DOCSLIB.ORG

Thesis Template

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Thesis Template Aiming for Peace and Responding to Crisis: Movement and the Saints in Eleventh-Century Southern French Miracle Collections by Sandy Carpenter A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Sandy Carpenter 2018 Aiming for Peace and Responding to Crisis: Movement and the Saints in Eleventh-Century Southern French Miracle Collections Sandy Carpenter Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto 2018 Abstract Movement, a literal change in physical location, is often overlooked in historical studies of medieval miracle texts. Instead, scholars largely focus on the “miracle-working power” of the saints or other cultural economic, political, religious, and social details that can be gleaned from these sources. This dissertation adds to such readings of texts on saints’ miracles by using movement as a category of analysis. In the miracle texts of Saints Vivien at Figeac, Privat at Mende, and Enimie at Sainte-Enimie, all written in the eleventh century in the south of France, movements abound in a flurry of danger and excitement in reference to their relics. While the hagiographers never question the movements of relics, their discourse about movement of people shows a preference for stasis. If people must move, they should do so according to the proper protocol in support of the saints’ cults; out-of-the-ordinary movements, especially those “bad” movements made by proven criminals, are condemned and punishable by the saints. The first chapter introduces the field of research and the second chapter contextualizes seminal themes and the primary sources (reliquaries, the Peace of God, saints, and settings). After these two prefatory chapters, each of the three analytical chapters discusses different collaborations and ii directions of movement in the sources. Chapter 3 addresses the movements of relics and the populace on the road to and at Peace of God councils, portraying a sanctified version of the Peace. Chapter 4 examines movements of roving dangerous men-at-arms and retaliating saints wreaking vengeance away from the relics’ presence, showing that the anomalous movements of wicked men warranted reciprocal, similar movements on the part of vengeful saints. Chapter 5 recounts movements of all social groups drawn toward the saints’ shrines by their spiritual magnetism in hopes of experiencing transformation. Overall, the descriptions of movement included in the three miracle collections were meant to establish social norms of movement. Therefore, this dissertation concludes that movements of relics, with relics, and for relics were the most acceptable movements in these three miracle texts and that all other movements were subject to scrutiny. iii Acknowledgments This monumental achievement would not have been possible without the help of many and I would not have wanted to complete it on my own, even if I could have. There were many people who supported me through this process in both small and large ways, although none was insignificant. I am especially indebted to colleagues and friends who provided indispensible feedback on my writing with kindness, compassion, generosity, and thoughtfulness. In this regard, I must thank (in alphabetical order): Andrea, Benjamin, Joel, Kathleen, Laurie, Michael, Michelle, Paula, Polina, and Robin. This work was only possible because of your love and support. Others gave me hope and love in the darkest of times with unending hugs and special goodies to keep me going. For this, I would especially like to thank Alli and Natasha. Two unflagging friendly supporters deserve special mention. To Robin: I do not think that I could have ever made it through all these years without you. From silly reading nights of laughing our heads off to serious moments of tears and fear, you unquestionably have been there for me at a moment’s notice. Your brilliant brain helped solve all manner of problems, sometimes just validated my crabbies and frustrations, and saw the aplomb with which I could finish this great task. I am also indebted to Michelle for her unflagging support, her unending willingness to prop me up when I was down as well as her love and generosity as a listener, problem-solver, and medical consultant when the dissertation wrecked havoc on my physical self. In this dissertation and I life, I cannot survive without you. At the core of my supportive team is my fam. To Benjamin, Eleanore, and Audrey: your continual acceptance of whatever I had to grapple with, to allow me to put myself first when I really wanted to put you first instead, and your patience to wait until I could come back to you as my whole, loving person – you showed me what family should be. To my Benjamin: you are a rock, a strong, unfailing, somewhat unwilling warrior (because you are a pacifist), who persevered with such strength that I was able to complete this work. You are my champion. May we hold each other evermore in our PhD-earning arms. iv Finally, to all the felines, past and present, your cuddles and purrs fortified me and kept me smiling through the difficult spots and giggling in the fun times. Sylvy, Catula, Dimitri, Olivia, Hawkeye, and Hunnicutt, this is for you. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1 Introduction: The Medieval World of Movement and Miracles .....................................1 1.1 Chapter Summaries ..............................................................................................................7 Chapter 2 Historical Overview: Relics and Reliquaries, the Peace of God, and Saints and Their Settings ............................................................................................................................18 Chapter Plan ..............................................................................................................................18 2.1 Saints as Objects: Relics and Image Reliquaries ...............................................................19 2.2 Time Period: The Peace of God .........................................................................................34 2.3 People and Places: The Saints and Their Regions .............................................................46 2.4 Chapter Conclusion ............................................................................................................91 Chapter 3 Relics and Miracles on the Road: Movements of Relics and People for Peace of God Councils .............................................................................................................................93 Chapter Plan ..............................................................................................................................94 3.1 The Peace of God, Movers, and Mobile Sacred Space ......................................................95 3.2 Movements for Peace of God Councils ...........................................................................106 3.2.1 Councils Attended by Vivien’s Relics .................................................................107 3.2.2 Councils attended by Privat and Enimie ..............................................................127 3.3 Chapter Conclusion ..........................................................................................................143 Chapter 4 Dangerous Rovers and Holy Vengeance: Life and Death Consequences of Criminal Movements ...............................................................................................................147 Chapter Plan ............................................................................................................................149 4.1 Dangerous Rovers and Holy Avengers ............................................................................150 4.2 Miracle Evidence .............................................................................................................161 4.3 Holy Avengers’ Reactive Movements .............................................................................177 vi 4.4 Chapter Conclusion ..........................................................................................................190 Chapter 5 Journeys to the Shrine: Pilgrimage, Penance, and Obliteration ..................................193 Chapter Introduction ...............................................................................................................193 5.1 Chapter Plan .....................................................................................................................194 5.2 Brief Overview of the Cult of the Saints and Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages ................195 5.3 Journeys to the Shrine for Transformation: Physical and Spiritual Healing ...................203 5.4 Journeys to the Shrine for Penance after Criminal Movements and Criminal Behavior .226 5.5 Negatively-Portrayed Examples of Dangerous Rovers at Privat’s Shrine.......................235 5.6 Chapter Conclusion ..........................................................................................................242 Chapter 6 Conclusion: Movement
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Agrarian Metaphors 397
    396 Agrarian Metaphors 397 The Bible provided homilists with a rich store of "agricultural" metaphors and symbols) The loci classici are passages like Isaiah's "Song of the Vineyard" (Is. 5:1-7), Ezekiel's allegories of the Tree (Ez. 15,17,19:10-14,31) and christ's parables of the Sower (Matt. 13: 3-23, Mark 4:3-20, Luke 8:5-15) ,2 the Good Seed (Matt. 13:24-30, Mark 4:26-29) , the Barren Fig-tree (Luke 13:6-9) , the Labourers in the Vineyard (Matt. 21:33-44, Mark 12:1-11, Luke 20:9-18), and the Mustard Seed (Matt. 13:31-32, Mark 4:30-32, Luke 13:18-19). Commonplace in Scripture, however, are comparisons of God to a gardener or farmer,5 6 of man to a plant or tree, of his soul to a garden, 7and of his works to "fruits of the spirit". 8 Man is called the "husbandry" of God (1 Cor. 3:6-9), and the final doom which awaits him is depicted as a harvest in which the wheat of the blessed will be gathered into God's storehouse and the chaff of the damned cast into eternal fire. Medieval scriptural commentaries and spiritual handbooks helped to standardize the interpretation of such figures and to impress them on the memories of preachers (and their congregations). The allegorical exposition of the res rustica presented in Rabanus Maurus' De Universo (XIX, cap.l, "De cultura agrorum") is a distillation of typical readings: Spiritaliter ... in Scripturis sacris agricultura corda credentium intelliguntur, in quibus fructus virtutuxn germinant: unde Apostolus ad credentes ait [1 Cor.
    [Show full text]
  • 53Rd International Congress on Medieval Studies
    53rd International Congress on Medieval Studies May 10–13, 2018 Medieval Institute College of Arts and Sciences Western Michigan University 1903 W. Michigan Ave. Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5432 wmich.edu/medieval 2018 i Table of Contents Welcome Letter iii Registration iv-v On-Campus Housing vi-vii Food viii-ix Travel x Driving and Parking xi Logistics and Amenities xii-xiii Varia xiv Off-Campus Accommodations vx Hotel Shuttle Routes xvi Hotel Shuttle Schedules xvii Campus Shuttles xviii Mailings xix Exhibits Hall xx Exhibitors xxi Plenary Lectures xxii Reception of the Classics in the Middle Ages Lecture xxiii Screenings xxiv Social Media xxv Advance Notice—2019 Congress xxvi The Congress: How It Works xxvii The Congress Academic Program xxviii-xxix Travel Awards xxx The Otto Gründler Book Prize xxxi Richard Rawlinson Center xxxii Center for Cistercian and Monastic Studies xxxiii M.A. Program in Medieval Studies xxxiv Medieval Institute Publications xxxv Endowment and Gift Funds xxxvi 2018 Congress Schedule of Events 1–192 Index of Sponsoring Organizations 193–198 Index of Participants 199–218 Floor Plans M-1 – M-9 List of Advertisers Advertising A-1 – A-36 Color Maps ii Dear colleagues, It’s a balmy 9 degrees here in Kalamazoo today, but I can’t complain—too much— because Kalamazoo will not feel the wrath of the “bomb cyclone” and polar vortex due to hit the East Coast later this week, the first week of 2018. Nonetheless, today in Kalamazoo, I long for spring and what it brings: the warmth of the weather, my colleagues and friends who will come in May to the International Congress on Medieval Studies.
    [Show full text]
  • Module Hi1200 Europe, 1000-1250
    MODULE HI1200 EUROPE, 1000-1250: WAR, GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE CRUSADES Michaelmas Term Professor Robinson ( 10 ECTS ) CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2 2. A Guide to Module HI1200 3 3. Lecture Topics 6 4. Essay Titles 6 5. Reading List 8 6. Tutorial Assignments 11 1 1. INTRODUCTION This module deals with social and political change in Europe during the two-and-a- half centuries of the development of the crusading movement. It focuses in particular on the internal development of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Byzantium (the Eastern Christian empire based on Constantinople) and the crusading colonies in the Near East. The most important themes are the development of royal and imperial authority, the structure of aristocratic society, rebellion and the threat of political disintegration, warfare as a primary function of the secular ruling class and the impact of war on the development of European institutions. Module HI1200 is available as an option to Single Honors, Two-Subject Moderatorship and History and Political Science Junior Freshman students. This module is a compulsory element of the Junior Freshman course in Ancient and Medieval History and Culture. The module may also be taken by Socrates students and Visiting students with the permission of the Department of History. Module HI1200 consists of two lectures each week throughout Michaelmas Term, together with a series of six tutorials, for which written assignments are required. The assessment of this module will take the form of: (1) an essay, which accounts for 20% of the over-all assessment of this module and (2) a two-hour examination in Trinity Term, which accounts for 80% of the over-all assessment.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Jerusalem? Why Then? Erin Larson Clemson University, [email protected]
    Clemson University TigerPrints All Theses Theses 5-2010 Why Jerusalem? Why Then? Erin Larson Clemson University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses Part of the Medieval History Commons Recommended Citation Larson, Erin, "Why Jerusalem? Why Then?" (2010). All Theses. 783. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses/783 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses at TigerPrints. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Theses by an authorized administrator of TigerPrints. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WHY JERUSALEM? WHY THEN? A STUDY OF THE RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF JERUSALEM TO THE WEST IN 1095 A Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of Clemson University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts History by Erin Larson May, 2010 Accepted by: Dr. Caroline Dunn Clark, Committee Chair Dr. Steven Grosby Dr. Steven Marks i Abstract One of the fascinating aspects of this research is how what individuals believe to be true leads to collective action as a society. Research for this paper will show the evolution of Christian theology from the early Christian rejection of the physical world to the medieval reliance on physical people, places and objects as a connection to heaven. This paper will also track the creation of penitential warfare as a way of entering heaven. This paper will prove that Jerusalem was important to medieval Europeans for three reasons: saving the city from the Muslims was an act of penance, the city was a way into heaven and the city was a source of holy places and relics which provided Gods protection.
    [Show full text]
  • Age of Chivalry
    The Constraints Laws on Warfare in the Western World War Edited by Michael Howard, George J. Andreopoulos, and Mark R. Shulman Yale University Press New Haven and London Robert C . Stacey 3 The Age of Chivalry To those who lived during them, of course, the Middle Ages, as such, did not exist. If they lived in the middleof anything, most medieval people saw themselves as living between the Incarnation of God in Jesus and the end of time when He would come again; theirown age was thus a continuation of the era that began in the reign of Caesar Augustus with his decree that all the world should be taxed. The Age of Chivalry, however, some men of the time- mostly knights, the chevaliers, from whose name we derive the English word "chivalry"-would have recognized as an appropriate label for the years between roughly I 100 and 1500.Even the Age of Chivalry, however, began in Rome. In the chansons de geste and vernacular histories of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Hector, Alexander, Scipio, and Julius Caesar appear as the quintessential exemplars of ideal knighthood, while the late fourth or mid-fifth century Roman military writer Vcgetius remained far and away the most important single authority on the strategy and tactics of battle, his book On Military Matters (De re military passing in transla- tion as The Book of Chivalry from the thirteenth century on. The Middle Ages, then, began with Rome; and so must we if we are to study the laws of war as these developed during the Age of Chivalry.
    [Show full text]
  • Peace in World History
    Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:01 04 October 2016 Peace in World History In Peace in World History, Peter N. Stearns examines the ideas of peace that have existed throughout history, and how societies have sought to put them into practice. Beginning with the status of peace in early hunter-gatherer and agri- cultural societies, and continuing through the present day, the narrative gives students a clear view of the ways people across the world have understood and striven to achieve peace throughout history. Topics covered include: • comparison of the Pax Romana and Pax Sinica of Rome and China • concepts of peace in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, and their histori- cal impact • the place of peace in the periods of expanding empires • the emergence, starting in the nineteenth century, of both formal schemes to promote peace and increasingly destructive technologies for warfare. Moving away from the view of history as a series of military conflicts, Peace in World History offers a new way of looking at world history by focusing on peace. Showing how concepts of peace have evolved over time even as they have been challenged by war and conflict, this lively and engaging narrative enables students to consider peace as a human possibility. Peter N. Stearns is Provost and a Professor of History at George Mason University. Downloaded by [New York University] at 13:01 04 October 2016 Themes in World History Series editor: Peter N. Stearns The Themes in World History series offers focused treatment of a range of human experiences and institutions in the world history context.
    [Show full text]
  • The Clash Between Pagans and Christians: the Baltic Crusades from 1147-1309
    The Clash between Pagans and Christians: The Baltic Crusades from 1147-1309 Honors Research Thesis Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation with honors research distinction in History in the undergraduate colleges of The Ohio State University by Donald R. Shumaker The Ohio State University May 2014 Project Advisor: Professor Heather J. Tanner, Department of History 1 The Baltic Crusades started during the Second Crusade (1147-1149), but continued into the fifteenth century. Unlike the crusades in the Holy Lands, the Baltic Crusades were implemented in order to combat the pagan tribes in the Baltic. These crusades were generally conducted by German and Danish nobles (with occasional assistance from Sweden) instead of contingents from England and France. Although the Baltic Crusades occurred in many different countries and over several centuries, they occurred as a result of common root causes. For the purpose of this study, I will be focusing on the northern crusades between 1147 and 1309. In 1309 the Teutonic Order, the monastic order that led these crusades, moved their headquarters from Venice, where the Order focused on reclaiming the Holy Lands, to Marienberg, which was on the frontier of the Baltic Crusades. This signified a change in the importance of the Baltic Crusades and the motivations of the crusaders. The Baltic Crusades became the main theater of the Teutonic Order and local crusaders, and many of the causes for going on a crusade changed at this time due to this new focus. Prior to the year 1310 the Baltic Crusades occurred for several reasons. A changing knightly ethos combined with heightened religious zeal and the evolution of institutional and ideological changes in just warfare and forced conversions were crucial in the development of the Baltic Crusades.
    [Show full text]
  • Harttimo 1.Pdf
    Beyond the River, under the Eye of Rome Ethnographic Landscapes, Imperial Frontiers, and the Shaping of a Danubian Borderland by Timothy Campbell Hart A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Greek and Roman History) in the University of Michigan 2017 Doctoral Committee: Professor David S. Potter, Co-Chair Professor Emeritus Raymond H. Van Dam, Co-Chair Assistant Professor Ian David Fielding Professor Christopher John Ratté © Timothy Campbell Hart [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0002-8640-131X For my family ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Developing and writing a dissertation can, at times, seem like a solo battle, but in my case, at least, this was far from the truth. I could not have completed this project without the advice and support of many individuals, most crucially, my dissertation co-chairs David S. Potter, and Raymond Van Dam. Ray saw some glimmer of potential in me and worked to foster it from the moment I arrived at Michigan. I am truly thankful for his support throughout the years and constant advice on both academic and institutional matters. In particular, our conversations about demographics and the movement of people in the ancient world were crucial to the genesis of this project. Throughout the writing process, Ray’s firm encouragement towards clarity of argument and style, while not always what I wanted to hear, have done much to make this a stronger dissertation. David Potter has provided me with a lofty academic model towards which to strive. I admire the breadth and depth of his scholarship; working and teaching with him have shown me much worth emulating.
    [Show full text]
  • Rebecca Sugar Songs from Adventure Time & Steven
    REBECCA SUGAR SONGS FROM ADVENTURE TIME & STEVEN UNIVERSE 1 Table of Contents Adventure Time 4 - As a Tropical Island 5 - Oh Fionna 6 - My Best Friends in the World 8 - Remember You 10 - All Gummed Up Inside 11 - Oh Bubblegum 12 - Good Little Girl Steven Universe 14 - Steven Universe Theme 15 - End Credits Song 16 - Drive My Van Into Your Heart 18 - Giant Woman 19 - Be Wherever You Are 20 - Strong in the Real Way This book is a collection of ukulele tabs for songs by Rebecca Sugar from shows Adventure Time and Steven Universe. Tabs, lyrics, and background art by Rebecca Sugar. Rebecca Sugar is an American artist, composer, and director who was a writer and storyboard artist on Adventure Time and is the creator of Steven Universe. Material gathered and book designed by Angela Liu. Cover art and icons provided by Angela Liu. Made for Communication Design Fundamentals, 2015. 2 3 As a Tropical Island Oh Fionna Adventure Time / Season 3, Ep 2: Morituri Te Salutamux Adventure Time / Season 3, Ep 9: Fionna and Cake Air date: July 18, 2011 Air date: September 5, 2011 G C D7 G C E7 Am On a tropical island, on a tropical island. I feel like nothing was real, until I met you. G C D7 G Dm G7 C G7 On a tropical island, on a tropical island! I feel like we connect, and I really get you. C E7 Am G C If I said “You’re a beautiful girl,” would it upset you? On a tropical island, Dm G7 D7 G Because the way you look tonight, Underneath a motlen lava moon.
    [Show full text]
  • Peter the Hermit: Straddling the Boundaries of Lordship, Millennialism, and Heresy Stanley Perdios Iowa State University
    Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Graduate Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 2012 peter the hermit: straddling the boundaries of lordship, millennialism, and heresy Stanley Perdios Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd Part of the European History Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Perdios, Stanley, "peter the hermit: straddling the boundaries of lordship, millennialism, and heresy" (2012). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 12431. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/12431 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Peter the Hermit: Straddling the boundaries of lordship, millennialism, and heresy by Stelios Vasilis Perdios A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Major: History Program of Study Committee: Michael D. Bailey, Major Professor John W. Monroe Jana Byars Kevin Amidon Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2012 Copyright © Stelios Vasilis Perdios, 2012. All Rights reserved. ii Table of Contents Chapter Page Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: The Crisis of Secular Lordship 7 Chapter Three: The Crisis of Spiritual Lordship 35 Chapter Four: Lordship on the Eve of the Millennium 65 Chapter Five: Conclusion 95 Bibliography 99 1 Chapter One: Introduction When is a hermit not a hermit? When he is Peter the Hermit who led the Popular Crusade in the year 1096.
    [Show full text]
  • Dangerous Discourse: Language and Sex Between
    DANGEROUS DISCOURSE: LANGUAGE AND SEX BETWEEN MEN IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY LONDON by KENNETH W. MCGRAW Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation Adviser: Christopher Flint Department of English CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY August, 2009 CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES We hereby approve the thesis/dissertation of ______________________________________________________ candidate for the ________________________________degree *. (signed)_______________________________________________ (chair of the committee) ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ (date) _______________________ *We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein. DEDICATION For my wife, Joyce, and for everyone on the fourth floor, I could not have done it without you. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………. 2 Abstract………………………………………………………………………… 3 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. 5 Chapter I: “An Indecent Posture”: Legal Discourse and the Sodomitical 30 Assault on Eighteenth-Century England……………………………….. Chapter II: Botanical Bodies, Unnatural Predilections: Nature and Sex 61 Between Men in the Eighteenth Century……………………………….. Chapter III: Mapping the Molly: (Re)Defining Homosexual Space at the 100 Metropolitan
    [Show full text]
  • Capuchins As Crusaders: Southern Gaul Ill the Late Twelfth Century
    77 Capuchins as Crusaders: Southern Gaul ill the late Twelfth Century John France Swansea UniversIty The Peace and Truce of God has attracted much attention, both as something of importance in itself and because many have thought it played an important role in preparing men's minds for the appeal made at Clermont in 1095. Thi~ was finnly endorsed by Erdmann, Delaruelle and Duby, to name simply the most imporum~ and through them it passed into the common currency of crusader writing. l The only writer to have contested this view is Marcus Bull, who sharply doubts the impact of this movement on the anns-bearing laity by the end of the 11111 century. i This article is not concerned with its impact on the First Crusade, but on its continuance in southern Gaul in the twelfth century and the way in which the Capuchin movement, for all its apparent affinity with the Peace Movement, actually drew its inspiration and fonn from something quite different, the crusading movement This has not been recognised because the Capuchin movement was distorted by some medieval writers whose attitudes have powerfully influenced modem historians. The Capuchins were an armed fraternity which attempted to end the terrible disorders in central and southern Gaul caused by mercenary bands whose depredations reached a climax at this time. A vision of the Virgin, granted to a carpenter of I.e Puy in 1182, was said to have been inspired a wave of popular enthusiasm, as a result of which they enjoyed considerable success. They were called Capuchins (capuciaa) because they wore a distinctive hood and cloak bearing a badge of the Virgin and Child.
    [Show full text]