1. Generative Grammar

Chapter 12 „ NOAM CHOMSKY (1928- ), institute professor at MIT. Theories of Linguist, philosopher, Linguistics and political activist.

„ The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955/1975) „ Syntactic Structures (1957) 1.1 Early theories (1957) „ Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) „ Cartesian Linguistics (1966) „ The Sound Pattern of English (1968) „ Innateness hypothesis „ Language and Mind (1968/1972) „ Language acquisition mechanism „ Reflections on Language (1975) „ Rules and Representations (1980) „ Competence and performance „ Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) „ Generating an infinite set of sentences from „ Knowledge of Language (1986) „ Barriers (1986) a finite set of elements „ Language and Problems of Knowledge (1988) „ Deep structure and surface structure „ Language and Thought (1993) „ The Minimalist Program (1995) „ Phrase structure rules „ New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind „ Transformations (2000) „ On Nature and Language (2002)

Phrase structure rules

„ S Æ NP VP „ VP Æ V NP „ NP Æ Det N „ V Æ act, beat, catch, dive, … „ N Æ man, boy, book, flower, ...

1 Transformational rules 1.2 The standard theory (1965)

„ Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

„ NP1 + Aux + V + NP2 Æ „ Æ Subcategorization „ John + will + write + a story „ N Æ [+N, ±Common] „ [+Common] Æ [±Count] „ [+Count] Æ [±Animate] „ NP2 + Aux + be + en + V + by + NP1 „ a story + will + be + en + write + by + John „ [-Common] Æ [±Animate] „ [+Animate] Æ [±Human] „ [-Count] Æ [±Abstract]

„ sincerity „ [+N, +Common, -Count, +Abstract]

„ boy „ [+N, +Common, +Count, +Animate, +Human]

1.3 „ Trace theory: a phonetically null element to occupy the position from which a syntactic element has been moved.

„ I really love Mary Æ „ Mary I really love t

2 „ Indexing:

„ Whoi said Mary kissed himi?

„ whoi [S ti said Mary kissed himi]

„ *Whoi did hei say Mary kissed?

„ *whoi [S hei said Mary kissed ti]

„ Johni said Mary kissed himi

„ *hei said Mary kissed Johni

1.4 GB/PP theory (1981)

„ Government and Binding Theory (early) „ or „ Principles and parameters Theory (later) „ 1980s

1.4.1 Principles

„ X-bar theory „ Government theory „ Binding theory „ Case theory „ θ-theory „ Bounding theory „ Control theory

3 1.4.2 Government 1.4.3

„ speak the language (speak governs the language) „ speak about the language (about governs the language, speak governs about the language)

1.4.4 Binding

„ The logical relation between a quantifier and a variable. „ Binding Theory: A. An anaphor is bound in its governing category. B. A pronominal is free in its governing category. C. An r-expression is free.

Anaphora 1.4.5 Parameters

„ ‘oneself’ and ‘each other’ „ The null subject parameter „ John1 likes himself1. „ Head parameter „ They1 hit each other1. „ Wh-parameter

„ John1 doesn’t like Bill’s2 criticism of himself2.

„ John1 likes him2.

„ Bill1 says John2 likes him1.

„ Bill1 says John2 likes the man3.

4 2. The functional perspective 2.1 The Prague School

„ Prague Linguistic Circle:

„ The Prague School „ Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, „ The London School with such activists as R. Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-2000). „ The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.

Three important points: 2.1.1 Prague School Phonology „ Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies. „ N. Trubetzkoy: Principle of Phonology (1939). „ L is systemic in that no element of L can be „ Phonetics & phonology: different for parole & satisfactorily analysed or evaluated in isolation langue. and assessment can only be made if its „ Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound relationship is established with the coexisting system. elements in the same language system. „ Distinctive features: phonological oppositions. „ L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.

2.1.2 Trubetzkoy’s contributions

„ Put forward a set of methodologies for „ Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of phonological studies. the phoneme. „ Analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. „ Defined the sphere of phonological studies. „ The role of each utterance part is evaluated „ Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes. for its semantic contribution to the whole.

5 „ Therefore, the functional sentence perspective „ A sentence contains a point of departure and (FSP) aims to describe how information is a goal of discourse. The point of departure, distributed in sentences. It deals particularly called the THEME, is the ground on which with the effect of the distribution of known the speaker and the hearer meet. (given) info and new info in discourse. „ The goal of discourse, called the RHEME, „ New info: to be transmitted to the reader or presents the very information that is to be hearer. imparted to the hearer. „ Sally stands on the table. „ Movement from Theme to Rheme reveals the movement of the mind itself. Theme Rheme „ On the table stands Sally. Theme Rheme

2.1.3 Three levels of a sentence 2.1.4 Communicative dynamism (CD) „ Grammatical Sentence Pattern (GSP) „ Semantic Sentence Pattern (SSP) „ J. Firbas „ Communicative Sentence Pattern (CSP) „ Linguistic communication is dynamic, not static. „ CD measures the amount of info an element „ John has written a novel. carries in a sentence. The degree of CD is the „ Subject Verb Object (GSP) effect contributed by a linguistic element. For „ Agent Action Goal (SSP) example, „ Theme Transition Rheme (CSP)

„ Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and/or the object and/or „ He was cross. adverbial provided either the verb or the object „ CD: The lowest degree of CD is carried by and/or adverbial are contextually independent. he, and the highest degree of CD is carried This is because a known or unknown agent by cross, with the degree carried by was expressed by the subject appears to be ranking between them. communicatively less important than an unknown action expressed by the finite verb and/or an unknown goal (object or adverbial of place) at or towards which the action is directed. For example,

6 „ A man broke into the house and stole all the „ An old man appeared in the waiting room at money. five o’clock. „ The ultimate purpose of the communication is to state the action and/or its goal, not the agent. „ If the subject is contextually dependent, a „ However, if the subject is followed by a verb contextually independent adverbial of time or expressing “existence or appearance on the place becomes an important local and scene” and is contextually independent, then temporal specification, carrying greater it will carry the highest degree of CD, degree of CD than both the subject and the becausean unknown person or thing finite verb, as in appearing on the scene is communicatively more important than the act of appearing and „ The old man was sitting in the waiting room. the scene itself, e.g.

2.2 The London School 2.2.1 Malinowski’s theories

„ B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of „ Language “is to be regarded as a mode of anthropology (1927). action, rather than as a counterpart of „ J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of thought”. linguistics in the UK (1944). „ The meaning of an utterance comes from its „ M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth. relation to the situational context in which it occurs. „ All three stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of L. „ Thus also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics, or systemic-functional linguistics/grammar.

Three types of situational context: 2.2.2 Firth’s theories

„ situations in which speech interrelates with „ Regarded L as a social process, a means of bodily activity; social life. In order to live, human beings have to learn and learning L is a means of „ narrative situations; participation in social activities. L is a „ situations in which speech is used to fill a means of doing things and of making speech vacuum--phatic communion. others do things, a means of acting and living.

7 „ L is both inborn and acquired. „ Firth attempted to integrate linguistic „ The object of linguistic study is L in use. studies with sociological studies: because „ The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse human beings are inseparable from cultural meaningful elements of L in order to establish values, and L is an important part of cultural corresponding relations between linguistic and values, linguistics can help reveal the social non-linguistic elements. nature of human beings. „ The method of linguistic study is to decide on „ Meaning is use, thus defining meaning as the composite elements of L, explain their the relationship between an element at any relations on various levels, and ultimately level and its context on that level. Therefore explicate the internal relations between these the meaning of any sentence consists of five elements and human activities in the parts: environment of language use.

„ In analysing typical context of situation, one 1. the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context; has to carry out the analysis on four levels: 2. the relationship of each lexical item to the „ Internal relations of the text: others in the sentence; 1. syntagmatic relations in structure 3. the morphological relations of each word; 2. Paradigmatic relations in system 4. the sentence type of which the given sentence „ Internal relations of the context of situation: is an example; 3. relations between text and non-linguistic 5. the relationship of the sentence to its context elements of situation. 4. analytical relations between elements of the text and elements within the situation

„ A model covering both the situational „ Prosodic analysis: prosodic phonology context and the linguistic context of a text: „ Since any human utterance is continuous 1. The relevant features of the participants: speech flow made up of at least one syllable, it persons, personalities cannot be cut into independent units. Mere a. verbal action of participants phonetic and phonological descriptions are b. non-verbal action of participants insufficient. 2. The relevant topics, inc. objects, events, and „ It is not phonemes that make up the non-linguistic, non-human events. paradigmatic relations, but Phonematic Units, 3. The effects of the verbal action. the features of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are called prosodic units.

8 „ He did not define prosodic units, but his 2.2.3 Systemic-functional grammar discussion indicates that they include such „ M A K Halliday (1925- ). features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration. In any case, „ Two components and inseparable parts: these features cannot be found in one „ systemic grammar: internal relations in L as a phonematic unit alone. system network, meaning potential. „ functional grammar: L as a means of social interaction, uses or functions of language form.

Systemic grammar Functional grammar

„ Ideational function (experiential & logical): to convey new info, communicate a content unknown to the hearer „ Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations „ Textual function: to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.

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