Experiencing Noise As Art. Atonal Music As a Tool for Training of Selective Attention in the Fight Against Noise-Caused Stress

Sabina Dalsborn, Fil Mag in Nursing Science University West, Sweden Ms in Psychology Karlstad University, Sweden

Experiencing noise as art. Atonal music as a tool for training of selective attention in the fight against noise-caused stress.

Abstract Noise related stress and its consequences affect people regardless of age and is a problem that increases constantly. Among different treatments, music appears to be a common feature with a clear dominance of tonal genre among the receptive methods. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether negative emotions and negative cognitive assessments elicited by stimulus atonal music can be positively affected through organized selective attention directed towards individual sound elements. To confirm that atonal music can be understood as a synonym for the noise of an average listener, and because of a lack of relevant research, a pilot study was carried out with 30 participants. The main study included data collection from another 37 participants. Repeated measurements were collected over the Internet as self- reported studies and analysed using analysis of variance (mixed-ANOVA) and t-tests. Results have shown that it is possible, with the aid of selective attention, to affect and reduce negative emotions and cognitions induced by atonal music. It is suggested that both conventional opinions about atonal music and its sound characteristics create the opportunity to use this form of art to promote successful stress management during exposure to auditory stimuli.

Keywords : stress, noise , atonal music, selective attention, aesthetics.

1 Intro As a consequence of the industrial revolution, humans sound environment has undergone drastic changes over the last century. Sounds such as noise and rumbling from traffic sounds, offices, from industry, from other people - including music - is a clear element of everyday life and are not always required, nor welcomed. On the other hand, the auditory stimuli can never be completely ruled out and then utilize their constant effects on man, both physically and through psychological mechanisms. Unwanted sound (perceived often as noise) and its harmful consequences are considered as an urgent problem arising attention in the media and within the research area. Scientific sources determine the noise as an evident stress factor and points to its serious, long-term consequences for human health and quality of life. According to WHO reports (2013) the prolonged exposure to noise and noise-related stress in urban environments annually leads to the loss of about 620,000 DALY` s (Disability Adjusted Life Years), which means the loss of the number of years of healthy life. Research made 2012 by Occupational and Environmental Medicine at Lund University demonstrated people at ages of 30 till 50 as the most noise-affected group.

There are different concepts and action plans to address this increasing problem. Music is widely used in areas such as stress research and every day stress relief. However, the music concept is usually reduced to the predominantly tonal genre. The atonal music has limited evidence and the use of stress-relieving and / or development of coping strategies seems as nonexistent. The atonal music however, includes rich and complex properties comparable with those in noise. Meanwhile, this music genre is perceived as negative among the average listeners. This combination appears to consist, paradoxically, huge potential and offers innovative exciting solutions in the fight against noise-related stress. The atonal music seems to be very suitable as stimulus substitute to the noise. Its use instead of noise as such creates the opportunity to exclude noise from studies about noise-related stress while the participant is given the opportunity to increase the own familiarity with superior cultural aesthetic heritage.

Music versus noise - definitions, similarities and differences According to Swedish national encyclopedia (NE, 2013), music is a well-known cultural property lacking a comprehensive definition. The meaning of the music is determined by unique cultural norms (Atton 2011, Ikeshiro, 2011), constantly changing over time and space (NE, 2013; Ruud, 2005). Music includes all kinds of non-linguistic sounds (Atton 2011, Ikeshiro 2011; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008) deliberately produced by using voice, different tools, electronics and / or information technology and even including noise (Atton 2011, Ikeshiro, 2011). Music is characterized by acoustic parameters such as tempo, volume, rhythm, timbre, pitch, harmony and texture (Bonde, 2009, Chapin, Kelly Janzen, Kelso, Steinberg & Large, 2010, Schou, 2008, Wigram, Nygaard Pedersen & Bonde, 2002).

Noise is assigned negative meaning by definition (Bonde, 2009 Ikeshiro, 2011). This means “bad”, unwanted, often high and/or torturous sound created by human activity, by the industry and technology (Ruud, 2005; WHO, 2011). Noise is synonymous with rumbling and clutter, symbolizing "auditory pollution" and in the interpersonal context, symbolizes intruding of social rules and privacy of the others (Ruud, 2005).

To clearly determine what is noise and what is music can cause difficulties when perceptions and definitions vary. The common is that both noise and music consist sounds (Atton 2011,

2 Ikeshiro 2011; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008, Ruud, 2005; WHO, 2011). Historically, noise has been perceived as the opposition to music (Ikeshiro 2011, Ruud, 2005). Yet noise has always been considered as an important component in music (Jensen, 2005). On the other hand, music as such can be perceived as noise in case it infringes the personal sphere (Ruud, 2005; WHO, 2011). So - the listener is the one to determine similarities and differencies (Bonde 2009 Ikeshiro 2011, Ruud, 2005). It is considered as more meaningful to perceive music and noise in parallel, as a complementary "acoustic complexity" instead of contrast ratio (Bonde 2009, Ruud, 2005).

Effects of music Stimulatory effect of music can be achieved through unpredictable and sudden changes in musical parameters: tempo, volume, rhythm, timbre, pitch, and harmony, within great variations in the musical texture (surface structure and texture/composition), unexpected and/ or strong contradictions in combination tones (dissonances), accents and hard timbres. Complex structure, ununderstandable musical form, and unexpected pauses are also stimulating and can cause or increase the tension level (arousal) and body energy (Atton 2011, Bonde, 2009; Juslin, Liljeström, Västfjäll & Lundqvist, 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008, Schou, 2008 ; Wigram et al, 2002).

In the same way - relaxing music is lowering the tension level, creates calm - heartbeat slows down, the blood pressure drops and music can be used in order to synchronize physiological processes (Bonde, 2009; Schou, 2008; Wigram, et al, 2002). This music is characterized by stability and/or gradual changes in the various elements (Bonde, 2009; Reber, Schwarz & Winkelman, 2004, Schou, 2008; Wigram, et al, 2002). The construction is clear, the design generally transparent, the texture is stable and comfortable. Atonal music Atonal music (also called for modern art music or modern classical music) is a form of music containing melody and harmonic different from the tonal music because of the lack of tonality (Daynes, 2010; Schultze, Mueller & Koelsch, 2011). The tones are used independent of each other, without any pre-established traditional pattern. Melody, harmony, rhythm and other elements are released (Atton, 2011; Daynes, 2010) and shifts frequently and unexpectedly (Stouten, Gilissen, Camps & Tuteleers, 2012). The focus is not on harmony and melody, but to include and experiment with other elements, e.g. timbre, texture. Even other sounds are included, for example, toneless percussion sounds. Atonal music includes music of very different kinds, eg. experimental sound creations where noise, clatter and speech sounds are equally important (Atton, 2011; Ikeshiro, 2011; NE, 2013), sounds disharmonic, unpredictable, and can be experienced as incomprehensible, which than creates stimulating effects (Atton, 2011; Bonde, 2009; Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Schou, 2008; Wigram, et al., 2002).

Emotions/feelings Feelings or emotions involves movement of the mind and conveys important information about the person's state (Ruud, 2002). Emotions are a system that was developed in order to protect the individual and the species' survival and growth. Generally feelings are distinguished by a relatively short duration and high intensity (Beedie, Terry & Lane, 2005; Bonde, 2009; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008), have a specific cause and are directed toward a specific object at the determined time and place (Beedie et al. , 2005; Bonde, 2009; Gross, 2010; Hellsing, 2012; John & Gross, 2004; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). Feelings includes a wide variety of responses and differ in duration and intensity and valence (Bonde, 2009; Gross,

3 2010; Mauss & Robinson, 2009; Russell, 1980; Werner & Gross, 2009; Wilson Mendenhall, Barrett & Barsalou, 2013). A given situation is assessed in relation to the individual's experience and cultural background, as well as toward the current goal (Werner & Gross, 2009). When the situation is considered as relevant the assessment process is initiated, which in turn creates an appropriate emotional response that arouses the desire to act and help to direct action against the determined target (Gross, 2010; Juslin et al., 2010; Levenson, 2007; Werner & Gross, 2009; Wilson Mendenhall et al., 2013). In turn, the goals can be multifaceted, deep, existential or simple and superficial; conscious or unconscious, complex and simple, common to a given culture and environment or original. The variations of those targets cause in turn changes of emotions (Gross, 2010; Werner & Gross, 2009). Dynamics of emotional responses that may be caused by the feelings that arise in the context of a situation can be multiple and will need to compete with each other, with other responses and/or undergo a cognitive process. Emotional responses often alter the situation that caused the rise to its emergence (Gross, 2010; Werner & Gross, 2009). This in turn means that emotions can be regulated! Impulses to act are linked to physiological, neuroendocrine changes in the body (Beedie et al., 2005; Gross, 1998; Gross, 2010: Juslin et al., 2010; Levenson, 2007; Werner & Gross, 2009; Wilson-Mendenhall et al ., 2013) and origins in the autonomic nervous system, which is activated by emotional states. This system is a part of a rapid mobilization of energy necessary for an effective and determined action. This results in activation of the cardiovascular system to increase the oxygen circulation (as evidenced for example in increased heart rate and respiratory rate) and then both initiate and accompany behavioral responses (Gross, 1998; Gross, 2010; Koolhaas et al., 2011; Werner & Gross, 2009). This activation occurs at both positive and negative emotions (Koolhaas et al., 2011; Mauss & Robinson, 2013) and is fundamental to all emotional experience (Wilson-Mendenhall et al., 2013). In other words, it is not an activation per se but the subjective evaluation that determines if the feeling is positive or negative, although there are attempts to assess this using objective measures such as startles (Levenson, 2007; Mauss & Robinson, 2013). Emotions and aesthetics

There is significant difference between the utilitarian emotions and those which arise in relation to aesthetic experiences. The vital feelings are linked to individual objectives (e.g. flight) and has the purpose to develop appropriate response. Emotions arising from the aesthetic experiences does not need this meaning (Juslin et al., 2010). Beauty creates immediately feelings of pleasure and enjoyment, without the involvement of cognition and without the need of practical expectations (Reber et al., 2004). The experience is highly individual and determined by man's approach to the object; the beauty is perceived as a quality of an object and has both objective and subjective aspects (Reber, 2008; Reber et al., 2004). The objective characteristics appear to be universal and biologically inherited, and is about how much of the amount of information a stimulus offers. Symmetry, regularity, basic forms, and transparency are preferred, contain less information to process and will thus be less stressful and therefore experienced as more enjoyable (Juslin, et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Reber et al., 2004). The subjective aspects include the recipient's experience of the stimulus - the possibility of repeated exposure, specific knowledge of the stimulus structure and prototypical characteristicsof the stimulus. The individual's expectations and attribution are also important. The experience of the beauty is in other words a social construction and represents an interaction between the stimulus and the recipient's affective and cognitive processes based on both biological and social factors. Aesthetic pleasure

4 depends on the dynamics of information processing (Reber, 2008; Reber et al., 2004). The quicker the information is processed, the higher the degree of positive aesthetic experience.

Aesthetic pleasure provoked by the beauty does not need to be connected with the assessment of the object's aesthetic value. A piece of art can have very high aesthetic value without being perceived as aesthetically pleasurable and vice versa (Juslin et al., 2010; Reber et al., 2004). Assessment of aesthetic value involves a cognitive activity in the form of an argument. The person who is more experienced and qualified within the field of art is more likely to assess the aesthetic value and can thus evaluate the simpler stimuli in a less positive way, even if they present an aesthetic pleasure (Reber et al., 2004). Emotions caused by stress Although the concept of stress is a common feature of people’s everyday vocabulary, its meaning varies depending on the individual (Selye, 1973). What emotions are experienced in relation to stress, how they are perceived and what they are called depends on the cultural, individual and semantic factors, the boundaries are vague and overlap (Allen, Kennedy, Cryan, Dinan & Clarke, 2011; Beedie, Terry & Lane, 2005; Condon & Barrett, 2013; Mauss & Robinson, 2013; Russell, 1980; Russell et al., 1989; Wilson Mendenhall et al., 2013). Stress is described as a subjective negative emotional state (Allen et al., 2013; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) and is characterized by high activation (arousal) accompanied by discomfort (negative valence) (Allen et al., 2011; Gross, 1998; Koolhaas et al., 2011). Therefore, the state of stress includes a range of different emotions, such as anxiety, anger, frustration, discontent, fear, irritability, agitation, etc. (Allen et al., 2013; Bodin, Birch, Örhström, Ardö & Albin, 2012; Levenson, 2007; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995; Russell, 1980; Russell, Lewicka & Niit, 1989; WHO, 2011). These are designated as absolutely negative, but their purpose is to prevent and deal with situations arising due to threats, challenges and opportunities (Levenson, 2007). Emotions and music Music is a part of everyday life (Helsing, 2012) and occurs in the most of social situations (Ruud, 2002; Juslin et al., 2010). The meaning of music is complex and broad; music is used in entertainment, aesthetic experience, communication, symbolism and so on (Bonde, 2009). Music is also used to develop and regulate physical and physiological responses and emotiones. There is no evidence that emotions arising from music (such as joy, sadness, relaxation) are distinctive to music alone. The same emotions can be induced by other stimuli (eg animals, social contexts) and by the same mechanisms (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). However, unlike other stimuli, music is designed to induce emotions (Bonde, 2009; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008) through sensory and / or cognitive processes (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008) and thus, music is regarded as the "language of emotions". Several mechanisms can be involved in parallel, which explains music’s ability to develop a variety of emotions simultaneously (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). The physiological and psychological mechanisms of emotions caused by music are both innate, biologically inherited and developed during the lifetime, as a result of socialization and learning processes (Bonde, 2009; Juslin et al., 2001; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Ruud, 2002; Wigram et al., 2002). Music impacts the body physically and thus induces physiological and emotional responses, which also affects the experience of the music (Bonde, 2009; Chapin et al., 2010; Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Westfjäll, 2008; Schou, 2008; WHO, 2011; Wigram et al., 2002). Emotional contagion of music involves activation of

5 mimic muscles and / or activation of emotional representations in the brain caused by similar mechanisms occurring in vocal or facial expressions (Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008), for example - positive emotions can induce a smile (Maus & Robinson, 2013; Reber et al., 2004). Rhythmic synchronization constitutes a biologically inherited need of homeostasis (equilibrium state) (Bonde, 2009). Consciously or unconsciously, there is a connection between music parameters, the rhythms of the body (e.g. heartbeat, breathing) and movements, which might generate new emotions (Bonde, 2009; Juslin et al., 2010). Sound (both music and noise) affects the brain strain via the brain stem reflex - a biologically inherited original function in the oldest part of the brain, responsible for auditory perception, affecting of attention, emotional tension, affecting of cardiac activity, blood pressure, respiration, body temperature, and affecting of movements. The system is able to quickly and automatically detect important changes and events in the environment, which might be threatening. The reaction occurs in case of sudden, loud, misconducted, disharmonious and rapidly changing sounds but even if sounds differ from the usual. These sounds indicate "danger" as they, in fact, usually arise in context of threatening situations and lead to increased central nervous system activation, tension, cardiac activity and sense of discomfort increase (Bonde, 2009; Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Westfjäll, 2008; Levenson, 2007; Maus & Robinson, 2013). Music preferences may have an effect on whether the music causes relaxing or stimulating effect (Bonde, 2009; Helsing, 2012; Ruud, 2002; Schou, 2008; Stouten et al., 2012; Wigram et al., 2002). Preferences develop during a life-time, are culture-determined and highly individual (Bonde, 2009; Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Ruud, 2002; Stouten et al., 2012; Wigram et al., 2002). People learn to associate music with other emotional situations, create visual representations in which music is illustrative (Bonde, 2009; Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008) or if music reminds of particular life events and induces emotions that emerged in the past (Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Wigram et al., 2002). Musical expectations constitute a cognitive process which is as powerful as the biological mechanisms do. This process begins at about 5-11 years of age when music experience increases and so does the knowledge within the music field. Personal music expectations might shift depending on context and over time. Emotions will occur if expectations will not become fulfilled, for example, when the music progressed differently than expected, the concert turned out to be better than expected (Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). Research on emotions, moods and cognitive experiences arising from music is dominated by tonal musical works, and the term music is used almost exclusively as a synonym for the tonal genre (Daynes, 2011; Helsing, 2012; Smith, Waters, & Jones, 2010; Schou, 2008). The impact of tonal music on humans is compared to noise by e.g. Smith et al. (2010), however, without considering characteristics of each one respectively. Studies on the emotional impact of music and the noise affect both emotions and moods, the boundaries are unclear and the definitions vary (Beedie et al., 2005; Gross, 2010; Mauss & Robinson, 2009; Schou, 2008; Smith et al., 2010; Werner & Gross, 2009; Xin, Kawada, Yosiaki & Suzuki, 2000). The research on the impact of atonal music on humans appears to be limited and focuses mainly on differences between performances of musicians and non-musicians depending on tonality or lack of it (Daynes, 2011; Schultze et al., 2011; Stouten et al., 2012).

6 Emotion regulation and selective attention Although emotions are very important, they are not always helpful and thus need to be regulated. Very intense negative feelings (e.g. stress) may be harmful and thus should be reduced, while, in contrast, weak emotional expressions (e.g. those in depression) need an increased activation (Gross, 2010; Werner & Gross, 2009). Emotion regulation is a lifelong ongoing (Levenson, 2007), daily activity (Gross, 1998) and involves an automatic, spontaneous or controlled, sometimes instructed process determining which emotion is relevant and even when and how it is perceived and manifested (Levenson, 2007; Gross, 1998; 2010; Waldinger & Isaacowitz, 2010). Emotional regulation is used as a coping strategy and psychological defense (Gross 2010). Emotion control strategies affect behavior and physiological responses caused by emotional response. These strategies are crucial to learn new experiences and evaluate previously acquired ones (Gross, 1998; 2002; 2010; John & Gross, 2004; Thiruchselvam, Hajcak, & Gross, 2012; Werner & Gross, 2009). The strategies can be divided into antecedent- or response-focused. Both kinds can be effective but cause different consequences so the choice should relay on the circumstances and goals (Gross, 1998) and even adjusted to the mental capacity of the individual (Werner & Gross, 2009). Antecedent-focused strategies determine "input to the system" (Gross, 1998, p. 225) through an internal choice of whether the focus should be directed toward or from selected details and begins before behavioral and physiological responses are activated (Gross, 1998; 2002; 2010; John & Gross, 2004; Waldinger & Isaacowitz, 2010; Werner & Gross, 2009). This can be achieved by distraction, rumination or concentration. Antecedent-focused strategies reduce therefore the negative emotional experience already at the very first start (Gross 1998; 2002) and consequently –impact possible behavioral expressions but without any negative effects on memory or on the autonomic nervous system (Gross, 2002). Selective attention is the ability to impact attention and determines adaptive emotions and behavior (Gross, 202). Selective attention supports the individual to choose from the amount of incoming stimuli and to pay attention to the aspects of value or perceived as interesting. An emotional representation, encoded in working memory, remains in its original form. Emotion- induced events (independently of their rational function) are automatically recognized and prioritized (Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2010), which in turn affects experience. Focus on selected specific aspect will change the way of creating meaning for the situation and lead to cognitive restructuring (Gross 1998, 2002; 2010; John & Gross, 2004; Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2010; Werner & Gross, 2009). Selective attention is crucial for emotional regulation and for healthy adaptation (Gross, 2010; Thiruchselvam, Hajcak, & Gross, 2012; Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2010). The use of selective attention in stimulus presentation is a meditative method and can be utilized to regulate emotions during post-stimulus time when the representations are still active in the working memory (Thiruchselvam et al., 2012). This may affect emotional regulation and actively change emotional responses that arise as a result of stimulation of emotional representations, present in the working memory (Gross, 1998; 2002; John, & Gross, 2004; Thiruchselvam et al., 2012) caused, for example, by auditory non-verbal stimuli (Wadlinger, & Isaacowitz, 2010). Emotional stimuli (even the negative ones) take the precedence of attention (Gross, 1998; 2002; John, & Gross, 2004; Thiruchselvam et al., 2012) and thus, take the priority access to

7 working memory and can be encoded even if they are not relevant. Shifting attention focus from negative features of a stimulus toward its determined, neutral ones will – consequently - load working memory with neutral aspects. The processing of stimulus is reduced by minimizing its encoding (Thiruchselvam et al., 2012). This procedure can prevent encoding of unwanted stimuli in the working memory, but it may also be useful to controll emotions even after the event has already been encoded and can support modification of responses to situations arising in everyday environments (Thiruchselvam et al. 2012). Working memory performance increases as information which is structured and organized (Schultze et al., 2011). There are individual differences regarding ability to regulate attention by focusing on selective specific information. At the same time, there is evidence that people can both learn and improve this ability through repeated exercises to optimize their emotional experiences (Levenson, 2007; Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2010). In summary, the differences between music and noise are fluent and the definitions are overlapping. Both assessment and emotional experience depend on how the listener perceives the current audio stimulus The atonal music differs from the tonal genre by lacking of the traditional regularity. The atonal features are predominantly stimulating and noise is often included as an important component. Music generally generates emotions comparable to everyday emotions through a variety of mechanisms. Sometimes, there may be a need to deal with emotions that are very negative, too strong or unwanted. Selective attention is an antecedent-focused emotional control strategy, playing an important role in emotional regulation and crucial for healthy adaptation. It can be trained and used successfully to reduce negative emotions. Combined with structured information, it can increase performance of working memory and lead to successful stress management. The purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the negative emotions (stress and boredom) inducted of atonal music (representative of unwelcome, unorganized and stimulating sounds) and cognitive assessments (noise and quality) of this music genre could be positively affected by organized focused attention on specific audio aspects. Research questions 1. Can experienced stress caused by stimulating, unorganized and unwelcomed sound be affected by organized, selective attention? 2. Can the aesthetic, cognitive experience of unorganized and unwelcomed sounds changes through organized, selective attention?

Hypothesis 1. Stress experience caused by unorganized, unwelcome and stimulating sounds can be reduced by selective attention. 2. Aesthetic assessments can change positively as auditory stimuli are made understandable and thus - perceivable by using organized information.

Method. According to the reviewed scientific literature, there is a lack of information about how an average listener without professional musical background experiences the atonal music. The primary idea of how this music genre is possible perceived by the public in general aroused from reading popular science articles and discussion forums (eg. Ross, 2010; Söderlind, 2002;

8 Service, 2012). Because of those reasons, a preliminary pre-study was conducted to clarify if the atonal music is perceived as noise or music and if it is experienced as stressful or relaxing. The pre-study also tested a selection of musical pieces within atonal and respectively tonal genres, as well as questionnaires about cognitive and emotional experiences.

PRE-STUDY The area of "art music" constitutes a broad field - both in terms of definition and content and with great variation within and between the styles. This plurality caused difficulties while selecting a smaller number of representative compositions suited for the study. Selection of atonal music for pre-study was done in three stages: 1. Initially, a list of 10 atonal stimulating pieces was established from the prior of the art music and according to parameters found in the reference literature (eg, Bonde, 2009; Schou, 2008; Wigram et al., 2002). 2. Thereafter, a panel consisting of three persons (male and female) in different ages and without professional musical background ranked selected pieces from 1 to 10 where 1 meant that the piece was perceived as the most noise-alike and 10 as the least noise-alike. 3. Music pieces evaluated between 1 and 5 were taken into consideration and finally, two ones with the lowest number of points were chosen and used. The stimulating music was represented by Luigi Russolo's work "Awakening of A City" and Karlheinz Stockhausen's "Contacte". To create musical and experience contrast to atonal compositions, a tonal piece with relaxing characteristics, belonging to the category "Modern Classical Music" was also used and represented by Dimitri Schostakovich´s "The Gadfly" (Romance). Participants Nine persons without known professional musical background were contacted via Internet for participation and requested to involve three or more participants. Totally, the pre-study used data from 30 participants: 19 women and 11 men in ages of 15 and 56 (M = 33.63, SD = 14.67). The pre-study was a partly anonymous survey to obtain information about experiences of the art and without an integrity-sensitive or harmful character.

Design and data collection Preliminary study was conducted as a quasi-experimental Internet-based study, and participants were recruited according to comfort selection and snowball sampling (Svartdal, 2001). Three separate Word documents were prepared in different order of musical works: I stimulating-stimulating-relaxing, II relaxing-stimulating-stimulating, and III stimulating- relaxing-stimulating. To each piece, a link was attached to both YouTube and Spotify, as well as instructions on access to the works and how to evaluate the audio material. For each audio material two questions were offered related to emotion of stress-relaxation, as well as listeners' aesthetic, cognitive assessments of respective audio material such as noise- music experience. The questions were prepared according to Russel's (1980) Cirkumplex model of affect (see also Bonde, 2009 and Västfjäll & Gärling, 2007). Each question was

9 answered by an assessment scale prepared by Västfjäll and Gärling (2007), as well as according to Frieden, Fujii, Ettema, Gärling and Olsson (2012) Measuring Instruments of Affective and Cognitive Experiences (STS). To each question, an assessment scale was graded from -3 to 3, where -3 corresponded to the negative emotion / cognition (stress/noise) in its strongest intensity, 0 = neither or, and 3 corresponded to the positive emotion / cognition when it was perceived as strongest (relaxation/music).

Implementation The first nine participants were divided into three equal groups in the order of acceptance. By e-mail, Word documents were sent containing music material, related questions and instructions. Every participant was requested to send the received document to a further three, preferably more people. In this way, a snowball selection (Svartdal, 2001) was created to both increase the number of participants and make the selection less controlled. The participants were asked to listen to each piece for about 2-3 minutes (Vuokoski & Eerola, 2010; 2011) and evaluate how these were perceived and which emotions these caused. The answers should be saved in the Word document and returned with reciprocal email. Groups I and II consisted of 8 participants, group III consisted of 15. Data from all participants in groups I and II were used in the analysis. One participant in group III was excluded as the value was considered as too aberrant. Data Processing A variance analysis significantly demonstrated the main effect of musical works; there was a clear difference how the atonal music pieces were experienced in comparison to the tonal ones. The two atonal compositions were rated as more stressful, F (1.48.40.05) = 68.56, p <0.01 (for Russolo M = -1.13, SD = 1.04 and Stockhausen M = 1.53, SD = 0.89) and in larger extent as noise, F (2.54) = 139.07, p <0.01 (for Russolo M = -1.80, SD = 0.99 and Stockhausen M = - 2.16, SD = 0.87) while the tonal one was perceived as relaxing = 1.70, SD = 1.36) and assessed as music (M = 1.90, SD = 1.32). There was no significant main effect of group membership for either stress, F (2.27) = 2.52, p = 0.09, or noise, F (2, 27) = 3.06, p = 0.06. There was thus no difference between the order of audio files and how noise and stress were experienced.

MAIN STUDY Participants Even this study was organized in an internet-based form, as a comfort selection and snowball sampling (Svartdal, 2001). Initially 20 adults without known professional music education were contacted and asked to involve at least one, preferably more persons each. 37 participants completed the survey - 26 women and 11 men i the ages 18-67 years (M = 42.32, SD 12.83). 19 persons participated in Experiment Group and 18 in the Control Group. Participants from pre-study did not join in the main study. Design An experimental design with repeated measurement was used. For six consecutive days (Monday to Friday and Monday after the weekend), all participants in both groups listened to identical pieces of music, first an atonal followed by a tonal one at each occasion. The participants in the Experiment Group would focus every day on one particular music

10 parameter: pitch, rhythm, texture, dynamics, and timbre. The variables of stress, boredom, noise and assessment “the worst I have heard” were measured in the experimental and control group to essentially determine whether there was a difference between groups. Then, the analyzes were able to demonstrate the possible change in emotions / cognitions between listening opportunities within each group and between groups. Data collection The atonal and the tonal music was used to achieve contrast in both emotional and cognitive assessments. For each music parameter, a representative atonal and a tonal music piece fulfilling stimulating and relaxing conditions were chosen. Participants received for each session a brief information about the current audio aspect with the instructions on how it should be noticed. The music selection, information and instructions (Appendix 6) were prepared in accordance with criteria found in reference literature (Bonde, 2009; Hellstenius, 2005; Wigram et al., 2002), articles in the National Encyclopedia (2013) and consulted with H. Hellstenius, composer and professor in composition at the Norwegian Music School in Oslo (personal communication, January 16, 2013). Six sections were prepared, each containing an atonal piece of music followed by a tonal one. Both music pieces in every section were accompanied by four questions and assessment scales in the same way as in the pre-study. The first two questions concerned emotions of stress-relaxed and bored- enthusiastic. The two remaining questions concerned the listeners' aesthetic, cognitive assessments of respective audio material such as the experience of noise-music and the worst - the best I have heard. All participants received identical information letters, music contents and instructions explaining each step of the process. But - only members of the Experiment Group received instruction about what music aspect they should focus at each occasion and brief information about the current aspect. During the first five sessions, participators in the Experiment Group listened to the music for at least 2-3 minutes (Vuokoski & Eerola, 2010; 2011) and focused on a particular music parameter, only one during respective opportunity in the following order: pitch, rhythm / tempo, texture, dynamics / volume and timber. During the last, sixth session, participants in the Experiment Group were instructed to choose on their own to focus on one or more parameters. The members of the Control Group listened to the contents without these instructions and information. Data from respectively participant was collected on six occasions, once a day. All participants were informed that they will receive only one unit per day firs after they have returned the previous response. Background variables as age and sex were required and whether the participants listen to music, which and when. On all occasions, participants were also offered the opportunity to comments. In total, 222 measurements were made. Data was processed using SPSS program. Variance analysis for repeated measurements (mixed ANOVA) was conducted for the first five occasions (during which the participants in the experiment group focused their attention on a music parameter). The sixth and last opportunity was analyzed using independent t-tests. Seven participators, all women, left the study before final measurement, 3 in Experiment and 4 in the Control Group.

Reliability and validity

11 Selection of the music and all instructions were designed according to scientific reference literature and consulted with competent sources (Atton, 2011; Bonde, 2009; Hellstenius, 2005; Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Schou, 2008; Wigram et al., 2002).The possibility to use art music as the relevant substitute for noise was found on the basis of posts written by experts within music fields in popular science sources and was also confirmed by pre-study. Design of the questions and the scales of estimates was made using previously proven instruments (Bonde, 2009; Friiman et al., 2012; Russel, 1980; Västfjäll & Gärling, 2007). Self-reported studies are considered as the most suitable for registering and measuring experiences (Helsing, 2012; Svartdal, 2001) regardless of results from polygraphic measurements (see, for example, Xin et al., 2000). However, the method may cause difficulties depending on the participant's ability to observe and describe emotions and thoughts as well as because of cultural and semantic differences. There is also a risk that assessment of complex and difficult phenomena such as a modern art music, could be perceived as problematic due to lack of knowledge and participants´ uncertainty. Thus, the possibility of anonymity and distance of participants created better opportunity to be truthful and offer genuine answers without discomfort of "losing face" (Reber et al., 2004; Svartdal, 2001). In addition, this study offered participants remaining their own environment throughout the research process (Helsing, 2012; Svartdal, 2001). It eliminated the presence of the interviewer as well as the artificial and controlled conditions in a lab environment, not always reflecting the real life outside - during an average day when noise, stress and its consequences affect people in their ordinary surroundings. Ethical considerations The participants of this study included non-clinical adults in different ages and with no musical background of note. There is evidence that homogeneity in age, environment, time of day, mood, etc. can affect music preferences and results (Bonde, 2009; Juslin et al., 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Ruud, 2002; Stouten et al. 2012; Wigram et al., 2002). However, there is also evidence that humans generally suffer from noise and its consequences to some extent regardless of the background variables (Smith et al., 2010; WHO, 2011; Xin et al., 2000). All participants were informed about the voluntary of their participation and the termination of their participation at any time and without justification (Svartdal, 2001). Design of the study allowed anonymity and sensitive personal data were not needed, nor handled. In addition, anonymity reduced all possible concerns of the participant to appear as ignorant or incompetent within a relatively unknown and difficult-to-understand area of the contemporary art music as it seems to appear to an average listener (Reber, 2008; Reber et al., 2004; Service, 2012; Söderlind, 2002). Atonal musical compositions were used in this study instead of noise. This idea is based on composers' own opinions about similarities and differences between music and noise as well as reference literature within music psychology (Atton, 2011; Ikeshiro, 2011; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Ruud, 2005; WHO, 2011). Even articles made by experts in atonal music gave insights into how art music could be experienced (Service, 2012; Söderlind, 2002). There is little research done about atonal music in general. Research about the effects of exposure to atonal music for an average person was not found. The selected pieces of music

12 are all of high aesthetical value, although these were not necessarily perceived by the listener as aesthetically pleasurable (Juslin et al., 2010; Reber et al., 2004) and even noise-alike and stressful. However, regardless of the outcome of the study, listening sessions offered participants the opportunity to become acquainted with high-quality music of less known genre and meet the art - an integral part of human heritage and of being human, experiencing the health (WHO, 1948; 2014). Results The atonal music The first five sessions were analyzed using mixed ANOVA with group splitting (experimental vs. control group) as between group variable and music listening (of 5 atonal music pieces) as intergroup variables. Thus, each of the groups tested how experiences of the stress, boring, noise and the-worst-case variables induced by atonal music were changed in the groups between events, whether there was a difference between experimental and control groups, and how the same or different groups' perceptions changed between occasions. In the last, sixth session, independent t-tests were used to test if any effects of organized listening were left when participants in the experimental group focused their attention without instructions Experience of atonal music as "stress". There was a significant main effect of group in the first five sessions, F (1.35) = 12.65, p <0.01. Experiment Group members experienced less stress when listening to atonal music (M = -0.31, SD = 0.20) than the Control Group (M = -1.32, SD = 0.21). There was also a significant interaction effect between group and stress, F (4.140) = 3.63, p <0.01. There was a difference in how the stress changed in the respective group, presented in Figure A1. There was no significant main effect of stress between measurements, F(4.140) = 1.65, p = 0.16.

Atonal Stress - Relax

0,5

Experiment Group -0,5 Control Group

-1

-1,5

-2 1 2 3 4 5 Session 13 The difference between groups in the last session was significant (t (35) = 2.39, p <0.05). The Experiment Group still felt less stress when listening to atonal music without instructions (M = 0.05, SD = 1.39) than the Control Group (M = -1.00, SD = 1.28). Experience of atonal music as "boring". There was a significant main effect of group, F (1.35) = 5.16, p <0.05. The groups perceived the music as boring in different ways. The Experiment Group experienced the atonal music as less boring (M = -0.16, SD = 0.29) than the Control Group (M = -1.11, SD = 0.30). There was also a significant main effect of emotions "bored / enthusiastic" between measurements, F (3.0.106.1) = 3.97, p = 0.01 (Greenhouse Geisser corrected degrees of freedom), but no significant interaction between group and emotion, F (3.0.106.1) = 1.85, p = 0.14. Figure A2 presents average sense of boredom for each group for the first five measurements.

Atonal Bored - Excited

0,6 0,4 0,2 0 -0,2

-0,4 Experiment Group -0,6 Control Group -0,8 -1 -1,2 -1,4 -1,6 1 2 3 4 5 Session

The difference between the Experiment and Control Group at the sixth session was not significant, t (35) = 1.71, p = 0.09.

Assessment of atonal music as "noise Even on this occasion, there was a significant main effect on the group in the question of whether the atonal music was perceived as noise or music, F (1.35) = 4.49, p <0.05. The

14 Experiment Group experienced the atonal music as music (M = 0.08, SD = 0.32) while the control group perceived it as noise (M = -0.89, SD = 0.33). There was a significant main effect of noise between measurements, F (2.8.98.1) = 16.99, p <0.01 (Greenhouse Geisser corrected degrees of freedom), i.e. noise assessment changed among sessions in respective group. Interaction between group and session was not significant - the changes in noise experience occurred equally in both groups, F (2.8,98.1) = 1.86, p = 0.14.

Figure A3 presents the average of "noise" assessment for the experimental and control group for the five measurement occasions.

Atonal Noise - Music

1,5

0,5

0 Experiment Group -0,5 Control Group -1

-1,5

-2

-2,5 1 2 3 4 5 Session

The difference between groups at the last session measured by a t-test was significant, t (35) = 2.76, p <0.01. Even without instructions, members of the Experiment Group continued to experience atonal pieces as a musical work (M = 0.37, SD = 1.95) while members of the Control Group still considered it as noise (M = -1.22, SD = 1.52). Assessment of atonal music as "the worst / best I have heard". Again, there was a significant main effect of group in the question of whether the atonal music was rated as the worst I have heard or the best I have heard, F (1.35) = 8.78, p <0.01. The Experiment Group assessed the atonal music as the worst to a less degree (M = -0.39, SD

15 = 0.25) than the Control Group (M = -1.47, SD = 0.26). There was a significant main effect of occasion, i.e. the assessment of the quality was different at the five occasions, F (4.140) = 5.10, p <0.01, but the interaction between group membership and probability was not significant, F (4.140) = 1, 60, p = 0.13.

Figure A4 presents mean values of the cognitive assessment of the quality of the atonal music over the five measurements for each group.

Atonal The worst – The best

0,5

-0,5 Experiment Group Control Group -1

-1,5

-2 1 2 3 4 5 Session

Independent t-tests at sixth occasion resulted in significantly Levene's test and a correction of degrees of freedom was made at the t-test. There was significant difference between groups about whether the atonal music was perceived as the worst / best I have heard (t (31,96) = 2,52, p <0,05). Even without instructions, the Experiment Group assessed the atonal music piece to a less level as the worst (M = -0.26, SD = 1.59) than the Control Group (M = -1.39, SD = 1.09).

16 The tonal music Again, mixed ANOVA was used during the first five sections and the 6th, final episode was tested using t-tests for all four variables. There was no significant effect of group in emotions stress / relaxation, F (1.35) = 0.66, p = 0.42 (Experiment Group: M = 2.02, SD = 0.13, and Control Group: M = 1.87, SD 0.13). There was a significant main effect of stress between measurements F (4.140) = 4.81, p <0.01. There was also a significant interaction effect between group membership and stress level between measurements, F (4.140) = 2.44, p = 0.05. There was no significant difference between groups in 6.th session, t (35) = 1.97, p = 0.06. The analyzes of all variables (stress, bored, noise and worst I have heard) resulted similarly for both groups, without significant differences between the groups. Both the Experiment and Control Group appreciated the tonal music alike in the matter of emotional and cognitive assessment. Generally, the mean values were high on the positive side of the scale. Discussion The purpose of this study was to investigate whether emotions stress and sadness and cognitive assessments (noise, worst I have heard) can be influenced by selective attention toward different audio elements and if atonal music can be used as representative for unwelcome, unorganized and stimulating sound and as a substitute of noise. The study's findings gave support to hypothesis 1 and demonstrated that self-reported stress induced by atonal music can be influenced by selective attention. Information about music parameters and instructions on how to listen to the audio material by organized and structured manner made an impact on the entire auditory activity. The study also confirmed the hypothesis 2. The result demonstrated change within the aesthetic experience of atonal music and how the assessment - from noise to music – have changed if attention could be focused in an organized way and towards a certain direction. The Experiment Group perceived stress significantly different from the Control Group. For the Experiment Group, stress was assessed as significantly lower immediately, from the very beginning and then throughout the entire experimental period. Even when the instructions were changed at the sixth session and the listeners had to choose alone to which and how many music parameters they wanted pay their attention to, the Experiment Group still experienced less stress than the Control Group. A possible explanation might be that the focus on neutral details (audio parameters) of a negative stimulus (atonal piece of music) delimited the amount of information coded into the work memory, the entire processing work was reduced this way and then - became less demanding (see Thiruchselvam et al., 2012). Furthermore, the information itself and structure of the sessions may be assumed as contributing and accelerating the processing procedure in the work memory (see, for example, Schultze et al., 2011). The emotional response was thus modified in the experimental group, in contrast to the control group. Unlike variables like bored, noise, the worst I have heard, self-reported stress did not change significantly between measurements within respective group. On the other hand, stress varied in both groups (significant interaction between group and stress). Stress level in the Experiment Group - after increasing from beginning to the second session - remains continuously lower and might continue to decrease (if the study lasted longer). This indicates

17 that the valence of the emotion could be changed from negative to positive while stress- related activation decreased. This speculation is based partly on the results of the emotion bored (and possibly on the assessments noise and the worst I have heard) and finds support in previous research results (Thiruchselvam et al., 2012) and theoretical models (see, for example, Russel, 1998). The temporary increase in stress could be explained by the fact that attention training can initially be difficult and arouse resistance as it demands a high degree of involvement of cognitive capacity. It might be worth remembering, however, that repeated process will become more automatic and thus less demanding for the cognitive brain sphere (John & Gross, 2004; Waldinger & Isaacowitz, 2012) meanwhile processing of information becomes more fluent (Reber et al. 2004). In the longer perspective, the method might be energy-saving instead and provide more space for both more effective cognitive function and information gaining and for the positive emotions. In summary - the method may affect stress in several ways and reduce stress (and its consequences) associated with exposure to atonal music as well as to noise. Even emotions bored or enthusiastic differed between groups. The Experiment Group's self- reported value was clearly positive at the beginning of the experiment, members reported a certain amount of enthusiasm and increased activation already at the first occasion. Emotion bored changed toward enthusiastic over time for both groups, but the change occurred earlier for the Experiment Group (second session) and the level of enthusiasm was still higher at each session than in the Control Group. Emotional change from bored to enthusiastic means increased activation and the valence in a positive direction. Information and instructions can be assumed to be crucial and helpful in understanding and focusing on details in a variety of complex and unknown audio stimuli. Structure and intelligibility provide safety and confidence. Selective attention might limit the amount of information and create even more structure in each instance. Stimuli became less extensive and demanding and could be processed faster. The information became more comprehensible, meaningful and content interesting, which is an important for the occurrence of positive emotions (Reber, 2008). In contrast - the respondents of the Control Group experienced the atonal music as boring at all occasions. This may be explained by the fact that to the listeners in the Control Group the audio material without focus appeared too extensive, difficult and demanding, which made it non-informative and thus uninteresting and boring (Bonde, 2002). The cognitive assessments of the atonal music such as noise (or music) and the worst (or best I have heard) differ significantly between the groups. The Experiment Group's assessments are clearly more positive and the atonal music is experienced as music already at first session. This may be explained by the fact that aesthetic experiences depend on the dynamics of the processing, the faster information is processed by mainly cognitive reasoning, the greater the degree of positive aesthetic experience (Juslin et al., 2010; Reber et al., 2004). Guiding the listener by using information about theoretical details of a piece broke down its initially non- informative complexity and created meaning and understanding. Thus, the content became more informative, relevant and interesting, which is an important condition for selective attention. The created structure increased the working memory performance beyond the previously mentioned enlargement of positive aesthetic assessment and appears as a beneficial to the process in the experiment group. Selective attention might limit the amount of information and in combination with the instructions, the processing of a complex stimulus become reduced. As mentioned earlier, it may be possible to reduce negative feelings by

18 loading work memory with neutral aspects of a negative stimulus. However, the emergence of positive feelings and assessments require both meaning and confidence in stimuli (Reber, 2008). This study focuses primarily on the atonal music genre. The tonal music was therefore given less attention. However, it might be worthwhile to present brief results for the tonal music. No significant differences were found between Experiment and Control Group in how participants perceived and assessed the tonal music. The tonal music was perceived as positive and created pleasure in both groups to the same degree, regardless of the amount of information. The positive experiences - both emotional and cognitive - can be explained by the fact that the tonality itself creates structure and makes the music understandable enough to be perceived as positive, symmetrical and predictable even if music pieces were not selected by the participants and regardless of focus. Even calming qualities of tonal music should be considered as contributing to the outcome. Tonal relaxing music is a positive stimulus that induces low / moderate activation. This in turn creates relaxation and reduces activation readiness and can therefore be used for emotional regulation through suppression. Selective attention, on the other hand, is an endeavor and energy-consuming activity and requires an increased level of activation. The level of activation that occurred during the reception of tonal relaxing music may be considered as too low and therefore contributing to difficulties in directing and remaining attention to the stimuli and information they contain (Waldinger & Isaacovitz, 2010). It is also possible that both the contrast between the atonal (complex) piece and the tonal (more predictable and easier to process) as well as the order atonal-tonal are important for the experience of the tonal music as more relaxing and positive after a stressful moment caused by atonal music. By avoiding and distancing from noise, people can reduce already existing emotions by suppression (see, for example, Gross, 2010). The method might be effective and even necessary in inhibiting emotional behavior, but it has poor influence on subjective experiences of negative emotions as such. The activation of the sympathetic system and a negative effect on memory occur as a result. By escaping and hiding from noise, people lose important information and ability to listen more carefully. Signals need to become more intensive in order to come through a variety of other stimuli and the impact can be expected to increase. People risk losing control of their sound environment and their reactions. The comprehensive evidence of how much devastation causes stress and stress-related difficulties in noisy environments (see, for example, WHO, 2011), testifies that people are in position of great need to learn a new way of thinking about unwelcome sounds if those cannot be avoided. Everyday noise / rumbling can be very interesting if we are aware, and selective attention could effort an effective emotional control method. According to the scientific research sources, an interesting conclusion increases about possible connection between stress and aesthetics. Studies of tonal music demonstrated that the music's therapeutic impact on self-reported stress could be achieved to a greater extent when the listener liked the music (see, for example, Helsing, 2012; Schou, 2008). Furthermore, it may be possible (Reber et al., 2004) that selective attention and instruction how to listen to atonal music in the Experiment Group could create a certain understanding and then – an appreciation of aesthetic elements even if stimuli are usually perceived as noise

19 and synonymous to disturbing and unwelcome sound. This can be explained by the fact that since increased positive aesthetic experience results in increased experience of regularity (and thus increased experience of beauty and appreciation), it reduces requirement of endeavor while it accelerates processing in the work memory. The uninitiated listeners' experience of "danger of the unknown" can be reduced and arisen familiarity increases the sense of security. This may indicate that increased aesthetic experience (social constructed) are able to affect the basic, utilitarian emotions such as stress (and sadness) to positive valence when atonal music and noise are present and then, more space is left for positive emotions. Although reasoning about this connection was not a core question in this study, it might be considered as valuable in the struggle against stress and as a possible suggestion to follow up. Participants in Experiment Group were given the opportunity to pay attention to several different sound aspects. Because it was just the activity of selective attention that was of interest, no distinctions between the focus object was created. What was most interesting for the listener to focus on and why it was so, is therefore not clarified in this study. It could be considered as a desirable issue to follow up this path and find the audio aspect that makes selective attention training both easier and more effective. Neither the participants' basic mood has been taken into consideration. This idea arose during the work process when the participants themselves reported experienced difficulties in perception depending on their current condition and modus. Even reference literature indicated possible differences. According to the sources, people in ages of 30-50 are most affected by stress. It might be suggested that future participants suffering from auditory stimuli could be recruited from this age group among factory, office and / or urban residents and involved in a more extensive study in trying to alleviate stress experience and prevent its consequences. In summary, this study presents that it is possible to influence emotions and cognitions arising from atonal music (as a representative of noise) positively, using selective attention and structure containing instructions and information. Selective attention applied to atonal music led to significantly greater positive emotional and cognitive experience and achieved it during a relatively short time. Thus, the method deserves more attention as an effective, innovative, quick and cost-effective tool to master noise-related difficulties and treat the problem in greater extension. People have a variety of skills to select what they are interested in. Helping them to develop interest in contemporary art music, supporting them with guidance and information could successfully increase their ability to listen to audio stimuli in a structured, organized manner, it could facilitate the learning of selective attention technology on acoustic stimuli and thereby positively influence emotional regulation in presence of unwelcome sound / noise. The benefits from knowledge and interaction with the high-quality music genre are inestimable and priceless.

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Appendix

The list of music pieces for each session and focus

1st session: pitch The Carnegie Mellon Philharmonic & Concert Choir, Juan Pablo Izquierdo – Hymnos

Pärt, Arvo – Pärt: Spiegel Im Spiegel

Or:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1n-DQonQhs

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8qg_0P9L6c

2nd session: rythm/tempo Olivier Messiaen – Couleurs de la Cité Céleste

Ukraine National Symphony Orchestra – The Gadfly Suite, Op. 97a: The Gadfly Suite, Op. 97a: VIII. Romance

Or:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HzRXUXuTyx4

24 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJ-ESArxpf0&list=PL5bydtWkWdsToeubLrlNAZSX- H-jCGroI -

3rd session: texture Olivier Messiaen – Couleurs de la Cité Céleste

Ukraine National Symphony Orchestra – The Gadfly Suite, Op. 97a: The Gadfly Suite, Op. 97a: VIII. Romance

Or:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HzRXUXuTyx4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJ-ESArxpf0&list=PL5bydtWkWdsToeubLrlNAZSX- H-jCGroI

4th session: dynamics / volume SWF Symphony Orchestra, Michael Gielen – A Carlo Scarpa, architetto, ai suoi infiniti possibili

Henryk Mikołaj Górecki – 3 Utwory W Dawnym Stylu (3 Pieces In Old Style): I.

Or:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6P-RSKX8hvI

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ypgkeREw2w

5th session: timber. Edgar Varèse – Poem Electronique

London Symphony Orchestra & Arpád Jóo – Boléro (Ravel)

Or:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D7AIiTeKBUc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q4wb11w0ZHQ

6th session: Free choice Karlheinz Stockhausen – Kontakte

Arvo Pärt – Tabula Rasa: II. Silentium

Eller

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0h0ApJAeSg

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uW0StzgQG38

25 26