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“The Personal Is Political Is Spiritual”: Feminism and Religion in Modern Britain

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“The Personal Is Political Is Spiritual”: Feminism and Religion in Modern Britain “THE PERSONAL IS POLITICAL IS SPIRITUAL”: FEMINISM AND RELIGION IN MODERN BRITAIN By RUTH MARGARET LINDLEY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History School of History and Cultures College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham September 2019 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis shows how spirituality was a key component of feminist political cultures in Britain from the 1970s, taking an active role in the Women’s Liberation movement, at Greenham Common and beyond. However, taken for granted assumptions about the secularism of modern feminist politics, which intersect with broader narratives of inevitable religious decline, have relegated spiritual politics to the sidelines of feminist history, making them invisible when they were, in fact, present and central. This thesis has a dual purpose. First, as a social historical recovery of the Goddess movement – an attempt by feminists to stake a claim to images of the divine – which determined the shape and form of radical feminist spirituality in Britain for over forty years, but remains misunderstood or ignored in histories of feminism and religious change. Second, to insist upon the decentralising position of spirituality in our histories of modern and contemporary Britain. Paying attention to belief as a major site of historical analysis forces us to recognise and revise the assumptions that underpin the ways we understand our recent past, highlighting the limits of possibility within the secular narratives of conventional academic history and making us rethink our foundational concepts, assumptions and methods. Because the Goddess movement confounds the disciplinary conventions of traditional history writing, this thesis also experiments with new narrative forms that seek to reflect, rather than deny, the metaphysical experiences of Goddess feminists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project was made possible by the Arts and Humanities Research Council-funded Midlands3Cities Doctoral Training Partnership that supported me financially for three years. Thank you for the opportunity. Thank you also to my supervisors Matt Houlbrook and David Gange for their creative, challenging and patient engagement with my work. David supervised the Masters dissertation from which this thesis grew, and pushed me into dense conceptual terrain that made history feel exciting. Matt brought politicised history-writing, an infectious passion for storytelling and generous support during difficult stages of writing. Both Matt and David were incredibly relaxed about my failure to ‘internalise’ deadlines, and for that, I am especially grateful. The women I interviewed and corresponded with over the course of this thesis helped me see things I would not have done otherwise. They include the eleven women who entrusted me with their life stories, also Jayne Burton, Pat Morley, Sue Yeng and Kath Yi from the Redditch Women for Peace group. Thank you to Denise Arnold, Janet Payne and Marianne for talking to me about the Matriarchy Study Group even though it was only a small, and relatively distant, part of your rich and textured feminist lives. Truly, the friendships I made over the course of writing this thesis made the process feel all the more meaningful. Special thanks to my uniquely supportive pals Lizzie Cook, Katie Jones and Laura Sefton. Thank you also to Adam Tyers; you are the love of my life and my best friend. Finally, to my little family: mum Jayne, dad Mark and brother Ed who have never demanded anything from me, pushed me in any direction, or been disappointed when things have gone differently. This thesis is for you. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...................................................................................................... i LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... ii INTRODUCTION: BREAKING THE BINARIES .................................................................. 1 CHAPTER ONE: THE GODDESS AT GREENHAM COMMON ....................................... 35 Matriarchy on Earth: The Sacred Genealogy of Greenham Common ................................. 44 The Goddess, Ecological Politics and Nonviolence............................................................. 54 Snakes and Spiders, Webs and Witches: Reclamation Politics at Greenham ...................... 62 The Practical Politics of the Snake, the Dragon and the Witch ........................................... 72 CHAPTER TWO: THE GODDESS AND THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT ......................... 82 The Matriarchy Study Group, 1975 – 1981 ......................................................................... 90 The Goddess and the Alternative Society .......................................................................... 110 The Sexual Politics of the Goddess .................................................................................... 125 CHAPTER THREE: THE GODDESS VERSUS THE NEW AGE ...................................... 142 The Matriarchy Research and Reclaim Network, 1981 – 2000 ......................................... 149 New Age Armageddon ....................................................................................................... 166 “Is the Goddess Marginalised?” ......................................................................................... 180 CHAPTER FOUR: THE SPIRITUAL POLITICS OF MONICA SJÖÖ .............................. 201 Life, Death and Rebirth at Avebury, 6 February 1978....................................................... 207 Monica Sjöö’s Archive....................................................................................................... 223 Spiritual Quest in Feminist Confessional Memoirs ........................................................... 242 CONCLUSION: “BIG WITCHY ENERGY” AND FEMINIST POLITICS OF THE PRESENT .............................................................................................................................. 259 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 266 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. Monica Sjöö’s illustration of the Bristol Cathedral action, 6 From the Flames, 1993. Figure 2. Photograph of the Sheffield Matriarchy Study Group Goddess 52 figure, c. 1981. Figure 3. “Womin Seeds” cartoon, Women’s Peace Camp newsletter, 1984. 60 Figure 4. Jayne Burton’s edition of the Women’s Peace Camp newsletter, 67 February 1983. Figure 5. Matriarchal feminism depicted in Beatrix Campbell, ‘A Feminist 86 Sexual Politics’, 1980. Figure 6. “I wonder what season it is outside…” cartoon, Matriarchy Research 158 and Reclaim Network newsletter, Summer Solstice 1985. Figure 7. “Wot taking so long…?” cartoon, From the Flames, 183 Autumn-Winter 1996. Figure 8. Monica Sjöö, God Giving Birth, 1968. 202 Figure 9. Jean Freer in her living room with Feminist Archive boxes, c. 1979. 228 Figure 10. Monica Sjöö and Jane Hargreaves at the Feminist Archive, c. 1999. 232 i LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AA Architectural Association School of Architecture CND Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament FA Feminist Archive FAN Feminist Archive North FAS Feminist Archive South LSN London School of Nonviolence LWLW London Women’s Liberation Workshop MRRN Matriarchy Research and Reclaim Network MSG Matriarchy Study Group MSP Monica Sjöö Papers PAN Pagans Against Nukes SCM Student Christian Movement WINS Women’s Information and Newsletter Service WLM Women’s Liberation Movement WRRC Women’s Research and Resources Centre ii INTRODUCTION BREAKING THE BINARIES On the morning of Sunday 9 May 1993, a small group of women were holding hands in a circle on a little pocket of grass between the Bristol Council Offices, the Swallow Hotel and Bristol Cathedral. They were stood in reflective silence, centring themselves and asking for protection for what they were about to do. This moment had been four months in the making although some of the older women had been thinking about it for decades, plotting, conspiring, whispering and waiting until the moment was right.1 Like most “wild magic”, the women’s plans had sparked out of feelings of hopelessness, pain and fear, just as they had over a decade ago when thousands of women travelled to RAF Greenham Common to sing and chant down the murderous energies of nuclear power.2 At the beginning of 1993, the women had once again felt that action should be taken. But what to do? “We must end patriarchy” Rachel said, “in cathedrals” said another, “unfrock bishops”, “outfrock bishops”, “visible collective action”, “sabotage ceremonies”, “mass ritual in celebration of women’s spirituality”.3 Four months later, the Cathedral bells were chiming in College Green in Bristol and the women knew that morning service was about to begin. Despite their nerves, twelve of the bravest set off towards the Cathedral. They were going to confront the Bishop
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