn Garden City References Whimster 1981,377 Hughes 1938, 144

465 Baldock References Stead &Rigby 1986 Burleigh 1982; 1993; 1995a; 1995b Selkirk 1983 Mathews 1999 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324 Stead 1968; 1971 Whimster 1981,373

Bishop Stortford References Medlycott 1994

Dellfield, Berkhamsted References Thompson & Holland 1976,137-48 Whimster 1981,373 Stead 1976,411,413

Emails Farm, Much Hadham References Cooper-Reade, 1991 Dr. Lee Prosser pers. comm.

Folly Lane, Verulamium References Niblett 1992; 1993; 1995; 1999; 2000; 2001 Mays & Steele 1996

Foxholes, Hitchin References Westell, 1928, 22-5; Stead 1976, 407-8 Whimster 1981, 374

Grove Mill, Hitchin References Whimster 1981, 374 Clarke, 1926, 77 Ransom 1891, 16-18 Birchall 1965, 249, 306-7 Stead 1976,413

Harpenden References Cussans 1881, 350 Bagshawe 1928, 520-2 & PI. 82-3 Freeman & Watson 1949 Stead 1967, 60; 1971,279 Whimster 1981, 374

Hertford Heath References Holmes & Frend, 1959 Holmes 1964, 101 Peacock 1971, 185 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324

King Harry Lane, Verulamium References Stead 1969, 45-52; 1976 Stead &Rigby 1989 Whimster 1981, 375 Pearce 1997a; 1997b, 1999 Haselgrove 1984 Haselgrove & Millet 1997, 282-96 Niblett 2000; 2001 Bryant, 1997 Bryant& Niblett, 1997______

466 Letchworth Garden City References Whimster 1981,375 Craske 1914, 238-49

Little Hadham References Stead 1967, 60 Peacock 1971, 185 Whimster 1981,375 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324

Mardlebury, Welwyn References Andrews 1905, 32-33 Stead 1967, 60 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324 Peacock 1971 Rook pers. comm.

Silchester Gate, Verulamium References Niblett & Reeves 1990

Stevenage References Holmes 1952-1954, 209-11

Stanborough School, Welwyn Garden City References Hunn, 1997; 1998

Station Road, Puckeridge References Partridge 1979

St. Stephens, Verulamium References Davey 1933;1935 Niblett 1999; 2000

Thoriey References Last & McDonald, 2001 Jonathan Last pers. comm.

Verulam Hills Field, Verulamium References Anthony 1968 Whimster 1981, 376 Stead 1976 Niblett 2000; 2001

Welwyn A-D References Andrews 1905; 1911 Smith 1912 Hawkes 1933 Birchall 1965 Stead 1967 Peacock 1971, 185 Whimster 1981,376 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324

Welwyn Garden City References Stead 1967 Rook 1970 Peacock 1971, 185 Fitzpatrick 1985, 324 Whimster 1981,377

467 Westmill References Stead 1967, 60 Peacock 1971,185 Whimster 1981, 377 Fitzpatrick 1985, 326

Kent Alkham ~ ——————————————————— References Philp 1991; 1993 J.D. Hill pers. comm

Duck Farm, Ashford References Kelly 1963, 188

Brisley Farm, Ashford References Casper Johnson pers. comm.

Aylesford References Evans 1890 Whimster 1981,378-9 Birchall 1965 Stead 1971; 1976

Broadstairs References Kurd 1909 Whimster 1981, 380

Cheriton, Folkestone References Tester & Bing 1949 Stead 1976, 413 Whimster 1981, 381

Chilham Castle References Parfitt 1998

Deal References Bristow 1999 Parfitt 1885; 1986; 1989; 1990; 1991; 1995 Parfitt & Green 1987 Parfitt & Halliwell 1986 Whimster 1981, 380 Stead 1976 Dunning 1966 Ogilvie & Dunning 1967 Birchall 1965 Hawkes 1940 Bushe-Fox 1925 Woodruff 1904

East Wear Bay, Folkestone References Winbolt 1925a; 1925b, 63-7; 1926 Ward Perkins 1944 Stead 1976, 404-6 Whimster 1981, 381-2

468 Faversham References Whimster 1981, 380-1 Bedo 1872, 141 Smith 1871,7 Stead 1976,406

Maidstone References Bushe-Fox 1925, 19-20,44 Kelly 1963,194-6; 1971,73-4 Stead 1976,412-4 Thompson 1978

Plaxtol References Whimster 1981, 385 Stead 1976,406,413 Warhurst 1953

Radnor Park, Folkestone References Davis 1920 Bushe-Fox 1925,20-1 Winbolt 1926b, 63-7 Stead 1976,404-5 Hawkes & Dunning 1930, 328

Sholden References Ogilvie & Dunning 1967 Whimster 1981, 385 Stead 1976,413

Stone References Cotton & Richardson 1941 Whimster 1981, 386 Stead 1976,414

Swarling References Bushe-Fox 1925 Birchall 1965 Whimster 1981, 383-5 Stead 1976

West Wickham References Cook & McCarthy 1933

Westall References Brinson 1943 Whimster 1981,382

Norfolk

Shouldham References Clarke & Hawkes 1955 Piggott 1950 Whimster 1981, 349

469 Somerset

Ham Hill References Walter 1923, 149-50 Whimster 1981, 388 Clarke&Hawkesl955

Suffolk

Boxford References Williams 1926 Clarke 1939 Owles 1967 Whimster 1981, 388 Stead 1976, 413

Elvedon References Evans 1890, 359 Fox 1923, 99 Birchall 1965, 256

West Sussex

Westhampnett References Fitzpatrick 1994; 1997; 2000

Wiltshire

Marlborough References Colt-Hoare 1821, 35 Cunnington 1887, 222-8 Stead 1971, 279 Whimster 1981, 390

470