Aboriginal Peoples of Alberta : Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

Aboriginal Peoples of Alberta Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow Photograph: Top to bottom Albert and Alma Desjarlais, Aaron Paquette, Roseanne Supernault, Angela Gladue, and Victoria Callihoo

As special thank you to all of the individuals who contributed to this booklet, as writers, as trusted advisors, and also to those who generously shared their voices with all Albertans. Contents

Creating Understanding ...... 2 Chapter 9 Chapter 1 Métis people

In the Beginning ...... 4 Establishing a Métis Land Base in Alberta ...... 30

Buffalo Lake ...... 31 Chapter 2 East Prairie ...... 31 Early Life ...... 7

Elizabeth ...... 31 Chapter 3 Fishing Lake ...... 31 Aboriginal Peoples ...... 9 Gift Lake ...... 31 Chapter 4 Kikino ...... 31 First Nations Peoples and Treaties ...... 11 Paddle Prairie ...... 32

Chapter 5 Peavine ...... 32 Life for First Nations Peoples Moving Forward ...... 32 After Signing theTreaties ...... 12 Métis Historical Context ...... 34 Chapter 6 Chapter 10 Land Claims and Governance ...... 15 Inuit ...... 36 Chapter 7 Chapter 11 The Past Shows the Way Urban Communities ...... 38 Cree ...... 18

Blackfoot Confederacy ...... 19 Chapter 12

Reserves and Settlements ...... 40 Dene ...... 21

Dene Suliné ...... 21 Chapter 13

Dene Tha’ ...... 22 Common Phrases in Aboriginal Languages ...... 42 Tsuu T’ina ...... 23 Chapter 14 Dunne-za ...... 24 Aboriginal Youth ...... 43

Nakoda ...... 24 Chapter 15 Anishinabe ...... 25 The Road Ahead...... 45 Aseniwuche Winewak Nation ...... 26

Chapter 8

First Nations Historical Context ...... 27

1 Creating Understanding

Aboriginal people in Alberta are culturally a gift from the Creator and it must be “We are so close to the land. diverse—from the Dene in the subarctic respected and treated properly.” This is my body when you see north to the Woodland Cree in the boreal This kinship with the natural world has this mother earth, because I forest and the Blackfoot of the southern Iive by it. Without that water, created both stereotype and myth. As plains, and the Métis throughout the we dry up, we die. Without Reggie Crowshoe, Piikani (a nation food from the animals, we province. From time immemorial, First belonging to the Blackfoot Confederacy) die because we got to live Peoples lived close to the land, and cultural teacher in southern Alberta on that. That’s why I call that so it shaped each group’s culture— spirit, and that’s why we says, “Indigenous people are victims of the collection of beliefs, values, and communicate with spirits. We romanticism. Spiritual processes are often thank them every day that we knowledge they share. dismissed as exotic flights of fancy.”2 are alive.” While the Blackfoot gathered in huge But as a ceremonial practitioner who Elder Alex Skead camps on the plains, with their lifestyle has studied Blackfoot culture, he says Royal Commission on centred on the great buffalo hunts that treating the earth as a living being and Aboriginal Peoples, Volume 1, Chapter 2 provided vast amounts of food, the Dene working with the spirits in all of life will be April 22, 1992 lived in small groups, gathering edible necessary when people finally realize they plants, game animals, and fish in the cannot dominate creation but, instead, extensive forests and lakes. must work with it.

For all their diversity, First Peoples have As natural resources become scarce and much in common. Foremost was a environmental impacts increase, Reggie reverence for the natural world, the web of believes, indigenous knowledge of the relationships linking every human to every natural world will find its rightful place in other thing—be it plant or animal, rock or society. river, invisible spirit or thunderstorm. Living “My father, Joe Crowshoe, often said that in harmony with their environment, they when the dominant society understands made little change in their surroundings for us like we understand the dominant thousands of years. society, then we’ll have a good life,”3 says “The land is our soul,” says Doug Cuthand Reggie. Joe welcomed everyone into in his book Askiwina: A Cree World.1 Blackfoot ceremony, and in 1986, when a “Our people believe that the earth and group of journalists entered his tipi during all creatures that live on it are a gift from a sacred bundle-opening, he not only the Creator. This beautiful land of lakes, invited them to stay but encouraged them forests, rivers, plains, and mountains is to take notes.

1 Doug Cuthand, Askiwina: A Cree World (Regina: Coteau Books, 2007). 2 Interview with Reggie Crowshoe, Piikani, April, 20112013. 3 Reggie Crowshoe, 2013. 2 This booklet provides a starting point for The history of Aboriginal peoples is an moving toward the kind of understanding important part of our story and legacy. Joe Crowshoe talked about. Aboriginal Aboriginal peoples and communities are Peoples of Alberta: Yesterday, Today, vital to our future goals of a prosperous and Tomorrow is a look at Alberta’s and thriving Alberta. Having a better First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples understanding of Alberta’s Aboriginal yesterday, today, and into the future. peoples creates an opportunity for It provides a glimpse of these resilient Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Albertans to cultures that continue to thrive—their move forward together. history, current issues, and some exciting Elder Joe Crowshoe For readers who want to know more on (Photo by Dianne Meili) opportunities on the horizon. this subject, see the list of resources on “Some tribes say they don’t page 48. want outsiders or they don’t want young people at ceremonies. Well, that’s not sharing or communicating. I share with people who are sincerely interested in learning about a deeper way of looking at life, about a life force flowing through you that is limited only by earthly worries.”

4 Richard Price, Legacy: Indian Treaty

Relationships (Edmonton: Plains Publishing Inc., 1991). 3 Chapter 1 In the Beginning

Long before Alberta became a Creation stories develop in oral roots that will hurt them and kill them. province, Aboriginal peoples inhabited traditions and therefore have multiple Do not let the people or the animals this land, speaking distinct languages, versions. The one shared here is quarrel with each other.” creating complex government, adapted from a version told by the But Wesakechak did not obey the social and economic systems, and late Francis Tootoosis, originally Creator. He let the creatures do moving with the ebb and flow of the from Poundmaker First Nation in whatever they wished to do. Soon natural world. Indigenous history is Saskatchewan. He lived on the they were quarrelling and fighting. The etched into the Alberta landscape Samson Cree Nation at the time of Creator, greatly displeased, warned going back 11,000 years and 500 the telling of this story. Wesakechak, “If you do not keep your generations—from rock carvings at The Cree Creation Story— world peaceful and beautiful, I will Writing-on-Stone in the southern part Wesakechak take everything away from you, and of the province, to a 10,000-year-old you will be miserable.” spear point unearthed in the Wesakechak is a famous Cree Athabasca lowlands in the north. hero, who lived when the Earth was But Wesakechak did not believe the still being formed. He is a trickster Creator and did not obey. Becoming Today, Alberta is home to more than figure with many powers, such as more and more careless and 220,000 people descended from First the ability to change shape and be disobedient, he tricked the animals Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples. anything he wants, and to speak the and the people and made them angry Their presence predates both Alberta languages of the animals and plants. with each other. They quarrelled and Canada, yet not all Albertans No one really knows what he looks are familiar with the rich histories and like. Wesakechak stories are meant cultures of Aboriginal peoples, or to be narrated and not read. The with their present-day contributions spirit, humour, and excitement of his and aspirations. experiences are best appreciated in The unique world view of Aboriginal the language in which they were first people—or any people, for that told.5 matter—can be traced back to their Wesakechak was a young man creation story, a symbolic narrative of who often got into trouble. After the how the world began and how people Creator had made all the animals first came to inhabit it. Creation and the first people, he said to stories explain a people’s sense of Wesakechak, “Take good care of my who they are in the context of the people, and teach them how to live. world, and in so doing they reveal real Show them all the bad roots, all the priorities, as well as values.

5 From the Naheyawawin website, Galileo Educational Network, 2008 Mokakioyis/Meyopimatisiwin, accessed August, 2013 4 and fought so much that the Earth He did not have the power to create and wise. If you will dive into the water became red with blood. anything, but he did have the power and bring me a bit of the old earth, I to expand what had already been will make a good house for you on the This time the Creator became very created. As he could not dive and did new island I shall make. There you will angry. “I will take everything away not know how far it was to the old be warm in the winter. Dive straight from you and wash the ground clean,” earth, he did not know what to do. down, as a brave beaver does.” he said. Taking pity on him, the Creator said, Twice Beaver dived, and twice he Still Wesakechak did not believe the “I will give you the power to remake came back without any earth. The Creator. He did not believe until the everything if you will use the old second time he was so tired that rains came and the streams began to materials buried under the water.” Wesakechak had to let him rest for a swell. Day after day, and night after Still floating on the sea, Wesakechak long time. night, the rains continued. The water said to the three animals beside him, in the rivers and the lakes rose higher “Dive once more,” urged Wesakechak “We shall starve unless one of you and higher. At last they overflowed when Beaver had recovered. “If you can bring me a bit of the old ground their banks and washed the ground will bring me a bit of earth, I will make beneath the water. If you will get it for clean. The sea came up on the land, a wife for you.” To obtain a wife, me, I will make an island for us.” Then and everything was drowned except Beaver went down a third time. He he turned to the otter. “You are brave one otter, one beaver, and one stayed so long that he came back and strong and active. If you will dive muskrat. almost lifeless, still with no earth in his into the water and bring me a bit of paws. Wesakechak tried to stop the sea, earth, I will see that you have plenty of but it was too strong for him. He sat fish to eat.” Wesakechak was now very sad. If down on the water and wept. Otter, Otter and Beaver could not reach the So the otter dove, but he came up Beaver, and Muskrat sat beside him bottom of the water, surely Muskrat again without having reached the and rested their heads against him. also would fail. But he was their only ground. He tried a second time with chance. In time the rain stopped and the no success, and Wesakechak praised sea left the land. Wesakechak took Otter and persuaded him to go down “You are brave and strong and quick, courage, but he did not dare to speak once more. When he returned the Muskrat, even if you are small. If you to the Creator. After long and sad third time, he was so weary that he will dive into the water and bring me thoughts about his misery, he said to could not dive again. a bit of the old earth at the bottom, himself, “If I could get a bit of the old I will make plenty of roots for you to “You are a coward!” exclaimed earth beneath the water, I could make eat. I will create rushes, so that you Wesakechak. “I am surprised by a little island for us to live on.” can make a nice house with rushes your weak heart.” Then he turned to and dirt. Beaver. “You are brave and strong

5 “Otter and Beaver are fools,” Wesakechak reached down his long the animals of today, and the trees. continued Wesakechak. “They got arm, seized Muskrat, and pulled him He took from Wesakechak all power lost. You will find the ground if you will up beside them. The little creature over people and animals and left dive straight down.” was almost dead, but against his him only the power to flatter and to breast his forepaws held a piece of deceive. So Muskrat jumped head first into the the old earth. water. Down and down he went, but After that, Wesakechak played tricks he brought back nothing. A second Joyously, Wesakechak seized it, on the animals and led them into time he dived and stayed a long time. and in a short time he expanded much mischief. When he returned, Wesakechak the bit of earth into an island. There Every First Nation, as well as the looked at his forepaws and sniffed. he, Muskrat, Otter, and Beaver Inuit, possesses creation stories. rested and rejoiced that they had not “I smell the smell of earth,” he said. The Blackfoot tell stories of Napi (Old drowned in the flood. “Go again. If you bring me even a Man), who is similar to Wesakechak, small piece, I will make a wife for you, Some people say that Wesakechak and who created what is in the world. Muskrat. She will bear you a great obtained a bit of wood, from which The Nakoda have Iktomi, whose trials many children. Have a strong heart he made the trees, and some bones, and errors are shared in stories that now. Go straight down, as far as you from which he made the second race young people can learn from. The can go.” of animals. Inuit look to Sedna, who lives under the sea and who provides food for This time Muskrat stayed so long that Others say that the Creator made them, even in the depths of winter. Wesakechak feared he had drowned. all things again. He commanded the Stories of these cultural heroes are At last they saw some bubbles rivers to take the salt water back to often humorous and reflect the values coming up through the water. the sea. Then he created mankind, of First Peoples. 6 ChapterEarly Life 2

Museums, books, and the old stories people moved their camp from the firewood and food, the people passed down from time immemorial shelter of the river valleys onto the might remain at a single campsite contain clues about early life among wide expanses of the grasslands. the entire winter. During the long, Alberta’s First Peoples, but a life They chose campsites on high land, cold nights, the people engaged in lived totally on the land is sometimes near wood and water, and ventured storytelling, educating, socializing, hard for us to fathom today. First from there to hunt buffalo. and ceremonies.7 Peoples in this province were hunters In the summer, when the saskatoon and harvesters, relying on game like First Buffalo Hunt8 berries ripened, they travelled to buffalo, caribou, deer, moose, rabbit, a traditional gathering place. Here From miles away, Victoria Callihoo and ducks, as well as fish. Their living friendships, trades, and marriages could hear the squeaking wheels of came straight from the land, and were made—and the sun dance 30 Red River carts making their way many of their ceremonies expressed ceremonial was held—as members toward her. thanks for what they were able to of the Blackfoot Confederacy met harvest. The following three scenarios She was only 13 years old when she within a great cluster of lodges. It was from the Siksika (a group affiliated joined the procession, rolling along the only time of the year when they with the Blackfoot Confederacy), Cree the Lac Ste. Anne trail heading toward lived in one place. This they called Métis, and Dene cultures, spreading St. Albert and then south to the Akoka’tssin, “the time of all people from the south of the province up to buffalo plains. Kininawis, her mother, camping together.” the north, provide a snapshot of early chose Victoria to participate in the life and culture. In late summer, the people split from buffalo hunt because she was the their large group and spread out to most enterprising of all her children. 6 Always on the Move (Siksika) hunt buffalo and to gather berries. Leaving Alexis, Kininawis’s husband, behind to tend the family farm, Chief Mad Wolf (Siyeh) was a great In the fall, the group migrated back mother and daughter crossed the orator among the Blackfoot, leader toward their wintering grounds. They North Saskatchewan River near Fort of the sun dance, and the owner built a buffalo pound near the piskan Edmonton to head out on the hunt. of the Beaver Medicine Bundle. He (buffalo jump). Several groups worked was healthy and lived to an old age, together in communal hunts. That summer of 1874, Victoria’s job leading his people in a nomadic was to keep the meat-smoking fires When frosty nights returned, the lifestyle of harvesting and hunting, stoked while her mother, a medicine people moved into a wooded river their seasonal migration following woman, attended to the sick and valley, not far from other wintering specific patterns. injured among the huge group. groups, including the buffalo, who After a long, cold winter in what is also preferred sheltered areas at this While Victoria and her mother stayed now southern Alberta, Mad Wolf’s time of year. If there was adequate in camp, out on the plains, scouts

6 McClintock, Walter. The Old North Trail, Life, Legends and Religion of the Blackfeet Indians. (University of Nebraska Press, 1968). 7 Kainai Board of Education, Métis Nation of Alberta, Northland School Division, Tribal Chiefs Institute of Treaty Six. Aboriginal Studies 10: Aboriginal Perspectives (Edmonton: Duval House Publishing Inc., 2004). 7 8 MacEwan, Grant. And Mighty Women Too: Stories of Notable Western Canadian Women (Regina: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1975). searched for buffalo herds. People used dog teams and Once one was spotted, men sleds or pack dogs to travel. A and boys rode forward in team of four to six dogs was single-line formation. At a signal used to pull supplies and move from the captain of the hunt, equipment. Taking care of the the riders charged the buffalo, dogs was very important to the causing them to stampede. survival of hunters and trappers, The riders would gallop on who usually fed their dogs their best horses into the herd, before they ate. select an animal, and fire at When summer came, the Dene point-blank range. Some of Tha’ placed their heavy furs the most experienced hunters, and snowshoes in a cache in a on well-trained mounts, could tree, to be collected when the kill ten to twelve buffalo in two temperatures dropped later that hours. year. Victoria and Kininawis ventured The hand drums sounded, out of the camp when the songs received in dreams were killing was over. They helped sung, and prophecies from the other women and children Victoria Callihoo (photographer unknown) spirit world were voiced at tea skin, butcher, and carry the dances, held often (as they still are) to meat back to camp for processing. year to year, and when larger game petition the Creator for food, to give Everyone returned to their homes grew scarce, hunters would turn to thanks, and to socialize. with carts laden with dried meat, rabbit, muskrat, and porcupine. pemmican, hides, and sinew. The Dene Tha”, moved through the Dene Tha’9 subarctic forests, tracking moose, bear, and caribou, and using bark In the intense cold of northern from birch trees to fashion tent Alberta, survival could be a constant covers, water pails, and canoes. struggle. Winter snows came early, Spruce, birch, or willow branches drifting deep and lingering far into could be bent into loops and, laced spring. Starvation was never far away. with leather webbing, transformed Animal populations fluctuated from into snowshoes.

8 9 Dené Tha’ First Nation website, 2013, accessed August 2013. ChapterAboriginal Peoples 3

Aboriginal people, as the first inhabitants to the act’s requirements and therefore of this land we call Canada, are divided does not qualify for the rights and benefits Section 35 of Canada’s into three distinct groups recognized given to people registered as status Constitution Act recognizes under the Constitution Act 1982: Indian, Indians. treaty rights, and legally protects rights that were in Inuit, and Métis. They are three separate First Nations: refers to individuals and existence when the act came peoples with unique heritages, languages, into force on April 17, 1982. to communities (or reserves) and their cultural practices, and spiritual beliefs. The provision says: governments (or band councils). The Formal definitions of Indian, Métis, and term arose in the 1980s and is politically 35. (1) The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the Inuit peoples are complex and they have significant because it implies possession aboriginal peoples of Canada been revised from time to time as a result of rights arising from historical occupation are hereby recognized and of court challenges and changes to and use of territory. Though no Canadian affirmed. legislation. legal definition of this term exists (the (2) In this Act, “Aboriginal Constitution refers to Indians), the United Peoples of Canada” includes Here is a quick overview of definitions, Nations considers First Nations to be the Indian, Inuit and Métis court rulings, and legislation that apply to synonymous with indigenous peoples. people of Canada. determining who is eligible to claim status Alberta is home to 48 First Nations. (3) For greater certainty, in or membership as an Indian, Métis, or Inuit subsection (1) “treaty rights” person. In recent history, two specific amendments includes rights that now to the Indian Act, have significantly exist by way of land claims Status Indian: A First Nations person impacted who is eligible to be registered agreements or may be so who is registered according to the Indian acquired. as an Indian under the Indian Act. Act’s requirements and therefore qualifies (4) Notwithstanding any other for treaty rights and benefits. The Indian Bill C-31: This Bill eliminated provision of this Act, the Act is Canadian federal legislation, which discriminatory provisions in the Indian aboriginal and treaty rights was first passed in 1876 and amended Act, including a section that resulted in referred to in subsection (1) are guaranteed equally to male several times since. Indian women losing their status when and female persons.10 they married non-status men and allowed Treaty Indian: A status Indian who non-status women to gain Indian status belongs to a First Nation that signed a when marrying status-Indian men. Women treaty with the Crown. who had lost their Indian status through Non-Status Indian: A First Nations marriage could reclaim their status as a person who is not registered under the result of this Bill. Indian Act, for whatever reason, according

10 Government of Canada, Constitution Act, 1867, at http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-2.html#docCont, accessed 9 August 16, 2013. Bill C-3: In 2010, the Indian Act was In its 2003, a landmark decision in R. v. amended through Bill C-3 in response to Powley, the Supreme Court of Canada the decision of the British Columbia Court laid out a test to be used in determining of Appeal in McIvor v. Canada. The court whether a Métis person holds an found that section 6 of the Indian Act Aboriginal right to hunt. This Supreme discriminated on the basis of gender. The Court decision outlined three factors amendment to the Indian Act permits that to recognize peoples claiming Métis an individual is entitled to be registered: rights. An individual must be part of a contemporary Métis community with links Nellie Carlson • whose mother lost Indian status upon back to a historic Métis community, as well marrying a non-Indian man Saddle Lake First Nation’s as self-identify with the Métis community • whose father is a non-Indian; Nellie Carlson, who lives and demonstrate an ancestral connection • who was born after the mother lost in Edmonton, was one of to the historic Métis community. several women who formed Indian status but before April 17, 1985, the organization Indian Rights unless the individual’s parents married The individual must also be accepted by for Indian Women in 1971 to each other prior to that date; and the contemporary community, the core of change the discriminatory section of the Indian Act after • who had a child with a non-Indian on which is a past and ongoing participation she married and lost her treaty or after September 4, 1951. and shared culture and traditions that rights. “It took us 23 years to constitute a Métis community and work for Bill C-31. We never As a result, a child of someone in these distinguish it from other groups. asked for compensation. We circumstances is entitled to be registered were not looking for fame, but as an Indian. In the Daniels v. Canada, the federal just to get recognized as treaty Indians. We were looking to trial court case found in 2013, that Métis Métis: The Métis National Council defines help our children,” she says.11 and non-Status First Nations people are Métis as “a person who self-identifies as Photograph reprinted from “Indians” under the Constitution Act, Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal Disinherited Generations: Our 1867. The case has been appealed to the Struggle to Reclaim Treaty Rights peoples, is of historic Métis Nation for First Nations Women and their Federal Court of Appeal. Descendents, University of Alberta ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Press (Edmonton, AB 2012). Nation.” There are more than 96,000 Métis people living in Alberta, the largest Métis Métis people were for many years population of all the Canadian provinces, refused political recognition by the federal government, under Section 91 (24) of the Inuit: Inuit peoples are those of northern Constitution Act 1867. However, Métis Canada, who live primarily in Nunavut, people received recognition as Aboriginal the Northwest Territories, Labrador, and peoples in the Constitution Act of 1982. northern Quebec. Inuit peoples also live in Greenland, Russia and Alaska.12

10 11 Disinherited Generations; Our Struggle to Reclaim Treaty Rights for First Nations Women and their Descendents, Nellie Carlson and Kathleen Steinhauer as told to Linda Goyette, (The University of Alberta Press, 2012). 12 Glossary paraphrased from Kainai Board of Education, Métis Nation of Alberta, Northland School Division, Tribal Chiefs Institute of Treaty Six. Aboriginal Studies 10: Aboriginal Perspectives (Edmonton: Duval House Publishing Inc., 2004). ChapterFirst Nations Peoples 4 and Treaties

Treaties are sacred foundational also dealt with matters such as Adhesions to Treaties documents for First Nations peoples. schools on reserves, teachers, or We often hear First Nations talk about educational help to the First Nation “Are the terms good forever? As long honouring treaty rights, and their that signed treaties. Not all treaties as the sun shines on us? Because strong ties to the Crown. In order to are exactly the same. For example, there are orphans we must consider, so that there will be nothing to be gain a greater understanding of the Treaty No. 6 included a clause about thrown up to us by our people past and present lives of First Nations a medicine chest. afterwards. We want a written treaty, peoples, it is important to gain an one copy to be given to us so we know There are different interpretations of understanding of the relationship of what we sign for. Are you willing to what the signing of the treaties meant. give means to instruct children as long First Nations peoples to treaties and For most First Nations, treaties were as the sun shines and water flows, treaty rights. so that our children will grow up ever viewed as establishing a peaceful increasing in knowledge?” In the Canadian West and North, coexistence where land would be between 1871 and 1921, the Crown shared, not given away. Chief Kinosayoo, during the signing of Treaty 8. entered into treaties with various First Alberta has three main treaty areas: Nations that enabled the Canadian government to actively pursue Treaty 6 agriculture, settlement, and resource • Signed at Carlton and Fort Pitt in Treaty adhesions are agreements development. Because they are 1876 signed with First Nations who were numbered 1 to 11, the treaties are • Covers central Alberta and not present at the original treaty often referred to as the “numbered Saskatchewan negotiations. From the First Nations’ treaties.” They cover northern Ontario, • Includes 17 First Nations perspective, adhesions are as Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and significant as the treaties because, Alberta, as well as portions of the Treaty 7 like the original treaties, they created Yukon, Northwest Territories, and • Signed at the Blackfoot Crossing an ongoing relationship with the British Columbia. of Bow River and Fort McLeod in Crown. Adhesions signed with First 1877 Nations throughout the areas, dealt Under these treaties, the First Nations • Covers southern Alberta with the initial treaty negotiations. who occupied these territories gave • Includes 7 First Nations up large areas of land to the Crown. Numerous adhesions were made to In exchange, the treaties provided Treaty 8 Treaty 6 between 1877 and 1889, and for such things as reserve lands and • Signed at Lesser Slave Lake and several more were made between other benefits like farm equipment Fort Chipewyan in 1899 1944 and 1956. Four adhesions were and animals, annual payments, • Covers parts of northern Alberta, made to Treaty 8 over the first year.13 ammunition, clothing, and certain British Columbia, Saskatchewan, rights to hunt and fish. The Crown and the Northwest Territories • Includes 25 First Nations 13 Kainai Board of Education, Métis Nation of Alberta, Northland School Division, Tribal Chiefs Institute of Treaty Six. Aboriginal Studies 20: Peoples 11 and Cultural Change (Edmonton: Duval House Publishing Inc., 2005). LifeChapter for First Nations Peoples 5 After Signing the Treaties

As mentioned earlier, the land had a that would have deep and long-lasting

“The great aim of our great influence on the First Nations’ way impacts upon First Nations across Canada legislation has been to do of life and also determined how they was introduced. The Indian Act was a away with the tribal system governed themselves. Those who lived consolidation of regulations that impacted and assimilate the Indian in the warmer, more open plains, like First Nations peoples living throughout the people in all respects with the other inhabitants of the the Blackfoot Confederacy, had highly country. Dominion as speedily as they structured organizations. are fit to change.” The act allowed the Department of Indian The members of the First Nations Affairs to intervene in a wide variety of John A. Macdonald, 1887 worked together to harvest buffalo and internal band issues and make sweeping gathered for ceremonies, and they had a policy decisions, such as determining decentralized power base with different who was an Indian. Under the act, the types of leaders so that, for example, the Department would also manage Indian leader during times of peace was often lands, resources, and moneys; control different from the leader who took over access to intoxicants; and promote during times of conflict. “civilization.” The Indian Act was based on the premise that it was the Crown’s In Alberta’s north, Dene Tha’, Dene responsibility to care for and protect the Suliné, Dunne-za, and Woodland Cree interests of First Nations. It would carry out peoples hunted game such as moose and this responsibility by acting as a “guardian” caribou. This could not be done in, nor until such time as First Nations could fully could it sustain, large groups. As a result, integrate into Canadian society. northerners lived in smaller, extended family groups, each with its own leader. The federal government intended to teach That’s why there are more First Nations First Nations peoples to live the way reserves in the northern part of the Europeans lived and to assimilate them province. into society. Indian agents had the job of enforcing the rules. In general, First Nations took an egalitarian approach to governance. They valued Indian agents appointed by the consensus, co-operation, sharing, and government held all the legal power on taking a holistic view. reserves. Sent to administer the reserves and people living on reserves, they had The way of life of First Nations peoples sweeping powers ranging from control changed dramatically with the signing of First Nations’ movement to control of of the treaties and enactment of the agricultural equipment and expenditures Indian Act in 1876. While treaties were by the band. being negotiated in the West, legislation 12 “Every Indian or other person who engages in… any Indian festival dance or other ceremony of which the giving away of paying or giving back of money, goods or articles of any sort forms… and every Indian or other person who engages or assists in any celebration or dance of which the wounding or mutilation of the dead or living body of any human being or animal forms a part of is guilty of an indictable offence.”

Indian agents were responsible for The Indian Act outlawed traditional Section 114 of the Indian Act assigning housing, making sure children activities such as giveaways, and the as amended in 1895 went to school, seeing that First Nations spiritual practice of the sun dance. members started farming, and giving Under the Indian Act, the federal permission to Indian peoples to leave the government also implemented the reserve. Their power undermined that of residential school system. Designed to traditional leaders. promote assimilation by removing children Indian agents also introduced a pass from their families and traditional way of system that required First Nations peoples life, the residential school system led, in living on reserves to get the Indian agents’ many cases, to loss of identity, culture, written permission to leave the reserve. language, parenting and traditional First Nations peoples who did not live skills and self-esteem. It resulted in on the reserve needed a pass to visit. intergenerational trauma, affecting Although the pass system was never thousands of individuals and numerous legislated, it was enforced until the1940s. communities. It is believed that the pass system The residential school system is a dark benefited the agents and the government legacy in the education of First Nations by preventing First Nations peoples from peoples. In addition to being isolated from gathering and forming alliances, making their families, communities, culture, and it difficult for parents to visit children in language, there were numerous cases of residential schools and making it less likely physical and sexual abuse. that they would break the ban on some ceremonies. 13 From the 1880s to the 1990s, First For six years at St. Bernard Mission Nations children were sent to federally residential school in Grouard, I wasn’t funded, church-operated Indian allowed to speak Cree or talk to my residential schools, most often far away sisters. To support the school, we from their parents and their homes. children did many chores that took us away from the classroom. I went home Approximately 150,000 First Nations every summer for two months, but children attended residential schools others stayed at the school year-round. across Canada. The adults could punish us whenever they wanted, which they often did. It was Alberta had 25 Indian residential a lonely and frightening life. Our parents schools—the most of any province in could be put in jail if they tried to keep us Canada. Author Larry Loyie at home. At 13 years of age, I felt joy to be Recently, the Canadian government and Excerpted from “The Healing, a Memoir released from the prison-like school. I for Four Voices” dramatic performance several churches have issued apologies had wanted to get a good education. by Larry Loyie and Company, 2000 to the people who attended these This didn’t happen, as most of the schools. Canada also established The “In my early childhood, I lived a teachers were not trained. I did have one traditional Cree life in the forests of educated teacher, Sister Theresa, who Truth and Reconciliation Commission northern Alberta. My grandfather inspired me to continue learning. I am of Canada to document and inform all grateful to her. Edward Twin taught me how to live a Canadians about what really happened good way of life. I shared his love for The history of residential schools must in residential schools and the impacts nature and all that I was learning about be known to ensure the future human our culture. At nine years of age, I was the schools had on Aboriginal peoples. rights of Canadian children. Residential called Oskiniko or ‘young man’ because schools no longer exist, but they must I had already learned many of the skills not be forgotten. Although the residential needed by Aboriginal people to survive school system destroyed many families and live independent lives. I was going to and too many lives, they did not destroy a public school in Slave Lake, the nearby our cultures. Today, school programs town, speaking English, and learning to and curriculum teach positive aspects read and write. of the Aboriginal way of life. I can now At the age of eight, I lost this beautiful talk openly about residential school. way of life when I was forced to leave The truth is out, and I am hopeful my family to attend a residential school. about the future. The children are being I was one of more than 150,000 remembered and honoured at last.” Aboriginal children who experienced these schools across Canada.

14 Chapter 6 Land Claims and Governance

While land claims are a federal Alberta is a leader in Canada in Comprehensive claims are based responsibility, Alberta has a settling land claims, settling 12 since on the recognition that there are constitutional obligation under 1986. continuing Aboriginal rights to lands the Natural Resources Transfer and natural resources. Specific In 1973, the federal government Agreement (Constitution Act, 1930) claims deal with specific grievances recognized two broad classes of to transfer unoccupied Crown lands that First Nations may have regarding claims: comprehensive and specific. back to Canada to settle claims. the fulfillment of existing treaties.

Bigstone Treaty Land Entitlement The end result was two agreements: • Alberta provided $28 million, as well one between Canada and Bigstone, as compensation to construct two Bigstone Cree Nation signed Treaty 8 and one between Canada and Alberta. new elementary schools in Peerless in 1899 and was provided with reserve Under the terms of the agreements: Lake and Trout Lake. land based on population surveys. In 1981, Bigstone claimed that the nation • New reserves totalling 140,000 • Canada contributed $220 million, had not been given as much land as it acres were set aside for Bigstone which included funds for catch-up was entitled to based on the 1913 and (including Chipewyan Lake and infrastructure, in addition to a 1937 population surveys. The federal Calling Lake) and for a new First commitment to construct a new high government accepted the claim in 1998 Nation composed of the Peerless school and health centre for the new and negotiations began that resulted in Lake and Trout Lake communities. Peerless Trout First Nation. the largest treaty land entitlement claim in Alberta being signed in 2010.

In 2010, Canada, Alberta, and the Bigstone Cree Nation (including the communities of Peerless Lake, Trout Lake, Chipewyan Lake, and Calling Lake) finalized the largest treaty land entitlement claim in Alberta.

Alberta was involved in the Bigstone negotiations since 1998 when the claim was accepted by Canada for negotiation. The parties reached an agreement in principle in 2007 and final agreement in 2010.

Bigstone Treaty signing ceremony 2010

14 Kainai Board of Education, Métis Nation of Alberta, Northland School Division, Tribal Chiefs Institute of Treaty Six. Aboriginal Studies 30: 15 Contemporary Issues (Edmonton: Duval House Publishing Inc., 2005), 67–68. Moving Forward • Public works such as water treatment Right to Vote and delivery, road building, and Since the 1970s, First Nation councils maintenance First Nations peoples did not have had more administrative control and • Housing always enjoy full citizenship in communities have had the power to make Canada. For example, while • Economic development Canadians had the right to more decisions. Education, public health, • Education, training, and employment vote, First Nations peoples band administration, and reserve roads • Finance could only vote if they chose now fall under the authority of chiefs and • Treaty rights to give up their treaty rights councils. However, although they can and Indian status. • Government and industry relations pass bylaws, the bylaws must have federal It wasn’t until 1960 that First approval.14 Chief and council are supported by an Nations peoples were granted administration that takes care of the the right to vote in federal First Nation councils are elected. Some day-to-day operations of the First Nation elections in Canada, without First Nations follow the Indian Act, holding having to give up their treaty community. A chief executive officer rights and Indian status. First elections by secret ballot every two years. oversees the administration, which Nations were able to vote in Others have custom elections with their includes departments such as finance, provincial elections in Alberta own rules. For example, the Kainai and human resources, health, economic in 1964. Piikani First Nations hold elections every development, public works, education, 15 They began to emerge four years. and social development. as a people who could influence who was elected Elders remain important in First Nation First Nations with mutual interests to their federal and provincial governments as a source of advice and sometimes group together to form tribal governments and could guidance. One example is the Kainai exercise their right to make councils. The councils provide member political choices, like all other Council of Elders, which is available nations with advisory services on topics Canadians. for consultation and is influential in like economic development and financial 16 decision-making. management, and other services and Chief Frank Halcrow, of the Kapawe’no programs. They are accountable to First Nation, is the last of the hereditary their members rather than to the federal chiefs of Alberta. government. There are seven tribal councils in Alberta.17 First Nations also join Some responsibilities of chief and council in provincial treaty organizations. There include: are three provincial treaty organizations and each represents all of the First • Governance Nation communities within a treaty area. • Community services like health, The overall mandate of these three recreation, and culture organizations is to promote and protect their respective treaties. 15 Contemporary Issues, 70. 16 16 Contemporary Issues, 71. 17 Contemporary Issues, 71. Alberta’s First Nations are building Fort McKay Group of Companies began opportunities for their members; practising over 25 years ago with a single janitorial Excellence in Health good governance; and improving their contract and now offers long-term Services communities socially, economically, contracts in heavy equipment operations, The Bigstone Health Centre and culturally. In general, economic warehouse logistics, road and grounds is just one example of the development for Alberta’s First Nations maintenance, bulk fuel and lube delivery, infrastructure First Nations peoples varies from community to and land-leasing operations. The company provide for their members. The centre is a first-class community. Some communities, like employs approximately 500 people. health facility implemented Fort McKay First Nation, located in the by the Bigstone Health heart of the oil sands, operate Commission working together multi-million-dollar businesses. The with band leadership. Serving the communities of Bigstone Cree Nation, it offers nursing; home care; maternal and child health, fitness, and wellness; dental; and industrial medical services.

At the 2011 Wabasca Treaty Days, Cliff Gladue has his blood pressure checked by a Bigstone Health Centre worker. (Photograph by Dianne Meili)

17 TheChapter Past Shows the Way7

Nowhere is the fact that Aboriginal Cree-ness—my beliefs, values, The Cree are one of the largest First culture is thriving more evident than in and the knowledge my own elders Nations in Canada and have one of the way First Nations, Métis, and Inuit shared with me as a young man—has the largest geographical distributions, youth are reclaiming who they are. survived. What hasn’t killed it, has extending from Alberta to Québec. As they learn about historic realities, only made it stronger.” In the past, The Plains Cree and Woodland such as residential schools, and the dominant society misunderstood Cree are the two groups in Alberta. how their families are affected, they Aboriginal culture and enforced Historically they were much the same, counteract the dark repression of the laws that devalued it, or quashed it sharing a language and customs, past with vibrant creativity. They’re altogether. As a result, many First but they lived differently because not afraid to put a contemporary Nations, Métis, and Inuit people of their environments. For instance, spin on old traditions, giving to the rejected tradition, thinking more Woodland Cree built their houses out world such innovations as powwow avenues would be open to them if of birch bark while Plains Cree used dubstep, round dance songs with they simply assimilated. Now the buffalo hide to build tipis.18 Facebook references in the lyrics, pendulum is swinging the other way— Entrepreneurial at heart, the Cree bannock burger food trucks in and the cultural groups presented played a role in the fur trade as downtown Edmonton, and intricate below are intact and continue to voyageurs, hunters, and trappers. beadwork on high-fashion evening make this province richer and more Because many Cree women married wear. diverse by their presence. European fur traders, Métis culture Whether it’s young women learning Here is an overview of the First often shares elements of Cree to craft birch-bark baskets at Treaty Nations cultural groups in Alberta, culture. Days in Fort McKay, boys invited presented in order of largest Population on First Nations to sit and drum for the first time at population to smallest. Today, there are 32 federally a practice before the Lac La Biche recognized Cree First Nations in Powwow, or adults learning to Cree Alberta. The reserves are located in speak Tsuu T’ina Gunaha (language) Nehiyaw (Real People) the Treaty 6 and Treaty 8 areas. from a picture book assembled History by a community elder, committed The population of Cree nations Cree people call themselves individuals and groups ensure the varies; the smaller reserves have Nehiyawak—a two-part word that values and skills of the past continue a few hundred people while the breaks down to mean the sacred to show the way into the future. larger nations have more than 7,000 number four (newo) and “the original members. Jerry Wood, an elder from Saddle healers” (iyiniw). Traditionalists refer Lake, says his culture has carried to themselves as “four directions Language Family him through disease, oppression, people.” Cree is a language in the Algonquian poverty, and hardship. “So, my family. Plains Cree and Woodland

18 18 “ Cree Indian Fact Sheet”, at http://www.bigorrin.org/cree_kids.htm, accessed August 16, 2013. Cree have their own dialects, economic, social, and cultural ways Some place names in Alberta that which, while different, are mutually and activities. Visit their websites and come from the Cree language are: understood. search the name of the First Nation to • Fort Chipewyan – named for the learn more. Social and Economic Activities Cree word for the Chipewyan Cree nations are socially and Did You Know? people, which means “pointed economically diverse. Communities Among the Plains Cree, when a skins.” It referred to how the located close to resources child was born, his or her parents Chipewyans prepared beaver like oil sands and timber have prepared food, bought lengths of pelts. enthusiastically developed companies cloth, filled the ceremonial pipe, and • Wetaskiwin – an adaptation to extract or harvest them, or provide called in an old man. Many people of the Cree word wi-ta-ski-oo services to existing industry. For came into the tipi to watch. They told ch-ka-tin-ow, meaning “place (or instance, Mikisew Cree First Nation the old man what they wanted and hill) of peace.” in Fort Chipewyan has built a highly gave him the cloth and pipe. The successful group of companies that old man lit the pipe and put it down, Blackfoot Confederacy services the oil sands industry. then talked to the Creator and to the Niitsítapi (Real People) Spirit that taught him to give names. The Sawridge Group of Companies After singing a song, he asked for the was founded by the Sawridge History baby and gave it a name, begging Cree First Nation of Slave Lake, The Kainai (Blood), Piikani (Peigan), the Creator to give it good luck so Alberta. The first enterprise was the and Siksika nations in Alberta and that it would grow up and become construction of a hotel at the Blackfeet Nation in Montana, old. He asked the Spirit that gave him Slave Lake, in 1972. Ten years later in a division of the Piikani, form the the power to give names to be the 1982, a parcel of land was acquired Blackfoot Confederacy. Historically guardian of that child. Then the child from Parks Canada and the tradition they were a single group that lived was passed around the people until it continued with the construction of in large, clan-based groups on the reached its mother. As they held the a second hotel in Jasper National plains and in the foothills. Today they child, the men and women expressed Park. The Sawridge Group of are closely allied. a good wish for the baby. Companies consists of various real The culture of the Blackfoot estate holdings, land developments, Confederacy is traditionally linked to retail and service businesses and the buffalo, both economically and an additional three hotels, namely spiritually.20 Historically they used Fort McMurray, Peace River, and piskans or buffalo jumps near foothill Edmonton.19 streams, like the one that can be seen Most First Nations discussed in at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump this booklet have websites outlining Centre near Fort Macleod.

19 ”About Sawridge Group”, at http://www.sawridge.com/about-sawridge-group.aspx 19 20 Aboriginal Perspectives, 24. Population provides employment and opportunities Discovering the Blackfoot Located in the southern part of the for education, training, and mentorship for Nation province, the three Blackfoot Confederacy Kainai First Nation members.23 nations are all relatively large in terms of A trip to the world-class As on many reserves, band-owned Blackfoot Crossing Historical population. Piikani First Nation has more facilities provide members with necessary Park in southern Alberta than 3,500 members,21 Siksika Nation services as well as opportunities to engage takes visitors into the past. has more than 6,000 members, and Modern exhibits tell the in traditional practices. For instance, the Kainai First Nation has more than 11,000 story of the Siksika culture Siksika Nation has a sportsplex, college, through storytelling, video, members, making it one of the largest First daycare centre, and health and wellness lighting, sound, and design. Nations in Canada. The Blackfeet Nation centre as well as an elders’ lodge, Outdoors there are historic in northwestern Montana is also large, with sites, including the Last Tipi medicine lodge, men’s lodge, and a place more than 16,500 enrolled members.22 Site, Chief Crowfoot’s final for holding powwows.24 campsite, and Blackfoot Language Family Crossing, where Treaty 7 Did You Know? was signed. In the summer, The Blackfoot language is part of the The Blackfoot and Cree were often at war, visitors can take in live Algonquian language family. demonstrations of activities and although adoptions were common like smoking meat, or spend Social and Economic Activities among Plains people, heads turned when 26 the night in a tipi. Ranching and farming have long been the great Siksika Chief Crowfoot adopted important economic activities for the a young Cree warrior, Poundmaker, who Blackfoot, and still are today. These would later become a famous leader in First Nations have also operated other his own right. Poundmaker reminded businesses with varying degrees of Crowfoot’s wife of a son the couple success, including an operation fabricating had lost, and so they brought him into jeans. their family circle. It was an alliance that prevented some bloodshed. The Blood Tribe Agricultural Project, a community-owned project on the Kainai The Blackfoot Confederacy has reserve, is successful. Established in 1991, collaborated with the Government of it provides water to about 10,000 hectares Alberta on tourism projects such as of farmland and produces hay for export to Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park and other countries, including the U.S., Japan, Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, an Korea, and the Middle East. The project UNESCO World Heritage Site.

21 Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Registered Population, at http://pse5-esd5.ainc-inac.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/ FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=436&lang=eng, accessed January 10, 2013. 22 Interview with Allan Pard, January 2013. 23 Aboriginal Perspectives, 204. 20 24 “History of Siksika Nation”, at http://siksikanation.com/mainhistory.html, accessed October 27, 2013. 25 “Blackfoot Indian Fact Sheet”, at http://www.bigorrin.org/blackfoot_kids.htm, accessed October 27, 2012. Beverly Hungry Wolf, a Kanai author, Tsuu T’ina, and Dunne-za. These Population renews herself in ceremony every groups share similar spiritual beliefs The Dene Suliné reside close to year, on the Mookoanssin (Belly and social organization as well as a the Saskatchewan border. Buttes), a sacred site for her people. similar language from the Athapaskan Cold Lake First Nations’ reserve land She preserves valuable stories of language family, but historically they is located in the Treaty 6 area, 300 the Buffalo Days, especially those of had differing relationships to the land kilometres northeast of Edmonton. women, in her books The Ways of and are unique from one another as The registered population is 2,635 My Grandmothers and Daughters of a result.27 (December 2012)29, with about half the Buffalo Women. She also teaches living on reserve. Chipewyan Prairie The Dene and the Navajo in the Blackfoot in a Head Start program. Dene First Nation is in the Treaty southwest U.S. share the same 8 area and has a membership of The word “Blackfoot” is the English language group. about 800.30 Athabasca Chipewyan translation of “siksika”, meaning First Nation is located in northern “black foot.” A version of the origin of Dene Suliné Alberta near Lake Athabasca and the word indicates that it referred to (de-nay-soong-lin-ay) has a registered population of 1,071 the dark-coloured soles of moccasins 31 History (December 2012). the people wore, perhaps because Dene Suliné is the contemporary they crossed over land that had been Social and Economic Activities name for the cultural group formerly scorched by fire.25 Economic activities have changed identified as the Chipewyan. Their over time. For example, families on Some Alberta place names that traditional territory was the boreal the Cold Lake reserve practised come from the Blackfoot language forest and waters covering a large agriculture in the form of cereal are: area in the Northwest Territories, crops and cattle production for  Medicine Hat – the translation of Nunavut, and northeastern Alberta. many years. They had horses and saamis, which means “medicine” Living and migrating in family groups, eventually purchased a steam engine  Ponoka – Blackfoot for “elk” they hunted caribou, wood buffalo, and caterpillar to help with farming.32 and waterfowl and caught fish. The Today, after a period of high Dene Dene Suliné began trading with the unemployment, they practise some Europeans when the Hudson’s Bay In Alberta, four groups identify as agriculture and the nation owns a Company opened in Fort Churchill.28 Dene: Dene Suliné, Dene Tha’, number of other businesses including Casino Dene, a forestry product

26 "Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park", at http://www.blackfootcrossing.ca, accessed February 5, 2013. 27 Canadian Heritage, Government of Canada,eCulture, at http://eculture.pagc.sk.ca/eculture.php?pid=DeneSuliné &tp=slnk&language=&ver= accessed December 30, 2012. 28 Aboriginal Perspectives, 25–26. 29 Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC), Registered Population, at http://pse5-esd5.ainc-inac.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/ FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=464&lang=eng, accessed January 10, 2013. 30 AANDC, at http://pse5-esd5.ainc-inac.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=470&lang=eng, accessed December 30, 2012. 31 AANDC, at http://pse5-esd5.ainc-inac.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=463&lang=eng, accessed January 10, 2013. 21 32 John N.A. Janvier, “The Dene Suliné of Cold Lake-Parchment,” at http://www.clfns.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=18&It emid=31, accessed, December 30, 2012. operation, and the Primco Dene students trapping, fishing, gardening, Social and Economic Activities Group of Companies, which services and crafts.36 The Dene Tha’ First Nation, like all the oil industry. other First Nations, takes care of the Dene Tha’ social needs of nation members. Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation (de-nay-thah) Facilities include a K–12 school, continues to keep the traditional (People Common to the Territory, or health centre, nursing station, and activities of hunting, trapping, Common Peoples)37 three public works buildings, one gathering, and fishing central to the on each reserve. Municipal services community’s way of life.33 As of 2006, History provided by the nation include water, Chipewyan Prairie Dene First Nation The contemporary name for the sewer, and fire. Social services are engaged in some agriculture and cultural group also known as the also available. These include home manufacturing activities.34 Slavey, Dene Tha’ means “simple care for adults and a children’s people.” Their homeland includes 38 Did You Know? centre. the Caribou Mountains and Hay The Dene Suliné were a matriarchal River regions of Alberta, and the Economic activities include society at one time, with women people traditionally went far into the businesses in small engine repair, taxi playing a central role.35 Northwest Territories for hunting. service, home building, and electrical This culture was well known for art, They typically stayed in woodland services. Chateh (Assumption) and it still is. Artist Alex Janvier, the areas even when caribou could be also benefits economically by the late actor Jimmy Herman, and singer/ found in abundance on the barrens, presence of a gas station / food songwriter Thomas Piche are all Dene and they were skilled at hunting, store; a laundromat, bottle depot, and Suliné. trapping, and fishing. coffee shop; natural gas distribution; and a construction company.39 The Dene Suliné are working with the Population University of Alberta on programs The Dene Tha’ live in northwestern Did You Know? to help ensure the language and Alberta on three reserves: Chateh Tea dances are still held in the traditional knowledge is retained, (Assumption), Meander River, and three Dene Tha’ communities of including cultural camps that teach Bushe River. Approximately 1,800 Bushe River, Assumption, and members live on these Dene Tha’ Meander River, though not as often reserves while about 600 live off the as they used to be. reserve.

33 Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation, at http://www.acfn.com/#!about-us/cz60, accessed December 30, 2012. 34 Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC), Workforce Statistics, at http://pse5-esd5.ainc-inac.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/ FNWorkforce.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=470&lang=eng, accessed December 30, 2012. 35 http://www.coldlakefirstnations.ca/ecdev/node/15, accessed December 30, 2012. 36 Aboriginal Perspectives, 84. 37 Dene Tha’, at http://www.denetha.ca, accessed December 26, 2012. 22 38 Dene Tha’, at http://www.denetha.ca, accessed December 26, 2012. 39 Dene Tha’, at http://www.denetha.ca, accessed December 26, 2012. “It’s hard to get people together for the Cree and Nakoda moved into the a tea dance today,” says artist and province. As a result, the languages of spiritual leader Roy Salopree of the the Tsuu T’ina and the Dunne-za are Meander River First Nation (part now quite different. Originally the Tsuu of the Dene Tha Nation). He tells T’ina lived in the north, but they later people that the next best thing to adopted a Blackfoot Plains lifestyle having a tea dance is to put tobacco, revolving around the buffalo. Today moose grease, and tea on the fire, as the Tsuu T’ina and the Treaty 7 First offerings or prayers to the Creator. Nations have a close relationship.

Nogha (pronounced No-ah), of Population northern Alberta, was Ndátin—a Tsuu T’ina First Nation has 2,038 Dreamer. Today, few Dene Tha’ registered members (December are old enough to have seen him 2012)41 , most of whom live on lead a tea dance in the 1920s, but the reserve adjacent to Calgary’s most have heard of this legendary southwest border. spiritual leader. Nogha would call a Social and Economic Activities tea dance, before a moose hunt to Tsuu T’ina First Nation has taken ask the Creator for good weather advantage of the reserve’s urban and success in killing animals, and location to build its economy. The it might also be held after the hunt Photograph by Scott Sehested reserve has the usual infrastructure, in thanksgiving. People recall Nogha and also owns a golf course and the always urging the people to get up Tsuu T’ina highly successful Grey Eagle Casino. and dance, and to be thankful for (tsotli’na) (Earth People) what they had, and for each other. History Did You Know? “As you leave your footprints in the Tsuu T’ina is the contemporary name In a traditional Tsuu T’ina wedding, dirt around the tea dance circle, you of the cultural group once known as the boy and girl feed each other are making your trail to heaven,” the Sarcee, a Blackfoot word. They berries to represent the boy’s duty Nogha would say. were closely allied with the Blackfoot to provide and the girl’s duty to feed Confederacy. They are related to the him. They tie eagle feathers in each Dunne-za in northern Alberta, but the other’s hair to acknowledge the eagle two groups have lived separately for will be the quide and protector of their marriage. a long time; they may have split when

41 AANDC, Registered Population, at http://pse5-esd5.ainc-inac.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=432&lang=eng, accessed January 10, 2013. 23 Dunne-za Population and Communities into two branches, one of which (da-nay-za) (Pure People) The Dunne-za reside in northwest continued the woodlands lifestyle. Alberta, near the Peace River. Members of the Paul and Alexis History Nakota Sioux nations descend Dunne-za is the contemporary Nakoda from these people. The other group name of the Beaver people, and adopted the Plains culture of hunting the members of the Dunne-za call History buffalo, and members of Stoney themselves Chatay or beaver people. The Nakoda have also been referred Nakoda First Nation near Morley are They traditionally lived along the to as the Stoney, Assiniboine, and their descendants.44 Peace River in northern Alberta. Nakota, and Paul First Nation in Expert hunters and trappers, they Alberta prefers the name Stoney.43 Population lived in small family groups, with Once part of the Yanktonai Sioux, Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation and Paul group size changing as food supplies who lived between the Mississippi First Nation are in the Treaty 6 area changed. These small groups would River and Lake Superior, the Nakoda in the western part of the province. get together in larger groups for separated in the early 17th century Stoney Nakoda First Nation (which ceremonies and other social events.42 and moved north. They moved west includes the Bearspaw, Chiniki, during the fur trade and later split and Wesley First Nations) is located

Casinos Provide Economic Benefit The First Nations Development Fund is a municipalities to provide roads, and provincial government grant program that utilities services. Casinos have provided First Nations is supported in part from the revenues across Canada and the U.S. with from government-owned slot machines economic benefits that help reduce in First Nations casinos. First Nations socio-economic disparities between First communities can apply to the program Nations and other communities while for funding for economic, social, and contributing to the provincial economy. community development projects. Alberta has five First Nation-owned casinos: Stoney Nakoda Resort and Since its inception in 2005, up to 2013, Casino, located between Calgary, the First Nations Development Fund has Canmore, and Banff; Casino Dene, owned paid out more than $600 million.45 by Cold Lake First Nations; the Eagle River Casino, owned by Alexis Nakota Sioux The First Nation casinos also contribute to Nation; the Tsuu T’ina’s Grey Eagle Casino local economies. They employ hundreds in Calgary; and Enoch Cree Nation’s River of people throughout the province; Cree Casino in Edmonton. purchase various good and services from local businesses; and partner with

42 Dunne-za, athttp://knowbc.com/limited/Books/Encyclopedia-of-BC/D/Dunne-za, accessed August 16, 2013. 43 Aboriginal Perspectives, IX. 44 Aboriginal Perspectives, 27.. 45 Government of Alberta, First Nations Development Fund at http://www.aboriginal.alberta.ca/895.cfm. 24 in Treaty 7, west of Calgary. As of The round dance of the Nakoda was language family. About 70 percent December 2012, Alexis Nakota Sioux once a healing ceremony that evolved of people living on the reserve speak Nation had 1,796 members, Paul First into a social occasion. It is said that Saulteaux, and most can understand Nation had 1,989 members, and the relatives who have passed away Cree and English. Children learn their Stoney Nakoda First Nation had a dance with participants of a round traditional language in daycare, in a population of 5,189.46 dance. The dance itself mimics the Head Start program, and in school. movement of the Northern Lights, Chief and council conduct business in Language Family which the Nakoda believe are the Saulteaux. Nakoda is a language in the Siouan spirits of loved ones who have died.49 language family. Social and Economic Activities The O’Chiese First Nation has many Social and Economic Activities Anishinabe community resources that benefit Like other First Nations cultures, (a-nish-na-bay) members, including a pre-school to the Nakoda engage in a variety of History Grade 12 school, an adult upgrading social and economic activities. For The Anishinabe or Saulteaux are a program, a daycare, a pool hall, example, a golf course and a gas branch of the Ojibway nations. They a public works building, a store, a station / convenience store contribute came to Alberta from the Eastern health centre, a dental clinic, and to the economy of Paul First Nation, Woodlands, in the Sault Ste. Marie a fire hall. The nation also provides while Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation region, in the late 1700s. Originally cultural programs, including sun has a store, casino, and gas station they settled in Manitoba, eventually dances and round dances. and is involved in oilfield service and moving further west, where their forestry.47 To help its members and the lifestyle changed to one of buffalo community succeed, O’Chiese First Did You Know? hunting. Nation offers training opportunities in Among the Sioux, and in other Population heavy equipment, management, early tribes, speech between father-in-law The Anishinabe population in childhood development, security, and and daughter-in-law, and between Alberta is small. O’Chiese First more. mother-in-law and son-in-law was Nation, located in the Treaty 6 area, strictly prohibited. Conversation was Leadership has created a business northwest of Rocky Mountain House allowed between the two men and investment centre and established is primarily made up of Anishinabe between the two women, but only in a number of ventures to create and Cree members and around 1,000 the third person plural and in a soft economic stability. These include people live on the reserve. tone of voice, to show respect. They a gas bar, a truck stop, and a never spoke directly to each other, Language Family sand and gravel company.50 The but always in a roundabout fashion.48 Saulteaux is in the Algonquian community has also built low-rent

46 http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/showresults?openagent, accessed January 10, 2013. 47 Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation, at http://www.alexisnakotasioux.com/default.aspx?ID=5-2, accessed January 3, 2013. 48 Land of the Nakoda, James L. Long, Montana Historical Society and Riverbend Publishing 49 Alexis Nakota Sioux Nation, at http://www.alexisnakotasioux.com/default.aspx?ID=3-5, accessed January 3, 2013. 50 “Essential Programs,” at http://www.ochiese.ca/Essential-Programs/http://www.ochiese.ca/Essential-Programs/, accessed December 27, 2012 25 off-reserve housing in Edmonton In the early 1970s, the Province and Red Deer for members pursuing established co-ops/enterprises to post-secondary education. hold land parcels for the use of the descendants of the people who had Did You Know? been forced to leave the Jasper area. There is no word in the traditional Co-operatives and enterprises hold Anishinabe language for “saving” a fee simple title to the parcels of because the idea goes against the land. They also have legal authority to value of sharing.51 manage their affairs. Tommy Wanyandie52 Aseniwuche Winewak Nation To advance the socioeconomic (Photograph by Dianne Meili) of Canada circumstances of the people and deal (Rocky Mountain People) with the challenges that continued Grande Cache, Hinton, and the to be created by development, Willmore Wilderness backcountry. Aseniwuche Winewak Nation is not a including the impacts on their His knowledge is of great value to First Nation under the Indian Act but traditional lifestyle, the six co-ops and the Aseniwuche Winewak Nation of rather a society under the Provincial enterprises joined as Aseniwuche Canada because he can point out Societies Act. Most of its members Winewak Nation, a representative graves and old camps of Aboriginal are non-status. Many of the people body, in 1994. people that mark traditional land are descendants of Cree people and requiring protection from industrial also of Iroquois people who travelled Tommy Wanyandie is a guide development. west with the fur trade. and outfitter in the areas around

Their traditional territory covered Jasper north to Grande Prairie and from McBride east to Lac Ste. Anne. In 1907, they were forced to leave the Jasper area when the national park was created.

The people lived a traditional life in the Grande Cache area, providing for themselves through hunting, trapping, and gathering. Life changed when development reached their area in the late 1960s.

51 Aboriginal Perspectives, 75. 26 52 Meili, Dianne. Those Who Know: Profiles of Alberta's Aboriginal Elders, Landmark Edition. (Edmonton: NeWest Press, 2012). Chapter 8 First Nations Historical Context

1763 – Royal Proclamation is made compulsory. By the 1930s, 1969 – The Unjust Society The King of England acknowledges there are 80 schools across the Albertan and Cree activist Harold that indigenous people have country. Cardinal responds to the white paper Aboriginal title over their land, with a book that mobilizes First 1960 – First Nations Vote recognizes them as nations, and Nations to take action and plays a The federal government gives First declares a special relationship role in the government’s eventual Nations peoples the right to vote in between First Nations and the Crown. withdrawal of the paper. federal elections. Alberta gives First The proclamation forms the basis Nations peoples the right to vote in 1970 – Citizen Plus (Red Paper) for the numbered treaties and the provincial elections in 1964. The Indian Association of Alberta reserve system. issues a detailed response to the 1969 – White Paper 1867 – British North America Act white paper. The white paper is The federal government announced Canada’s original constitution, the formally withdrawn. a shift in policy direction that would British North America Act establishes have eliminated Indian status and 1972 – Indian Control of Indian Canada’s jurisdiction over First the Department of Indian Affairs Education Nations and the land reserved for and would have given the provinces The National Indian Brotherhood them. responsibility for First Nations. First issues a policy statement that 1879 – Davin Report Nations viewed the plan as a way recommends restructuring First At the request of the federal for the federal government to stop Nations education around parental government, Nicholas Flood Davin fulfilling its treaty obligations. The responsibility and local control. studies and reports on how the White Paper was withdrawn. The federal government responds United States educates Native positively, and by 1975, 10 First 1969 – Removal of Indian Agents American children. The report Nations across Canada are operating For the first time, First Nations recommends removing First Nations their own schools. peoples are not living under Indian children from their families and agent control. sending them to residential schools in order to assimilate them. Attendance 27 1982 – Constitution Act 2000 – Strengthening 2008 – Protocol Agreement on Relationships, the Government Government to Government Section 35 of the act defines who of Alberta’s Aboriginal Policy Relations Aboriginal peoples are, recognizes Framework Signed by the premier, the minister of Indian, Inuit Métis as Aboriginal The first of its kind in Canada, Aboriginal Relations, and the Grand peoples; and recognizes and affirms the framework sets out the basic Chiefs and Vice-Chiefs of Treaties 6, existing Aboriginal and treaty rights. structure for Alberta government 7, and 8, the agreement provides a 1985 – Bill C-31 policies that address the needs framework for collaboration between Important changes were made to of Aboriginal peoples in Alberta. It First Nations and the Government of Canada’s Indian Act on June 28, emphasizes well-being, self-reliance, Alberta. The Grand Chiefs and the 1985, when Parliament passed effective consultation regarding premier meet at least once a year, Bill C-31, an Act to Amend the Indian resource and economic development, and the grand chiefs and ministers Act. Bill C-31 brought the act into line partnerships, and the clarification of meet at least twice a year. with the provisions of the Canadian roles and responsibilities. 2010 – Memorandum of Charter of Rights and Freedoms. 2006 – Alberta’s First Nations Understanding for First Nations The three principles that guided the Consultation Guidelines on Land Education in Alberta amendments to the Indian Act were: Management and Resource Signed by the Government of Development (revised 2007) Canada, the Government of Alberta, • removal of discrimination; First Nations and industry and the Assembly of Treaty Chiefs • restoring status and membership stakeholders are involved in in Alberta, the MOU “provides a rights; and creating guidelines for consultation. common vision for strengthening • increasing control of Indian bands Alberta also creates the Aboriginal learning and educational success over their own affairs. Consultation Coordination for First Nations learners in Alberta. Group to ensure consistency on The MOU provides a framework 1996 – Royal Commission on consultation issues and initiatives for collaboration to support a Aboriginal Peoples across government departments, range of education-related issues The report examines the social, as required by the province’s First including parental and community cultural, and economic challenges Nations Consultation Policy on engagement, treaty and cultural Canada’s First Nations, Métis, and Land Management and Resource awareness, and ongoing work Inuit peoples face and recommends Development, released in 2005. on tuition and education service far-reaching change. agreements.”53

28 53 Aboriginal Relations, Government of Alberta, “Education Initiatives,” at http://www.aboriginal.alberta.ca/997.cfm, accessed December 26, 2012. Chapter 9 Métis People

This proud Aboriginal group has a foot of freight product across the country. in both the Aboriginal and European After the resistance, the Métis In 1869, about 8,000 Métis people lived worlds, and a distinct identity recognized were politically neglected. in the Red River valley in what is now under the Constitution of Canada. Skilled Allowed to squat on strips of Manitoba but was then Rupert’s Land, Crown land alongside roads voyageurs, buffalo hunters, traders, and a territory owned by the Hudson’s Bay or on the outskirts of town, interpreters, the adaptable Métis helped they supported themselves by Company. Many were involved in the fur shape Canada, especially the prairie hunting, trapping, or working trade and agriculture, and the buffalo hunt provinces, as the West was developed. for wages. Métis people was very important to them. who chose to live on road Some Métis have French ancestry while allowances were referred to as others are descended from Scottish When Canada took over the area and “road allowance people.” or English Hudson’s Bay Company Europeans began settling the region, the 54 employees. Métis lost the land they had called their own for many years. After they moved As the only province in Canada to grant west and again found their borders the Métis a land base, Alberta shares encroached, Métis leader Louis Riel a unique relationship with these proud helped petition the government to secure Aboriginal peoples. The Métis, with their land, but Ottawa dragged its feet. Riel’s colourful history and culture, strong sense followers and the government clashed, of entrepreneurship, and willingness to resulting in the famous and final Battle at actively participate in politics, add to the Batoche. mosaic of the province. Riel surrendered his freedom and was History charged with high treason, found guilty, A mixture of two very different peoples, and sentenced to hang in November of the first Métis were born in eastern 1885. Canada as early as the 1600s, the children of European fishermen and their As time passed, Métis people here in Aboriginal wives. Their understanding of Alberta established communities where both societies helped bridge cultural gaps, they engaged in their traditional activities of placing them as integral players in the fur farming and hunting buffalo.55 trade. They spoke European and First St. Albert, Lac Ste. Anne, and Lac La Nations languages and had the knowledge Biche are three such settlements. In these to take European ideas and make them new communities, they laid out farms work in a wilderness landscape, creating, just as they did in the Red River valley, in for example, the Red River Cart, which narrow strips that ended at the river. allowed fur traders to move large amounts

54 Aboriginal Perspectives, 59. 55 Kainai Board of Education, Métis Nation of Alberta, Northland School Division, Tribal Chiefs Institute of Treaty Six, Aboriginal Studies 20: 29 Peoples and Cultural Change (Edmonton, Duval House Publishing Inc., 2005), 84. Establishing a Métis Land Base The settlements were located on “This matter of provision for in Alberta provincial Crown-owned land at this our Métis people and justice time. But the Métis people wanted their for their dependents; that is In 1928, Métis people in Alberta began to own land base and continued to lobby an objective toward which we organize politically, forming associations. for their interests. A historic package of must strive and from which In 1932, James P. Brady, Malcolm Norris, there must be no retreat.” proposed legislation, the Alberta-Metis Peter Tomkins Jr., Joseph Dion, and Felix Settlements Accord, was signed in 1989, Malcolm Norris Calliou created, L’Association des Métis followed the next year by legislation. It d’Alberta et les Territoires du Nord-Ouest led to a governance framework for the to lobby for social and economic settlements that included councils in improvements and a land base. each settlement and an overarching body The Alberta Legislature resolved to called the Metis Settlements General investigate the conditions Alberta Métis Council (MSGC) that would represent the were experiencing and established the settlements collectively. The government Ewing Commission in 1934. The report, transferred the settlement land to the Metis 56 tabled in 1936, recommended establishing Settlements General Council. agricultural settlements on provincial Crown land for the Métis people to use. L’Association des Métis d’Alberta et les In 1938, the provincial government Territoires du Nord-Ouest eventually passed the Metis Population Betterment became the Métis Nation of Alberta Act. Written by the Government of Association. Adding the word “nation” Alberta in consultation with people in reflected the people’s understanding the Métis Association of Alberta, it set that they had been recognized as 57 aside settlements for Métis people and such. Today the Métis Nation of Alberta made Alberta the first province to enact Association includes Métis members legislation specific to Métis people. who may or may not be members on the Métis Settlements. In 1975, the Alberta Federation of Métis Settlements Associations was formed. Its role was to represent the interests of As of 2012, Métis Settlements with their the settlements, and it argued that Métis governments are unique to Alberta. NOTE: The accent on the word people had the right to self-determination. Eight settlements covering 512,121 "Métis" is used in all cases, The organization also gave settlement except when referring to the hectares (1.25 million acres) of land in Metis Settlements' legislation, councils a way to share information, regulations, or entities established northern Alberta give Métis people a by the legislation. coordinate efforts, and develop policies on land base, autonomy at a local level, and matters requiring co-operation. self-sufficiency. 30 56 Kainavginal Studies 20: Peoples and Cultural Change (Edmonton, Duval House Publishing Inc., 2005), 127. 57 Peoples and Culture Change, 127. Around 5,000 people live in the Albert and Alma Desjarlais settlements of Buffalo Lake, East Prairie, (Photograph by Dianne Meili) Elizabeth, Fishing Lake, Gift Lake, Kikino, Paddle Prairie, and Peavine. This is a small portion of the more than 96,000 Métis people living in Alberta. Always open to anyone wanting to learn Cree culture Buffalo Lake and spirituality, Albert and Alma Desjarlais host an Buffalo Lake is located 50 kilometres annual summer camp on their southwest of Lac La Biche and has a East Prairie Métis Settlement 58 population of 701 people. Economic Elizabeth property. The many Aboriginal development activities include: oil and foster children who attend Elizabeth is located just south of make fish scale art, learn gas, logging, and construction of local Cold Lake and has a population of 671 to moose-call, and play infrastructure projects such as new roads people. Economic development activities handgames. The camps and houses through a partnership with include oil and gas, and construction. culminate in a sweatlodge Habitat for Humanity. ceremony. Fishing Lake East Prairie Fishing Lake is located 93 kilometres from East Prairie is located 40 kilometres Cold Lake and has a population of 425 southeast of High Prairie and has a people. Economic development activities population of 345 people. Economic include oil and gas, cattle farming, tourism, development activities include: forestry, mining, transportation, and outdoor construction, and transportation. recreation.

Gift Lake Gift Lake is located 40 kilometres northeast of High Prairie and has a population of 791 people. Economic development activities include forestry, oil and gas, construction, transportation, and outdoor recreation.

Kikino Kikino is located 80 kilometres south of Lac La Biche and has a population of 810 people. Economic development activities include oil and gas, forestry, construction, ranching, and tourism. 31 58 Population figures are taken from the 2012 Census. Paddle Prairie An elected five-person council consisting Paddle Prairie is located 77 kilometres of a chairman and four councillors, elected south of High Level and has a population by settlement members, governs each of 464 people. Economic development settlement. The councils provide a wide activities include oil and gas, agriculture, range of services from public works, transportation, construction, and outdoor emergency services, health services, recreation. and road services to social development programs, recreational services, and Peavine training. The settlements have statutory Peavine is located 56 kilometres north Randy Hardy61 authority similar to local governments. (Photograph provided by of High Prairie and has a population of Métis Settlements General 651 people. Economic development The Métis Nation of Alberta Council) activities include oil and gas, agriculture, Association “A land base is the transportation, construction, and outdoor The Métis Nation of Alberta Association foundation upon which we recreation. (MNAA) continues to be an important build self-government and political organization and has grown exercise our right to self- Moving Forward from a small organization to one with a determination,” says Randy Hardy, president of the Métis membership of approximately 35,000. Today, the Metis Settlements General Settlements General Council. This provincial organization is an active Council (MSGC) continues to represent the “It is fundamental to protecting participant in government policy and and enhancing Métis culture.” interests of the settlements. The general decision-making. council consists of all councillors of the eight Métis Settlements and the offices of The MNAA promotes and facilitates the the General Council. The elected officers advancement of Métis people through the include the president and vice president, pursuit of self-reliance, self-determination secretary and treasurer. A political and and self-management. It also works to administrative body, the MSGC develops ensure the social and economic well-being and implements programs and services of Métis people in Alberta. to the settlements. It has law-making The MNAA is governed by a 14-member authority over membership, hunting, provincial council comprised of: fishing, trapping, and land-related 59 matters. When the MSGC passes a law, • A provincially elected President and vice it is just as if the province has passed the president law.60

59 Métis Settlements General Council (MSGC), “About Us”, at http://www.msgc.ca/About+Us/Default.ksi, accessed January 3, 2013. 32 60 MSGC, “About Us”, at http://www.msgc.ca/About+Us/Default.ksi, accessed January 3, 2013. 61 Randy Hardy interview, July 2013. • The six MNAA Regions’ presidents and Languages vice-presidents, who are elected by the Many Métis speak Cree. The Métis region members. The six MNAA regions Nation of Alberta actively promotes the cover the province of Alberta. preservation of the Michif language, a combination of Cree nouns and French Métis Organizations Across Alberta verbs developed by the Métis.62 Tens of thousands of Métis people live in Alberta’s urban centres. Some of the Did You Know? organizations that have developed in these Sashes are an important part of Métis The Métis Flag areas are: identity and are worn by all ages and both The Métis flag was first used 63 genders. Historically, the sash identified in 1816 in the Battle of Seven • The Métis Urban Housing Corporation: the wearer as Métis and could be used for Oaks. Bearing an infinity Owned by the Métis Nation of Alberta, practical purposes when needed, like a symbol, it is a symbol of a it provides affordable housing for Métis culture that brings together scarf to hold heavy items, or as rope, wash people and other Aboriginal people who Aboriginal and European cloth, a saddle blanket when needed. cultures. There are two have low to moderate incomes, with a Today it’s a symbol of connectedness, versions: blue and white, and focus on supporting families first. with the woven fabric representing how the red and white.

• Apeetogosan (Métis) Development Inc.: lives of the Métis have been woven from Blue may have been chosen Entrepreneurs with great ideas and a various cultures. Like the Métis people, the because blue and white were the colours of the North West need for financing can come here for sash is a mixture of elements that, taken Company, for which many together, are an integrated whole and a small business loans, support services, French, Michif-speaking Métis 64 and business advice to turn their rich tapestry. worked. Blue and white are dreams into a reality. also the traditional colours of Common Métis surnames you might hear French Canada, and the flag • Rupertsland Institute Métis Centre of in Alberta include Belcourt, Cunningham, resembles Scotland’s flag. Thompson, Letendre, Dumont, Excellence: An affiliate of the Métis Nation It is thought that the red of Alberta, the institute undertakes L’Hirondelle, Racine, and Delorme. flag may have begun with education, training, and research. One Hudson’s Bay Company employees because red and of its best-known programs is the Métis white were the colours of the Training to Employment Program, which HBC.65 delivers services to people across the The infinity symbol represents province through a network of offices the coming together of two and mobile units. distinct cultures.

62 The Métis Nation of Alberta, “Michif – Language of the Métis,” at http://www.albertaMétis.com/MNAHome/ MNA-Culture2/Michif.aspx, accessed August 16, 2013. 63 The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture, “Our Proud Heritage,” at http://www.Métismuseum.ca/ exhibits/heritage/, accessed January 3, 2013. 64 The Métis Nation of Alberta, “The Métis Sash,” at http://www.msgc.ca/Resources/The+Métis +Sash/Default. ksi, accessed February 4, 2013. 65 The Métis Nation of Alberta, “The Métis Sash,” at http://www.albertaMétis.com/MNAHome/MNA-Culture2/ 33 MNA-Culture-Cultural.aspx, accessed February 4, 2013. 1987 – Framework Agreement The Government of Alberta and the Métis Nation of Alberta Association sign an agreement that is the first of a series of agreements to promote the advancement of Métis people.

1990 – Metis Settlements Act “The act establishes a governance system for the Métis Settlements. Title to about half a million hectares Métis Historical Context 1928 – Métis began to organize of land is transferred to the residents themselves politically in Alberta. of eight Métis Settlements in 1869 – Red River Resistance north-central Alberta.”66 In addition Métis people assert their rights, 1932 – Malcolm Norris, Jim Brady, to the Metis Settlements Act, forming a provisional government Peter Tomkins, Joseph Dion and other pieces of legislation were after Canada buys their territory in the Felix Calliou organized L’Association passed. The Constitution of Alberta Red River valley from the Hudson’s des Métis d’Alberta et les Territories Amendment Act, 1990, provides that Bay Company and claims authority du Nord-Ouest. Its purpose was the Legislative Assembly of Alberta over them. to lobby for improved social and cannot make a law without the economic conditions and a land base agreement of the Metis Settlements 1870 – Manitoba Act for Alberta Métis. General Council that would: The province of Manitoba is created. The act sets aside land for Métis 1938 – Metis Population • amend or repeal the Metis people. Unable to secure a land Betterment Act Settlements Land Protection Act, base, many Métis people leave Red Based on the 1936 recommendations • alter or revoke the grant of the River and move into Saskatchewan of the Ewing Commission, Alberta Settlement lands to the Metis and Alberta. passed the z. This act set aside Settlements General Council, or colonies for Métis people. Alberta • dissolve the Metis Settlements 1885 – Resistance became the first province in Canada General Council (or result in its The government fails to respond to enact legislation specific to Métis. being composed of persons who to petitions for title to land and the are not settlement members). Métis people declare a provisional 1982 – Constitution Act government, led by Louis Riel, Section 35 of the act defines who The Metis Settlement Land Protection at Batoche. First Nations join the Aboriginal peoples are, recognizes Act ratifies the grant of lands to the resistance. Canadian troops defeat Indian, Inuit, and Métis as Aboriginal Metis Settlements General Council the resistance and leaders are sent to peoples; and recognizes and affirms and lays out a process to be followed prison for treason. Riel is executed. existing Aboriginal and treaty rights. if the General Council ever wants to 34 66 Aboriginal Perspectives, 189. sell any of the settlement lands. It also provides that settlement lands Canada’s First Nations, Métis, and 2008 – Alberta/Métis Nation of cannot be used as security and Inuit peoples face and recommends Alberta Association Framework establishes processes for the Crown far-reaching change. Agreement to acquire interests in settlement This seven-year agreement aims 2000 – Strengthening lands for public purposes. It also to promote Métis economic and Relationships, the Government has provisions requiring the consent community well-being, improve input of Alberta’s Aboriginal Policy of the settlement council and the for Métis people into public policy Framework General Council for people to enter development in Alberta, and improve The first of its kind in Canada, settlements to explore and develop Métis access to provincial services. the framework sets out the basic minerals. It encourages sub-agreements structure for Alberta government between the Métis Nation of Alberta The Métis Settlement Accord Land policies that address the needs and other provincial ministries. A Implementation Act was passed of Aboriginal peoples in Alberta. It framework funding agreement is also to establish funding provisions to emphasizes well-being, self-reliance, in place. facilitate the transition from the effective consultation regarding old legislation dealing with the resource and economic development, 2013 – Daniels v. Canada settlements to the new legislation. partnerships, and the clarification of The federal trial court case found in roles and responsibilities. 2013, that Métis and non-Status First 1992 – Tripartite Agreement Nations people are “Indians” under The Governments of Alberta and 2003 – R. v. Powley the Constitution Act, 1867. In the Canada participate in a tripartite The Powley decision was rendered same year, the case was appealed to process with the Métis Nation of by the Supreme Court of Canada. the Federal Court of Appeal. Alberta Association (MNAA). The Two Métis men, Steve and Roddy partners work together to: Powley, killed a moose in 1993 and 2013 Long-term Arrangements were charged with contravening Signed between the Alberta • Create economic opportunities Ontario hunting law. The men argued Government and the Metis and promote well-being for Métis that section 35 of the Constitution Settlements General Council, it people and communities in Act, 1982 protects the right of Métis provides Alberta’s eight Metis Alberta. to hunt for food. The case was Settlements with resources to • Identify mutual priorities. appealed to the Supreme Court of build stronger and self-sustaining • Discuss issues of common Canada, which ruled in favour of the communities. The 10-year agreement interest. Powleys. In an unanimous judgment, is to strengthen the Settlements’ local • Convey practical solutions to the Supreme Court ruled that Métis governments and accountability; issues facing Métis Albertans. who meet certain criteria have increase education, employment and 1996 – Royal Commission on constitutionally protected Aboriginal economic opportunities; and improve Aboriginal Peoples rights (such as the right to hunt or infrastructure and essential services. The report examines the social, food). This decision is the landmark cultural, and economic challenges Métis rights decision in Canadian law. 35 ChapterInuit 10

Alberta has a small Inuit population 10 percent of the population living outside Larga Edmonton that comprises Inuit who have left their the Arctic. Most of those who leave the northern homes to live south of Latitude Arctic choose to move to urban centres When people living in 69 Canada’s north need 60. Inuit peoples are distinct from other like Edmonton. In 2011, there were 1,985 specialized medical care, Aboriginal peoples and understanding Inuit people living in Alberta. they often have to travel their heritage is important in developing to large urban centres like Language a better understanding of all of Alberta’s Edmonton. Larga Edmonton Inuit speak Inuktitut. The language is is a residential facility that Aboriginal peoples. expected to endure, as most people who provides Inuit patients with a home away from home, History speak it live in traditional territories that even providing meals with Inuit peoples made the Arctic their home, haven’t attracted settlers and haven’t been familiar food like caribou managing the challenges of the climate— as affected by outside influences.70 and arctic char. Many staff long periods of darkness; blizzards, snow members come from the Social and Economic Development north or have at least lived and ice, little vegetation—in innovative Historically, Inuit people lived off the land. there and understand the ways. For example, they protected In the mid-1950s, mining projects and culture, traditions, language, themselves with insulated, waterproof and people. Larga Edmonton other changes resulted in the federal clothing made of animal skins and furs and is owned by Kitikmeot government trying to promote earning Corporation and Nunasi built homes out of snow and ice or from wages by providing opportunities for Corporation, both of which earth, driftwood, moss, bone, skins, and education and training and incentives are 100 percent Inuit-owned. rock.67 Larga also helps First Nations for economic development, including and non-status residents of Family is important. Inuit peoples lived in co-operatives and credit unions. Co-ops the Northwest Territories. small family groups that joined in camps were developed to promote tourism, that varied in size with the seasons. Most soapstone carving and printmaking, and camps had 30 to 50 people, the perfect many other artistic endeavours. Radio amount to monitor the many breathing and television broadcasting also offered holes in the ice that might yield a nutritious opportunities; in 1972, about 16 percent of seal in the winter.68 broadcasts in the north were in Inuktitut.

Population and Communities Many Inuit people living in Alberta today Inuit communities are found in Nunavut, came here for education and economic the Northwest Territories, northern opportunities. They earn their living in a Quebec, and Labrador, with only about broad range of industries and jobs.

67 Aboriginal Perspectives. 68 Aboriginal Perspectives, 127. 69 Kainai Board of Education, Métis Nation of Alberta, Northland School Division, Tribal Chiefs Institute of Treaty Six, Aboriginal Studies 30: Contemporary Issues (Edmonton, Duval House Publishing Inc., 2005), 188. 70 Aboriginal Perspectives, 83. 36 Governance Inuit people gained the right to vote Did You Know? Traditionally, most Inuit groups were in 1950. One year later, they were Inuit people traditionally used songs led by an isumataq, “one who thinks.” excluded from the provisions of the to transfer knowledge and songs People chose to follow the isumataq Indian Act. Self-determination is remain important today.75 Storytelling if they thought he was a good hunter, important to the Inuit, just as it is for also continues. decision-maker, and role model, and other Aboriginal peoples. When the Inuksuk, which means “to act similar they were free to ignore his advice.71 territory of Nunavut was created in to that of a human”, are stone figures 1999, the Inuit people gained the Inuit people did not sign treaties with that served as landmarks for hunters right to be major participants in how the Crown and were originally not and to scare caribou into running the territory is governed. Today, the included in the Indian Act. They were straight for the real hunters.76 territorial government is a public added to the act in 1924, and the government in which anyone can hold Nunavut’s flag features an inuksuk federal government took responsibility office but, because the majority of the and the Niqirtsuituq, or North Star, for administering programs and population is Inuit, it gives Inuit people which is used to navigate. The North services for the Inuit people. 73 more control. Star symbolizes the leadership of In the 1930s, declining numbers community elders. A consensus style of government of game animals resulted in many is used in the Legislative Assembly communities facing starvation. The of Nunavut. This is a unique form of government instituted a relocation government in Canada—only one program, moving Inuit peoples to other legislature uses consensus, and permanent communities where all others use the party system. they could access government services. But relocation brought its The consensus system differs from own hardships. For example, some the party system in many ways. communities were moved to areas For example, MLAs are elected where they could no longer hunt as independents instead of being and trap in the winter because of the aligned with a party, and all legislative area’s ice patterns. The program was members choose the premier and discontinued in the late 1970s.72 cabinet ministers. In most cases, a majority vote is required rather than unanimous agreement.74

71 Aboriginal Perspectives, 126. 72 Aboriginal Perspectives, 174–175. 73 Contemporary Issues, 153. 74 “Fact Sheet: Consensus Government in Nunavut,” at http://www.assembly.nu.ca/sites/default/files/Consensus%20Government%20in%20 Nunavut%20-%20English.pdf, accessed January 4, 2013. 75 Aboriginal Perspectives, 93. 37 76 Inuit Art Gallery, “History of Inuksuit,” at http://www.arcticinuksuk.com/index.php/history-of-inuksuit, accessed January 4, 2013. CUrban h a Communities pte r 11

It’s a common dilemma if you’re Moving to the city can be a reserve are below the poverty line Aboriginal and living on a reserve challenge, and as statistics show, compared to non-Aboriginal people. or settlement: you want to be the unemployment rate for First Aboriginal people living in cities face close to family and your culture, Nations living in urban areas across racism and discrimination, which can but education, employment, and Canada is five to six times higher negatively affect them in many ways, training call you to the city. In 2011, than that for non-Aboriginal people including making it difficult to get a 43 percent of Alberta’s Aboriginal in the same area. The experience of job and diminishing self-esteem and population lived in Edmonton and losing community and the support of confidence. On top of this, they can Calgary.77 social ties can make the experience feel alienated living among people stressful and unrewarding. On more First Nations, Métis, and Inuit people who do not share their culture and isolated reserves or settlements, abound in Alberta’s urban centres, values. education and training may be working in a broad range of careers. unattainable, and Aboriginal people But others, like Angela Gladue, To maintain a cultural connection face discrimination and differing from Frog Lake First Nation, easily and share traditional values with values and expectations. Poverty is transitions from rural to urban, and others of like mind, many belong to widespread among urban Aboriginal from traditional to contemporary organizations like friendship centres, people, and statistically, a larger ways of being. This B-girl, hip-hop cultural societies, and elder’s centres. percentage of Aboriginal people off dance teacher and performer, who

and learning to adapt and understand We too, as indigenous people, are the new environment. Hunting traditions faced with the new land called cities had to change. New ceremonies needed and the challenges of the times that to be created to commune and live in come along with them. We are adapting, harmony with the spirit of these new understanding, watching, learning, and places and the challenges naturally growing without losing who we are. In posed by the times. Change is the times past we may have left our canoes constant in nature. for the plains, and in today’s reality the bush for the cities, but we bring with us Just look to the red-tailed hawk. Today the stories, ceremonies, and traditions we see them proliferating in the urban that still make us who we are and tell us centre, using light standards as hunting what we must do. As with any nation observatories, using buildings to build Lewis Cardinal before us who crossed great divides, nests and raise their young. They have discovered new places and homes, and adapted to their new conditions; however, “Learning to live and be in a new land, learned to speak with the spirit of the they are still red-tailed hawks. Their spirit that’s what the urban indigenous land, it took time to make the shift. And is intact, and their way of being is still 78 experience is about. In our collective when we did, we prospered." what moves them. histories, we have many stories and memories about arriving at new places

38 77 2011 National Household Survey (Statistics Canada). 78 Lewis Cardinal interview, July 2013. Angela Gladue (Photograph by Brad Crowfoot)

“The city actually brought me back to my culture. I was 12 years old when I saw B-boys and B-girls. The Red Power Squad eventually let me travel and perform with them. A powwow dancer always opened our shows, and he also dances fancy shawl on the powwow Alberta Native Friendship Centres would educate and inspire trail, says she is a modern-day warrior. “An Association became the first provincial/ me, and give me teachings elder once told me, to live in this modern territorial association to be incorporated. about the medicine wheel and Aboriginal values.” society and uphold our Native culture, it's Today there are 20 friendship centres in like walking with a moccasin on one foot Alberta. and a Nike shoe on the other. I choose to The Canadian Native Friendship Centre showcase this idea through the blending of in Edmonton is one example. Founded my art styles and sharing this perspective in 1962, this centre provides culturally with others.” She loves to mix powwow sensitive programs and services and steps with her “top rock” before she referrals to services to about 30,000 hits the ground in B-girling, and just as people each year. seamlessly throws hip-hop moves into her traditional dance. A primary role of the friendship centre is to provide people with a connection to Friendship Centres their culture and heritage. For example, Friendship centres began in the 1950s, Edmonton’s Canadian Native Friendship often in people’s homes, to connect Centre offers powwow nights, traditional Aboriginal people new to the city to teachings, Cree language class, and other resources and services. In 1970, the recreational and cultural programs. Urban Aboriginal Populations (2011) Métis First Nation Inuit

Edmonton CMA 31,780 26,950 1,115

Calgary CMA 17,0 4 0 14,630 240

2011 National Household Survey (Statistics Canada) 39 ReservesChapter and Settlements 12

The best way to understand what life is Fox Lake, a member of Little Red First like on a First Nations reserve or Métis Nation, is an isolated community in settlement is to visit one. The people northeastern Alberta where everyone— living there are mostly Aboriginal (some even small children—still speaks Cree, non-Aboriginal people may have married moose and buffalo are important sources into the community), and families are of food, and the back-breaking process of involved in everything from farming, hide tanning the old way is still carried out. ranching, and teaching school to home All of Alberta’s Métis Settlements are craft businesses, trucking firms, and located in rural areas some distance from fashion design. You’ll find a range of large cities. Vincent Steinhauer amenities like schools, churches, stores, (Photograph from Turtle Lodge, health centres, radio stations, water Life in one community differs from life Manitoba) treatment plants, sports facilities, and in any other due to location, culture, “Bring your feast kit to Culture community centres, depending on which economic development, politics, social Camp—that’s plates, bowls, community you visit. issues, services, size, and a host of other and cups for the food we’ll factors. Some individuals stay in the share while in ceremony,” Some First Nations reserves are within or says Blue Quills First Nations community while others choose to leave, near urban centres, but most are rural. College President Vincent temporarily or permanently. Reasons for Steinhauer, who has been Tsuu T’ina First Nation is right on Calgary’s leaving include access to opportunities, organizing the week-long doorstep, and band members may live on including education and jobs, and the gathering for 10 years. “The the reserve but spend their working hours elders, ceremonial leaders, desire for an urban lifestyle. in a downtown skyscraper. Conversely, and helpers realize many people are attending these ceremonies for the first time and are very gentle—it’s a safe and comfortable place to experience ceremony.”

40 Living in a First Nations, Métis, or Blue Quills First Nations College, just west non-status community allows people to of St. Paul. Four ceremonies are held be close to family and friends and to live through the week: the Chicken Dance, surrounded by their own culture. There Horse Dance, Night Lodge, and Bear are opportunities for hunting, fishing, Ceremony. During the day, participants and trapping, and for choosing a more can attend sessions that explain each traditional way of life and living according ceremony and the protocols surrounding to traditional values. it. Horse and wagon rides and arts and crafts round out the day. Families are Ceremonies and traditional activities are invited to attend, and camping areas are an important part of life in Aboriginal available. communities. Though the aforementioned Tsuu T’ina First Nation may be close to Ceremonies are integral to the fabric of Calgary, many yards hold sweat lodges, many First Nations and Métis Settlements, and the sun dance ceremony has been meant to strengthen ties to the Creator, revived there since 2000. Ceremonies are spirit world, and each other. During the held for various reasons, and it’s best to winter, round dances are held across speak with an elder or ceremonial leader Alberta. Some are held to remember loved to learn more about each one. An excellent ones who have passed on, while others entry into ceremony is Culture Camp, held are celebrations of kinship and gratitude. the last week in May every year at

41 ChapterCommon Phrases 13 in Aboriginal Languages

Cree79

tân’si hello tawaw welcome ikosi goodbye

Siksika80

óki hello Tsániitá’piiwa? How are things? saa no

81 79 http://www.miyo.ca/index. Dene php?option=com_content&vie w=article&id=86&Itemid=115, accessed January 4, 2013. Hozu aneja! Good job! 80 Donald G. Frant and Norma Jean Russell. Blackfoot Dictionary ts’ethie take it easy; be cautious of Stems, Roots, and Affixes, at http://www.angelfire.com/ Dene t’a edlahodí a? How do you say it in Dene? ar/waakomimm/lang15.html, accessed January 7, 2013. 81 First Voices, “Dene Language Learning Phrases Phrase Book,” at http://www.firstvoices. 82 com/en/Dene/phrase- Nakoda book/276a626f90058910/ Language-learning-phrases, accessed January 7, 2013. ãba watOéc good day (also: hello) 82 Rocky Mountain Nakoda, “Greetings and Do’kéd yau? hwo? How are you? Phrases,” at http://www. rockymountainnakoda.com/ language/Greetings%20 wécã ptac I am sorry. %26%20Phrases, accessed January 7, 2013. 83 Canadian Heritage, “Start 83 Speaking Michif,” at http://www. Michif learnmichif.com/language/ greetings, accessed January 4, 2013. tawnshi hello tawnshi kiya mataen good morning

42 ChapterAboriginal Youth 14

If the future of a country is its youth, Additionally, because they make up such then Canada’s—and Alberta’s—future a large proportion of the population in is increasingly Aboriginal. Canada’s Aboriginal communities, youth will have Aboriginal youth population is growing at opportunities related to leading community three times the national average. and economic development.

In 2011 in Alberta, the median age Dancer Angela Gladue (featured in was 25.3. (The median age for the Chapter Eleven: Urban Communities) is non-Aboriginal population was 36.8.) In the returning to university at the age of 28 to Métis Settlement of Peavine, 41 percent study social work, understanding that she Roseanne Supernault (Photograph by Thosophy 84 of residents were under 19 in 2012. will be a much more credible counsellor Photography) Among First Nations, 33.7 percent of the using hip-hop dance to work with at-risk population was under 15 in 2011 and youth when she has a diploma or degree. An actress in the critically 53.4 percent was under 25. This trend is Education will continue to be important acclaimed television drama Blackstone, portraying life expected to continue, and that presents in the coming years. Although Aboriginal on a fictional First Nations opportunities for Aboriginal youth. youth are typically less likely to graduate reserve, Roseanne Supernault high school than non-Aboriginal youth exemplifies youthful The demographically driven labour due to the factors discussed earlier, many exuberance in Alberta. Born shortage that is being and will continue on the East Prairie Métis are excited about the opportunity to to be experienced in Alberta and Settlement, she has been on get a higher level of education and take film sets since she was 15 and across the country is predicted to be a advantage of future jobs. has walked red carpets at film major opportunity for Aboriginal youth. premieres around the world.

She loves the camera, but her passion is showing youth their potential. She’s masterminded Alberta’s Young Aboriginal Population (2011) NextGen acting workshops, not only to teach the craft First Nations Métis Inuit of acting, but to help young Total population 116,670 96,870 1,985 people (and old) discover their potential in candid, 0–14 39,350 25,155 500 soul-searching workshop exercises. 15–24 22,935 18,290 490 “We’ve been through so much 2011 National Household Survey (Statistics Canada) as a people. I want to help awaken that storytelling spirit that’s been lying dormant 84 Western Economic Diversification, Government of Canada, “Metis Settlements General Council,” at inside of each and every one http://www.wd.gc.ca/eng/77_10395.asp, accessed January 5, 2013. of us,” Roseanne says.

43 First Nations-Focused Post-Secondary Education To help youth succeed, a number of post-secondary education institutions have been created to offer courses, programs, and services so First Nations students don’t have to leave their communities.

Old Sun Community College is one example. There, the Aboriginal Practical Nurse diploma program gives students knowledge and skills for practical nursing, but Aboriginal culture, values, spirituality, and traditional healing methods are all part of the curriculum.

Alberta’s Future Leaders Aboriginal Youth Initiative Alberta’s Future Leaders is a sports, Labour shortages today and in the recreation, arts, and leadership future in the trades make them a program for Aboriginal youth good option for any young person to that provides healthy recreation explore. The Aboriginal Youth Initiative opportunities so they can develop life takes information about the trades and leadership skills. The program into Aboriginal communities so youth is offered in First Nations and Métis have the knowledge they need when communities across the province and making career decisions. funded by government, corporations, Careers: The Next Generation, the and service agencies. Aboriginal Youth Initiative includes Skills learned in the program include visiting schools and talking to youth teamwork, leadership, conflict and taking youth to colleges and resolution, and co-operation. career fairs. Companies looking for Improved self-confidence, higher interns can also contact Careers: The levels of motivation, and improved Next Generation to be connected thinking skills also benefit youth. with Aboriginal students who might be right for them. 44 Chapter 15 The Road Ahead

The preceding passage means that decisions should be guided by “Live sustainably and work for the benefit of the seventh generation into the future consideration of the welfare and well-being … even if it requires having skin as thick of the seventh generation to come—140 as the bark of a pine.” years down the road. Albertans, whether From the Great Binding Law of the Aboriginal or not, want their province to Iroquois remain a good place for their children’s children. When Aboriginal people march for clean water, for example, most of Others with fewer resources would like mainstream society realizes how important to see the Act revised so they still have it is to protect this valuable resource, a continuing relationship with the federal Aaron Paquette government. Some groups want Canada’s and want the same for generations to The writings and paintings come. Aboriginal leaders say short-term Aboriginal people recognized as one of Aaron Paquette inspire a economic gain that does not sustain our of Canada’s founding nations. Urban co-operative future between natural systems and the environment is Aboriginal people also have their own Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal society. “Our work is to 85 folly, and game-changing partnerships views and expectations. make this province, and this with Aboriginal people in ventures like world, good for the seventh On the road ahead, First Nations, Métis, cleaner energy are the new reality. generation, to move from and Inuit peoples will be challenged as destruction to conservation. It may well take a generation—20 years they work to agree on and achieve goals The future belongs to our young people, and they know or more—to realize the full potential of related to self-determination, creating it. With trust in the far-seeing, Aboriginal/mainstream co-operation, but if self-sustaining communities and balancing insightful teachings of our this opportunity is meaningfully developed, mainstream and cultural values. What do ancestors, coupled with it will ensure Aboriginal prosperity with a Aboriginal peoples want the places they laughter, education, and their desire to follow a cultural path, sustainable future for all. live in to look like in 50 years? How will not only will the indigenous community be transformed Many Aboriginal leaders agree but Alberta and Canada will that First Nations have the right "My hope for (my son) is that he can live in be too. More and more people to self-determination and that a discrimination-free world where he is not are waking up to this.” self-governance is essential. They also judged by the colour of his skin, the length of his hair, and the colour of his eyes. That agree that different peoples will need he will be judged by the contribution he different models of self-governance. But makes to this world and to this community there are varying ideas about how and and to this city. For my First Nations when to pursue self-governance. Some community, I would like to have clean drinking water." First Nations have many resources and would like the Indian Act abolished. Shana Dion, Edmonton

45 85 Contemporary Issues, 104. they manage the growing influences Cultural barriers and discrimination the misconceptions, stereotypes will of globalization and mainstream due to stereotypes continue to be begin to break down. culture? How can they prevent loss of issues for Aboriginal people. Better The road ahead is one that all identity and language? Getting large education for all is the answer. As Albertans share. Through increased numbers of diverse individuals and other Albertans and Canadians understanding of one another, groups to agree on these issues will learn what it is like to experience non-Aboriginal and Aboriginal people not be easy. the world as an Aboriginal person will help to ensure that path leads us and learn the facts as opposed to First Nations, Métis, and Inuit all to a successful future. leadership will continue to focus on creating new economic opportunities "My goals and modern-day aspirations as a Cree First Nations woman are to one for their people. Like much of rural day own my own home, and to be financially secure, with a good income and Canada, many Aboriginal groups secure, stable employment that I enjoy, working with my own Aboriginal people, are also challenged by “brain drain”, and assisting them to better their lives. I want to lead a healthy life, based on my own Cree culture, traditions, and spirituality and enjoy meaningful, healthy a situation that occurs when young relationships with my family. people move to larger urban centres for post-secondary education and My goals for my nation are to be self-governing, with a strong traditional voice and to belong to a First Nation governance that also includes the women’s voices choose not to bring their new skills and participation. I hope that my First Nation Cree people will be strong in the and knowledge back to their homes. future and be healthy mentally, physically, spiritually, and emotionally. I hope that Consequently, leaders must also in the future, my people will have healed from the negative effects of Canadian focus on finding ways to attract and government’s assimilation efforts and from the extremely harmful damaging effects of the residential schools. retain qualified people, like doctors. I hope to see a seventh generation of First Nation youth that are strong leaders who know their language, culture, and traditions and use this knowledge gained from the elders to lead our people in a healthy way.

I hope to see our First Nation community self-sufficient and economically strong with good financial opportunities for our First Nation members. This would mean good jobs, good income, and opportunities for entrepreneurship or self- owned businesses by First Nations."

Gail Gallagher, University of Alberta student (MA student with major in native studies) Frog Lake First Nation

46 "I aspire to not only keep traditional Common Misconceptions about Aboriginal People learning alive and lived, while learning and working in a modern-day environment. I see in other Inuit and Myth: Aboriginal people don’t pay Myth: Aboriginal people get free Invaluit students and myself the taxes. education and free health care. importance of a university education to Because of the Indian Act and treaties, Some do and some don’t. further not only our communities but which only affect First Nations, First our peoples as a whole." Nations people living and working on Aboriginal people are entitled to the Norma Dunning, Inuit post-secondary reserves don’t have to pay personal same things everyone else is entitled to, student or property tax. But Métis people and including old-age pensions, employment Inuit people pay taxes and First Nations insurance, the child tax benefit, health care, and K–12 education. people who live and work off the reserve There are no similar programs available are required to pay taxes in most First Nations people also receive for Métis and Non-Status Indians. circumstances. Canada Revenue Agency post-secondary education assistance and outlines the requirements at www.cra-arc. uninsured health-care benefits. gc.ca. The federal government gives First Additionally, Aboriginal communities are Nations money for post-secondary typically small and don’t have stores education, within limits, and the nation other than, perhaps, a gas station and decides who to fund and how much to convenience store or other small places provide to them. Certain criteria must like that. Community members travel to be met when applying for this funding. nearby towns and to larger urban centres However, there may be instances where to buy all the things they need. Tax must there is more demand than funds, and be paid on most of those purchases, communities have to limit applications. even by First Nations members, and those purchases contribute to the local The federal government also provides economies of those towns and cities. First Nations and Inuit people with a limited range of drugs, dental care, vision care, medical supplies and equipment, short-term crisis intervention, mental health counselling, and medical transportation.

47 Suggested Books Warry, Wayne. Ending Denial: Peterson, Jacqueline, and Jennifer Understanding Aboriginal Issues S.H. Brown (editors). The New Adams, Howard. Prison of Grass: (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Peoples: Being and Becoming Métis Canada from a Native Point of View 2008). in North America (Winnipeg: The (Fifth House, 1989). University of Manitoba Press, 1985). Maracle, Jovette Marchessault, and Berry, Susan, and Jack Brink, Rachel A. Qitsualik, Drew Hayden Other Aboriginal Cultures in Alberta: Five Taylor. Our Story: Aboriginal Voices Hundred Generations (Edmonton: The of Canada’s Past (Toronto: Anchor 8TH FIRE: Aboriginal Provincial Museum of Alberta, 2004). Canada, 2005). Peoples, Canada & The Way Forward, TV series, cbc.ca/ Cardinal, Harold. The Unjust Society Leanne Simpson (editor). Lighting doczone/8thfire//2011/11/ (Douglas & McIntyre, 1999). the Eighth Fire: The Liberation, tv-series-8th-fire.html Cardinal, Tantoo, and Tomson Resurgence, and Protection of Highway, Basil Johnston, Thomas Indigenous Nations (Winnipeg: www.aboriginal.alberta.ca King, Brian Maracle, Lee Dianne Arbeiter Ring Publishing, 2008). Map of First Nations, and Métis Settlements with community Meili, Those Who Know –Profiles of Métis Settlements General Council. locations, population, elected leaders, Alberta’s Aboriginal Elders(NeWest Making History: Our Land, Our and language groups. Press, 2012). Culture, Our Future (Edmonton: Métis Settlements General Council, 2005).

48

For additional copies of the publication please contact: Alberta Aboriginal Relations 19th Floor, Commerce Place 10155-102 Street Edmonton, Alberta T5J 4G8 Phone: 780-427-8407 Fax: 780-427-4019 website: www.aboriginal.alberta.ca

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November 2013

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For more information visit www.aboriginal.alberta.ca