BOOK NO: 1851987 Tel: *-M (0)29 2039 5882 Email: [email protected] www.bookbindersuk.com FOR REFERENCE ONLY Alison J. G. Brookes University of Wales College, Newport Ph.D. Thesis Volume 2 'The Visible Dead: A New Approach to the Study of Late Iron Age Mortuary Practice in South-Eastern Britain 9 Chapter 5 Objects in Action 5.1 Introduction This chapter considers the typology, quantity and chronology of objects incorporated in the late Iron Age mortuary rites. The material included in the mortuary repertoire through a sequence of ritual acts comprises objects deposited as grave goods, offerings burnt on the funeral pyre and material incorporated through mortuary- related activity. Furthermore, the associated artefacts operate on a number of different levels; they have functional, symbolic and technological value. It is important to consider that the function and meaning of an object is subject to change and no object should be perceived as having a fixed or rigid identity. This is particularly so in mortuary contexts because death is imbued with so much meaning and represents not only the deceased but also the actions of the living. The main themes examined in the chapter are: What types of artefact are included and which are absent from the deposits? Objects appear to be incorporated into the mortuary sequence at different stages and in a variety of features: on the funeral pyre, as intact grave goods, or as deliberately broken or fragmentary deposits. It is argued that the objects included in the mortuary repertoire have a range of functions and/or values: symbolic, artistic, economic, and prestigious. The production techniques and processes are examined. 206 The notion that the objects deposited are clearly linked to the wider process of transformation and liminality in death are considered. In the past studies concentrated on the identification of cemeteries and the content of individual burials; on the elements which are easily detectable and highly visible in the archaeological record. However, it is not the purpose of this study to conduct an exhaustive analysis of each and every artefact. Instead the material will be divided into a number of groups based on type of object and burial rite to establish some basic patterns. There are five main categories of object, which are frequently deposited as gave goods: Vessels for the dead: amphorae, silver, bronze and glass vessels, and a host of pottery (Fig.5.1). Specific types of pottery seem to be regularly included in late Iron Age mortuary contexts including pedestal urns, tazzae, bowls, flagons, platters and cups. Furthermore, ceramic, metal and glass vessels are on occasion deposited in pairs or in sets. Personal hygiene and grooming: toilet instruments, razors, shears, mirrors, cosmetic sets, surgical kits, glass phials and bottles. Personal objects and adornment: brooches, rings, beads/necklaces, belts, buckles, bracelets, and bone toggles. All of these objects are associated with clothing, dress and appearance and brooches in particular are useful for dating purposes (Stead 1976; Haselgrove 1997; Jundi & Hill 1998). 207 Fig. 5.1 Samian, amphorae and fine wares are all types of ceramic vessel found associated with the cremation burials (Niblett 1999, Fig.63) 208 Furniture and fittings: boxes/litters, couches/stools, screens/covers, metal/bone/ivory furniture fittings, handles, studs/rivets/pins/nails/, figurines, hearth furniture, keys/lock plates/latchlifters, and lamps. Leisure and warfare: gaming counters, gaming boards, dice, musical instruments, swords, spears, shields, headresses, chain mail/buckles/studs, belthooks/suspension rings. The burials vary considerably and are characterised by a range of grave forms comprising shallow circular pits to large rectangular cuts including mortuary shafts. The majority appear to have been grouped in small cemeteries with short chronologies and moderate to poor assemblages dominated by ceramics and brooches. Four main categorise of cremation burial and mortuary structures are distributed across south­ east England: The most common being calcined human remains accompanied by between one and five pots derived from a restricted range of pedestal urns, jars, or beakers and metal brooches (Haselgrove 1984). A second band is distinguished by comprising a modest range of objects including toilet instruments, bronze vessels, wooden and metal bound buckets, decorated mirrors (Fig.5.2) and a range of personal objects (ibid.). A third group of burials referred to as 'Welwyn-type' (Stead 1967) are characterised as cremations placed in large, usually rectangular grave-pits containing a wide range of largely intact grave goods including at least one amphora, a quantity of pottery, and imported metal or glass vessels. 209 Fig.5.2 The Colchester Mirror (After Fox & Hull 1948, Fig.2) 210 The final group classified as the 'Folly Lane Rite' are characterised by mortuary- related shafts or chambers associated with a range of unusual objects which have been deliberately broken and only a token amount deposited (Niblett 1999,394). An interesting range of objects is incorporated into the mortuary repertoire dominated by ceramic vessels and brooches, while others are absent or occur in limited numbers. The research noted that objects are often duplicated in graves, with some artefacts occurring in matching pairs, particularly pottery vessels and brooches. The most frequently encountered objects are ceramic vessels which cover the complete spectrum of forms available - fine tablewares, imports and local copies. They are associated with eating and drinking rather than food preparation which is significant in terms of feasting and ostentatious display. There are also frequent occurrences of objects which are connected to the collective consumption of alcohol and beverages - wooden and metal bound buckets, bronze strainer vessels, silver cups, bronze bowls and amphorae. Toilet instruments nail-cleaners, ear-scoops, and tweezers - mirrors, razors and shears are also found in association with one another and are clearly associated with dress and appearance and possibly the preparation of the body in mortuary rituals. Gold and silver appear to be rare inclusions with only twenty instances: silver brooches (11), silver vessels (3), silver bracelet (1), silver furniture and decorative fittings (2), silver tweezers (1), gold tore (1), and gold thread (1). A whole range of organic material including wood, leather, textile, straw (matting and basketry), foodstuffs and liquids were probably associated with many of the graves but survival is extremely rare. It is evident that many objects were burnt on the funeral pyre being occasionally incorporated in a fragmentary condition along with the cremated remains (see chapter 4). There are very few objects representative of 211 production processes such as tools and weaving equipment. However, there are nine graves with small iron discs (probably cutting instruments) which may have been used in leather or textile production (Table 5.1). Weapons are largely absent from the cremation burials, although there are a number of inhumations burials which are accompanied by a host of weaponry items (swords, scabbards, spears, and shields). Coins are another rarity, this is particularly intriguing in view of their deposition on temple and votive sites. In addition there are a small number of miscellaneous, rare and unusual objects which include horse-gear, gang-chains, needles, spoons, and inkpots. Table 5.1: List of iron disc objects recovered from cremation burials Site Grave Artefact Description Biddenham Loop 357 Iron cutting disc and a copper alloy strip Bedfordshire Stotfold, Bedfordshire G1204 Iron disc and copper alloy fragments Hinxton, Cambridgeshire 2 2 Iron discs: 45 nun in diameter possibly with a central perforation filled with an iron attachment; iron disc 32 by 35 mm with a central perforation (1 5mm in diameter) through which a chain may have passed Maldon Hall Farm, Essex 3 Iron disc c. 88 mm in diameter with central perforation, apparently soldered to a copper alloy rod/tube Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire 1 Iron disc c. 80 mm in diameter King Harry Lane, 325 Iron disc 77mm in diameter with central circular perforation Hertfordshire (1 1mm in diameter) Verulam Hills Field, 4 Iron disc 80 mm in diameter with a central nodule which had traces Hertfordshire of a coarse woven textile on its surface St. Lawrence, Isle of Wight 1 Iron disc c. 81 mm in diameter with a central perforation filled with an iron attachment Alkham, Kent 3 Iron disc with central perforation. There are numerous possible reasons why objects were deemed necessary inclusions in burial deposits: perhaps they served to equip the dead for the next world, they may have been selected to represent the individual's occupation or social position; or they may simply represent gifts from the assembled mourners. Their deposition might also vary according to political and ideological currents in society and this could be particularly significant in the period this study embraces with the increasing influence 212 of the Roman world. It is obvious that the objects were carefully selected; they may have been specifically made or may have been possessions or heirlooms. It must also be remembered that the decisions are taken by the living, the dead do not bury themselves and the deposits demonstrate the mourners representation of the deceased (Parker Pearson 1993,203). Recent studies have shown that changes in dress and appearance, cuisine, building forms,