- i -

ISSN: 1810—2174 Balochistan

Review Volume XXVIII No. 1, 2013

(HEC RECOGNIZED)

Editor: Ghulam Farooq Baloch

BALOCHISTAN STUDY CENTRE UNIVERSITY OF BALOCHISTAN, QUETTA-PAKISTAN

- ii -

Published bi-annually by the Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan.

@ Balochistan Study Centre 2013-1

Subscription rate (per annum) in Pakistan: Institutions: Rs. 300/- Individuals: Rs. 200/-

For the other countries: Institutions: US$ 50 Individuals: US$ 30

Contact: Balochistan Review—ISSN: 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. Tel: (92) (081) 9211255 Facsimile: (92) (081) 9211255 E-mail: [email protected] Website: uob.edu.pk

- iii -

Editorial Board

Patron in Chief: Prof. Dr. Rasul Bakhsh Raisani Vice Chancellor, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. Patron Prof. Dr. Abdul Hameed Shahwani Director, Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Editor Ghulam Farooq Baloch Asstt Professor Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Assistant Editor Waheed Razzaq Research Officer Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta-Pakistan. Members: Prof. Dr. Andriano V. Rossi Vice Chancellor & Head Dept of Asian Studies, Institute of Oriental Studies, Naples, Italy. Prof. Dr. Saad Abudeyha Chairman, Dept. of Political Science, University of Jordon, Amman, Jordon. Prof. Dr. Bertrand Bellon Professor of Int’l, Industrial Organization & Technology Policy, University de Paris Sud, France. Dr. Carina Jahani Inst. of Iranian & African Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Khan Director, Taxila Institute of Civilization, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan. Prof. Dr. Rajwali Shah Khattak Professor, Pushto Academy, University of Peshawar, Pakistan. Mr. Ayub Baloch Member, Balochistan Public Service Commission, Quetta. Prof. Dr. Mehmood Ali Shah, Professor Emeritus, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

- iv -

Guidelines/Parameters for the Contributors: Following are the Guidelines/Parameters for the scholars/researchers contributing articles to the bi-annual research journal of BSC “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW ISSN: 1810-2174”.

The article should be in a ready to print form Authors are entitled to five free off-prints and a copy of the issue in which their article is published. The articles should accompany a soft copy as well; to be sent through email preferably in PDF file format. Articles must focus on latest researches made in different fields/areas i.e. arts and crafts, architecture, archaeology, literature, language, economy, management, heritage and culture, politics, media, history etc. relevant to Balochistan. Any queries regarding the publication or acceptance of the article can be sought at the given address: Editor “Balochistan Review”, Balochistan Study Center, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan. [email protected]

Style

The title should appear at the middle position of the first page The brief title (5 to 7 words) with author’s name also appearing in the top-left header position in the rest of the pages (running head). All authors’ full name and affiliations should also be explicit on the first page with the corresponding author’s postal and email addresses. The article should comprise an abstract, introduction (including review literature and rationale), results, discussion (including limitations and suggestions), and the references. The abstract should be of about 150-170 words. The article should be of maximum 4000 words in New Times Roman, font 12 with 1.5 line Spacing. Main heading should be bold with italic subheadings. Tables and figures should be in a separate file, in a ready to print form with sources given below the tables. All statistical symbols present in the article should be italic. References should be in author/date style throughout the text in the APA format

- v -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174”, Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

CONTENT Page No.

ARCHAEOLOGY

THE CULTURAL LEGACY OF BALOCH CIVILIZATION 01 Jamil Hussain Baloch, Dr Gul Hasan Baloch Azmatullah Baloch & Hamid Ali Baloch

BOTANY

PLANTS TREASURES, TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND 11 BALOCH SOCIETY Muhammad Panah Baloch, Muhammad Yousuf Marri Muhammad Afzal Qaisrani & Abdullah Baloch

COMMERCE

ROLE OF LIVESTOCK IN THE ECONOMY OF BALOCHISTAN 25 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SHEEP AND GOAT Muhammad Shafiq

EDUCATION

CAUSES OF LOW QUALITY EDUCATION IN BALOCHISTAN 41 Faisal Raza

THE EFFECTS OF THE VARIOUS TEACHING METHODS ON 47 “SOCIAL STUDIES” SUBJECT AND ITS IMPACT ON THE PERFORMANCE OF THE STUDENTS OF CLASS 7TH AT QETTA CITY SCHOOLS Abdul Nasir

HISTORY

NEW DISCOVERED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF 59 NUSHKI DISTRICT OF BALOCHISTAN (A FIELD REPORT) Farooq Baloch &Waheed Razzaq

LANGUAGE & LITERATURE

A BRIEF ABOUT PERSIAN POETRY OF 77 KHUSHAL KHAN KHATTAK Dr. Nasrullah Jan Wazir, Dr. Mohammad Usman Tobawal & Abdul Rehman Kakar

- vi -

QURAN AND HADITH IN THE LETTERS OF 91 YOUSAF AZIZ MAGSI (A STUDY) Dr. Khalid Mahmood Khattak

SYNTAX FORMATION IN THE 99 BRAHUI AND BALOCHI LANGUAGES Dr.Liaqat Ali Sani & Abdul Haleem Sadiq

USAGE OF ARABIC ALPHABETS IN THE BRAHUI 109 ORTHOGRAPHY Waheed Razzaq

PHILOSOPHY

THE QUR’ANIC MODES OF KNOWLEDGE IN 119 THE EPISTEMALOGY OF IQBAL Dr. Malik Mohammad Tariq

SOCIAL SCIENCES

GENDER DIFFERENTIAL IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN, 131 WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON HEALTH AND INCOME / WORK: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY Ahmed Ali Brohi, Mitho Khan Bhatti, Abdul Wahid Zehri & Jan Mohammad

FARMER’S PERCEPTIONS ON THE STATUS OF LAND 149 DEGRADATION IN PISHIN SUB-BASIN, PAKISTAN Dr. Said Qasim, Alam Tareen & Aijaz Ali Wassan

- 1 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

THE CULTURAL LEGACY OF BALOCH CIVILIZATION

Archaeology

Jamil Hussain Baloch*Dr Gul Hasan Baloch† Azmatullah Baloch‡ & Hamid Ali Baloch§

ABSTRACT Balochistan is very rich in cultural Heritage as this land has been inhabited since Paleolithic times down to the late historic times. There are thousands of Prehistoric, Pro-to-historic, and historic archaeological sites scattered throughout Balochistan. A few of them have been excavated and others are remaining and there can be many more sites in Balochistan if surveys are conducted. The cultural heritage of Balochistan reflects the nomadic life of Baloch proving that they are indigenous people of Balochistan who brought a revolution with many new ideas such as agriculture, mud brick houses, domestication of animals, use of fire, introduction of pottery, clothing industry etc. This paper discusses about the cultural legacy of Baloch in Prehistoric times. as well as throws light on Balochistan through Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

BALOCHISTAN THROUGH THE AGES The land of Balochistan has been a cradle of civilizations throughout the history (Jamil 2013: 1-3), Mehrgarh as it is known as the oldest settlement in South Asia flourished in 8th millennium BC., and marked the beginning of Neolithic revolution in this land (Jarrige 1995: 12). Although this land is of harsh, rough and dry geographical nature; but still many cultures thrived, flourished and saw their downfall in this land. Today we have thousands of archaeological sites in Balochistan. Some of them were discovered by the great archaeologist. Moreover, Sir Aurel Stein was the pioneer of archaeological activities in Balochistan (Jamil 2010: 30-37). A few of them have been excavated and others are still not studied. The excavated sites are

* Research Scholar of TIAC, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad. † Pro-Vice Chancellor at LUAWMS, Uthal. ‡ TIAC, Quaid-I-Azam University Islamabad. § Lecturer at Balochi Department, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

- 2 -

Mehrgarh, Nausharo, Pirak, in Kachi Plains, Dumb Sadat and Kili Gul Mohammad in Quetta Valley, Periano Gundai in Zhob, Rana Gundai in Loralai, Sohr Damb in Nal, Adam Buthi and Murda Sang in Las Bela and Miri Kalat and Shai Tump in Kech Valley, Makran (Jamil 2013: 1-20). This cultural heritage of Balochistan gives us a very important clue about the history of Baloch as it reflects the rural and nomadic life of Baloch. The findings from these sites are very much similar to Baloch Culture proving that it is the indigenous culture of Balochistan. The most striking evidences are beads, tradition of Saadh making, pebble tools, and the depiction of fish motifs and Balochi Embroidery patterns on the potteries found throughout Balochistan. On the basis of prevailing traditions and the ones recently died or dying we can reconstruct the history of cultural development of Baloch who have been living in Balochistan since time immemorial. The history of earth goes back to millenniums years old and similarly the cultural activities also begun millenniums year’s age. Needless to say that every time human being refined his cultural by discovering new tools and in this way human being from barbarism developed to a civilized society where everyone was prosperous. Moreover, the scholars have divided this long time into three eras.

a) Prehistoric Era b) Pro-to-historic Era c) Historic Era

This paper will only shed light on the cultural legacy of Baloch in Prehistoric era. The prehistoric cultural activities have been started two million years ago and continued until 2000 BC (Qazi 1998: 2). However, there are three more cultural phases in prehistory: a) Paleolithic – early stone age (approximately 100,000 - 10,000BC) b) Mesolithic – middle stone age (approximately 10,000 – 8,000 BC) c) Neolithic – new stone age (approximately 8,000 – 4000BC) Balochistan has gone through all these phases; the cultural activities of each phase in Balochistan will be detailed.

BALOCHISTAN IN PALAEOLITHIC AGE The word “Palaeolithic” is consisted of two words that is “Palaeo” and “Lithic”. Palaeo means “old” and lithic means “Stone”, which simply means “old stone age”. This period is called Stone Age because of the immense use

- 3 - of stone that mankind executed for his betterment and needs. The man of this period made tools of stone to get his work done easily. The general period suggested for this period is two million BP until 10,000 BC. It has three more phases namely:

a) Early or Lower Paleolithic b) Middle Paleolithic c) Late or Upper Paleolithic / advanced Paleolithic

So far the evidences of early or middle Paleolithic cultures have not been found in Balochistan, although such evidences have been discovered in the Soan Valley of Potohar region. Future researches are needed to build and find the evidences of early or middle Paleolithic activities in Balochistan as this land is very old. Furthermore, the evidences of cultural activities have been discovered in the late or advanced Palaeolithic period. The general period of this phase is considered is from 45,000 until 10,000 BP., (Qazi 1998: 2). In this phase, man brought a remarkable development of skill and production of a variety of implements not only in stone but also in bone, antler, ivory and many of the men of this period were real artists, shaping and engraving bone, antler and mammoth ivory, and painting on the walls of roc-shelters and caves, realistic hunting scenes and other illustrations of their daily life (Kakar 2000: 2-3). So in this phase man started expressing his creative sense, which is reflected in the shape of engravings and paintings in various caves found in Balochistan. As Balochistan is full of mighty mountains, there are many rock-shelters and caves which contain paintings and engravings of Gravettian and Magdalenian times. It is usually supposed that Gravettian and Magdalenian were nomadic and that in rocky areas like Balochistan occupied the mouth of Cave and rock-shelters, during winter and followed the migrating herd of game during summer (Ibid). Paleolithic settlements have also been found at Kot Mondai, Marri Area in eastern Balochistan where stone tools have been found. They belong to Acheullian Culture – an ancient primitive stage in human development. Some hand axes of Mousterian culture (100,000-40,000 BC.) have been at Khokar Kore, Lasbela region in the south eastern Balochistan in the upper Paleolithic period (40,000-12000 B.CE) which is known to us from the wonderful caves and rock-shelter paintings found in the Suleman range and its subsidiary ranges in the North-Eastern Balochistan (Jamil & Gul 2011: 57). The wonderful achievement and development of this phase is that people lived in open areas during the earlier two phases, in this phase they learnt to shelter themselves in the caves. They became more creative as evidenced in the engravings and paintings featuring wild horses, cave bear, lion, panther

- 4 - wild boar, human hands and hunting scenes similar to cave art in France and Cantabrian mountains. In France, cave art was practiced by around 25000 BC. The Gravettian are known to have occupied the Dordgon Valley in South Western France, by 22,000-18000 BC. During which the cave art underwent rapid Progress (Kakar 2000: 2-4). This is a general period of cave art in Balochistan, moreover paintings from caves in the Loralai region at Musakhel, have close affinity with the cave art of Altamira in Spain and are dated from BP to 12000 (Qazi 1998: 2). These are engravings and fresco paintings and the colors were obtained from the natural earth pigments, where besides, other elements, different zoomorphic figures are also depicted in two-dimensional method (Ibid).

BALOCHISTAN IN MESOLITHIC AGE This is the second phase of prehistory. The time period between Paleolithic and Neolithic is called Mesolithic. The word “Meso” means middle and “lithic” means stone which simply means Middle Stone Age. This cultural phase is of short period comparing with other two periods, as it extends from 10.000 BC until 8000 BC which means two millenniums. In this phase we don’t see many cultural activities, except, a few evidences in the Zhob area which shows that the people occupied this land during this period. In Zhob District, some engravings of Magdalenian people in the rock- shelters have been found (Jamil & Gul 2011: 57). So there is huge gap in the middle of this cultural activity in Balochistan which open a new venue for further researches. Moreover, it can’t be said that ancient people completely abandoned this land for millenniums and reoccupied it again in the 8th millennium BC. The next phase that Balochistan went through is Neolithic age which according to some scholars is named as ‘Neolithic Revolution’.

BALOCHISTAN IN NEOLITHIC AGE This is the last phase of prehistory known as Neolithic Era. The Neolithic age of Balochistan is expanded into a period of 6000 years i.e. 8th millennium - second millennium BC. In this period the ancient man made remarkable developments, they introduced so many new features that Golden Childe in 1950 termed the new Stone Age “Neolithic Revolution” because onward settled life was started (Qazi 1998: 10-12). So the new Stone Age is the beginning of settled life. It is also termed as village urban culture. In this regard, the site of Mehrgarh is the example where for the first time houses were constructed with burnt bricks and ceramic traditions made its entry. The potters introduced 3 different methods to prepare pots i.e. basket mark pottery, handmade pottery, and wheel made pottery. Clay figurines were replaced by the terracotta figurines, beads of shell; semiprecious stones like

- 5 - lapis lazuli and turquoise were made. Burial tradition started the graves containing goods like stone tools, jewelry and pottery, the discovery of cotton seeds show the weaving or clothing industry, sickle blade was introduced indicating indirect evidence of agriculture, in this regard barley and wheat seeds are worth mentioning. Animals were for the first time domesticated, use of fire has been reported at Mehrgarh, it is known from the fireplaces containing pebble tool used for indirect heating (Jarrige 1995: 20-447). There are many discoveries either reported at Mehrgarh or other sites of Balochistan which reflects the culture of Baloch. In this regard, Jonathon Mark Kenoyer stated that “from the grave of Mehrgarh a dentalium headband discovered and these types of headband with bead embroidery are still being used by Baloch women” (Jonathan 2012, during lecture at TIAC, QAU). Other Examples are pebble tools found in the fire places at Mehrgarh may have been used for baking Qurno and still this tradition of Qurno Baking is practiced by Baloch. The discovery of a net of Cheelak or Saad from Shahi Tump and mats have been regularly attested during the excavation in the form of imprints on soils or even preserved by carbonization as the piece of mat found together with the net (Besenval 2012: 17). These were made from Nannorrhops ritchieana or palm tree leaves so it is another tradition that Baloch have it from prehistoric times. In this tradition, even today Baloch use Ritchieana or palm leaves to make many things such as rope, mats, shoes, baskets, purse and much more. The prehistoric basket marked potteries have been made by the mould of basket mould of ritchieana or palm leaves, as it is evidenced by the marks of leaves on the potteries throughout Balochistan. Moreover, there are so many discoveries which are resembled with Baloch Culture such as depiction of Balochi Embroidery Designs and fish motifs on the potteries. Not only this, there are many other similarities. However, it had opened a new venue of research for Baloch historian, archaeologists and anthropologists. So Neolithic settlements first recorded at Mehrgarh and continued; furthermore we see many Neolithic settlements throughout Balochistan practicing the same Neolithic tradition started at Mehrgarh. The successors of people of Mehrgarh followed their forefathers or predecessors and this tradition continued so. Because of the same reason today Balochistan has a more profile Neolithic period beginning in the 8th millennium BC, down to the 2nd millennium BC. And so far many important archaeological sites of this period have been found in the Kachi Plains, Quetta Valley, the Zhob Valley and Loralai. Important sites of this period include Mehrgarh, Killi Gul Muhammad, Baleli Mound, Musazai, Sur Jangal, Anjira and Rana Ghundai. Not many of the Neolithic Period sites in Balochistan except a few in the Quetta Valley and Kachi Plains have been scientifically excavated. The

- 6 - remaining are still awaiting spade of the archaeologists. Mehrgarh has produced the most promising results covering the period from 8000 BC to 2800 B.C., (Jamil 2013: 21-127). In Khuzdar District, some sites, Laghozard Mound, Zeela Kambrani Damb and Kohban have been found by Syed Shakir Ali and dated by him as 2700 – 1900 BC., (Shah 2002: 136). There are some sites in District Washuk i.e. Kohna camp (3000-2300 BC), Mammoi Damb (2800-2300 BC) Hotal Damb (2500-2200 BC), Hotal Damb-2 (3300-3000 BC), Kuragi Damb (2800-2500 BC), Pogi Damb (2600-2300 BC), Lidee mound/Jangazi Damb (2800-2300 BC) and Badrang Damb (3000-2600 BC) and some sites in district Panjgur i.e. Jai Damb ( 3000-2800), Thali Damb (2800-2200 BC) and Sarduk Damb (2500-2200 BC) (Ibid). Besides, the Neolithic settlements in Balochistan, there are Neolithic caves in Las Bela dated to 5th or 4th millennium BC. In 1990s, the Italian Archaeological Mission discovered about 103 caves in the Las Bela region. These caves are assigned to the Neolithic phase and are dated to the 5th or 4th millennium BC. These caves comprise of two chambers, the inner and the outer chambers. The typical Neolithic period flint tools have been unearthed by the Italian Mission (Qazi 1998: 13). However, the Paleolithic stage was the beginning of human cultural activities, whereas, the successors in the Mesolithic stage improved these cultural activities. After passing through a certain evolutionary process, these early cultural activities evolved into a revolutionary stage in Neolithic period. Furthermore, when this new phase of life pattern was elaborated, it was replaced by the most innovated stage, which is the beginning of civilized society. In this regard the site of Mehrgarh is considered one of the earliest village cultures of south Asia, dated to 8215 BC, while ,its last phase if dated to 2500 BC. It was the time when one of the most important civilizations known as Indus Valley civilizations had started about 2350 BC. Thus keeping in view the above account related to the Neolithic phase and its association with the civilized society, Mehrgarh proves the theory of indigenous cultural activities, which later on perhaps gave birth to the Indus Valley Culture (Ibid).

BALOCHISTAN IN CHALCOLITHIC AGE Chalcolithic age is that when stone tools were being use at the same time when bronze was introduced, so this is the time when the stone and bronze both were used in shaping tools and for other purposes. Period III of Kili Gul Muhammad in Quetta Valley represents the earliest phase of Chalcolithic culture of Balochistan (Kakar 1992: ) where as the later periods of Mehrgarh and Nausharo fall in the Chalcolithic time frame (Durrani &

- 7 -

Ihsan 1998: 16-17). So Balochistan entered the Chalcolithic Period around 5500 B.C.E. to 3500 B.C.E of which a large number of settlements emerged in Quetta Valley, Rana Ghundai, Sur Jangal (Lorali Valley), Mughal Ghundai and Periono Ghundai (Zhob Valley), Anjira and Siah Damb (Khuzdar Region and Mehrgarh (Kachi Plains) (Jamil 2013: 21-77).The Nindowari Damb in the Nindowari village of Tehsil Wadh, in the Southern Part of Kalat District, is a Chalcolithic period site. It was excavated by Mons. Jean-Marrie Casl in 1962 (Ibid). Balochistan entered in the so called advanced Chalcolithic period or Phase around 4000 B.C.E at Mehrgarh (Periods IV and V). This advanced Chalcolithic phase in Balochistan is represented at various sites including Kechi Beg, Killi Gul Muhammad, Periodno Ghundai, Damb Saddat, Karez, Baleli, Faiz Muhammad, Mughal Ghundai, Kanozoai, Musazai, Musafirpur, Ismailzai, Mazghar, Rana Ghundai, Sur Jangal, Sawaran, Chinjane Dabar Kot, Anjira, Siah Dam, Tougue, Surab Damb, Khokar-Kot, Miri Kalat, Shahi Tump etc., (Jamil 2013: 21-127).

BALOCHISTAN IN BRONZE AGE The general period of Bronze Age in Balochistan is 3500-1800 B.C.E. This age is represented at many important archaeological sites including Mehrgarh. Of the important survey carried out during pre and post partition periods mainly confined to a limited area in Quetta Valley, Zhob Valley, Khuzdar District, Makran Region, Lasbela, Region, Kachi Plains (Bolan Valley), Turbat (Kech Valley), etc. while the remaining vast areas have not been explored (Ibid). The site of Lal Shah, Mehrgarh, which first period dates back roughly to the first half of the third millennium falls in the Bronze age time period (East and West). After the Bronze Age we are wandering here and there in the search of solid evidences for the continuity of the sequence of events. We have splendid tombs and graves specially those of Chowkundi types in Bhawany, Pasni, Jiwani, Hindan and Bara Bagh and some Zoroastrian burial places at MusaKhel, Nag and Panjgur (Stein 1931: 1-100).

CONCLUSION The culture of Balochistan speaks itself on the origin of Baloch. These cultural findings show the indignity of Baloch culture which proves that Balochs are original inhabitants of this land, in fact, they are the indigenous people of this land living here for thousand years or since time immemorial. So this land of Baloch gave birth to many great cultures such as Mehrgarh – the first Neolithic culture of Pakistan and the earliest settlement of South Asia, witnessed many inventions such as introduction of agriculture,

- 8 - pottery making, clothing industries, mud brick houses, use of fire, domestication of animals, bead making etc. which have been very useful for mankind and no doubt these are the cultural legacy of Baloch left to this world.

- 9 -

REFERENCES  Casal, Mons, Jean-Marrie. “Nindowari: A Chalcolithic Sites in South Balochistan” in Pakistan Archaeology Number No 3, 1962.

 Durrani & Ihsan Ali. “Proto-History: The Urban Phase” in the Glory that was Pakistan, 50 year of Archaeological Research in Pakistan, edited by F.A Durrani & Ihasan Ali. Peshawar: Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar and National Heritage Foundation. 1998.

 “Excavations of a Bronze-Age Ceramic Manufacturing Areas at Lal Shah, Mehrgarh” in East and West Vol. 35, No. 4 (December 1985), pp. 458-468 Published by: Istituto Italiano perl'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/29756751.Accessed: 08/02/2013 08:28.

 Hussain, Jamil. Survey of archaeological sites of Makran and their cultural relationship with other archaeological sites of Balochistan and Iran. Unpublished M.Phil. thesis, Taxila Institute of Asian Civilization, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 2013.

 “Field Archaeology in Balochistan and its Importance in the Baloch History,” in Annual Research Journal Hanken, Vol. 2. (2010).

 Jarrige, J. F. Mehrgarh: Field Reports 1974-1985 from Neolithic times to the Indus civilization edited by. Cattherin Jarrige, Jean- Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow and Gonzague Quivron. Published by Sind: the department of culture and tourism, Govt of Sindh, in collaboration with the Fechch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1995.

 “Mehrgarh Neolithic” Paper presented in the International Seminar on the "First Farmers in Global Perspective', Luck now, India, 18-20 January, 2006.

 Kakar, Dr. Fazal Dad. “Art of Rock-Shelters of Advanced Paleolithic Man in Balochistan, Pakistan” “Early settlement in Quetta Valley 1992.

- 10 -

 Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. “New perspectives on the Indus Civilization: Seal making, Craft technologies and Textile traditions” presented in a seminar at Museum of Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Islamabad on 15/02/2013.

 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Krachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.

 Qazi, Muhamad Naeem. “Prehistoric Cultures of Pakistan: An Introduction” in the Glory that was Pakistan, 50 year of Archaeological Research in Pakistan, edited by F.A Durrani & Ihasan Ali. Peshawar: Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar and National Heritage Foundation. 1998.

 Shah, Syed Shakir Ali Shah, “New Archaeological Discoveries in Khuzdar District Balochistan” published in, the Quarterly Archaeology Vol. XV. No 1-4, 2002.

 “Archaeological Investigations Along the Proposed Route of Copper Mining Project from Chagi District to Gwadar Port” published in, Ancient Punjab.

 Stein, Sir Aurel. An Archaeological Tour in Gedrosia, No. 43, in Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India. Calcutta: Government of India Central Publication Branch, 1931.

 An Archaeological Tour in Waziristan and Northern Balochistan, No. 37 in Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, reprinted in 1991. Delhi: Swati Publications, 1991.

 Thomas, Tenberg, Moulherat, Marcon, and Besenval. “Analysis of a protohistoric net from Shahi Tump, Baluchistan (Pakistan) in the journal of Archaeol Anthropl Sci Published online: 28 October 2011

- 11 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

PLANTS TREASURES, TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND BALOCH SOCIETY

Botany

Muhammad Panah Baloch*Muhammad Yousuf Marri† Muhammad Afzal Qaisrani‡ & Abdullah Baloch§

ABSTRACT

This paper covers Indigenous Knowledge of medicinal plants, its application in Baloch area and its importance in the rural life and impact on the Baloch society. Baloch society possesses rich history and culture of tribalism and nomadism with regard to indigenous knowledge of folklore plants. The uses of medicinal plants are diverse and for the treatment of jaundice, cold, fever, stomachache, headache, diarrhea, gonorrhea, dysentery, eyes and skin diseases, kidney pain, toothache, typhoid, hairfall, abortion purpose, sunstroke, joints pain, swelling of body, purification of blood, constipation, intestinal worms, pimples, chest infection, liver complaints, snake and insect bites, diabetics, high blood pressure, backache problem, birth related troubles, and child diseases. Pupu, one of the main character of this study, centuries old expert in traditional knowledge on useful folk medicines known to the pupu women through experience of ages is usually passed on from generation to generation, developed over time and continuous to make use of it. Pupu women are illiterate in the sense that they have no education except some knowledge of medicinal plants and their usages. Generally, the indigenous knowledge about folklore plants is demolishing, hence further research on these beneficial plants, location identification and composition is required for larger development and conservation of these precious floras. Nobody knows the collection date of all the medicinal plants are being sold in various pansar shops. There are more than 50 medicinal shops in Quetta city. Only pupus are not responsible to

* Assistant director, Arid Zone Research Center, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Quetta. † Senior Scientific Officer, Coastal Agricultural Research Institute, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Lasbella. ‡ Principal Scientific Officer, Social Sciences Research Institute, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Quetta. § Scientific Officer Arid Zone Research Center, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Quetta.

- 12 - bring medicinal knowledge to the end users but hakims are the right practitioner to take care of medicinal herb knowledge for human treatment. There is growing demand for plant-based medicines, health products, food supplements; cosmetics etc in the regional and international markets. It is suggested that their value addition may bring foreign exchange for the country. The transmission of knowledge from folk had been decreasing, however due to involvement ethno botanical research, awareness of local community and overall global trend towards resurgence of transmission of knowledge from herbalist to community will bring modern knowledge to the end users.

INTRODUCTION Indigenous knowledge (often called traditional knowledge, folk wisdom and/or folk knowledge) is a local knowledge of any field of human inquiry that does not originate in academic or corporate research institutions but rather is based on local level accumulated knowledge that is inherited through tribalism and culture (Niazi, A.R., 2011). Indigenous knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society which provides pedestal for agriculture, health care, food preservation, education, environmental conservation and other life processes on the local level (Thomas 1995). Indigenous communities for different localities of the world have developed their own specific knowledge on the plant resources, its usage, natural resource management and conservation (Cotton, 1996). Developed countries needs to access biodiversity resources and developing countries seek to ensure that access is regulated and to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits through transfer of technology (Latif & Shinwari, 2005). In the Baloch area the local communities of different regions have centuries old knowledge and traditional practices for the usage of medicinal plants and treatment of various diseases (Bhardwaj & Gakhar, 2005). This knowledge of plants has been transferred from generation to generation through oral communication and personal experiences (Shinwari, 2010). In early 1950 up to 84% of Pakistani population was dependent on indigenous medicines for traditional health practices, but now this is practiced only in the remote areas (Ibrar et al., 2007) because Indigenous knowledge develops and changes with the passage of time, medicinal plants and health facilities. Baloch are living in the hefty populated area comprising some 350,000 km of western Pakistan and a further 400,000 km of southern Iran and southwestern Afghanistan. The Baloch are the inhabitants of the arid and desert areas of Balochistan. The climate is arid to semi- arid, ranging from coastal tropical to cool temperature in north. Major ecological zones are upland, plain, coastal and desert. The annual rain fall ranges from 100 mm along the

- 13 -

Makran coast to 350 mm in the Northeast of Zhob. Most of rains fall occurs in winter and monsoon rainfall can be significant along the southern (Khuzdar & Lasbela), north east (Sibi, Musakhail, Barkhan, Loralai). Higher altitudes get snow as well. Summer temperature shoots up as high as 47 0C in Turbat, Sibi and winter the temperature falls to -18 0C in Kalat. Humidity is generally less than 10 percent it rises during rainy season. Thus, Balochistan is blessed with diverse climate, flora and fauna (Khan A.M.). The flora of Balochistan is Persian in character and very much less than Afghanistan: but it is northern enough to contain a violet, a primula, the English hawthorn, an anemone, a gentian and plants of many genera familiar in North-Western Europe (Burkill, I.H., 1969). The structure, behavior and social set up of Baloch society in its essence is influenced by nomadism and tribalism. Nomadism which is one of the basic elements of Baloch socio-political organization retains its presence in Balochistan (Dashti, N., 2008). Baloch pastoralists are basically nomad/semi-nomad and used to travels round the year along with their animals within Balochistan. During travelling and stay at either ends, they have very limited access to health facilities, so their reliance on medicinal herb treatment is natural. Migration of Baloch pastoralists from upland to low land in winter and return back as the summer set up is centuries old tradition (Dashti, N., 2008). Change in life pattern, security and expansion of agriculture on pasture land has dwindled considerably their movement and they settled in upland region. On their way, stay on both ends, they used to collect medicinal plants and carry them as medicine for their own use. Balochistan is naturally prosperous of medicinal plants habitat due to various ecological zones. Their poetry and songs celebration signify that are both nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists and very difficult to reconcile with a settled life. The most celebrated of their poems, which are they use as a favorite, begins (Baloch, M.S.K, 2012):

The Baloch forts are their mountains Their storehouses are in pathless rock faces Their peaks are better than an army The lofty heights are their friends Their refreshment is from flowing springs The leaf of the dwarf palm their bed The hard ground their pillow……………

Pahwal (nomads) are the frequent user of medicinal herbs for various diseases. Elderly pahwal women are expert in knowledge of herbal medicines, who examine the patients and recommend treatments for them

- 14 -

(Baloch, M.A., 1988). The elderly women in a Baloch household are often specialist in knowledge and techniques of popular treatments. They have knowledge of home remedies for number of problems. Some settlements have an elderly female of one household act by default as the sole herbalist, masseur and traditional midwife (Baluk) for the whole settlement (Dashti, N., 2008). OBJECTIVES Objectives of this study are: i) To identify the Indigenous Knowledge that is used in herbal treatment, ii) To document the role of folklore plants in health care in the Baloch society and iii) To make recommendations/suggestion to save these naturally grown plants for the betterment of human beings. METHODOLOGY To carry out the study objectives, the following methods were applied for data collection. The information was collected through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) through using check list in interviewing Baloch nomadic women, pupu and pansars. Two groups of Nomads were interviewed in Dasht valley at the opening of Bolan pass whereas 3 pupu were interviewed in Sabzi mandi and two in Mastung. Five pansars were interviewed in sariab and Thana road, Quetta. The study districts included in this study were Quetta, Bolan and Mastung. A checklist was prepared in the light of literature review and personal information gathered. Pupu belong to Baloch tribe which is recognized as plant collector, its user in healthcare and selling to rural and urban populations are the only medicinal herb promoters and health practitioner. Locally pupu are known as herbal hakim. Their profession is the only source of their major livelihood. They are rich in experience for the preparation of traditional medicine and got this profession from their forefathers, were also interviewed. It was difficult for the survey team to cover all pansars located in Quetta city, however, five Pansaars located in city were also included in this study to verify the plant source, its usage in human heal. Secondary data from published material as well as on internet was also used where it was necessary.

DISCUSSION Herbal medicine is also known a botanical medicine, medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology and phytotherapy. The human and even Neanderthals have used the plants to treat their ailments for the least ten

- 15 - of thousand years; most likely even longer then. The first written accounts of herbal use originate in china, although all other civilization from the ancient world was using plants as natural remedies for their ailments. Western herbal medicine dates back to ancient Greece and its doctors like Hippocrates and Galen (UK-SkepticsC-2004). Hippocrates advocated the use of a few simple herbal drugs along with fresh air, rest, and proper diet. Galen, on the other hand, recommended large doses of drug mixture- including plant, animal and mineral ingredients. The Greek physicians compiled the first European treatise on the properties and uses of medicinal plants, De Materia Medica (Herbalism- Wikipedia). The 15th and 17th centuries were the most popular time for herbalism in Europe. Herbal remedies are still relatively popular today, mainly due to the fact that, they are regarded as harmless because they are natural. Balochistan is native home of some herbal plants. In Balochistan various wild herbs are being collected and sold in the local market by local community on below the market price. During the survey, the pansars have listed 43 medicinal plants out of 156 produced in various parts of Balochistan are purchased through their agents residing near to collection point. They also mentioned that dry year produces low quantity of herbs, so they import from India and Nepal to fulfill the market demand. Local produce is fresh and can be stored for a longer period whereas imported medicinal plants have no record of collection, stated by herbal dealers. Karachi and Lahore are the main market for medicinal herbs, so Balochistani herbal shops are bound to buy from them. Every plant produced in nature definite have expiry period but medicinal herbs have no check and balance about their expiry. There should be some rules and regulations on these medicinal plants as human life matters. The drug Inspectors should be involved to collect samples from pansar shops for analysis. Most of the medicinal herbal products do not have expiry date. However, very limited scientific knowledge is available on the potential herbs, which can be cultivated and utilized for different purposes. The vulnerability of medicinal herbs and species to over- exploitation and extinction needs to be dealt pragmatically (Khan, A.M.,2011). There are 6,000 plants species in Pakistan (Shinwari-1996). Out of which only 1010 species are so far identified as having medicinal value. Of these 456 medicinal plants are traded in the domestic market and their sustainability and availability never cease and form a potential source for the indigenous herbal industry (Usmanghani-2000) The Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock was initiated a project captioned as “Introduction of Medicinal Herbs and Spices as crop (IMHSC)”. One the objective of the project was documentation of the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants and spices. Another project captioned

- 16 -

“Production of Medicinal Herbs in the Collaboration with Private Sector” also completed with results the of documentation of 92 plants. However in other project some value added productions of herbal plants like, Chamomile Herbal Tea, Thyme, Rosemary, Oregano and a Mint mouthwash are produced at Arid Zone Research Centre, Pakistan Agricultural Council, Quetta at small scale. Some regional and national companies like, Hamdard Laboratories (Waqf) Limited, Qarshi Industries (Pvt) Limited, Dittu Sons, Merck Marker (Pvt) Limited and other are using medicinal and other useful plants for production of herbal medicines, health products, food supplements, cosmetics, pharmaceutical etc. and earning billions of rupees. Although Pupus are illiterate but are rich in knowledge using medicinal herbs for human treatment. They have mentioned that some of the medicinal herbs have demolished with the passage of time, overgrazing and occurrence of frequent droughts. Now we purchase these herbs from pansar stores. They further stated that medicinal plants are not only used in treatment but their seed, roots, shoots and flowers are equally important. After collection of these plants, we cleaned, dried up in shade and grind manually. A pupu stated that single plant has multiple usages for dissimilar diseases. When enquired about detail, she refused to explain. Traditional medical knowledge of medical plants and their use by indigenous cultures are not only useful for conservation of cultural traditions and biodiversity but also for community healthcare and drug development in the present and future (Thirumalai-2010). Elderly women of Baloch society having Indigenous knowledge of use of medicinal plant from centuries and preparation for home remedies (pounding, grinding, mixing, and cooking) from the roots, shoot, bark, leaf, flower, seed, and/or fruit of plants are also carried out by these elderly women. The remedies used frequently at home could include herbs and plants are easily available in area. These family healers transfer their expertise to their offspring or daughter in law. Archeologist in Mehrgarh in Balochistan province in the present day of Pakistan discovered that the people of Indus Valley Civilization from early Harppan periods (c.3300 BC) had knowledge of medicine and dentistry (Pre- Historic medicine: Wikipedia). Another writer narrated that “Plants remains were recovered in all parts of the excavation and the recovery methods used varied to suit the different parts context” (Costatini, L., 1985). This is fact that in old times the hakims (the herbalists) were very much respected by the kings and they were treated as family doctor. Herbal remedies are the basic pillars in Baloch folk medical practices but due to unavailability of medicinal plants and their lengthy procedure discouraged young generation. Now they prefer to get treatment from doctors as they prescribed medicine have quick response. Family healers, herbalists and

- 17 - hakims use variety of herbs in their concoctions and mixtures. Hakims and herbalists also use animal products in their medicines but the basic ingredients consist of herbal products. The majority of herbs are collected from jungle and mountains. Farmer also grows some in the fields on a commercial basis. Pup, the Herbalists personally collect herbs but many herbs are also available in town passer shops (Dashti, N., 2008). Almighty Allah has mentioned in Holy Quran that every plant has certain usages and nothing created useless in this world. The folk plants are commonly used in Baloch society for many diseases like jaundice, cold, fever, stomachache, headache, diarrhea, gonorrhea, dysentery, eyes and skin diseases, kidney pain, toothache, typhoid, for hair, abortion purpose, sunstroke, joints pain, swelling of body, purification of blood, constipation, intestinal worms, pimples, chest infection, liver complaints, snake and insect bites, diabetics, high blood pressure, backache and may other ailments. There are thousands of medicinal and other useful plants available in Balochistan and need to be documented along with indigenous knowledge, however some indigenous knowledge of folklore plants in Baloch society are as under. These plants are used individually as well as various mixtures as and when needed in certain diseases. Pupu or Hakims have the knowledge of medicinal herbs quantity of various combinations. In this regard local nomadic knowledge has proved its authenticity. Table 1. List of important medicinal herbs, local & botanical names and their customary usage

S# Local Name Botanical Name Uses 1 Girdarwar Abutilon muticum Cure in piles 2 Zawal, Bohe- Achillea welhemsii Stomach problems, fever, cold, measles, Madran hemorrhoids, jaundice 3 Aalkha Acroptilon repens Fever, stomach pain, blood purification, dysentery 4 Seez/Shing Alhaji maurorum Eye diseases, stomach pain, liver complaints 5 Sirk/ Tum Alluim sativam Earache, blood pressure 6 Mashmonk Amygdalus Chest infection 7 Gajar Artemisia scoporia Earache 8 Gurdir Artemisia persica Malaria, Jaundice martima 9 Jir Artemisia species Fever, vomiting, motion in children, cough 10 Zarch Beberis Heal pain of joints balochistanica 11 Darien pilpil Beberis vulgaris Vomiting, decongestant 12 Asad Blepharis sindica Earache 13 Siahen Alenag Cajanus: Stomachache leguminosae 14 Aragh/Karg Calortopis procera Snake and insect bites

- 18 -

15 Shipanko Cleome Ameliorate heat conditions brachycarda 16 Kallair/Kaled Capparis deciduas Cough, chest problems 17 Naguncha/ Ghunza Crataegus Blood pressure, heart diseases oxycantha 18 Alkidar Curcuma longa: Antiseptic Zinziberaceae 19 Chimkani/Chuntur Cassia fistula Purgative 20 Kirrav pith Capparis spinosa Injuries of the body 21 Marmootk/Marmoot Caralluma Jaundice, dysentery, diabetes, high blood tuberculata pressure 22 Garbust Cardaria Skin diseases chalepensis 23 Kaspind/ Nilthak Cassia obovata Sore eyes 24 Kharengirirhi Citrullus colocynthis Constipation and diabetes 25 Zamur Cocculus pendulus Eyes irritation, motion, dysentery 26 Bundairy/Mundairy Corchorus Diarrhea, dysentery, swelling of urinary depressus bladder 27 Naryan Band Cousinia stocksii Vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery, asthma, liver complaints 28 Pil-e-gosh Crambe cordifolia Itching 29 Chadd Cynodon dactylon Stomach ulcer, motion 30 Kashi/ khubkalan Descurainea Fever, bronchitis, dysentery, small pox, Sophia chicken pox 31 Anartik/Hanartirk Dodonaea viscose Chest infection, pimples, 32 Datora Datura metel Diarrhea, skindiseases, rheumatism, lumbago, earache, toothache, tumor 33 Sinjid/ Sinjit Elaegnus Catarrhal, bronchial infection angustifilia 34 Naromb Ephedra intermedia Asthma, chest infection 35 Shir-Gonah/ Khirwal Ephedra Purification of blood Granulate 36 Jamun/ Hinidan Eugenia jambolana Burns 37 Shurdo/Karhkawa Fagonia Arabica Hepatitis, fever, pimples, purification of blood 38 Chahart Mahak Forskohlea Cough, headache tenacissima 39 Hing Ferula oopoda Toothache, cough, intestinal worms 40 Raz Foeniculum vulgare Stomachache 41 Bhanghera/Bangera Gentianodes olivieri Jaundice, cough, chest problems 42 Madav/Khawzhdar Glycyrrhiza glabra Cough, chest problems 43 Gwangi Grewia populifolia Pneumonia 44 Bundi Haloxylon griffthii Stomach pain, skin diseases, measles 45 Sagdaroo Heliotropium Eye diseases dasycarpum 46 Saring Heliotropium Pain in the extremities strgosum 47 Manguli Hertia intermedia Fever, headache, stomach pain

- 19 -

48 Koheebhang Hyoscyamus Easing muscles , irritation of urinary bladder insanus 49 Kolmur/ Naro Inula grantioides Asthma 50 Tusso Jaubertia aucheri Body itching, effected gums,fever indigestion, 51 Gwanjak Junifer excels: Antihistamine and thrown on fire to frighten coniferae evil spirits 52 Apurs /Haprus Juniperus excels Eye disease, itching body 53 Mahari Alko/ Launaea nudicaulis Fever, headache Shatirag 54 Pochko Malva neglecta Skin diseases, diarrhea, dysentery 55 Pehunphulli Microcephala Jaundice, fever, colic pain, dysentery lamellate 56 Josbwak Myristica fragans Stomachache, bone pain 57 Katok Mullogo hirta Anti-septic, pain killer 58 Piesh Nabborrhops Tonic, dysentery ritchieana 59 Simsok Nepeta praetervisa Cold, chest infection, fever 60 Shootk Oligomeris linifolia Back pain, motion 61 Kato/ Khot Olea cuspindata Gonorrhea, eyes infection 62 Khardanichk Plantiago ovate Dysentery 63 Khas khas/ Doda Papaver Cough, pain killer somniferum 64 Ispandan/ Gandako Peganum harmala Legs pain, stomach pain, earache, smoke for Kisankoor measles patients 65 Dresha Perovskia Typhoid, headache, vomiting abrotanoides 66 Gowariarna Perovskia Diabetic, dysentery atriplicifolia 67 Gowan Pistacia atlantica Dysentery, cough 68 Bana/ Khinjal Pistacia mutica Toothache and bleeding 69 Bar-e-Thang Plantago lanceolata Cough, cold, fever, constipation 70 Phidahri/Ispaghol Plantago major Constipation, motion, dysentery 71 Majsar/ Zika Plucea pinnatifida Anti-inflammatory, anti-septic 72 Izbotk Psammogeton Fever, cough, typhoid, chest problems biternatum 73 Zordar Pavonia odorata Rheumatism 74 Babbur Prosopis cineraria Backache 75 Karwan Kush Pteropyrum olivieri Itching 76 Anardanag Punica granatum Stomach upsets like nausea and vomiting 77 Aeshark/Aizwarg Intestinal worms, teeth infection, dysentery, jaundice 78 Kashum Saccharum Stomach ache bengalense 79 Murpad Ricinus copmmunis Anti-septic ointment for sore and boils 80 Akar Sesbanai aculeate Cure in wound, emetic in snakebite 81 Kabbarsh/Kokar Salvarora persica Constipation, cough, stomach pain 82 Gul-e-kakar, Salvia bucharica Colic pain, kidney pain, jaundice, malaria Sursanda fever, high blood

- 20 -

Pressure 83 Matetav Salvia cabulica Stomach ache, fever, liver disorder 84 Maur Salvia aegytiaca Eye infection 85 Shamahur/Shamah Scorzonera Cough, chest problems urk tortuosissima 86 Tol angur Solanum nigrum Cold, cough, chest problems, throat swelling 87 Bahera Solanum surattense Colic pain 88 Shampshter Sophora mollis Kill lice, headache 89 Mashnawaro Statice cabulica Stomachache 90 Righat Suaeda monoica Anti-septic 91 Rush Symbrum sopha Fever 92 Gaz/Kirri Tararix stricata Jaundice, skin infection, cough, chest problems 93 Amli Tamarindus indica Beverage as cooling agent 94 Purpak Tecomella undulate Constipation, stomach pain, headache 95 Kalpora Teucrium Fever, typhoid, jaundice stocksianum 96 Tormori Thymus linearis Typhoid, cough 97 Lular/ Wahu Trianthema Bladder pain, snakebite pentandra 98 Gurgunduk/Gurgun Tribulus terrestris Stomach pain, removal of kidney stone doo 99 Charmahing Trichodesma Cough, chest problems africanum 100 Gokzoba Trichodesma Fever Indicum 101 Mak Vigna catiang Kill worm in stomach 102 Gowanik Vitex agnus-castus Stomach pain, kidney stone 103 Panerbad/ Kapoi Withania coagulans Purification of blood, gastric trouble, face pimples 104 Izghand Withnia somnifera Cough, gastric problems 105 Mashana Ziziphora Vomiting, gastric problems Poorchink/Tilmoori/ clinopodides Yak Talia Porching 106 Zanjabil Zingiber officinale Anti-acid 107 Gowatk Zozimia Throat problem absinthifolia There is more than one medicinal plant which are under use for fever. The nature of fever needs to be identified first, and then prescribed medicinal plants accordingly. The fever can be due to infection, malaria, exertion, cold, etc. Diagnostic must be followed by right prescription. Fig-1. Pictures of some important medicinal flora produced naturally in Balochistan.

- 21 -

Charmahing Tola Angur

Shampeshter Boemadran

Kalpura Panirbad

CONCLUSION Herbal remedies are the basic pillars in Baloch folk medical practices. Family healers, herbalists and hakims use variety of herbs in their concoctions and mixtures. Hakims and herbalists also merge animal products in their medicines but the basic ingredients are herbal products. Rangelands are the only source of medicinal herbs collected from the various parts of Balochistan. Farmer also grows some in the fields on a commercial basis. Herbalists personally collect herbs but many herbs are also available in town passer shops. The indigenous knowledge about conventional medicinal

- 22 - plants needs to be documented for the welfare of future generation. Research on useful plants, their ingredients, development, and conservation efforts should be focused on those plants. It is a dire need to establish a comprehensive research project to boost produce of medicinal herbs and other useful plants in Balochistan for sustainable and long term consideration of natural resources of area with actively involvement of the local community. Participatory research and resource mapping of flora will be useful with acquiesce of local people in evaluation, planning, implementation and monitoring process as they have indigenous knowledge of the area. Elderly women of Baloch society having Indigenous Knowledge (IK) of use of medicinal plant from centuries and preparation for home remedies (pounding, grinding, mixing, and cooking) from the roots, shoot, bark, leaf, flower, seed, and/or fruit of plants are also carried out by these elderly women. The remedies used frequently at home could include herbs and/or plants or their combinations are easily available in area. These family healers transfer their expertise to their offspring or daughter-in-laws. The transmission of knowledge from folk had been tremendously decreasing, however due to involvement ethno botanical research, awareness of local community and overall global trend towards resurgence of the transmission of knowledge from herbalist to local community should be initiated. As we learn from history of traditional herbalist don’t tell the specific prescription to local people as is identified from the present research and may other parallel studies in the field that most of the prescription possessed by the folk are related to the desires. The vast and varied agro-ecological conditions of Balochistan make it possible for almost all kinds of medicinal plants in particular and other useful plants in general to grow. It is highly recommended that medicinal plant mapping through community involvement is pre-requisite for the development of medicinal herbs/plants. Commercial plantation of useful plants can play an important role for earning of valuable foreign exchange and fulfilling our domestic requirements. Because every years a considerable amount of foreign exchange is involved in the import of drugs and herbal products of foreign origin. The utilization of indigenous drug resources (medicinal plants) will increase the importance of local industry on the other hand. There is a growing demand for plant-based medicines, health products, pharmaceuticals, food supplements, cosmetics etc. in the international market. The international market of medicinal plants is over 60 billion US dollar per year, which is growing at the rate of 7 per annum. Local health traditions are a valuable reference point and participation of local community, conservers, students, educators, and other stakeholders regarding the very

- 23 - important subject under study. A clear understanding of both the supply-side issues and the factors driving the demand and size of medicinal plant market is a vital step towards planning in this regard. Medicinal plants are hidden treasures of Balochistan province and rural economy but due attention has been given at any stage. More than 30 herbal products manufacturers are involved in value addition and marketing of herbal products in all over the country. It is suggested that they may extend some long term trainings to the students on the analysis of ingredients composition of each plant. The grant should be competitive based on some health problem. This would help to grow herbal products on modern lines and bring at par with other unconventional treatment methods.

RECOMMENDATIONS The following have been derived from conclusion of this study. Since the Indigenous Knowledge is important in socio-economic life of the Baloch society in particular and human beings in general: - Recommended for the documentation of Indigenous Knowledge used in health care in Baloch society. However, when recorded, it is important to find who knows what in order to tap the right source. Otherwise data will not truly reflect Indigenous Knowledge in the community. - Check and balance system on medicinal plants should be introduced separately or included as one of the medicinal product under the Health Ministry to stop the sale of expired plants to the Pupu/Hakims/individuals. - Recommended to do research in improving Indigenous Knowledge used in health care in Baloch society and integrating with latest technology. - Recommended to preserve, protect and use Indigenous Knowledge to promote sustainable (ecologically, socially and economically) herbal development. - Suggested that the major herbal products companies should involve university students for sponsoring long tern trainings in conducting research on medicinal herbs treatment.

- 24 -

REFERENCES

 Niazi, A. R., 2011.The News, weekly Business Review, 07-03-2011, Enhancing the role of indigenous knowledge for sustainable development  Khan, A. M., 2011. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Qarshi Industries (Pvt) Limited, p-3, www.minfa.gov.pk/admin/publications (retrieved on 01-07-2011)  Bhardwaj, M.J and S.K Gakhar, 2005. Ethnomedicinal plants being used by the tribals of Mizoram to cure cut and wounds. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 4 (1):75-80  Cotton, C.M. 1996, Ethno botany: Principals and Applications. John Wiley and Sons, New York 412 pp.  Herbalism: Wikipedia (retrieved 08-07-2011)  Burkill, I. H., 1961.working list of flowering plants of Balochistan, West Pakistan Government Press, Karachi, 1961, p-03,  Baloch, M. S. K. 2010. Literary History of Balochis, Balochi Academy, Quetta, p-487  Khan Usmanghani, Aftab Saeed & M.T. Alam, 1997. Indusyunic medicine, Traditional Medicine of Herbal, Animal and Mineral Origins in Pakistan. Dept. Pharmacology, Uni. Karachi. p-57.  Latif, A and Z.K Shinwari, 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment. Country Report. Pakistan.  Baloch,M.A., 1998. The Pahwal: A Description of Nomadic life, Institulo Italiano per Medio ed Estremo Oriente (ISMEO).Rome, News Letters of Baluchistan Studies, No-5 fall 1988, p- 23, 31,  Dashti, N., 2008. The cultural context of health: A Baloch Perspective, Balochi Academy, Quetta, p- 80-81, 125, 137  Shinwari, Z.K, 2010. Medicinal plants research in Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research, 4(3):161-176  Shinwari, Z.K. 1996. Ethnobotany of Pakistan: Sustainable and Participatory Approach. In processing of first Training Workshop on Ethnobotany and its application to conservation. Edit. Shinwari, B.A Khan & Ashiq Ahmad Khan. National Herberium/PARC Islamabad.  Thomas, H., 1995. Indigenous knowledge, Emanicipation and Alination, Journal of Knowledge transfer and utilization, 8(1): 63-73, University of Washington.  Thirumalai, T., 2011.Ethnobotanical leaflets, Ethnobotanical Survey of Folklore Plants for the Treatment of Jaundice and Snakebites in Vellore Districts of milnadu, India.  Wikipedia: Pre-historian medicine (retrieved 08-07-2011)  UK-Skeptics C, 2004, An overview of herbology (07-07-2011)

- 25 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

ROLE OF LIVESTOCK IN THE ECONOMY OF BALOCHISTAN WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SHEEP AND GOAT

Commerce

Muhammad Shafiq* ABSTRACT Agriculture is a major part of the economy of Balochistan. Agriculture economy of Balochistan is divided into cropping, cash crops, fruits, fisheries and livestock. Major portion of the province GDP comes from livestock sector. This paper is an attempt to measure the role of livestock in the economy of Balochistan with special reference to sheep and goat. Since, there is low rainfall in the province; hence, its population has no other massive agriculture activity than to involve in livestock rearing business. Additionally low rainfall does not allow keeping large ruminants for commercial basis. Ultimately, small ruminants are reared in most of the part of Balochistan. Livestock provides the largest source of income in the Provincial agriculture economy. People mostly keep sheep and goats, but also have some other livestock as well such as: cattle, donkeys, camels and poultry etc. Livestock sector has potential to support the livelihood of the rural population. Women, in particular, are active in the sector in terms of milking and milk processing, clearing the abodes, preparing the fodder and looking after diseases through traditional healing. Each member of the family works in livestock rearing activities. Therefore, these all factor provide tremendous potential to livestock sector to flourish in major part of Balochistan. Key Words: Economy, small Ruminants, Balochistan, Livestock

* Assistant professor Department of commerce, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

- 26 -

INTRODUCTION Major part of Balochistan is highly arid zone of Pakistan. Last population survey, which was held in 1998, revealed that 6.5 million people reside in Balochistan and the total area of 348,189 Square kilometers, which is 43% of the country. As compare to other provinces of Pakistan, the population of Balochistan is comparatively low and scattered. It is due to its natural climate and vast rangelands, which encompasses dried and barren land. There are few rainfalls in the major areas of Balochistan. It is still far behind from industrialization then other parts of the country. Livestock production is the largest sector in the economy of province. In the present awesome situation, it is impossible that without giving the proper attention to livestock, the dream of economic development of the rural masses can come true and the expected upsurge in this sector cannot be envisaged in the country especially in Balochistan. Development of the livestock sector is paramount for the small landholders, landless livestock owners and farmers. This dream can become reality through the development of the livestock sector. Rural farming of sheep and goat can be established by the use of technologies that is cost effective, efficient, practicable, and most appropriate to indigenous conditions of Balochistan. Livestock has a pivotal role in the economy of Balochistan. As ill luck would have it, practical aspect lacks and inconsistent planning has aggravated the sector in the province. The need of food is fulfilled by different sources which mostly supplied from the surrounding markets of Balochistan and Sindh. The requirement of meat of the city is also procured from the markets of Sindh, Balochistan and sometimes also from Afghanistan. Beef, Mutton, Poultry, Eggs and Open Milk are the main products of livestock. There is huge gape of demand and supply of major livestock products. Due to lack of rainfall, the livelihood of people depends upon the livestock rearing activities. However, it is mainly focused on the rearing of sheep and goat for business purpose. Since, it has been long standing business of inhabitant of Balochistan; therefore, they are adapt in it, and can perform very well. It is another fact that people are accustomed to traditional livestock practices i-e they rear small ruminant for the livelihood or to earn some profit. As matter of fact, small ruminants have great potential for the economy of Balochistan. It is estimated that livestock contributes 40 to 52 per cent to the agriculture economy every year (Livestock and Dairy development Department, GoB, Quetta, 2013) Table No.1 shows the Major livestock since 1996 to 2012 (Projected) and its per cent of increase with comparison to 1996, as given below: Table No.1

- 27 -

Net % Increase Net % Increase from 1996 2012 from 1996 to Type 1996 2006 to 2006 (Proj) 2012 Cattle 1.341 2.254 168.0835 3.348 249.66 Buffaloes 0.161 0.3199 198.6957 0.562 349.07 Sheep 10.841 12.804 118.1072 14.248 131.43 Goats 9.369 11.785 125.7872 13.735 146.60 Camels 0.339 0.379 111.7994 0.415 122.42 Horses 0.043 0.059 137.2093 0.077 179.07 Asses 0.383 0.006 1.56658 0.011 2.87 Mules 0.006 0.472 7866.667 0.544 9066.67 Poultry 4.637 5.911 127.4747 6.885 148.48

In table No. 1, the population of every type of livestock in increase, which is the example of potential in livestock and the interest of the people in this sector. Cattle and Buffalos are increasing due to increase in demand of milk product, hence, the number of private dairy forms are increasing all over the Balochistan. However, it cannot reach to the consumers in remote areas from the dairy forms and consequently huge loss has to be suffered in terms of waste of milk or its products.

- 28 -

In the above figure 2 it is crystal clear increase in Small ruminants in the year, 2012, projected). It depicts the potential of small ruminants in livestock of Balochistan. We can increase not only the number of livestock but also the quality of livestock by putting the sector on modern tips and techniques. Still it is not declared industry, even the potential is huge and there are number of markets available in the region already.

Livestock is an important source of livelihood for the majority of the rural population. It generates income for flock owners, but it is also a major source of nutrition. For nomadic families livestock is the main source of income. Most of the nomadic families and housing units of rural areas have herds of 15 to 20 ruminants (Buzdar et al., 1989). Prices of small ruminants are not fixed. It depends upon the production, demand and supply, size and quality of the ruminant. People cut the wool of sheep twice a year and sell it in the local market. Women and children are also involved in keeping the herds of small ruminants (Iqbal. 1999,). Hence, livestock sector plays a significant role in the

- 29 - economy of Balochistan. It is an important source of livelihood and a major source of income for livestock owners. Livestock is source of income for the inhabitants of the Balochistan for centuries. In Balochistan there are significant number of sheep and goats. Management of goats is comparatively easy. Poultry keeping is a household affair. Almost every house in rural areas raises poultry, using eggs and meat for themselves and/or for guests. Sometime one can sell them at the market in towns. This will be great contribution to the economy of Balochistan, if proper attention is paid though systematic way. Most importantly, we have to come out of the shield of speeches and paper work. As repercussion, the economy of the province will be potentially significant which will ultimately contributing handsome earnings to the country as well.

- 30 -

POTENTIAL OF LIVESTOCK FOR INVESTMENT Livestock is such an important sector of Pakistan particularly of Balochistan that every part of this is saleable in the market. Hence, it is immensely important for the dwellings of the Province. Livestock development in Balochistan should be aimed at providing the people of the province wholesome livestock products at competitive prices along with exploring export market in Gulf and South East Asian countries and use livestock as a tool for poverty reduction in the whole country. Futures prospects and major areas of investments in Balochistan livestock are as below: INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES AT GWADAR SEA PORT Completion of Gwadar deep sea port is paramount for the development of the province especially includes the development of livestock and dairy development. Sizeable chunks of state land has reserved for livestock providing grantee for development of farms in command areas of Mirani Dam, Pat feeder and Kachhi canal to produce pure bred livestock. Similarly, suitable areas should also be reserved as salvage cattle/ buffalo farms to save previous stock from being slaughtered when these animals no longer maintain dry animals in cities and towns till they are again impregnated. COMPLETION OF MEGA PROJECTS DAM/ CANAL With the completion of agriculture mega projects especially in water and power sectors, there are good chances that modern husbandry practices could be employed in this sector. Merani dame of 36,000 acre, Subkzai dam having 14,000 acres, Kachhi canal has 700,000 acre while Pat feeder canal will further bring 200,000 acres additional under plough which will be blessing to the areas of the province (Livestock & Dairy Development Department, 2006). EXPORT OF ORGANIC MEAT Export of animals reared on natural grazing as organic farm animals. Mutton of the indigenous breeds is preferred over the other breeds of country because of its taste and tender fiber. Almost all the animals rely on the rangelands for acquiring their nutritional needs, which gives a unique taste to their meat. If modern husbandry interventions introduced, this sector has a lot of potential to serve as protein source and food security not only for the people of Pakistan but also to be exported to earn foreign exchange.

- 31 -

ESTABLISHMENT OF FEEDLOT FOR EXPORT It has been proved through a number of fattening trials that fattening of sheep and goats is economical in Balochistan if fattened animals are either sold on special occasions or exported to Gulf States alive. Private sector can step into this business for massive profit taking. MEAT PACKAGING INDUSTRY After successful evolution of the Balochistan Nari Master, now there is a great potential for the establishment of meat packaging industry in the province. The Government in its trade policy for 1998-99 has allowed the export for fifteen food items including live animals, beef and mutton, blood meals and meat meals, bran and fodder, hides and skins, wet blue lather and so on (Baig, 2005). It will be great addition to the staggering economy of Balochistan if steps are taken to right direction for the establishment of meat industry. This meat industry will be a significant to the economy of Balochistan. PROCESSING OF SKIN AND HIDES Balochistan is very famous for its hides and especially for skin. Unfortunately there is no tannery in Balochistan and even coming from Afghanistan and Iran are taken to Sindh and Punjab provinces for processing. Mostly these large tanneries operate efficient modern process and techniques and require quality raw material. The by-product of food animals includes wool, skin and hides. This is another potential investment of livestock business in Balochistan. OSTRICH FARMING In Balochistan, some of the zones like Khuzdar, Kalat, Nushki, Jaffarabad, Musakhail and Zhob have got tremendous potential for establishment of ostrich farming. Ostrich breeding centers and export processing units to maximize foreign exchange through export of Ostrich meat and other products. Its meat in the international market priced is about 11-12 US Dollar per Kg. Rate of hide is 10 US Dollar per square feet (Livestock & Dairy Development Department, 2006). Hides are used in shoe making, ladies purse, watch strips, belts and etc. It will also promote foreign investment in non-conventional areas, serve as international market for most of the Muslim countries of Middle East, Central Europe like; France, Germany, Netherlands, UK, Belgium, Switzerland and Scandinavian countries.

- 32 -

SAUSAGE INDUSTRY The quality of the local animal’s intestine is very high. At the moment the intestine which is required for the sausage is exported to the Europe and other countries. To earn foreign exchange, there is a great potential for this industry, keeping in view; the additional use of different herbs and spices for better taste in the sausage for export. WOOL INDUSTRY Wool is one of the most important products of livestock, if it is developed in right direction by using the scientific and systematic methods; there is attractive business opportunity for common man without making huge cost (Anjum, 1995). Presently there is no woolen mill in Balochistan which could process the wool for its value added products before export/ sale to other agencies outside the province since all the wool produced in Balochistan is almost of carpet quality. Expansion and strengthening of cottage industry like carpet making would be more beneficial. ESTABLISHMENT OF MILK PASTEURIZATION PLANTS With the more crossbred cows in and around Quetta and Pishin areas, and the milk available in Nasirabad area, there should be no problem and milk can be collected through establishing milk-chilling centers at strategic points. This would also trigger production of more milk by peri- urban dairy units when assured market/outlet for milk would be available to them round the year. It will indirectly help the landless farmers to rear more dairy animals of improved variety for better income and livelihood. MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS A milk processing plant called UHT which was set up at Quetta was disinvested and privatized after its completion for better operation in the Private sector (Livestock & Dairy Development Department, 2006). The firm, unfortunately, has still not been able to put the plant into operation for want of raw milk on economic prices in and around Quetta. With the more crossbred cows in and around Quetta now and milk available in Nasirabad area, there should be no problem and milk can be collected through establishing milk-chilling centers at strategic points. MODERN SLAUGHTER HOUSES There is a good scope for development of the meat industry which should include approach to encourage a gradual upgrading of the traditional slaughter trade through provision of upgraded and improved

- 33 - slaughter techniques, hygiene and sanitation while saving handling losses of valuable by-products such as hides, skins and blood (Afzal, 1998). The private investor should be encouraged to take on lease or through outright purchase of slaughterhouse set up by the government at Quetta. PROPAGATION OF BEEF BREED There is a great potential for the beef production as cattle farms especially in the canal-irrigated areas of the province. In this context, Balochistan has already developed a tremendous beef breed called Balochistan Nari-master (Wagenaar et al., 1997). This crossbred of Australian drought master and indigenous Bhagnari breed of Balochistan at its beef research center Sibi. The department is on initial stages to analyze the breed scientifically and evolving the ways to expand it. The live weight of Nari-Master Bull is about 850 Kg (Livestock & Dairy Development Department, 2006). POULTRY SECTOR Balochistan government may also consider providing some incentives to private sector desirous of setting up breeding farms, hatcheries poultry, processing plants and feed mills. About 80% of rural families including those of nomadic transhumance or sedentary keep 5 to 10 hens and one or more cocks (Afzal, 2003). Most are indigenous low yielding molting local type. Birds live by scavenging and on household wastes. Cockerel and adult females who have finished laying are eaten or sold, although rural poultry keeping is not very productive and remunerative; it is attractive to rural families because it involves little cost. According to 1996 livestock census the number of rural chicken is more than 406 million which can be still more than 100% of exotic poultry birds kept in commercial farming enterprises (Livestock & Dairy Development Department, 2006). The major problems in rural poultry arise from diseases and epidemics. This normally wipes out entire of village poultry population, during the last two decades increasing number of adapted improved breed like Dokki, Fayoumi (Egyptian breed) and Mini-red have been introduced with better performance and acceptability in rural environment. There are not a many commercial poultry enterprises in Balochistan except few medium to large layer and boiler farms concentrated in Hub area of Lasbela district in view of close proximity to major market of Karachi and some at district headquarters of the province (Livestock & Dairy Development Department, 2006).

- 34 -

ESTABLISHMENT OF FEED MILLS There is only one feed mill operating at Quetta in private sector (Ahmed, and Alvi, 1988). Most of the coarse grains are available within the province. Vegetable protein and cereal by-products are bought from other provinces of Sindh and Punjab. The climate of Quetta is however, cold and dry. Hence, it is most suitable for long storage of feed. DISCUSSION Livestock is very important segment of Balochistan, hence, all products impact on the economy of Balochistan. Every part of livestock is used to satisfy human needs and desires’ role regarding the common man life in Balochistan can easily be measured. Production from livestock sector include: milk, beef, mutton, poultry meat, wool, bones, fats, eggs, hides and skins. Balochistan provides the major share of mutton to the country but there are number of constrain which do not let it to increase its share as compare to other food items. Due to steep shortage of supply, and increasing demand, prices are very high. This has made mutton unaffordable to the middle and poor class. By increasing the production, prices can be stable and make it approachable to every class of society. Milk is an important product of livestock, which accomplish the need of people. Now there are significant number of cattle, buffaloes and sheep and goat that are kept for dairy purpose. Fresh liquid milk produced in few peri-urban dairy units in different towns of the province (Mohyuddin and Wahla, 1994). There is some seasonality in the production of milk. In winter, milk supply increases because of calving pattern of buffaloes and cows, leading to decrease milk prices in rural areas. Beef can be obtained from cattle, buffaloes and camel but cattle are the main source of beef production to meet the market demand. Cattle population of Balochistan is growing steadily at the rate of 1% per year for the last ten years. 10% of total population is marketed to slaughtered houses (Wagenaar et al., 1997), which is not enough to meet the demand of the dwellings. Balochistan Nari-Master (BNM), the first Pakistani beef breed developed by the scientists of livestock department Balochistan with collaboration of Government of Australia. Poultry production has emerged as a good substitute of beef and mutton. Its significance can be estimated from the fact that almost every family in rural areas and every fifty family in urban areas are associated with poultry production activities in one way or the other (Ministry of Food, Agriculture & Livestock: Livestock Wing, 2005).Hide and skins are also very significant for the economy of Balochistan. Production of hide and skins in the province is poor in quality due to lack of flaying techniques. There is no tannery in

- 35 -

Balochistan; therefore, huge amount of revenue is drained out of province. The quality of skin is also lowered due to the fact that many cuts are left over the skin due to improper shearing. Sheep are the source of wool production and used for further consumption. As wool is an important by-product of sheep farming activity and basic input for warm cloth and carpet industry, however, there is acute need for sheering technique and to establish sheering centre next to the livestock markets. The Kooka, Kachhi and Pak-Awasi breeds are the most promising for wool production. These are medium-sized, but Kachhi can produce some milk as well. More than 2.0 kg per annum fleece can be obtained from them. The Kachhi and Pak-Awasi have good staple length of more than 7.0 cm. Pak-Awasi and Kooka have more than 60 per cent true wool fibers (Livestock Balochistan, sub strategy, 1996). Offal is also productive value. Proper management can give a handful profit for businessman. In remote rural areas of Balochistan, cattle, donkeys, and camels are used as replacement of vehicle. That’s why the population is on increase. Production of farmyard manure is also valuable product can be sold to some value. ANALYSIS Population of every type of livestock in Balochistan has increased to impressive numbers, which exhibit the potential in livestock and the interest of the people in this sector. Cattle and Buffalos are increasing due to increase in demand of milk product, hence, the number of private dairy forms are increasing all over the Balochistan. However, it cannot reach to the consumers in remote areas from the dairy forms and consequently huge loss has to be suffered in terms of waste of milk or its products. In the same way, the increasing demands of meat products. In the same way, the increasing demands of meat products. There are number of small ruminants, produced in the province is not enough for consumption, hence, the prices of red meat in on hike. There is also huge demand for meat products in the neighbouring courtiers i-e Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asian States and UAE etc. Balochistan can capitalize these opportunities by facilitating the livestock holders to enter in this business. CONCLUSION Balochistan is a backward province of Pakistan due to several certain reasons. One of the ways to bring it up to the level of other provinces of Pakistan is to provide indigenous support to the common people in their traditional field of earning. Hence, a dwelling of the province is engaged with agriculture from centuries. Since, cropping is not easy for the

- 36 - residents here, so, they have opted the rearing of livestock for their living. Now, the livestock is the main stay for the people here but they are not earning profit and benefits from the livestock, as they deserve. There are several constraints, which are the main hurdles to get them their rightful share of benefit in terms of financial benefit, social or any Goats are bred for meat, dairy and trade. Breeding of small ruminants is done in traditional ways. Government hardly pays any attention to the promotion of small ruminants breeding still has unexplored potential for the sector. There is enough grazing land and labour (children and elderly people) available. Poultry farming is a women’s task. They sell the eggs and chickens on nearby markets or to middle men to obtain some additional income, who resell them on markets available. In that way poultry farming provides a source of income to the lower and middle class population in urban and rural areas. The poultry sector in the district has been growing especially in rural areas. The underdevelopment of the livestock sector is a major development issue. People are informally familiar with the breeding and looking after of small ruminants and poultry. The promotion of the livestock sector, particularly small ruminants can increase the income level of the lower and middle classes of society. Development of grazing facilities within Balochistan should have a high priority as a major development issue as due to inadequate grazing possibilities the livestock has to migrate to Sindh which causes much financial loss to livestock owners and also cause contagious diseases among livestock. The participation of women in this sector can be further enhanced by the provision of small loans and of training, preferably imparted by females. The Livestock Development Department appears to be providing satisfactory livestock treatment and vaccination services. But due to high cost the livestock owners are unable to buy proper medicines. In view of the large number of its livestock population, the Department in Balochistan probably needs more staff, veterinary units, and logistics than available at present. An extended coverage of veterinary services would lead to quick improvements in milk and meat yields and thus make a substantial addition to livestock holders' income. Also required are livestock marketing improvements. In view of its importance, the livestock sector should be studied in a greater depth for bringing out development issues and problem solving approaches. SUGGESTIONS  Introduction and processing of organic mutton meat.  Producing offspring of Balochistan Nari Master

- 37 -

 Use of Gwadar port as hub for export purpose  Establishment of by- product industry  Establishment of small crushing mills of agriculture wastes all over Balochistan  Increase in animal production and health facilities  Procurement of training  Stress on pedigrees of livestock  Establishment of modern slaughter house  Declaration of Balochistan as mutton producing zone with all must facilities  Arrangement of incentives in the form of credit or subsidies  Involvement of private sector in animal health and production programs  The capital investments required to invest in livestock business  need to create a team of women extension livestock workers  Exercising the role of the public sector and private sector  Encouragement of market competition  Formulation of demand-driven strategies to markets premises  Best use of scarce livestock resource in the rangeland  Decision to establish livestock as an industry and Balochistan as mutton producing zone  Independence of regulatory bodies for livestock promotion and affairs

- 38 -

REFERENCE

1) Afzal, M. 1998. The Determination of Goat and Sheep Prices in the Markets of Balochistan, Pakistan. The thesis presented for the degree of the master of philosophy, Department of Agriculture, University of Aberdeen, U.K. 2) Afzal, M., 2003. Livestock Its Role in Poverty Alleviation. Farming Outlook January-March, 2003. pp: 6-8. ,,,,,,,, 3) Ahmed, W. and A.S. Alvi, 1988. “Goat Meat Production in Pakistan” in Devendra C. (ed.) Goat Meat Production in Asia” Workshop proceedings held in Tandojam, Pakistan 13-18“ March 1988: pp-161-168. ,,,,, 4) Anjum, M.S. 1995. “Survey Report on Wool Marketing in Pakistan”, Coordinated Research Project for the Development of Sheep and Wool, PAK/88/032, FAO, Pakistan. 5) Ather, I., H. and Rafaqat H. Raja, 2002. Milk Production, Collection, Preservation and Processing in Pakistan, Animal Sciences Institute, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad. 6) Aujla, K. M Jasra, A.W. Muneir, M, 1997. Socio-economic profile of Camel Herders in South western Mountainous Areas of Pakistan, proceedings of the third annual meeting for animal production under arid condition, Vol.2: 154- 174 National Arid land Development and Research Institute, National Agricultural Research Council P. O. Box. 1031, Islamabad, Pakistan. 7) Baig, I. A; 2005. Repot on meat in Balochistan. Daily Jang, Quetta. 8) Buzdar, N. Nagy, J. G., Sabir, G. Farid, Keatinge, J. D. H. 1989. Animal rising in highland Balochistan: a socioo- economic perspective, MART/ AZR, Res. Report No. 50, Arid Zone Research Institute, Quetta, Pakistan. 9) Delgado, C., and M. Rosegrant, H. Steinfed, S.Ehui, 1999. “Livestock to 2020: The Next Food Revolution”, International Food Policy Research Institute, FAO, ILRI, Food Agriculture and the Environment Division Paper 28. 10) Economic survey, 2004. Government of Pakistan, Ialamabad. 11) FAO 1987. “Pakistan Livestock Sector Study”, Vol 1 & 2, FAO/Asian Development Bank Cooperative Program. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations- Rome. 12) FAO. 1983. Report of the assistance of rangeland and livestock development survey in Balochistan. FAO Technical Cooperation Program, TCP/PAK/0107, FAO, Islamabad, Pakistan.

- 39 -

13) Faruqee, R (Winter 1999) Strategic Reforms for Accelerated Agricultural Growth in Pakistan 38:4 Part I pp.537-572 The Pakistan Development Review. 14) Farooq, U., T. Young and M. Iqbal, 1999. “Investigation the Farm Households Consumption Patterns in Punjab, Pakistan",The Pakistan Development Review, Autumn 1999, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp: 293-305. 15) Giles, H. Van and Baig, S. 1992. Environmental Program Balochistan, Pakistan. Land Resources and Urban Sciences Department, International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences LARUS-TC, Enschede, the Netherlands and Ecology unit – Soil survey of Pakistan EU- SSP, Lahore, Pakistan. 16) Government of Pakistan 2003. “Milk Production, Processing and Marketing in Pakistan”, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (Livestock Wing), Government of Pakistan. 17) Government of Pakistan. 1988. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture. Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.

- 40 -

- 41 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

CAUSES OF LOW QUALITY EDUCATION IN BALOCHISTAN

Education

Faisal Raza* ABSTRICT

The main purpose of the study is to highlight the challenges and problems that cause low quality education in Balochistan. Balochistan is the largest in size, approximately 347190 sq km, but smallest in population. The number of schools, colleges, Universities, Technical institutions, Secondary School Teachers, lecturers, and professors are not enough to meet the challenges, and fulfill the requisite requirement of the provincial educational needs. Most of the institutions do not have library, science labs with complete equipments, computer labs which keeps the students away from books, internet which helps them to update and enhance their knowledge according to current situation of the new innovations and revaluations which take in this repaid changing word As the matter of fact, institutions are being run without basic facilities, such as safe drinking water and toilets. Admission fee and examination fee are upper most problem, which goes higher and higher.

INTRODUCTION Low Quality Education means, producing illiterate people in society to primitive manual labor in agricultural, industries in fact in every field of life, emplacement of opportunities and on wags, lifelong miserable living conditions and human dependence on literates of the community day to day civic and business interaction deprivation in all walks of life. Low quality education means exclusion of common and social activities. Just going to school and with out positive out put means forced labor, vagrancy, sickness of mind not more than that. Quality education and literacy is a survival and symbol of status. It is emancipation. Practice the decision of the family. Broadly speaking low quality education and illiteracy is defined as incapability of a person or nation to be unaware of his social, legal and moral rights.

* M.Phil Scholar, Department of Education, Hamdard University, Karachi

- 42 -

INADEQUATE SCHOOLS & COLLEGES IN BALOCHISTAN

Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan, But number of institutions working in Balochistan not enough according to area and secreted population of the province, that could not meet the needs educational, so the class are over crowed and over loaded , which is symbol of quality compromise. Majority of Students are middle class or poor families and belong to urban areas, therefore do not have access to higher institutions and universities, this is a great witness to low quality of education. As per 2007 data the total number of government institutions are.-

S# Statistics of the Educational Male Female Total Institutions 1 Degree Colleges 23 7 30 2 Intermediate Colleges 32 21 53 4 High Schools 439 131 570 5 Middle Schools 553 234 787 6 Primary Schools 7455 2884 10339 7 Commercial Colleges 1 Nil 01 8 Polytechnics Institutes 1 1 02 9 Law Colleges 1 (M/F) 01 10 Medical Colleges 1 (M/F) 01 11 Universities 4 (M/F) 1 05 12 Physical Training Colleges 1 (M/F) 01 13 Agricultural Colleges 1 (M/F) 01 14 Teachers Training Institutes 9 4 13 15 Federal Colleges 6 (M/F) 06 16 Homeopathic

Source: - Balochistan Development Statistics 2007

The number of schools and their gender distribution in Balochistan

Name of Primary Middle High the District Schools Schools Schools M F T M F T M F T Awaran 162 51 213 13 3 16 13 2 15

- 43 -

Barkhan 394 173 567 13 4 17 12 2 14 Chaghi 136 58 194 14 8 22 8 2 10 Dera 229 51 280 26 4 30 19 2 21 Bughti Gawdar 145 65 210 12 4 16 12 4 16 Hernai ------Jafferabad 567 234 801 31 12 43 28 6 34 Jhalmagsi 155 71 226 17 04 21 09 02 11

K.Abullah 349 55 404 17 07 24 23 03 26 K.Saifullah 357 106 463 21 05 26 14 05 19 Kachi 291 64 355 17 6 23 15 06 21 Bolan Kalat 242 13 379 20 10 30 18 04 22 Kech 302 168 488 39 26 65 37 07 44 Kharan 133 43 176 18 07 25 10 02 12 Khuzdar 410 173 583 18 10 28 10 03 22 Kohlu 268 60 328 13 06 19 10 01 11 Lasbela 366 125 491 33 11 44 18 04 22 Lorlali 431 147 578 35 14 49 13 03 16 Mastung 200 93 239 21 11 32 11 07 18 Musakhel 182 55 237 08 03 11 08 02 10 Nasirabade 254 121 375 16 06 22 12 01 13 Noushki 102 46 148 16 16 32 16 09 25 Panjgoor 167 109 276 22 10 32 14 09 23 Pashin 529 215 744 51 25 76 27 05 32 Quetta 265 147 412 33 34 67 62 28 90 Sherani 141 12 153 06 - 06 2 - 2 Sibi 220 128 348 16 16 32 20 09 29 Washuk 107 28 135 09 04 13 05 01 06 Zhob 232 46 278 16 05 21 13 02 15 Ziarat 131 75 206 12 08 20 11 03 14

Source: BEMIS School Census 2006-2007.

The data of Hernai District is not available

GHOST SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS Unfortunately, Balochistan is witnessed of hundred of teachers who receive salary on regular basis, but remain absent from schools. It is also

- 44 - unfortunate fact that enrollment of the children in various Districts is not satisfactory due to ghost trenchers. It is also a fact that many parts of Balochistan, where ghost schools still exist, on the other hand ghost teachers are also alarming threats and cause of low quality education, this fact is regrettable. The culture of ghost school and teachers is unknown among civilized Societies of the word, but in our province this is a fact of matter, Ispite of monitoring and vigilance system of Government is officiated with corruption. In such cases we are hopeless to think positive out come in the field of education until and unless sincere steps have been taken and sweep ghost teachers and schools from grass roots

LACK OF SCIENCE LECTURE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS TEACHERS IN BALOCHISTAN A huge number of Schools, Colleges even Universities facing hardships because of shortage of professional educationalists, even institutions have stopped producing desired standard of education in other words responsible for low quality education in Balochistan. Balochistan lags backward from her sister province as education is concerned. The educational institutes are being neglected as much attention they need to produce standard quality of education. Our institutions are badly suffering from shortage of Associate, Professors, Assistant Professors, lecturers Science teachers; beside this most the schools do not have libraries which are most important part of education, and help students to have access to books his is also one of the causes to be responsible to produce degree holders but not true learners.

CHEATING IS THE MAIN ROOT CAUSE TO RUB OF EDUCATION IN BALOCHISTAN “Cheating’ is the biggest and most alarming problem of Balochistan to halt the progress of education. Most of examiners and invigilators turn blind eye to the problem. Students carry every thing and get help at their sweet will, on the other hand government and examination conduct branches are not taken serious action of such black sheep’s who are responsible to damage the roots of our young generations. Besides this our students face an other problem i.e. high admissions and examination fee structure which jeeps the poor ant talented student aloof from education that really keeps the education graph low.

OTHER REASONS The current phase of unrest has taken another serious issue. Due to Lw and order situation in the province teaching facility facing hardships to

- 45 - perform their duties properly many Professors Assistant Professors and lectures have submitted their applications for transfer to other provinces which directly education quality in the province. Balochistan is lagging behind in terms of development it needs innovative initiatives to cope with educational challenges of quality and fair distribution on basis of rural, urban, and gender divide to get desired results in education on both male and female side. Some initiates have been taken with the help of foreign funding agencies and had some positive, but now have to an end.

CONCLUSION Balochistan, where the quality of education is low and poor ,despite of so called efforts of literacy rate is far away from satisfactory, Government of Balochistan, and Minster for Education must not only steer on education only in official and in file work. Without first evaluating the quality of knowledge given to students, if the strengthens steps are not taken to provide people good education. Spreading bogus and out dated material (information) is waste of wealth and time. The children deserve much better and must be given the chance to face the word armed with knowledge. To reach this goal, every conscious mind must work towards providing the students which is best curricula possible. So that we can be really be proud of to be well known and qualified people.

- 46 -

REFERENCES

 Comprehensive Balochistan General Knowledge, Mohammad Qasim Mengal P.Nos 140.141.142  Source BEMIS School Census 2006-2007.  Source: - Balochistan Development Statistics 2007.  Ghulan Thair Editor weekly Quetta Times.  A comprehensive General Knowledge for competitive ,Khalid Bashir Awan p-177

- 47 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) Vol. XXVIII. No.1, 2013

THE EFFECTS OF THE VARIOUS TEACHING METHODS ON “SOCIAL STUDIES” SUBJECT AND ITS IMPACT ON THE PERFORMANCE OF THE STUDENTS OF CLASS 7TH AT QETTA CITY SCHOOLS

Eeducation

Abdul Nasir*

ABSTRACT An experiment was conducted to compare the use of deductive and inductive methods. The students of class 7th were taken as samples for the experiment. They were divided into (03) groups: Controlled Group students (CGS) (A) Inductive group students (IGS) (B) Deductive group students (DGS) (C) (Ten (10) students in each group) Group A was taught by using speech method which is control. Then the group B was taught by using inductive Method, at last the group C was taught by using Deductive method at the end of the lesson taught in the class. All the data regarding group A, Band C were complied statistically treated, analyzed and the final results were deduced for further results. The results revealed that number of answer of Group B which is inductive significantly higher\maximum in almost all the three groups of data collection revealing that inductive method is more useful than Speech/ Deductive methods. The objectives which are focused and the importance of the effective and the importance of the lesson the objectives can be achieved with the help of methods.

KEY WORDS Education, Importance of Education, Education is Engine, Education is light, simple teaching approach, Inductive method, Deductive method, Inquiry based method, Students Motivation, students centered approach

* Lecturer and Chairperson, Department of Education, University of Balochistan, Quetta

- 48 -

INTRODUCTION Education is a light that shows the mankind the right direction to surge. The purpose of education is not just making a student literate but adds rationale thinking; knowledge ability and self sufficiency. When there is a willingness to change, there is hope for progress in any field. Creativity can be developed and innovation benefits both students and teachers.

IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION Islam attaches such great importance to knowledge and education. When the Quran began to be revealed, the first word of its first verse was ‘Iqra’ that is, read. Education is thus the starting point of every human activity. A scholar (alim) is accorded great respect in the hadith. According to a hadith the ink of the pen of a scholar is more precious than the blood of a martyr. The reason being that martyr is engaged in defense work while an alim (scholar) builds individuals and nations along positive lines in this way he bestows areal life to the world. ‘’Education is the manifestation of perfection already in man’’- (swami Vivekananda) Education is a light that shows the mankind the right direction to surge. If education fails to inculcate self-discipline and commitment to achieve in the minds of student, it is not their fault. We have to convert education into a sport and learning process has to generate interest in the students and motivate them to stay back in the institution than to run away from it. Education should become a fun and thrill to them rather than burden and boredom. It is an integral part of their growth and helps them become good citizens. Education is an engine for the growth and progress of any society. It not only imparts knowledge, skills and inculcates values, but is also responsible for building human capital which breeds, drives and sets technological innovation and economic growth. In today’s era, information and knowledge stand out as very important and critical input for growth and survival. Rather than looking at education simply as a means of achieving social up liftmen, the society must view education also as an engine of advancement in an information era propelled by its wheels of knowledge and research leading to development. Two very distinct and opposite instructional approaches are inductive and Deductive both approaches can offer certain advantages but the biggest difference is the role of teacher. In a deductive classroom the teacher conducts lesson by introducing and explaining students to complete tasks to practice the concept: thesis approach is teacher-center conversely inductive instruction is a much more student-centered approach and makes use of a strategy known as ‘’noticing’’.

- 49 -

This study describes the use of inductive and deductive methods in teaching in the schools a questionnaire was prepared, data was analyzed and various factors were found to influence the uses and non use of methods. It marked recommendations, which, if adopted, would increase the use inductive and deductive methods in schools and stimulate the teaching-learning process. The use and importance of ‘’Inductive and Deductive Methods’’ cannot be denied in the learning process, especially in present modern era. It is becoming essential for the teaching of modern an scientific lessons, day by day. Science courses are traditionally taught deductively. The instructor first teaches first teaches students relevant theory and mathematical models, then moves on to textbook exercises, and eventually maybe gets to real-world applications. Often the only motivation students have to learn the material, beyond grades, is the vague promise that it will be important later in the curriculum or in their careers. Failure to connect course content to the real world has repeatedly been shown to contribute to students leaving the sciences (Seymour and Hewitt 1997; Kardash and Wallace 2001). A better way to motivate students is inductive teaching, in which the instructor begins by presenting students with a specific challenge, such as experimental data to interpret, a case study to analyze, or a complex real- world problem to solve. Students grappling with these challenges quickly recognize the need for facts, skills, and conceptual understanding, at which point the teacher provides instruction or helps students learn on their own. Branford, brown and Cocking (2000). Survey extensive neurological and psychological research that provides strong support for inductive teaching methods. The literature also demonstrates that inductive methods encourage students to adopt a deep approach to learning (Rams den 2003; Norman and Schmidt 19992;Coles 1985) The challenges provided by inductive methods serve as precursors to intellectual development (Felder and Brent 2004). Inductive approach is an inductive reasoning storing a number of specific instances and inducing a general law or rule or conclusion that governs or subsumes the specific instances, learners must infer certain rules and meanings from all the data around them. Brown H. (2000), Inductive teaching methods come in many forms, including discovery learning, inquiry based learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based teaching, and just-in-time teaching, few studies have examined these methods as a group. Prince and Felder (2006). The deductive method is often criticized because; a) it teaches grammar in an isolated way; b) little attention is paid to meaning; c) practice is often

- 50 - mechanical.’’ This method can, however, be a viable option in certain situation; for example, when dealing with high motivated students, teaching a particularly difficult concept, or preparing students to elite exams. (B0b Adamson). Traditional engineering instruction is deductive, beginning with theories and progressing to applications of those theories. Alternative teaching approaches are more inductive. Topics are introduced by presenting specific observations, case studies or problems, and theories are taught or the students are helped to discover them only after the need to know them has been established. Inductive methods are consistently found to be at least equal to, and in general more effective than, traditional deductive methods for achieving a broad range of learning outcomes. Michael and Richard (2006). Colburn’s review of the literature concludes that inquiry-based methods are likely to be more effective than deductive methods in helping students gain understanding of concrete observable phenomena, and less so in helping them understand how scientists explain or model phenomena (e.g., via kinetic and molecular theories in chemistry and physics). He recommends focusing activities around questions that students can answer directly via investigation, which helps assure that the activities are around toward concrete concepts. He also advises emphasizing activates that use materials and situations familiar to students for which they have the necessary prerequisite skills and knowledge to succeed, but pose a sufficient level of challenge to help them develop better thinking skills. While studies supporting the deferent inductive methods vary in both quantity and persuasiveness, the collective evidence favoring inductive teaching over traditional deductive pedagogy is unequivocal. Induction is supported by widely accepted educational theories, cognitive science, and empirical research. Inductive methods are not trivial to implement, however. Relative to traditional deductive teaching, they impose more logistical problems, require more planning and possibly more resources, and are more likely to arouse student resistance and interpersonal conflicts (Felder and Brent 1996). Students of 7th classes are selected and the students of each school will be taught on different method, Group A will teach by using speech method which in control. Then the group B will teach by using inductive method in the last the group C will teach by using deductive method at the end of the lesson each group will given a questionnaire, having the questions relating to the lesson taught in the class. All the data regarding group A, B and C will be compiled statically treated, analysis and the final results will deduce for farther results.

- 51 -

Objective type questions\ test are handed over and result will be analyzed after using different types of teaching method in the class room. 0bjective test was designed in a pattern that carries three portions. First one carry five fill in the blanks questions, second one carries questions true false questions and last one carries multiple-choice questions.

Data Analysis of the findings Table No: 1 The Detail of Question’s Answers of the Group (A) Control Group Students (CGS)

Total Items: 200 Correct Items: 135 Wrong Statements: 65 Correct Percentage: 67.5% Wrong Percentage: 32.5%

- 52 -

Data Analysis of the findings

Tab le No: 2 The Detail of Question’s Answers of the Group (B) Inductive Group Students (IGS)

Total Items: 200 Correct Items: 151 Wrong Statements: 49 Correct Percentage: 75.5% Wrong Percentage: 24.5%

- 53 -

Data Analysis of the findings

Tab le No: 3 The Detail of Question’s Answers of the Group (C) Deductive Group Students (DGS)

Total Items: 200 Correct Items: 146 Wrong Statements: 54 Correct Percentage: 73% Wrong Percentage: 27%

- 54 -

Graphical Presentation of Data, Control Group Students (A)

Fig:1. The total numbers of correct and wrong attempted items by students of Control Group Students. Graphical Presentation of Data, Inductive Group Students (B)

Fig: 2. the total number of correct and wrong attempted items by students of Inductive Group Students.

- 55 -

Graphical Presentation of Data, Deductive Group Students (C)

Fig: 3. the total number of correct and wrong attempted items by students of Deductive Group Students. Data in Graphical Order (Over all analysis of all Groups)

250

200

150

Total Items Correct Items Wrong Items 100

50

0 Control Group Inductive Group Deductive Group

- 56 -

Fig: 4. the total number of correct and wrong attempted items by students over all analysis of all groups.

FINDINGS AND RESULTS After the compilation and treatment of the previous data taken from the students the following findings were taken. The students of group B who were taught by using inductive teaching method attempted (151) correct items out of (200 items, while the Group (C) Deductive teaching method attempted (146) correct items out of (200) on the other hand Group (A) Controlled Group students attempted (135) correct items out of (200) items.

The percentage of the correct items of :

Grouped A (67.5%), Controlled Group students attempted Grouped B (75.5%) inductive teaching method Grouped C (73%) Deductive teaching method attempted

The wrong statement of Groups

Grouped A (65) percentage is (32.5%) Controlled Group students Grouped B (49) percentage is (24.5%) Inductive teaching method Grouped C (54) Percentage is (27%) Deductive teaching method

RESULTS After completion of the research it was discoed that: The lessons taught by using inductive and Deductive are more effective than the Controlled methods. The lesson taught by inductive is more effective than the deductive according to finding of (Felder and Brent 1996) and Colburn, A review. The lessons taught by using inductive and deductive are helpful for the teachers in the teaching. By using the inductive method the student and the teacher both are involve during the lecture and the student is also compiled to ask question and answer.

- 57 -

RECOMENDATION The results of this research paper are not final; they need to be re- searched at high level. It was my little effort to highlight and to show the impotence of inductive and Deductive Methods that they are so much needed in our present system of education. The lessons which are made by using teaching Methods their results would be effective.

The teachers must be trained enough how to use the various methods for the relevant topics and subjects. The curriculum should be designed in a way where these methods are ought to be used. Various methods should be used in all subjects, especially in science and social science. Therefore, In the light of above facts and findings it is clear that the inductive method is more effective than other two methods. In this era it is considered that the students should be taught through different teaching methods according to the students as well as subjects requirement.

- 58 -

REFERENCES

 Branford, J.D., A.L. Brown, and R.R Cocking, eds. 2000. How people learn; Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC; National Academy Press. Available online at www.nap.edu/books/0309070368/html.  Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and reaching. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regents.  Colburn, A., ‘’What Teacher Educators Need to Know about Inquiry- Based Instruction,’’ http://www.csulb.edu/-acolburn/AETS.htm. Coles, C.R. (1985) Differences between conventional and problem- based curricula in their Students’ approaches to studying. Medical Education 19(4):308-09.  Felder, R.M., and R. Brent. (1996). Navigating the bumpy road to student-centered instruction. College Teaching 44(2): 43-47. Available online at www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/papers/resist.html.  Felder. , R.M., and R. Brent. (2004) the intellectual development of science and engineering Students. Pt. 1: Models and challenges; Pt. 2: Teaching to promote growth. Journal of Engineering Education. 93 (4): 269-77; 93(4):279-91. Pt. 1 available online at www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/IntDev-I.pdf; pt. 2avilable online at www.ncsu./felder-public/papers /IntDev-II.pdf.  Kardash, C., and M. Wallace. (2001). The perceptions of science classes survey: what undergraduate science reform effort really need to address. Journal of Educational Psychology. 93 (1): -210.  Michael J and Richard M. Felder (2006) Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons, And Research Bases J. Education, 95 (2)  Norman, G.R., and H.G. Schmidt. (1992). The psychological basis o problem-based learning: A review of the evidence. Academic Medicine 67(9): 557-65.  Prince, M., and R.M. Felder. (2006). Inductive teaching and learning methods: Definitions, Comparisons, and research bases. Journal of Engineering Education 95 (2): 123-38.

- 59 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

NEW DISCOVERED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN NUSHKI DISTRICT OF BALOCHISTAN (A FIELD REPORT)

History

Farooq Baloch*& Waheed Razzaq†

Abstract: Balochistan is known as a mother land of ancient cultures because, of its countless Archaeological sites. Balochistan is divided among three countries, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, and the part Pakistan consists approximately 3, 47,190, square kilometer, and it is 44% out of the total area of Pakistan. It is further divided into 6 Divisions and 30 Districts. Every district has a huge importance by its Archaeological sites which consist on Mounds, Graveyards, Tombs, Inscriptions, Karezes and Ancient Dames etc. Some very important sites are excavated by the Archaeologists, like Mehrgarh in Bolan District, Peerak in Sibi District, Mound of Killi Gul Mohammad in Quetta District, Pariano Ghundai in Zhob District, Anjeera in Kalat District, Bala Kot in Bela District and Meeri Kalat in Kech District, etc., large number of archaeological sites have been discovered but still they are not excavated. On the other side different archaeolocial sites of Balochistan are still unexplored. Many sites are still hidden and not discovered by any Archaeologist, the sites of Nushki District have always been ignored by local peopal and Archaeologists. In the espect of Archaeology Nushki has also many attractive and important archaeological sites. The following research article is about the new discovered Archaeological sites in the Nushki District by a team of Balochistan study centre. The objectives behind this study are to overview the new Archaeological sites in the Nushki District and explain their historical, cultural, anthropological and social importance. This study is descriptive in nature, both primary and secondary sources were consulted and for this purpose field work was also done by the team of Balochistan Study Center.

* Assistant Professor (History), Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pak. † Research Officer, Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pak

- 60 -

Key words: Ancient Ruins, Antique Mafia, Balochistan, Bahtto, Dak, Gabrbast, Graveyard, Neel, Nokjo, Nushki, Mall, Zoroastrian.

INTRODUCTION The archaeological sites easily observe in Balochistan in the form of mounds, graves, dames, karez (under ground water channel), and tombs etc. Every district of the province is rich in several kinds of archaeological sites in which Nushki is also counted one of the ancient archaeolocial areas. This area has been always ignored by experts, writers and researchers. Due to that reason history of Nushki has remained disclosed. Many sources decleared Nushki has a part of ancient Siestan. (Government Record: 1997) The word Nushki is not older then five or six centurie, this word is drived from some oral statements. The area was the part of Chagai District up to 2004-05 and than it alienated as a district from Chagai. The district is divided into 10 Union Councils.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Most of the historians decleared Nushki as part of Sistan but were not able to mention its contemparay name. Commonly the area known as the “Valley of Khaesar” because of the Khaesar Stream which flow from the northern mountains and entered in Nushki. The fort is standing on top of a rock near the bed of stream. It was the major source of water for the area but now it is dry and flow only in the heavy rains. The area is very famous for its dry and dangerous desert which is situated in the north and south of the area and this deseart is a part of famous desert of Lut (Iran). How it can be possible that such an important area remained without a particular name in history. May be it discussed in the books with different names but not be founded yet. A historian gives a statement about the fort of Khaesar Stream. As early mentioned that the early history of Nushki has remained hidden, but the present archaeological sites explored different historical eras in this area. These sites mostly predominated by the Hindu rulers and fire worshippers. This area was the part of Chagai for long time, so the some reliable sources give the following statement about the entire area. Says that, “Little is known of the ancient history of Chagai. There is a complete absence of all records, and the local traditions and vague and unreliable. The earliest monuments are the ruins of terraced embankment or “Gaurbastas” which are found at the foot of the Raskoh hills and which, like similar remains in the lower parts of Balochistan, are ascribed to the Gabrs or fire-worshipper. The next traces of ancient history are the square shaped

- 61 - tombs, met with in the western portion of the District (Chagai), which are attributed by local tradition to the Kaianis of the Achamaenenian dynasty of Persia. The remains of cupolas, ruined forts and karezes which are found in different parts of the District, are usually assigned to the Arabs, and may, perhaps, be correctly said to date from the “Arab period” during the neighboring province of Siestan attained the climax of its prosperity. They are also, sometimes, attributed to the Mughals, and in any case indicate the presence of a higher civilization than is now found among the Baloch Brahvi inhabitants (tribes) of the country. The waves of conquest and re-conquest which passed over its neighbors do not seem to have left much permanent mark on the country, and it is possible that Chagai, secure in the shelter of its deserts and possessing little to tempt the adventurous, did not play a very important part in those troublous times.” (Ibid: 1997) The area faced many invasions from the outsiders up to the Baloch reign. According to the ancient sources this area was first invaded by the Mongol tatars. This invasion is verbally memorized by the inhabitants of the area. The local traditional historians mostly trace the history of the area from the invasion of Mongols. Some tribes of the area claimed that they entered in the area during or after Mongol invasion. But these statements have no historical support. According to an author that, “There are traditions of invasions from the north and north-west, but these are very vague, and the invaders are always said to have been the Mongols (known to the people of the country as the Mughals). About 1223 A.D. a Mongol expedition under Chagatai, the son of Chingiz Khan, is said to have penetrated as far as Makran; and in 1383 Miran Shah, the son of Timur, led another expedition into Keren (Kharan). It is not known if these invasions actually passed through Chagai, but their influence must have made itself felt throughout the country.” (Ibid: 1997) According to some non authentic verbal sources, the Baloch tribes settled in the area after the end of Mongol rule. According to local traditions that the Baloch tribes assert that their ancestors found the country depopulated and a desert waste. The district, at this time, probably formed a part of Kandhar and shared in the fluctuations of its possession, but the normal condition of the Baloch seems to have been one of semi-independence. They appear to have been firmly established at the beginning of the sixteenth century. But this statement base on verbal and local traditions and has no historical support. According to some very reliable sources that during the reign of Mughals of India the Nushki was under the Baloch tribes, and in Humayun’s period, Malik Khati Khan was the chief of this area, who saved the Mughal Royal Family of India at Chagai. According to Humayun Nama,

- 62 -

“One night, after a long march, the barking of a dog was heard. The Emperor (Humayun) had hardly time to observe that some habitations must be at hand, when a party of the Baloch met and stopped them. They spoken in their own language, which was not understood, but fortunately one of the ladies, who was with the Emperor’s suite was herself a Baloch, the wife of an officer in his service. She was employed to interpret, and it appeared that they were followers of Malik Khati, a Baloch chief, whom Abulfazl styles the Captain General of the banditti of the desert. Their leader being at the moment absent, his people, on finding that it was the Emperor, insisted that the little troop should not pass onward without their master’s leave. The Emperor was obliged to comply and entering the fort, the free-booters salaamed to him respectfully, spread a carpet on which he and Hamida Begum (mother of the great Akbar) sat down and supplied the wants of the party with all the hospitality of the desert. When day began to dawn, as the Emperor was engaged in his morning prayers Malik Khati, who had been sent for, returned.” (Ibid: 1997) The author of above book gives more details of this important and historical event in the following word, “The Emperor’s peaceable entrance into the fort, which gave him the character of a guest, had roused the robber’s sense of honor. Saluting the Emperor, and making the usual polite inquiries after his health, the chief informed him, that three days before an order from Kamran Mirza suffer the Emperor Humayun to pass that way, but to seize and make him a prisoner. “But” added he, “now that your Majesty has visited me, on my head and eyes be it. Yet it is better that you should ride on and I will myself conduct you to the borders.” (Ibid: 1997) This very important statement proofs that the Baloch tribes had a very strong power established in the area of Chagai and Nushki, and had their own Chief and rulers. This statement also confirms that, during 16th century this area was generally under the domination of Mongols (Mughals), but particularly it was independent and had their own traditional laws, and also it confirms that this area was populated and the different Baloch tribes were settled here. May be, the Malik Khati was the Head Chief of the area, and the Baloch tribes were unite under his command. This area has been linkes with Afghanistan and Iran, from 16th century to the half of 17th century the area was back to back came under the domaintation of Afghanistan as well as Iran. But, these countries were not interested in this desert, so, mainly the area has remained independent and was controlled by the Baloch tribes. During the reign of Ahmed Zai family Nushki came under the domination of Kalat. The great Naseer Khan Noori crossed the area when he was passing through Nushki in about 1759, on his way from Mashhad to

- 63 -

Kalat after having accompanied with Ahmed Shah Abdali on his expedition to Persia. (Baloch: 2012) Khan Naseer Khan was so pleased with the generous treatment accorded to his army by the inhabitants that he bestowed to them the name of Dilkusha or “the open hearted”. (Ibid: 2012) after the emergence of the Khanate of Kalat, Nushki became a constant part of Kalat. Before the expedition of Indus army of the East India Company, many British spies crossed this area during their journeys. The first spy was the Henry Pottinger who entered in Nushki in the getup of a Sayyed trader, and stayed here for some days. (Henry Pottinger: 1983) Amir Abdul Rehman Khan was also passed through the area after his defeat by Amir Sher Ali Khan in the Hazara hills in 1869. (Bugti: 2006) Charles Macgregor and Lockwood visited the western Sanjrani country, making their way from the Mashkel Hamun to the Gaud-i-Zirrah. (Macgregor: 2003) the area faced many up and downs up to the end of the Khanate of Kalat. Nushki has always been ignored and is not discussed in details in the history books. So, the ancient history of Nushki is still hidden. Many influational authors and writers started its history from the time period of Mongols. The verbal and traditional history also starts it from the same period. But, the large number of mounds and other archaeological sites explains a new history. These sites were discovered by a team of Balochistan Study Centre, with the collaboration of Raskoh Adbi Deewan and a local media channel Nushki Time. These very amazing pre-historic sites, which consist on different kind of archaeological sites, are not yet discussed in any book. The details of discovered sites are given below;

NEWLY FOUNDED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN NUSHKI DISTRICT

1- DAMB-E- BADAL KAREZ OR MOUND OF BADAL KAREZ This huge mound is situated in the west of Nushki city from the distance of two kilometers. This big mound has covered a huge area. The western side of the mound is destroyed by the natives of the area. The local inhabitants do not know the importance of archaeological sites, so, they just use their mud for cultivation purpose or dug them for treasure. The surface of the mound of Badal Karez is full of pieces of the different kind of potteries. The red color bricks can easily observed everywhere in this mound. The height of the mound is more than 25 feet from the ground. This is a very attractive site for research and excavation. And hope that, this new discovered site will be the helpful for revising the history of the area.

- 64 -

2. MOUND OF JAMALDINI The mound of Jamaldini is situated in Nushki city from the distance of two kilometers near the town of Jamaldini. This mound is also destroyed by the people. Just like the mound of the Badal Karaz, pieces of potteries also found on the surface of the mound of Jamaldini. The hight of the mound is not that much high from ground but it’s covered area is huge as compare to other mounds. It is also a very important site.

3. SIA DAMB Dak is a huge and very famous area of Nushki, which is situated in the west and North West of the District and connected with the desert of southern Afghanistan. Actually this is the part of great desert of Lut which covered the eastern and northern Iran and southern and western Afghanistan. In the south of Afghanistan it touched the desert area of Nushki, and on the other side the Iranian sandy border is connected with Balochistan. The Dak of Nushki is dividing among three major tribes of the area, i.e. Mengal, Jamaldini and Badini. The major parts of this area are mostly dry plains and deserts and its mainly cultivation depends on the rain. This kind of cultivated land is called Khushkaba in local language. Actually this desert is an ancient and shortcut way from Balochistan to Afghanistan. This desert has also many pre-historic sites. There are several ancient mounds situated in this sandy area. These mounds belong to the Neolithic times. In these mounds one of the famous mound is called Siah Damb or Black Mound. This is a big mound situated in a plain of Dak desert. It’s called Black Mound because of its black mud and surface. The height of this mound is more then thirty feet. The mounds and other kind archaeological sites have been badly destroyed and exhume every where by antique mafia. The surface of the mound is full of the pieces of different kind potteries which are same like the potteries of other mounds of the area. The construction work also seemed in this mound and in some places the internal side constructions and rooms are easily observed. It is a rich site and can provide lot of information about the past history of the area. The dead bodies which are found on the top of grave can be very helpful for researchers to analyze the past era. This newly discovered mound is waiting for researchers, experts and writers for further work.

4. SOHR DAMB The mound of Sohr Damb is also situated in the area of Dak and is the continuous part of other mounds. Its surface is also full of same kind potteries. It’s called Sohr or Red mound because of its reddish surface and mud. It’s also covered a big area but it is not higher than the Sia Damb, But it can be provide a lot of information about the pre-historic time of the area.

- 65 -

5. DAAR DUMB OR WOOD MOUND This is another mound of the area of Dak, called Daar or Wood Mound. It is the continuous part of other mounds too. Its surface is also full of same kind potteries. It is higher then Sohr Damb, and rich in all aspects as compare to Sohr Damb. It’s a great mound but badly excavated by the antique mafia. But a huge area of this mound is still present in a better condition. This mound can be laboratory for archaeologists. This mound is still hidden and did not describe by historians or archaeologists. The Roba Mound is also situated in the area of Dak.

6. SEWAHI KALAT This is another rich and pre-historic place of the Dak area and consists on a fort, as shown by its name. The condition of this mound is same like other mounds. It is also destroying by the hands of antique mafia. They came here for searching treasure. They excavated it roughly and damaged the important parts of the mound. The burned mud of these all mounds shows that they were burned roughly by invaders. These kind of burned mounds can easily found in the different archaeological sites of Balochistan.

7. ANCIENT FORT OF NUSHKI This fort is situated in the middle of the city of Nushki. Currently the Deputy Commissioner Office and residence is here. This mound was a castle or a fort which mentioned by Dr. Stein, Inspector General of Education and Surveyor of Archaeology. He paid a visit to Nushki in April 1905 has written the following interesting description of some of the ancient remains to be seen in the District: “The visit which I paid to Nushki, enabled me not only to form some idea of the character of the desert which hence stretches towards Siestan and the comparison of which with the deserts of Turkistan offered for me special points of interest, but to trace remains of unmistakable antiquity at the newly developed emporium of Nushki itself. On riding up the hillock on which the Political Agent’s Bungalow stands, I noticed old pottery debris and by subsequent examination found evidence of this prominent position having been occupied probably at an early period. This hillock is composed mainly of alluvial deposit, and rises about 70 feet above the bed of the Khaisar stream which washes its southern foot. Its top after having been artificially leveled some eight years ago, now measures about 140 yards from north to south with an average width of about 100 yards. Owing to its commanding height and isolated position, the hillock must have always attracted notice as a place suited for defense, and accordingly I was not surprised to find

- 66 - remains of old walls at several places on the south face which falls off precipitously towards the stream.” (Government Record: 1997) The above discussed mound is still use officially and in present time the Office of the Deputy Commissioner is situated there, and still the walls of the fort can be seen from different sides. No doubt, this was the historical fort of Nushki which came in history with the name of Qila Khaisar or Khaisar Fort, (Al-Hiravi: 2009), and locally called Sangi Kalat or Rocky Fort. This fort has long historical backgrounds which are available in several books of history. (Minhaj-us-Siraj: 2004) According to historical sources that the different kind of potteries found out from this fort during construction work of Bungalow in Britsh period. “When the top of the hillock was being leveled for the present Bungalow, a number of round jars of a make and size no loner known had been brought to light not very deep beneath the surface. One of these jars proved to have been preserved in the fort containing the Tehsil and to be a relic of distinct interest. It measures 2 feet 5 inches in height with a diameter of 2 feet 6 inches, where widest and is made of hard red clay about half an inch thick. From its mouth which is about 1 foot wide, down to the line of greatest perimeter, the jar is decorated with a succession of bands painted in black color and fairly well preserved. The band nearest to the mouth shows a plain pattern of diagonal lines between two horizontal ones, next follows one with a bold spiral scroll ornament, while below this is a band showing fishes in double row. Below these bands each of which is about 5 inches high, follows a succession of plain black stripes down to the line of greatest perimeter. It is very desirable that this interesting piece of ancient pottery be properly taken care of and I have recommended its removal to the Quetta Museum now in course of construction. A second vase of similar material, but perfectly plain and was the only other object from that find I could trace at Nushki. My enquiry after old coins in the Bazaar and among village headmen, were unsuccessful; none appear ever to have been found in this neighborhood. As Nushki, owing to its water supply, can never in historical times have been a locality entirely uninhabited, I can recognize in this dearth of old coins of any description only evidence of the very primitive cultural conditions which have prevailed in great portions of Balochistan down to our own time. As to the age of the pottery above described I cannot safely express an opinion.” (Government Record: 1997)

8. HOTANI REG OR HOTANI BHUTT This huge dump of sand is situated near the Town of Jamaldini in the beginning of great Dak desert. It is famous by the name of Hot---ani---Reg. the Jamaldini tribe claims for its legacy. But, in written shape it is not proved.

- 67 -

Some verbal sources connect it with the famous Baloch tribe, “Hot”. This word is still vague and needs more research. But, the amazing report is this that a big fort or city has been obscured in this huge deposit of sand. A wall of mud can be seen on the top of sand deposit, which proves that there is some thing under this deposit. It is a mystery which needs a solution. May be it’s belong to ancient Baloch tribe Hot, which ruled over Mekran during the Arab invasion. This is an amazing site and need more research and excavation. Hope, that this place will give interesting results and raise new archaeological question to be solved.

9. RUINS OF NOKJO Nokjo is a nearly village of Nushki. It is situated on Quetta-Taftan road. Basically it is an agriculture area, and Mandahi Baloch tribe’s lives here. Mandahi tribe claims that they are the first and original natives of the area of Nushki. The other all tribes accept their claim and the Balochistan District Gazetteer also gives such kind of statement. Mandahi is a big tribe and not only lives in Nushki but, they also live in the several parts of Balochistan. The agriculture of this area is developing day by day so; the dry lands are converting into green zones. Nokjo is a basically ancient town and the new population builds up their houses over the ancient ruins. The extension in agriculture sector is also destroying the ancient places, like mounds and graveyards. The ruins of Nokjo seem that, this place was the early settlement of Nushki. During the making of a small Dam in this area, the ancient time graves opened in the Dam. After some times, another ancient graveyard discovered here too near the village of Nokjo. The natives of the area do not know about these graves. According to a local authority that during plowing many times he saw the terracotta and browns objects, potteries, bricks and other kind of ancient antiques. Nokjo is a very unique place for archaeological purposes but these ruins are destroying fastly. If the higher authorities did not take any attention these very important archaeological remains will be finish soon. It will be a big subtraction for the heritage of Balochistan. The remains of Nokjo are consists on mounds, bricks and potteries plant (industrial units), graveyards and a fort. The ruins of the fort are called Mandahi Kalat. This fort has been completly destroyed; only a single wall is remaining. This fort is not older than two centuries, and belongs to the Mandahi tribe. But, no doubt, that it is a national heritage and its protection and preservation is necessary. Nokjo is a very ancient place and its archaeological sites are destroying poorly, so, it’s the time that the authorities must take immediate action for their preservation.

- 68 -

Ancient brick factory, Nokjo

10. ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS OF BHATTO Bhatto is another nearly place of Nushki from the distance of 16 kilometers in the west of Nushki, and situated on Quetta-Taftan road. The word Bhatto has come out from the word Bhatti, which mean an Industrial Plant. The meaning of Bhatto in local language is, “a small plant”. The place of Bhatto is a totally an archaeological zone, in which the archaeological remains seem every where on the ground. There are different archeological sites like, Mounds, Gabrband or fire worshippers Dams, Graveyards, Industrial Plants, Forts and Gumbud etc. some of these ruins have been destroyed by the terrible weather, heavy rains and illegal excavations but, mostly sites are secure and in good condition. These remains have big deposits of archaeological objects, which can help the archaeologists and historian to draw a real and true picture of the area of Nushki and as well as the Balochistan. Has mentioned earlier that the history of the area has been started from the time of Mongols by the historians but, now after these discoveries the history of the area needs modification, because, these remains belong to pre-historic times. A big mound, a Gabrbast, two graveyards, more than one Bhatoos or small plants and some other kind sites are safe and perfect for further excavation. The remains of Bhatto are mostly in safe hands and invite the experts for researching the pre-historic time.

- 69 -

Remanings of another ancient traditional brick factory. Bhatto

11. MAH GUL-E-GUMBUZ OR MAH GUL NA GUMBUD According to Balochistan District Gazetteer that, “At Nushki I had touched the line of route followed by pottinger in 1810 on his celebrated journey through Balochistan into Persia. As, on reading its account long ago I had been struck by the description given in it of some very curious ancient structures, which Pottinger had seen at some distance south of Nushki, and which he believed to be of Zorostrian origin, I was anxious to visit them. Locally nothing was known of such ruins, but a search for them seemed all the more justified since I succeeded in finding in the immediate vicinity of Nushki, and exactly in the position indicated by the Pottinger, the remains of a Gumbuz which Pottinger mentions in connections with the tradition of an ancient town, and which was equally unknown to the local authorities. This ruin, called Magul by the Saiad (Syed) guide who took me to it, proved to be situated at a distance of about 3 miles to the south-west of the modern fort of Nushki, and to consist of a narrow vaulted passage about 12 yards long, half buried under the drift sand of the surrounding desert. It is built of sun dried bricks and surmounted by a shapeless mass of decayed masonry of the same kind. The vault being constructed on the principle of a true arch indicated the Mohammadan origin of the structure, and the remains of some old tombs to the south of it fully confirmed this conclusion. Old pottery debris strews a patch of eroded clayey ground near by.” (Government Record: 1997) The Gazetteer also mentions a stone near this Gumbuz which was called “Naqsh Pa Rustam” or footprint of Rustam. (Ibid: 1997) In present time this Gumbuz or Tomb can not see any where but the local natives know about the place of it.

- 70 -

12. NEEL, AN AMAZING ARCHAEOLOGICAL TOMB Neel is an amazing archaeological thing which is only present in the different parts of Nushki District. It is like a tomb without any exit or entrance. According to local authorities that there were many Neel (Tombs) in the area of Nushki but, now only three of them are remaining and the others were finished. Three Neel were situated in the area of Mall, sixty kilometers in the west of Nushki, one is present at Ahmedwal and almost two are present at Eesachah. Nowadays the tombs of Mall has been finished but, the Neel of Ahmedwal and Eesachah are remained in good condition. According to a local person of Khalq e Mengal (Mengal Village) that, there was another Neel in the above mentioned Village but, but it is not present now. These tombs are consists on at least 6x6 room and vertically its maximum 10 feet high. On the top it has at least 2 feet circlet. The purposes of these Neel (Tombs) are unambiguous. The many myths are concerned with them. A huge number of residents of the area belives that these were used for punishment in the past cultures and many others compare them with the towers of guidance in the past. This kind of objects only can be seen in the area of Nushki. These Neels look like very ancient and very parallel to Hindu religious places. As the historians say that, the history of the area of Nushki started from Zoroastrian period but, these Neel are different than Persian culture objects and constructions. But, the mounds and old potteries are consequent the most ancient period than Persian. These amazing sites need immediately protection and research.

Neel near Ahmed wal

- 71 -

13. GRAVEYARD AND TUNNEL OF REKO Reko is a beautiful area of Nushki, situated on the Nushki- Kharan road. It is a beautiful and cold valley. This valley has many kind of archaeological sites in which an old graveyard is also included. It is situated in the west of the village on the top of a mountainous rock. It is a big graveyard and has more than hundred graves. The local inhabitants have no information about it. Some verbal statements dedicated it to the Arab period. Many of these graves have inscriptions with different kind of writings and designs. A grave had an inscription with the drawing of a man hand and some graves have designed inscriptions. Some have writings with different languages. This is a very old graveyard which belongs to the first Muslim era and needed immediately protection and further research work. There is another historical place at Reko valley which called in local language “Khazanagi Bhutt” which means the mound of treasure. Basically this is a huge piece of a sandy rock. Many stories are famous about it in the area of Reko. The natives of the area believed that there is a big treasure in this rock. Some groups of antique mafia had illegally excavated it in many places and found some ancient potteries. The pieces of potteries can be seen on the surface of it. In the west of this rock a steam flow which called Hazhdah Khol means Eighteen Holes. In the bottom of this rock from stream side two tunnels found in the result of illegal excavation. One is like a small room but, the second one is a long tunnel. It is not more then 3x3 feet but its longitude is unknown. It has a curve too, which turned on right side. What is the reality of this tunnel, so, this is a question which should be researched.

Ancient Graveyard in Reko

- 72 -

Tunnel in Khazanagi Bhutt near Reko

14. THE GREAT MOUND OF MALL Mall is another beautiful town of the Nushki District situated in the west of Nushki on the distance of 60 kilometers on Nushki-Taftan road. A big mound is standing in a plain in the north of the RCD road. This huge mound is called Meeri Bhutt and dedicated to Sanjrani rulers of the area. This mound has covered more than 300x300 feet with the height of at least 20 feet from the ground. Some old constructions are still remaining but these are not that much old. The surface of the mound is full of different kind potteries which are similar with the other ancient potteries of the area. This mound is still saved by the hands of the illegal excavation and still is in a very good condition. It is like a big laboratory for the experts of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. It’s needed immediate security and excavation. If the higher authorities did not take any attention about this rich heritage than it will finish very soon because, this area is a good for agriculture and the surrounding area of this mound has been covered with orchards. Maybe, they will finish this mound for their agriculture purpose.

- 73 -

Mound of Mall

15. OLD GRAVEYARDS AND KAREZES In Balochistan there are two kinds of common archaeological sites, ancient graveyards and the ancient time karezes. The graves and graveyards belongs to the different eras and cultures e.g Hindu religions or Idol worshipper, Zoroastrians and early Islamic period. In the subject of Archaeology the graves and graveyards have major importance. These can help to understand the period, culture, social system, religious thoughts and the mankind ethnic groups of the past. As like the other parts of Balochistan, the Nushki has also different ancient graves and graveyards. These are located in the different parts of the district. The graveyards of Bhatto, Nokjo, Reko, Faqeer Jumaa, Shahmardan and many others are included in the very famous ancient graveyards. Most of these graveyards are in good condition but some of them are slowly and steadly effecting by the bad weather and antique mafia. The second one is Karez (underground water channel) which is very common in those areas of Balochistan which have no regular source of water. The Karez is the ancient time technique for irrigation system. It consists on several wells which are connected to each other in the bottom like a pipe. Mostly, Karez starts near a mountain and moves towards the cultivation areas. The technique of Karez was the old source of irrigation which was very useful in scanty water areas like Balochistan. The Karez system of Balochistan has a long historical background. According to Maulana Noor Ahmed Fareedi these had been made by the Humeries of Yemen. (Baloch.Balochistan kay Tehzeebi Naqoosh: 2012) Some sources linked them with the ancient Iranians. (Ibid: 2012)

- 74 -

But, according to Gazetteer of Chagai the Karez system of Nushki was developed during Arab era. (Government Record: 1997) these Karez system is an effective source of understanding the ancient time. Many Karez have been destroyed by the bad weather.

Ancient graveyard in Bhatto

CONCLUSION

The area of Nushki has a significant historical background, but it is very sorrowful that the historians badly ignored its history. Mostly sources started its history from the time of Mongols. It is very difficult to modify the history of ancient civilization of this area because of unavailability of written material. In the historical books the ancient places of Nushki have not been discussed, even the Government District Gazetteer which compiled during British era, also ignored such kind of historic and pre-historic sites. The Gazetteer only mentioned two or three places which were situated near or inside the main city of Nushki, like, Main Fort, Gumbaz Mah Gul etc. The other sites which highlighted in the above pages did not describe by any author. These are completely new discoveries by the team of Balochistan Study centre with the collaboration of Raskoh Adabi Deewan and a local T.V. Channel Nushki Time. In the search of the area above mentioned teams discovered many ancient and archaeological sites. Most of these new sites are very ancient and belongs to pre-historic era. Some of these sites seem like Zoroastrians time, but we can not describe these sites without excavation and further research. These sites are mostly in good condition and can provide immense information to the archaeologists and historians, because, these are consists on different kind of archaeological sites which can define the pre- historic times. The team of Balochistan Study Centre have badly struggled to discover the archaeological sites of Nushki with cooperation of local

- 75 - inhabitants and members of Rasco Adbi Deewan. Some of these sites are very strange and not accessible in the other parts of Balochistan. After the field work these teams arranged a National Seminar in the District Government Hall of Nushki. Many nominal scholars explored their papers, and the large number of people participated in this Seminar. The inhabitants have taken keen interest in all these activities and demanded for a Regional Museum, further research and protection of the sites. The Balochistan Study Centre, Raskoh Adbi Deewan and Nushki Time did successfully their responsibilities and duties. Now it is the responsibility of Culture Department, Government of Balochistan to preserve, protect, excavate this heritage and provide further research on these very important pre-historic sites and to explore the real and true history of the area.

- 76 -

REFERENCES

 Al-hiravi, Saif bin Mohammad bin Yaqoob, 2009, Tarikh Nama Herat, al-Faisal, Lahore, Pp- 328, 350, 470

 Baloch, Farooq, 2012, Balochistan kay Tehzeebi Naqoosh, Fiction House, Lahore, Pp-226, 226-27

 Baloch, Farooq, 2012, Khan-e-Azam Naseer Khan Noori:Hukoomat aur Siasat, Shakhsiat aur Kirdar, Fiction House, Lahore, Pp- 143-45, 149-50

 Bugti, Aziz Mohammad, 2006.3rd edition, Tuzk-e-Abdul Rehmani, Shad Publishers, Quetta, P- 78-9

 Government Record, 1997.2nd edition, Sels and Services, Quetta, Pp- 71, 71, 71, 72, 73, 80-81, 81-82, 83, 83, 71

 Minhaj-us-Siraj, 2004.3rd edition, Tabquat-e-Nasri, Urdu Science Board, Lahore, Vol:1 .Pp-11-13, 512-14, 536, Vol:2. 121, 314-16, 383, 384

 Macgregor, C.M., 2003.2nd edition, Wanderings in Balochistan, Indus Publications, Karachi, Pp- 139-86

 Pottinger, Henry, 1983, Travel in Sindh and Balochistan, Nisa Traders, Quetta, Pp-127-36

- 77 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

A BRIEF ABOUT PERSIAN POETRY OF KHUSHAL KHAN KHATTAK

Language & Literature

Dr. Nasrullah Jan Wazir, * Dr. M. Usman Tobawal† Abdul Rehman Kakar‡

ABSTRACT Khushal Khan is one of the eminent poets and scholars of Pashto language. His contribution to the Pashto language is of great significance because he had written in assorted genres of literature with special reference to Pashto language and literature. The paper thoroughly discusses various aspects of Khushal Khan Khattak's poetry in the perspective of his Pashto and Persian poetry as he was not only a scholar and poet of Pashto but also well versed in Persian and Arabic languages. In this research paper it is strived to unveil the techniques and thoughts of Khushal Khan Khattak in Persian.

INTRODUCTION Khushal Khan Khattak is such a multi dimensional personality, the art and work of whom is confessed not only by Pashtoons but also by the people of other nations. Although the national movement of Pashtoons had been initiated by Bayazeed alias Peer Roshan yet Khushal Khan, having extra ordinary qualities of leadership boosted it up to its zenith. Even though he is known as matchless poet and writer of Pashto literature, he had also uttered Persian poetry of high caliber. This article focuses particularly the Persian poetry of Khushal Khan. But it would be better to introduce his personality to the readers before discussing his Persian poetry. This article comprises of two parts, personality and Persian poetry of Khushal Khan Khattak.

* Assistant Professor, Pashto Department, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pak. † Assistant Professor, Pakistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pak. ‡ Lecturer, Pashto Department, University of Balochistan, Quetta- Pak.

- 78 -

RESEARCH METHOD In order to high light the art and personality of Khushal Khan Khattak, historical and analytical research methods have been adopted. As he lived during the pinnacle of Mughal reign in which Hindustan had been leaving its signs of momentousness and bizarreness on other nations. As the birth of Khushal Khan Khattak had taken place in the same period and he was attached to Mughal's royal court also. But his detachment to Mughal's royal court and causes of the anorexia of Mughals has been discussed in the framework of historical research where as his poetry is to be conversed in structure of analytical research.

PROMINENT PASHTOON LITERARY FIGURES Generally there are many writers whose contributions have gained enough respect in the history of Pashto literature but there are two figures whose efforts in the field of knowledge and literature not only gave all comprising state to Pashto but also proved that Pashto is in no way less then its sister languages in expression and communication . In other words they not only organized Pashto but also gave it a pretty state of acceptance / assent. One of them was the ever greatest and famous personality of sixteenth century saint / Peer known as Peer Roshan also called Bayazeed Ansari, the founder of Roshania Movement, who is considered to be the founder / chief of Roshania School of thought in the succession of Mysticism, the way, introduced by Bayazeed Roshan to accomplish his thoughts, was in no way accepted by the traditionalists. That is why many problems and hurdles were created for him in the very beginning. However, the way, how courageously he promoted his rule of conduct/ programme, is quite matchless in the world of Mysticism. Due to his enchanting personality and anxious and thoughtful way he finds himself in his nation. The logic, through which he makes his nation follow him, was to communicate them in their native language Pashto. Since he knew that language is the key source to up rise conscience and to educate the people of any society, he came to the conclusion to communicate the nation in its own language which is a pretty proof of his knack in the field of language and literature. Though he knew that Arabic and Persian had got enough scope in religious and royal courts respectively and that he had pretty good command on these languages, he preferred to address/ communicate his nation in his native language. Its lasting consequences and effects were not only revealed on him but the history of Pashto literature also argues that the credit setting Pashto language and literature on organized foundation goes to him.

- 79 -

The Genius one: The person next to him whom is considered to be more respectable, the man of ages whom Pashtoon acknowledge their national hero and the father of Pashto language and literature are known as Khushal Baba. He was born in 1022 Hijri during the regime of Mughal Emperor Jahangir at Akora Khattak in the house of Malik Shahbaz Khan. Khushal’s ancestors were the most influential personalities of the region. His elders were among the loyalists to the Mughal rulers and the influential functionaries / magistrates from the time of their grandfather Malik Akor Khan the great, who not only ensured peaceful atmosphere for the Mughal rulers but also helped them in elevating the brackishness against them in the vicinity. Khushal Khan took part in many battles along his father during the reign of Shah Jahan Mughal. Once in the company of his father he got forth to elevate the tumult by Yousafzai Afghans where the cracking blood of the brave Pashtoons was expressing enough enthusiasm from both sides. This battle caused the death of countless soldiers from each side. Khushal Khan too received some miner injuries whereas his father got seriously wounded with an arrow which took his life. After the death of his father, the royal court of Shah Jahan issued the order for the continuity of his Functionary as a reward of his loyalty. He kept accomplishing the fulfillment of his promise / oath with Mughal until they got suspicious from him. The story of how Mughal got suspicious from him took its roots from a bloody dispute among Shah Jahan’s sons over the accession to the throne of their father. Finally the Rein of the empire came into the hands of Aurangzeb Alamgeer. No sooner had Aurangzeb the control of the empire, the Chief functionary/ Magistrate of Peshawar Ameer Khan Khawafi; a confidant of Aurangzeb wrote a letter against Khushal Khan in which he suspected the future intentions of Khushal Khan. Aurangzeb, who was tricked by Ameer Khawafi, forgot the generation after generation loyalty of Khushal Khan and issued the order of his captivity. Since Khushal Khan had no such intentions, he remained completely unaware about Aurangzeb’s order and got averse from Mughal and raised the slogan for the freedom of Afghans. His repenting from the Loyalty with Mughal and his inclination towards Pashtoon National Struggle is the important point of his life to which Pashtoon consider a corner stone of their liberty and the primary step for their national Unity. It was the time when Khushal Khan Baba gave a new spirit to the national struggle concealed in the mysticism of Bayazeed Roshan and undertook the task to fight against Mughals. He fights not only with sword but also utilized the treasure of art and thoughtfulness which is the proud of his nation. This literature, which is known as national and historical document and an

- 80 - authentic source of Pashto classical period. Hence, he is mainly remembered as a national Hero and the Man of sword and knowledge. His personality was the collection of many qualities. He was at a time the Lord/ Sardar of his tribe, a war-manger commander, a magistrate/functionary, a native Physician, the best hunter, a geographist at one hand, and a great linguist, a man of letters and a unique figure in the world of poetry and literature on the other hand. He is also considered to be a unique personality in Pashto because he was the first intellectual who was struggle an increase of variety, mechanism and terminology in Pashto literature. Apart from this made efforts for innovation in Pashto prose and the mode of writing. As he would say in his poem about what he has done for Pashto prose, poetry and the mode of writing, as Khushal Khan says in his Poetry: كه د نظم كه د نثر كه د خط دى په پښتو ژبه مي حق دى بې حسابه نه په خوا په كښې كتاب ؤ نه يې خط ؤ دا دى ما په كښې تصنيف كړل څو كتابه (Pashto 2001) Whether it is poetry, prose and writing Pashto is under my obligations It had neither a book nor writing before me They are the few books which I contributed in He himself mentions the poetic works of Peer Roshan and his followers Mirza Khan Ansari, Wasil, Hasil, Dolat Luhani and the books of Akhonies in his own poetry. Whereas, he admitted the greatness of some of them but his claim, that their was neither a book in Pashto not it had any arranged system of writing, may probably be a poetic boasting because the poetic works of Roshanies and Akhonies were before him or he might not have considered those creations of the standard of his own poetry. However, this claim of Khushal Khan is not an exaggeration and he would say: مګر يا زه يې چي ګويا په شاعرۍ كړم پښتانه يې پوهول ايزد تال (.Khushal N.D) Ever since I have been blessed with poetic power With which I have to make the Pashtoon understand.

There are some artists whose transmission of thoughts is either slide by the barriers of language or their thought can’t be expressed through words that are why a temptation is found in the expression of their feelings and emotions. In this way if we cast a glance at the matchless artistic skills of Khushal Khan, we will hardly find any art beyond his commands/ acquisition. In this if we look at his skills and good disposition in language and expression, eloquence and maturity, we will hardly find any figure equal

- 81 - to him long after. Every one therefore admits him a treasure of language and the man of letters who created favorable situation in Pashto. His command on Arabic can easily be understood through his use of Arabic idioms in his poetry. Whereas about Persian he has openly claimed: فارسي شعر مي هم زده سليقه لرم د دواړو پښتو شعر مي خوښ شو هر څوك خپل ګڼي ښاغلي Preshan & Khatir) 1980) “Along Persian I have good disposition in both languages I like Pashto verse because every one thinks of his own people’s heroes”.

His poetry got a unique fame in Pashto and the poets of all the ages got benefited from his poetic works. Anyway the model he presented in poetry can’t be excluded from the great poetic works of Persian. Since Pashto was his national language, he had a great bent for that. Otherwise if he had continued his practice in Persian, the way he made in Pashto, it was no wonder that he would have been classed among the great poetic master of Persian. These are not mere claims about him but it is admitted that he had many great qualities which he himself mentions. زه خوشحال چي په پښتو په فارسي طاق يم ال مي په پښتو ژبه كښې ژبه ورغلګي (.Khushal N.D) “I have equal skills in Pashto and Persian Still my tongue is functional and busy in Pashto."

It is Khushal Khan who practiced newness in Pashto and brought it equal to the standard of Shiraz and Khajund in its meaning and freshness. He has rightly said: په تازه تازه مضمون د پښتو شعر په معنى مي د شيراز او د خجند كړ (.Khushal N.D) “I brought Pashto equal to Shiraz and Khajund I have command on Persian but I guided the Public in Pashto”.

His arrival, no doubt, was a blessing of God Almighty for the poverty stricken Afghans who were seeking for national unity for centuries, because before him Bayazeed Roshan provided the nation a mere foundation. Khushal Khan Personality can easily be unveiled by the verses of Allama Mohammad Iqbal would say: ہزارونسال نرگس اپنى بےنورى پہ روتى تھى بڑى مشكل سے ہوتا ہے چمن ميں ديده ور پيدا (Samad 1960)

“The daffodils wept for centuries at its luck For no visitor is seen for long in the garden.”

- 82 -

Iqbal, one of the greatest Philosophers and a prominent figures of 20th century, has indirectly got a touch of his ideas and has published an eloquent article in 1928 under the title " Khushal Khan Khattak the Afghan Worrier Poet" in an English magazine " Islamic Culture" Publish at Hyderabad Dukken. In this article Iqbal has highly appreciated the character and poetry of this great eloquent Afghan Poet. Iqbal himself had no knowledge of Pashto language but during his stay at London where in the Indian office Library he got benefited from Major Raverty’s book" Selection from the Poetry of the Afghans ". Mr. Raverty has translated about a hundred poems of Khushal Khan from Pashto into English. By dint of this Iqbal got highly impressed from this great Poet of Pashto which he has discussed in his article. Apart from this Iqbal in his poetry highly praised the thoughts, art and great ode of Khushal Khan.

)Iqbal 1970( Iqbal views about Khushal Khan, to be an acquainted Afghan, a great leader, bold and fearless poet is not a general statement because Iqbal himself was the Poet whom the entire world has praised. In this way Iqbal’s statement to call Khushal Khan a nobleman is the acknowledgement of his greatness and Person in him. Iqbal in his Poem" The Legacy/ well of Khushal Khan", openly discusses the military tactics and the emotion of freedom of Afghan at one hand, and have warmly appreciated the confidence and intentions of this honorable noble hero of Afghans.

(Iqbal N.D.)                                  .        - 83 -

On the other hand Khushal use of terminology such as the eagle, liberty, mankind, honor, Afghanism and Archery in his poetry is also seen in that of Iqbal’s poetic work. It neither means the comparison between the two poets nor does the effect they receive from one another rather it mean to understand the similarity and unity in their use of natural symbols. A famous researcher well acquainted to Khushal Khan and Iqbal, Mir Abdul Samad Khan has highlighted an excerpt of Iqbal in his book. He has pointed out Iqbal’s visit to Kabul and his meeting with Afghan ruler Nadir Shah in which Iqbal requested Nadir Shah to generalize the thoughts of this great personality among Afghans. He stated “the movement for Afghan National unity, which is still in progress, is the most interesting movement of Asia. Bahlol Ludhi and Sher Shah Suri in Hindustan, Khushal Khan in the Frontier, Abdul Rehman and his grand son Amanullah Khan are the imminent personalities of this movement. It is not at stretch when an Afghan historian will narrate the story of this movement in a way Bolton King has narrated the story of Italian movement." (Samad 1960) The way Khushal Khan boldly promoted the sense for Afghan national struggle could hardly have any match in the time to come. He openly declares: نه به زما غوندي بل جنګيالى راشي نه به زما غوندي بل ننګيالى راشي خټك له پريږده په درست افغان كښې عجب كه هسي فرهنګيالى راشي (Samad 1960) “Neither there will be a swordsman like me Nor will be a man brave like me Not only in Khattak but in the whole Afghan There won’t come any wise man like me." Apart from the angle through which his personality can be examined in the Afghan national struggle, his slogan is quite shining,

د افغان په ننګ مي و تړله توره ننګيالى د زمانې خوشحال خټك يم (Khushal 2009) took the sword for the honor of Afghan I Khushal Khan am the noble man of the time. "

The tick and unique model of his poetic work known as “Kuliat - E - Khushal Khan Khattak," is considered as a master piece in Pashto classical poetry. Though before him there were some poets in Roshania period whose greatness in the field of poetry has been mentioned by him also but he enjoys superiority over all his precedents due to the variety of his subject and the height in his thoughts. Thus, the variety of subject, the depth in art and

- 84 - thought, high notion and fearless way of expression in his poetry is in a true sense considered to be a representative of the excessive desire of his nation. His poetic greatness in Pashto is an admitted example but his Persian poetry with all its characteristics is the best model of poetry. He himself states: فارسي شعر مي هم زده زه سليقه لرم د دواړو پښتو شعر مي خوښ شو هر څوك خپل لري ښاغلي & Preshan) Khatir 1980) “ I have great command on Pashto and Persian I like Pashto verse because every one thinks of its own people’s heroes.” He has many times stated that his command on Persian poetry is equal to that on Pashto poetry but the reason why he selected Pashto was his love with his nation and language. Apart from Persian, he had command on Arabic and Hindi whose examples are in abandon in his poetry. Since it was relation to the subject, the discussion should, therefore, be limited to his Persian poetry. The model of Persian poetry, found at the end of his collection, contains pure Persian odes, Ballads, mixed odes of Pashto and Persian and Sonnet. It contains forty five pure Persian odes which collectively consist of four hundred poets whereas five mixed odes of Pashto and Persian whose total number is thirty eight. In this way the total number of Persian poems is three hundred and fifty eight. The uniqueness and beauty of expressions in his Persian poetry has prettily been explained by Syed Murtaza Jafari in the following words in an article: “Khushal Khan Khattak’s few Persian verses in his 78 years life are pretty enough lead an eternal life in the world of Literature." (Jafari N.D.) All the Pashtoon poets, before Khushal Khan tried there geniuses in Persian but it is very rare for any one of them to come parallel to in style , mode , the height of thoughts and the abundance of the subject . Akin to his Pashto poetry , the subjects such as wine, tap room, page and bowl, lust and drunkenness, darling and vial, beauty, separation and union, spring and Autumn, preachers and scholars other subject are found in abundance in his Persian poetry.

- 85 -

(Khushal N.D.) The simplicity in the use of idioms, mechanism, terminology and vocabulary is a pretty proof of beauty, test and purity of any language. Since this quality is abundant in Persian, his poetry finds enough smoothness. The roughness found in Pashto, stoops Pashtoon poets achieve the purpose in Persian poetry which is achieved by the Persian poets. Nevertheless, Khushal Khan Khattak is free from this bondage because he has equal command on both the languages. Most of his Persian Poetry is Erotic in style but as for as newness and address in his poetry is concerned, it can easily be understood from a statement of Mir Abdul Samad: "Most of his Persian poetry is of erotic and Rakish style. It seems as if he has done this poetry for the charge of the taste of language though there is enough oddness and innovation in them". (Samad 1960) The famous Urdu poet Zameer Jafari too has the same opinion: "Khushal Khan Khattak has created a very lovely innovation in his Persian poetry and has carried vastness in the entire Persian poetry. The innovation is his masterly are of Pashto meter and rhyme in Persian poetry which if he has not rendered, it would have been a great injustice with Persian poetry. There wounds of Pashto resulted beauty in his poetry ".(Jafari N.D.) In one of his Persian songs he has beautifully used. The meter and rhyme of Pashto.  

                      - 86 - 

(Khushal N.D.) The style introduced by Khushal Khan Khattak in Persian poetry, is lacking in the works of all others. The style used in one of his odes, in which one lie in the Pashto and the other is in Persian, is a special characteristic of his art.    

       (Khushal N.D.)        It is impossible to be a poet without the touch of love and poetry without the       events of love and beauty is impossible. Since a poet has under passed the spell of Pain in his love, his poetry; therefore, is the collection of Anguish moments which have befallen on him? Love is the fact in which man of every age is engaged. If we look at the consequences of love, we will come to know                                  .                                            .                            - 87 - that many people have got lasting fame in it where as some other people have received disgrace and insult in it. Khushal Khan Khattak is also a poet of the rank who remained under the spell of many loves which he not only expressed in his poetry but also made it a part of his practical life. Since he did not considerer love a provisional activity, he poured it in his heart. Love the fact in which the darling/ beloved shows many elegances which the helpless loves has to bear silently. Almost all the poets have given the same picture of love but Khushal Khan's way of expression is different from them.

(Khushal N.D.) He beautifully states: the grace of the darling’s beauty, redness of lips and complexion of cheeks, the grace of eyes and eyelashes, delication of body and the august and graceful giant enchain the heart of the poet. The elegance of the beloved which sounds the poet is the dark locks. In one of his songs Khushal explains much elegance of the locks of the darling.

(Khushal N.D.) Khushal Khan's life is the expression of various activities. Some of them even affect the process of his learning. If he remained engaged in learning for an hour, he would remain engaged in those other activities for the years. One of these hobbies was hunting of the unique birds which he has expressed in his poetry. His love with hunting can be imagined from the fact that he wrote a comprehensive book "Baz Nahma” which was published by Pashto  . .     .               . .                .                - 88 -

Academy Peshawar and "Da Ulumu Academy Kabul Afghanistan (The Academy of Knowledge Kabul Afghanistan). Now that he had good experience of the races, augmentation and other characteristics of birds, he used Eagle as a symbol for male and beauty and melodious sound of partridge as a symbol for female. Such symbols are quite common in his Pashto poetry. These symbols are beautifully used in his Persian odes.

(Khushal N.D.)

CONCLUSION Shortly, we can say that Hindustan, being a cradle of ancient civilizations, art and culture, always strived to uphold prosperity and connectivity of the people of assorted nations through a joint language which kept unity of the nations continued in the country besides upholding their literary heritage. More over lexical and artistic harmony had also been observed for centuries. Instances of which could be found in Persian, the official language of the then rulers of India who had ruled from fourth to twelfth century. Persian had played pivotal role in promoting and extending the local languages of Hindustan and made the sources of expression very simple. In this connection, the basic foundation, grammar, and modern literary genres of Pashto language and literature had always been remained under the influence of Persian. How ever, as every language has its own incidence due to which its utilitarianism and significance remains maintained. Similarly, it was impossible for Pashto to linger under the influence of neighboring languages all the times. As some Pashtoon scholars of high caliber boosted up Pashto to the parallel position of other languages of the region. Khushal Khan Khattak is on the top of the list in the series of these scholars. Khushal Khan Khattak was such a poet and writer who were proficient both in Pashto and Persian poetry.                                  - 89 -

REFERENCES

 Iqbal, Allama (1970), Javid Nama, Sheikh Ghulam Ali & Sons, Lahore, 7th Edition, p. 207.  Iqbal, Allama (N.D.),Baal - e - Jabrael, Gosha - E - Adab, Jinnah Road, Quetta, p.154.  Jafari, Murtaza Syed (N.D.), Khushal Baba Ke Farsi Shaeri, pp. 158&159.  Khattak, Khushal Khan, (N.D.) Deewan, Part one, Department of Culture, Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa, N.D., pp.458, 526, and 573,577.  Khattak, Preshan & Ghaznawi Khathir, (1980) Khushal Nama, Abaseen Arts Council, Peshawar, pp.4, 9.  Khattak, Khushal, (2009) Armaghan –E- Khushal, University Book Agency, Peshawar, P.26.  Khattak, Khushal Khan, (N.D.) Deewan, part two, Department of Culture, Khyber Pakhtoon khwa, pp. 459, 461, 463, 477.  Pashto (2001), Khushal Number, Jun , July and August, Vol. 33, Serial No. 6,7 and 8, Pashto Academy, Peshawar, p.255.  Samad, Mir Abdul, (1960) Iqbal And Khushal, Manzoor Aam Kutab Khana Inside Kabuli Gate, Peshawar, pp.45,71,82,102.

- 90 -

- 91 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

QURAN AND HADITH IN THE LETTERS OF YOUSAF AZIZ MAGSI (A STUDY)

Language & Literature

Dr. Khalid Mahmood Khattak*

ABSTRACT

Mir Yousaf Aziz Magsi started new tradition by using the references and quotations of Quran and Hadith and using these as argument in his Urdu Letters which were published by Dr. Inam-ul-Haq Kousar in 1978 with the name of "Makateeb -e-yousaf Aziz Magsi". Before this we don't find this quality so often used in the Urdu letters written by the people of Balochistan. More over a new trend was established in this region and it pioneer was Mir Yousaf Aziz Magsi. The quotations of Quranic Verses and Hadiths prove that Yousaf Aziz Magsi was not only a political and social leader but he proved that if a writer is learner of Quran and Hadith, he has strong grip on his letters and can quote Quran and Hadith. This is the uniqueness of his writing.

KEYWORD Mir Yousaf Aziz Magsi, Mir Sohrab Khan Domki, Sardar Mir Taj Muhammad Khan, Mir Amin Khan Khosa, Muhammad Hussain Anqa, Mulana Abdul Karim, Nawab Qaiser Khan Magsi, Qazi Rasool Baksh, Molui Ghulam Qadir.

INTRODUCTION In the Urdu letters of Mir Yousaf Aziz Magsi his manner has a very special importance. He was really a representative of manner as far as the usage of language and fluency of narration is concerned. He laid stress on the attainment of Quran and Hadith for the expression of thought. In these two methods styles seem to run side by side. In one style he has added Quranic verses or their passages but has not written their translation. In the second, he wrote translations for the convenience. This second method has been used for the starting of Urdu essay writing. So this style of attainment of Quran and Hadith is very popular. But question is that why he used the first style /

* Chairperson, Department of Urdu Literature, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

- 92 - method. Apparently there is not any explanation in his letters. But it seems that he know that the people, to whom he was writing letters were learned enough to understand easily. His addressed persons were Mir Sohrab Khan Domki, sardar Mir Taj Muhammad Khan, Muhammad Amin Khan Khosa, Muhammad Hussain Anqa and Maulana Abdul Karim. All these were very learned people. They had not only deep aware ness of current affairs, experiences, matters and problems but they used to under stand the Quranic verses and their meanings. Mir Yousaf Aziz Magsi quoted Quran and Hadiths in his leters. It is explained according to the topics of Quran and Hadith in the process of attaining and convenience. There are two topics Translated and Un Translated for Example.

Transleted Quranic Verses

S. Letter Letters to the Quranic Verses No No Sardar Mir Taj (Kousar 1. Muhammad 2 1978) Khan Domki Muhmmad (Kousar 2. Amin Khan 16 1978) Khosa (Kousar 3 Ibid 24 1978)

- 93 -

Un-Transleted Quranic Verses

Sardar Mir Taj (Kousar 4 Muhammad Khan 7 1978) Domki (Kousar 5 Ibid 7 1978) (Kousar 6 Ibid 7 1978) (Kousar 7 Ibid 7 1978) (Kousar 8 Ibid 7 1978) (Kousar 9 Ibid 7 1978) (Kousar 10 Ibid 7 1978) (Kousar 11 Ibid 7 1978) 13 Muhmmad Amin (Kousar 12 Also at Khan Khosa Page 1978) No 60 16 Also at (Kousar 13 Ibid Page No 44, 1978) 45, 47, 72, 105 16 (Kousar 14. Ibid Also at Page 1978) No 60 16 (Kousar 15 Ibid Also at Page 1978) No 60 16 Ibid 24 (Kousar

- 94 -

1978) (Kousar 17 Ibid 24 1978)

(Kousar 18 Ibid 25 1978)

(Kousar 19 Ibid 25 1978)

(Kousar 20 Ibid 25 1978)

(Kousar 21 Ibid 25 1978)

(Kousar 22 Ibid 25 1978)

(Kousar 23 Ibid 25 1978)

(Kousar 24 Ibid 31 1978)

(Kousar 25 Ibid 36 1978)

(Kousar 26 Ibid 46 1978)

Mulana Abdul (Kousar 27 51 Karim 1978)

- 95 -

Transleted Hadith

Sardar Mir Taj (Kousar Also at 28 Muhammad Khan Page No 25 1978) Domki (Kousar 29 Ibid 24 1978)

Un Transleted Hadith

Muhmmad Amin (Kousar 30 24 Khan Khosa 1978) (Kousar 31 Ibid 25 1978) (Kousar 32 Ibid 25 1978) (Kousar 33 Ibid 26 1978) 51 (Kousar Mulana Abdul 34 Also at Karim 1978) Page No 25

Mir Yousaf Aziz Magsi has clarified his topics or the teachings by using forty three Verses in his fourteen letters. The translated verses are three non translated Quranic verses are twenty four and non translated Hadiths are only five. Three Quranic verses are used more than once. The numbers of its usage are nine. Only one Quranic verse is used six times. The two Quranic verses are used twice. All translated and non Translated Hadiths are used twice. These figures show that his study and the tendency of usage of Quranic quotations to understand its reasons, it is necessary to see his life in this background that when and how he tended to study Quran and Hadith. Certified / authentic references tell us that he got his basic education at home from his father Nawab Qaisar Khan Magsi. He learnt small Quranic verses and Suras by heart and he got interest in Quran from very young age. (Balochistan weekly 1936) In 1915 Nawab Qaisar Khan Magsi arranged home tuition for Yousaf Aziz Magsi when they returned back to Jhal Magsi from Larkana. Qazi Rasool

- 96 -

Baksh was appointed for this, under whose supervision of function of "Rasm- e-Bismillah" was held (Balochistan weekly, 1936 & Khan, Akthar, 1995) From young age to boy hood, the continuous attachment with Quran learning has made his grip on knowledge very strong which was improved with the excessive study with the passage of time. Afterwards he was able to Quote Quranic passages in better way. (Kousar 2005) That's why in his letters, the references of Quran are more than the references of Hadiths. That was because of the method of education provided by his father. During studies Molvi Ghulam Qadir made him study the supreme literary, moral and educational books of Urdu, Persian. (Balochistan Weekly 1936). There are fifty six letters which are included in "Makateeb-e-Yousaf Aziz Magsi" in fourteen letters we can find the references of Quran and Hadiths. These are letter No 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 24, 25, 26, 31, 36, 46 and No 51, which were written to only three persons i.e. Sardar Taj Muhammad Domki, Muhammad Amin Khan Khosa and Mulana Abdul Karim. This proves that among his addressed persons were only these three had full knowledge of Quran and Hadith. All these persons were so much liable to him that he sent fifteen un-translated quotations of Quran to Muhammad Amin Khosa, nine to Sardar Taj Muhammad Domki and one to Maulana Abdul Karim and he sent four un-translated Hadiths to Muhammad Amin Khosa and one to Maulana Abdul Karim. Most of the letters were written to Muhammad Amin Khosa which is thirty six. So the number of Quranic verses and Hadiths were mostly in these letters. There are seventeen quotations from Quran and five Hadiths in the letters to him. The total numbers is twenty two. On the contrary ten quotations were sent to Taj Muhammad Domki and two to Maulana Abdul Karim. CONCLUSION There are many witnesses of the quotations of Quran and Hadiths in the letters left by Mir Yousaf Aziz Magsi to understand its background, the keen study of his letters tells that he was the foremost reformer of Balochistan. In this respect he wanted to convey his thought, feelings and expression to his friends. So that they'd convey his message by doing great works and provide necessary resources for its practical interpretation. Actually he thought that practical life discipline, manners were necessary for the educational, social and economical development in Balochistan. So he put a soul in his messages by using Quranic verses and Hadiths and he made his index more effective. This is the unique and best example of using Quran and Hadiths. And it proves that he was not only a leader but had full Knowledge of Quran and Hadith.

- 97 -

REFERENCES  Balochistan , (1936) Weekly, Yousaf Shaheed, Special No, Karachi, PP, 27, 4,28  Khan, Akhtar, Ali Baloch(1995), "Balochistan ke Namwar Shakhseat", Kharachi, P, 05  Kousar, Inam-ul-Haq, Dr, (1978). "Maka teeb-e-yousaf Aziz Magsi",Lahore PP, 33-34, 42 43, 56, 25, 26, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 36, 42, 42-43, 43, 54, 55, 59, 60,74,79, 97, 107, 23, 54, 54, 59, 60, 61,108  Kousar, Inam-ul-Haq, dr, (2005), "Naqosh -e-Balochistan", Quetta, P, 141  Yousaf Zai , Faiz, Muhammad, Malik, (1997), "Yadashten", Quetta, P, 101

- 98 -

- 99 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174”, Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

SYNTAX FORMATION IN THE BRAHUI AND BALOCHI LANGUAGES

Language & Literature

Dr.Liaqat Ali Sani* Abdul Haleem Sadiq†

ABSTRACT This research article provides an overview of key concepts and issues that will recur throughout the article syntax formation in the Brahui and Balochi. In our discussion of individual perspectives on syntax formation, we offer preliminary definition of range of key term. This article is concerned with the rules used for constructing, or transforming the symbols and words of Brahui and Balochi languages, as contrasted with the semantics of both languages which is concerned with its meaning. Syntax formation in the Brahui and Balochi is usually associated with the rules (or grammar) governing the composition of texts. Those constitute the well-formed formulas of a formal system.

INTRODUCTION A living language is thus a historical heritage and besides it has a convenience a medium to communicate meaning in existing group. The value of an existing language could not be miscalculated. One of the objects of educationist to communication the meanings of existing environment to a group in the language they speak and write. Language is a by-product of integrated living of people for considerably extended period in a region. Although Brahui and Balochi languages are dissimilar while speaking but they both are the national languages of Baloch race. Balochistan included Balochi, Brahui, Sindhi (Jadgaali), Siriky (Jathki) and Pashto (Shaedai: 186: 1945). Balochi a language from North western Iranian language group of Indo European languages have various linguistic similarities with Brahui. A new question and a hypothesis bring both languages very near to each other.

* Lecturer, Department of Brahui, University of Balochistan, Quetta. † Assistant Professor, Department of Brahui, University of Balochistan, Quetta.

- 100 -

SYNTAX FORMATION Balochi and Brahui both languages have same sentence structure: minor sentences, major sentences, nominal, verbal and interrogative and compound sentences are to be seen with common structure. The verbal system in Brahui and Balochi is formed on two sentences present and past. Present branches are based on the imperative, present indicative, present subjunctive, agent nouns and present participle. In both languages the past stems are used in the preterit indicative, in the compound tenses, such as past indicative, past subjunctive, past perfect, perfect participle, and infinitives.

VERB AS A UNIT OF BRAHUI AND BALOCHI LANGUAGE If we talk about Brahui and Balochi, so phoneme is the basic unit for formulate a signal word which can be a noun, verb or an adverb etc. Words make syntax and the verb or infinitive is the main unit of sentence. It can be a declarative, assertive, optative, imperative, exclamatory, positive, negative and interrogative sentence. The formation of infinitive or simple verb in the Brahui and Balochi is shown as in verbal formula no. 1.

Imperative verb + symbol of verb = infinitive (Verb)

Symbol of verb Brahui Balochi Positive Ing Ag, agh Negative P, F (Pak, fak) Na, Ma

(Formula no. 1) Example Positive Imp verb+sym ofverb Verb English Brahui Kun + ing Kuning to eat Balochi Var + ag Varag to eat Brahui Ka(n) + ing Kaning to do Balochi Kan + ag Kanag to do

Brahui Negative Verb =Imperative verb + symbol of verb Negative Imp verb+sym ofverb Verb English Brahui Kun + pa Kunpa Not to eat Brahui Ka + pa Kappa Not to do

Balochi negative verb = symbol of verb + Imperative verb

- 101 -

Negative sym ofverb + imp verb Verb English Balochi Ma + Var Mavar Not to eat Balochi Ma + kan Makan Not to do

PRONOUN SYMBOLE IN THE CONJUGATION OF BRAHUI The personal pronouns in the Brahui language would be identified by following pronouns symbol. These symbols denoted in the Brahui conjugations. The proper usage of conjugations builds the grammatical and standard language of Brahui.

Pronoun Present Past tense Future tense tense 1st person E (I) Va T Ot singular 1st person Nan (we) Na n On Plural 2nd person Ni (you) Sa S Os singular 2nd person Num (you) Ry rery Rory plural 3rd person O (he, she,) Ek , ak Ry Ro singular 3rd person Ofk (they, Ra R Or plural near) Aefk (they for) 3rd person Daa (it) Ek , ak Ry Ro singular

(Brahui pronouns)

Kaning (To do): pronoun Present Past tense Future tense tense 1st person E (I) Keva karet Karot singular 1st person Nan (we) Kena Karen Karon Plural 2nd person Ni (you) Kesa kares Karos singular

- 102 -

2nd person Num (you) Kery karery Karory plural 3rd person O (he, she) Kek kary Karo singular 3rd person Ofk (they, Kera karer Karor plural near) Aefk (they for) 3rd person Daa (it) Kek kary Karo singular

Here is deference between their personal pronouns of Brahui and Balochi language. But the structure and syntax formation of both languages are the same (Hashmi: 41: 2010).

BALOCHI PRONOUNS Pronoun Present Past tense Future tense tense 1st person Man (I) An An An singular 1st person ma (we) Eyn eyn Eyn Plural 2nd person tao (you) Aey aey Aey singular 2nd person Num (you) It It It plural 3rd person O (he, she,) At At At singular 3rd person Ofk (they, Ant ant Ant plural near) Aefk (they for)

Balochi Pronouns

Ravag (to go): Pronoun Present Past tense Future tense tense 1st person Man (I) Ravan Ravan Ravan singular

- 103 -

1st person ma (we) Raveyn Raveyn Raveyn Plural 2nd person tao (you) Ravaey Ravaey Ravaey singular 2nd person Num (you) Ravit Ravit Ravit plural 3rd person O (he, she,) Raoat raoat Raoat singular 3rd person Ofk (they, Ravant Ravant Ravant plural near) Aefk (they for)

Although the verbal system in Brahui and Balochi is formed on two stems present and past. Brahui and Balochi have a high similarities regarding syntax formation, while the simple future tense in both languages describe in simple present tense too. And the past stems are used in the preterit indicative, in the compound tenses. The sentence structure in Brahui and Balochi is similar, in both languages sentence begins with subject and ends with verb. The predicate comes between subject and verb. V simple sentence Brahui Balochi English Kek Kanag Does Keva Kanagan Do

S+V simple sentence with subject Brahui Balochi English E keva Man kanan I do Ni kasa Tao ravey You go

V+Not simple negative sentence (Brahui) Not+V simple negative sentence (Balochi) Brahui Balochi English Impara Na ravan I do not

S+V+Not simple negative sentence with subject (Brahui) S+Not+V simple negative sentence with subject (Balochi) Brahui Balochi English E kappara Man na kanan I do not

- 104 -

Ni kappesa Tao na kanay You do not

POLY SEMEY Those words which are poly semantics, precede a phrase, suffix and prefix have same characteristic features in Brahui and Balochi languages. It is clear that the above the 50 % word roots are similar in the Brahui and Balochi languages. As the following poly semey words have same in meaning.

Poly Symey Verb = Noun + Verb Noun Brahui Verb BalochiVer English meaning Mehr Kanning Kanag To give respect Sham/ shaf Tamming Kapag To become dark Baa,Dab Khalling Janag Useless discussion Ust/ dil Tining Daiag To give confidence

COMPOUND WORDS Those synonyms which make a compound word in Brahui, always found similar with Balochi Language. Padorand The above compound word “Pad-o-Rand” has been made by both languages. “Pad” which means, after, back. Same meaning is sighted in the Balochi “Rand”. And the word “Rand” is used in the same meaning in Brahui too.

AGENT NOUNS Agent nouns in both languages are formed by adding of /ok/ to the present stem, e.g. Brahui Balochi Meaning Karok Kanok Doer Pulok Pulok Snatcher

ADJECTIVES Adjectives in Brahui commonly take suffix of /un/ and Balochi takes /en/ and precede the noun. Some common adjectives in Balochi are, draajen (long), mazanen (big), sohren (red), kohnen (old), noken (new). while the main common adjectives in Brahui with the suffix of /un/ ballun (big), murgun (long), paalun (wet), peeun (white), kharrun (green), baasun (hot). In Brahui an adding of /ingaa/ is used after adjectives i.e. baasun /baasningaa/, paalun /paaluninga/ (Sabir: 2004: 151-60). The attributive adjective mazan in Balochi means (big) and for the abstract

- 105 - noun the prefix of mazan is commonly used in all the dialects of Balochi. The same morphological construction is used in Brahui with a minor phonetic change by deleting the ending consonant of /n/, and remaining maza is used for the purpose before the noun (Sabir: 2004: 151-60).

Brahui Balochi Meaning Mazabaamus Mazanponz the person having a big nose Mazaduo Mazandast the person having a big hand

WORD ROOT Being amalgamative languages Brahui and Balochi have same word root, which takes prefix, suffix or infix. Mostly those root words derived from Balochi language. Dem (face, front) This word makes unlimited words, phrases, adjectives, nouns, adverb, and compound words in Balochi. Same word makes its antonym in Brahui preceding prefix “aff, av”. i.e, avdem (unseen). Paad(foot, standing up in Balochi language) In Brahui language “paad” as prefix or suffix make new word. But the Paad is Balochi root word. Like Paadenk (fire stand) Nipaad (siting place, home) Siyapaad (tribe name)

SIMILAR GENDER NOUNS Balochi and Brahui both have no distinction of grammatical gender, in case of Brahui, all other Dravidian languages, except Toda and Brahui have kept the old gender system. About this construction in Brahui M.B. Emeneau says that "this loss of gender system in Brahui is to be ascribed to Balochi influence on Brahui" (Emeneau: 1980: 319). Both languages have common use of different words to distinguish between male and female (Sabir:1995). Balochi Piruk (grandfather), Baluk (grandmother) Brahui Pira (grandfather), Balla (grandmother)

- 106 -

MINIMAL PAIRS The minimal pairs in both languages make us to know and understand the phonemes and allophones of Brahui and Balochi. Phonemes which would be written in “/ /” symbol and the allophones in “( )”. While changing of first consonant of a word, if it gives a clear meaning that is a phoneme otherwise it would be count as an allophone. It is essential that minimal pairs must contain same word or letter. Just it needs to change the very first letter of that word.

Balochi Naan (bread) maan, /n/, /m/. Log (house or home), mog /l/, (m). Chuk (child) muk, /c/, (m). Brahui Iragh (bread) miragh, /i/, (m). Uraa (house) muraa, /u/, (m). Deer (water) meer, /d/, /m/.

KI AS A CONJUNCTION The conjunction “Ki” is usedzin both Brahui and balochi, which expresses “if” a conditional expression. According to J. Elfenbein "Iranian is by far most likely source for it in Brahui, since its use in the Indo-Aryan languages most likely to have influenced Brahui is much too restricted to account for the large variety of different functions it possesses in Brahui"(Elfenbein. J: 1981:77).

The following of the use of conjunction Ki, Brahui: E ki makhaat oh hum makhaar. Balochi: Man ki handitun a hum handitant. (When I laughed they also laughed)

Kinava Brahui: Uris ki navaa tamos Balochi: chon ma bi ki bikapai (mind your steps) Some of the conjunctions used in Balochi and Brahui are same and some of them are of Persian and Arabic origin. Important Brahui/Balochi common conjunctions are under: Maga (but), Hum (too, also), Nai Na (neither...nor...), wakhtaski, Wahdeki (when), Aga (if), Padaa (behind) (Sabir: 1994: 218).

- 107 -

SIMILAR VOCABULARY

Brahui / Balochi Meaning Buht Hill Sunt Top Rek Sand Dahnz Dust Navarh Lake Jahmmar Cloud Jarhuk A young camel Kishaar Field

Above are the few examples of similar vocabularies in the Brahui and Balochi. A number of thousands vocabularies could be found in both languages (Ahmadzai: 1988).

CONCLUSION Similar syntax structure in the Brahui and Balochi shows the deep relationship of both languages. While framing compound words, minimal pairs, structure of simple, interrogative sentences, similar word roots, prefix, suffix and infix, adjective formation, gender notation, personal pronouns, symbol verb, negative verb symbols are the evidence that Brahui and Balochi languages belong from one language family, that is Ariyan family of languages. It would help and support to control the lingual conspiracies regarding Brahui language. A confederacy had been built that the Brahui language belonged to Dravidian family of language. They have brought weaken hypothesis. Although Brahui reveals its Aryan origin, means they belong from indo- Iranian group. the grammatical system and its relations with noun are shown as in Balochi by means of suffixes are traceable to a Balochi source.

- 108 -

REFERENCES

 Shaedai, Rahem Dad, 1945, TaarekhiKalat Part-1, BalochiAcedemy Quetta.  Hashmi, Sayad. 2010, BalochiBugeji Course. Sayadhashmi reference kitabja, maler, Karachi.  Sabir, Abdul Razzak “Some Morphological and structural similarities of Brahui and Balochi languages” Proceedings of the International Symposium on “Linguistic contacts in Balochistan ancient and modern time” published by Department of Iranian Studies, Uppsala University Sweden.2004.

 Emeneau, M.B, "languages and linguistic area" edited by Anwar S. Dil essays Murrey, M.B Emeneau, Stanford University Press Stanford California, 1980.

 Elfenbein. J "Notes on the Balochi, Brahui linguistic commonality" Phiologica Society, Council 1981-82, Oxford pp-77-99.

 Sabir, Abdul Razzaq" Balochi aur Brahui zubanoon ki rawabit" Ph.D dissertation submitted to University of Balochistan, 1994 p.218.

 Sabir, Abdul Razzak”Morphological similarities in Brahui and Balochi languages” IJDL, ISDL, Therivenanthapuram, Kerala S.India 1995.

 Ahmadzai, Agha Naseer “Gapp tran” Balochi Acedemy Quetta, 1988

- 109 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

USAGE OF ARABIC ALPHABETS IN BRAHUI ORTHOGRAPHY

Language & Literature

Waheed Razzaq*

ABSTRACT Arabic is a Semitic language belongs to the Central Semitic languages, most closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic languages. Arabic is one among the most populous languages in the world. It is one among seven languages recognized by the United Nations. Arabic is considered as a single language spoken by as many as 280 million people as their first language. The modern written language known as Modern Standard Arabic or Fusha is derived from the language of the Quran also known as Classical Arabic or Quranic Arabic. The standardized written Arabic or “fusha” is different in some extent and more traditional than all of the spoken dialects known as “hamia” used side-by-side of “fusha”. It is widely used academic purposes including teaching in schools, universities, and used to varying degrees in workplaces. On the other hand Brahui is a member of the North Dravidian languages group of the Dravidian language family. Brahui is the language spoken by Brahuis, a mainly tribal people, the great majority of whom live in Central Balochistan. Another large group of Brahui speakers live in Sindh Province. Brahuis also live in the Helmand and Nimruz provinces of Afghanistan and in the province of Sistan-o-Balochistan in southern Iran. A large number of Brahuis live in the Gulf States, while a few families of Brahuis living in Mari Province in Turkmenistan still speak Brahui as well. The linguist classified Brahui as a North Dravidian language because of its close relationship with the Kurukh and Malto languages in central India. The other Dravidian languages, Tamil, Telegu, Malyalam, Kunri, and Gondi, are spoken in southern India. Brahui is the only Dravidian Language having a Non Dravidian (Arbic) script. In this paper short history of Arabic and Brahui languages have been discussed, the main objective of this paper is to describe in detailed the

* Research Officer Balochistan Study Centre, University of Balochistan, Quetta-Pakistan

- 110 - beginning and evaluation of Brahui orthography and role of Arabic language regarding its evolution. KEY WORDS Aramaic, Brahui, Dravidian, Fusha, Hamia, Orthography, Semitic,

INTRODUCTION Brahui is a North Proto Dravidian language which is spoken about 1300 Miles far from other South Proto Dravidian languages in South India i.e. Tamil, Talgu, Malyalam, etc and Central Proto Dravidian languages in the Central India i.e. Karukh and Malto by about three million people. Brahui is spoken in the central parts of Balochistan, interior Sindh and in the Sistan o Balochistan province of Iran, Helmand and Nimroz provinces of Afghanistan, Gulf States, and also there are few families still speak Brahui in Mari province of Turkmenistan. ‘there are about three million people in the world who speak Brahui’(Sabir: 2008: 209-11). Brahui was used only as an oral language until the post-colonial period in Balochistan. There was no tradition of Brahui as a medium of instruction or as a written language. The first printed book on Brahui was written by Christine Lassen, an Englishman, and published in 1839. The first book in Brahui was written by Malik Dad Kalati in 1173 AD in Kalat. On the other hand Arabic is a member of the Semitic subgroup of the Afro-Asiatic group of languages. The common ancestor for all Semitic languages including Hebrew in the Afro-Asiatic group of languages is called Proto-Semitic. As might be expected, not all Semitic languages have equally preserved the features of their common ancestor language. In this respect, Arabic is unique; it has preserved a large majority of the original Proto- Semitic features. In fact, many linguists consider Arabic the most ëSemiticí of any modern Semitic languages in terms of how completely they preserve features of Proto-Semitic”. (Satakari: 1986: 3-4) The members of this family have a recorded history going back thousands of years one of the most extensive continuous archives of documents belonging to any human language group. The Semitic languages eventually took root and flourished in the Mediterranean Basin area, but where the home area of "proto-Semitic" was located is still the object of dispute among scholars. Nowadays many scholars advocate the view that it originated somewhere in East Africa, probably in the area of Somalia/Ethiopia. Interestingly, both these areas are now dominated linguistically by the two youngest members of the Semitic language family: Arabic and Amharic, both of which emerged in the mid- fourth century C.E”. (Ibid: 3)

- 111 -

“The Arabic language developed through the early centuries in the Arabian Peninsula in the era immediately preceding the appearance of Islam. Arab poets of the pre-Islamic period had developed a language of amazing richness and flexibility. Their poetry was transmitted and preserved orally. The Arabic language was then, as it is now, easily capable of creating new words and terminology in order to adapt to the demand of new scientific and artistic discoveries. As the new believers in the seventh century spread out from the Peninsula to create a vast empire, first with its capital in Damascus and later in Baghdad, Arabic became the administrative language of vast section of the Mediterranean world. It drew upon Byzantine and Persian terms and its own immense inner resources of vocabulary and grammatical flexibility.” (Jiyad: 2010:01)

ARABIC SCRIPT When we discuss the Arabic language and its script the Arabic sources tell us that the script had been introduced either from South Arabia region or from Mesopotamia (Iraq). Ibn Al-Nadim, for example, said that the people of Al-Hira, the capital of the Lakhmid dynasty in the Euphrates valley, used a form of Syriac cursive script which had developed into the Arabic alphabet. Versteegh claims that the theory of Syriac origin has now been abandoned by most scholars. It seems much more likely to him that the Arabic alphabet is derived from a type of cursive Nabataean in Petra, Jordan. In the Aramaic script, from which Nabataean writing ultimately derived, there are no ligatures between letters. But in the cursive forms of the Nabataean script most of the features that characterize the Arabic script already appear. Versteegh adds that the elaboration of an Arabic script for texts in Arabic took place as early as the second century CE. This would mean that the development of the Arabic script as it is used in pre-Islamic inscriptions occurred largely independently from the later developments in Nabataean epigraphic script. The most important internal development in Arabic script is the systematic elaboration of connections between letters within the word, and the system of different forms of the letters according to their position within the word. (Ibid: 01) According to Siibawayh, the Arabic Alphabet is made of 29 letters, including 3 long vowels. He put them in the following order starting with the laryngeal and ending with labial, representing the place of articulation along the vocal tract. ء، ا، هـ ، ع ، ح ، غ ، خ ، ك ، ق ، ض، ج ، ش ، ي ، ل ، ر ، ن ، ط ، د ، ت ، ص ، ز ، س ، ظ ، ذ ، ث ، ف ، ب ، م ، و

- 112 -

EVOLUTION OF BRAHUI ORTHOGRAPHY Brahui has a very short history of writing system. The present day Brahui orthography is based on the Arabic with Persian style Urdu script with or lh. In Brahui still there is no standard ڷ only one additional alphabet writing system or orthography. Brahui has adopted the complete Arabic alphabets including Persian and Urdu alphabets. Arabic loanwords in Brahui are generally spelled in accordance with their spelling in Arabic.(Sabir: 1998:07) Nowadays Brahui is written in Persian style Urdu script. Famous Muslim religious scholars including Molvi Abdul Karim, Mulana Muhammad Yaqoob Sharodi, Maulana Akhtar Muhammad and Maulana Abdul Aziz of Yali used Pashto style Arabic script for Brahui till near past but during the course of time such writers are decreasing. According to a prominent scholar of Brahui Dr. Abdul Rehman Brahui that, “In the ancient times Brahui was written in Heroghalfi style. There is an opinion that the ancient script of Brahui is that which discovered from the Mohenjo Daro seals. According to Caldwel the script used for the Dravidian languages is derived from the Ashoka's headstones (Katabas). According to Mir Gul Khan Naseer in his book "Koch-o-Baloch" "Two thousand years ago Brahui was written in Kharoshti script and then after Islam Arabic and Persian scripts were applied for Brahui" (Brahui: 2012:168) In the known literary history of Brahui name of their Brahui books of 709 AH "Khidmat-i- Din" 810 AH manuscript "Majhool-il-Isma" and 980 AH manuscript "Hamliyat-i-Guhar Baar" have been written in Persian and Arabic scripts. The first available book in Brahui written by Malik Dad Kalati in 1173AH is written in Pashto style Brahui script obtained by the Arabic with some additions for the voices available in Brahui and Pashto but not in Arabic. It is said that Mula Nabo Jan for the first time published this book in Urdu/Persian script in 1916. Here the question arises that why Nabo Jan published this book in Persian script while his other publications are in Arabic script. The Nabo Jan books alongwith others published in the end of nineteenth and beginning of twentieth century from Durkhani school of thought they have continued the /ch/, /gh/ of the Persian while for Indian origin retroflexed voices /t/ /d/ and /r/ they used Malik Dad style Pashto words alongwith (lh/.(Sabir: 1994:102 ڷ/ Brahui's own voice /lh/ they used In the Brahui orthography, the following Arabic letters in Brahui are represented by different sounds as under:- .ط also represents Arabic / ت/ .1 .ه and ح also represents Arabic / ه/ .2

- 113 -

.ص and ,س ,ث Also represents Arabic / س/ .3 .ظ and ,ض ,ز , ذ Also represents Arabic / ز/ .4

EVOLUTION OF BRAHUI SCRIPT The first printed book on Brahui has been written by Molvi Allah Bakhsh who wrote this book in 1886 for teaching of Brahui to the Englishman who learned Brahui in order to project their power onto the people of Balochistan. He adopted Sindhi orthography for Brahui. The earliest manuscripts of a religious book dated 1173 AD, have been written by Mullah Malikdad Kalati a native writer of Brahui in Kalat’.(Rehman: 2001:45-59) Script adopted for Malik Dad’s book “Tufah tul Ajaib” was Arabic based Pashto script. ‘Durkhani Religious School near Dhadar (Balochistan) was the first school in which Brahui was used as medium of instruction. This religious school was established under the management of Muhammad Fazil Durkhani Raisani in about 1880. The pioneer of the Durkhani movement was Maulvi Mohammad Fazil Durkhani (1823-1896) whose village, Durkhan which is about ten kilometers from Dhadhar in Balochistan. The work by this School of thought can be mentioned as a literary and religious movement for spreading religious awareness among the Baloch and Brahui people. There was apprehension among the Baloch religious scholars that Christianity would spread among them. Since the missionaries had translated their holly book Bible in the Brahui languages between 1905 to 1907. Mohammad Fazil and his followers Molvi Abu Bakar, Mullah Nabo Jan, Abdullah Durkhani, Muhammad Umar Dinpuri, Mullah Saleh Muhammad and others wrote Islamic books for the common people in Brahui language. This institution started publishing of books written by local scholars and printed, in Lahore and Dehli’. (Ibid:45- 59). Script for these books was also the Arabic based Pashto script for Brahui books. In the same period foreign scholars including Sir Denes Bray and others used Roman scripts for Brahui. Since 1950 there are attempts to preserve Brahui language and its literature and promote it as a literary language and make efforts to employ it in as medium of education in the Brahui speaking areas. Brahui Academy, Brahui Adabi (Literary) Society, Brahui Adabi Sangat, Brahui Arts Academy, Shon Adabi Dewan, Raskoh adabi deewan and many other small literary organizations besides literary activities are publishing Brahui books. Few periodicals prominent among them are Elum Mastung, Talar, Tawar have been/are being published in Brahui for a shorter or longer period of time.

- 114 -

ROMANIZED BRAHUI ALPHABATES OR BRAHUI BASHAGAL A new development in this regard was made in Quetta during the recent years when the young writers and intellectuals particularly from Department of Brahui, University of Balochistan introduced a Roman-based orthography for Brahui and have been named it as “Brolikva” or “Brahui Roman Likwar”. This new orthography has been developed by members of the Brahui Language Board (Brahui Language Board) mainly by its Secretary and linguist from Brahui Department Dr. Liaqat Ali Sunni and another young linguist Mr. Saeed Lehri from English Department. Weekly and daily newspapers “Talar” (Daiy Talar and Weekly Talar) are the only newspapers which have adopted “Brolikva” script. This Romanized orthography has not been accepted by the other academic and literary circles. Below is the new promoted Bráhuí Báşágal or Brolikva alphabates,

b á p í s y ş v x e z ź ģ f ú m n l g c t ŧ r ŕ d o đ h j k a i u ń ļ

BRAHUI ORTHOGRAPHIC COMMITTEE To solve the longstanding orthographic issues of Brahui language, the Brahui Adabi (Literary) Society, Quetta in a broad based Seminar at Press Club Building Quetta on 1st April, 1988 unanimously formed a committee known as “Brahui Likwar (Orthography) Committee” BLC was comprising of the following members representing all regional dialects and Brahui speaking areas in Pakistan:- 1. Mr. Noor Muhammad Parwana Editor weekly Elum Mastung. 2. Dr. Abdul Rehman Brahui linguist 3. Prof. Abdullah Jan Jamaldini. 4. Mr. Pir Muhammad Zuberani. 5. Mulana Abdul Qayyum Johar from Mehar Sindh. 6. Prof. Abul Aziz Mengal. 7. Mr. Abdul Aziz Rahi from Jehlawan-Khuzdar. 8. Dr. Ali Ahmed Shad Brahui from Sindh. 9. Prof. Nadir Qambrani Quetta. 10. Mr. Ghulam Hayder Hasrat President Brahui Academy

- 115 -

11. Prof.Dr. Rasul Bakhsh Raisani Educationist. 12. Mr. Abdul Samad Shaheen Surabi. 13. Qari Abdullah Adil Qalandrani. 14. Mr. Abdul Aziz Bazgiri.

15. Prof. Abdul Razzaq Sabir Secretary of the Committee (Sabir: 1998:50-51) The Committee was assigned the task to solve the orthographic issues of Brahui with in few years. The Committee in its continuous meetings held at Quetta, Mastung, Khuzdar and Faridabad Sindh resolved to approve the already adopted Urdu style Arabic script for Brahui. The committee approved 53 alphabets including 52 alphabets of Urdu and an additional alphabet “lh” to represent the only native Brahui sound. The BLC in its different meetings from 1st April, 1988 to 28th May, 1990 around two years resolved the following main issue:- a- Urdu style Arabic orthography will be the approved orthography of Brahui. b- 53 alphabets including 52 Urdu alphabets and one pure Brahui .or lh” were approved ڷ“ alphabet c- Language spoken in Mastung, Kalat and surrounding called “Sarawani dialect” will be the academic and standard dialect of Brahui. will be the conjunction ”و“d- It was unanimously decided that in future to represent the “and”. e- Three type plural rules known as “jamah kaafi” “jamah aaki” and “jamah Ghaaki” were approved. f- Brahui has its own Negative Infinitive system but nowadays not commonly used, the committee resolved to use the Negative Infinitives. g- The committee in its different meetings made different decisions regarding writing of Brahui pronouns, present continuous, imperatives, use of Arabic sign “humza”, etc. (Ibid:50)

- 116 -

Later on the proceedings of the seminar including decisions made during the different meetings of the Orthographic Committee time to time were compiled by Dr. Abdul Razzaq Sabir Secretary of the Committee and published by Brahui Adabi Society, Quetta in 1998.

CONCLUSION

Brahui was used only as an oral language until the post-colonial period in Balochistan. There was no tradition of Brahui as a medium of instruction or as a written language. The first printed book on Brahui was written by Christine Lassen, an Englishman, and published in 1839. The first book in Brahui was written by Malik Dad Kalati in 1173 AD in Kalat. At the end of nineteenth century, the Madrasa-e-Durkhan, or Durkhani Religious Institution, established in 1880 near the village of Durkhan near Dhadar (Balochistan), was the first institution where Balochi and Brahui were introduced as mediums of instruction. The efforts made by the Madrasa-e- Durkhani were a literary and religious movement to spread religious awareness among the Baloch people through their native languages. According to an estimate, 400 books, including a translation of the Holy Quran in Brahui, were published there. but a standard literary movement started only after the 1950 when some newspapers started publishing in Brahui besides Balochi in Pakistan. Nowadays Brahui is being written in Arabic based Urdu script and taught at Higher Studies level. Besides degree level Brahui is also being taught at Inter level in the Inter and degree colleges and as an elective subject. In 1990s University of Balochistan established a separate Department of Languages to teach Balochi, Brahui and Pashto languages at Masters Level while in 1994 this department was bifurcated and at present the Department of Brahui is enjoying status of a full fledged Department in the University of Balochistan, Quetta. The main question arises here is that why the Brahui speaking people not used Dewnagari or other scripts used for other Dravidian languages? The simple reply can be that the people used Dewnagari or Brahmi script were the Hindus they were the ancient inhabitants of the area since long they used Dewnagari and Brahmi scripts not Arabic and Persian for their trade and religious preaching purposes. After emergence of Islam in the region the Hindus continued using Dewnagari and Brahmi scripts for their languages i.e Sindhi and siraiki. Till end of 20th century the Hindu traders/shopkeepers and merchants living in the Brahui speaking areas having trade centers and shops mainly in Quetta, Kalat, Khuzdar, Mastung, Nushki, Dhadar, Sibi, Bela and other villages used Dewnagari script for the religious and trade purpose. On the other hand the Brahui speaking people who were their customers but were

- 117 - not benefited from these scripts. Nowadays the literary creations in Brahui are written in Urdu style Arabic script. All education and academic language is being written in Arabic style. Only one or some time half page in weekly newspaper “TALAR” are written Roman Brahui script. Brahui youths for their day by day SMSs and E.mails use Brahui in Roman script.

- 118 -

REFERENCES

 Brahui, Dr. Abdul Rehman “Daakaan Ekaan” Brahui Academy, Quetta 2012 p-168.  Brahui Language Board, https://sites.google.com/site/brahuilb/videos- 1/untitledpost  Jiyad, Mohammed 101 Fundamental Arabic Grammar Rules: A Short Reference for Arabic Syntactic, Morphological & Phonological Rules for Novice & Intermediate Levels of Proficiency by LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing July 2010 p-1.  Rehman, Tariq "The Learning of Balochi and Brahvi in Pakistan", Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies [USA] Vol. 24: No. 4 (Summer 2001), 45-59.  Sabir Abdul Razzaq “Brahui as Medium of Education in Pakistan” IJDL, ISDL Therivandrum Kerala Vol-37 No2 2008 pp-209-211.  Sabir, Abdul Razzaq “Brahui Likwar” (Brahui Orthography) Brahui Adabi Society, Pakistan Quetta 1998 p-07.  Sabir Abdul Razzaq “Balochi aur Brahui zubanun ke lisani o saqafti rawabit” un-published Ph.D dissertation University of Balochistan, Quetta 1994 p-102  Satakari Mukhopadhyaya, Preface. A Grammar of the Classical Arabic Language. Mortimer Sloper Howell, Trans. 4 Vols. Delhi, India: Gian Publishing House, 1986 p-3-4  Talar, http://www.talar.brahvimedia.net/weekly/

- 119 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

THE QUR’ANIC MODES OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE EPISTEMALOGY OF IQBAL

Philosophy

Dr. Malik Mohammad Tariq*

ABSTRACT

The epistemology of Iqbal cannot be straightforwardly or entirely categorized as rationalist, intuitionist, or empiricist. It is derived from the Qur’an which consist of three categories of knowledge, that is, sense perception, reason, and intuition, He merges sense perception, reason, and intuition in his epistemology. He describes knowledge as "sense perception elaborated by understanding.” Iqbal emerges as a theistic pluralist, a spiritualist, and a rationalist. Iqbal own contention that negation of opposing views comes before the emergence of any original or genuine thought systems, which is attempted at by him in the lectures of the Reconstruction. He negates Platonic idealism and Aristotelian rationalism as well as Neo- Platonic and mystical metaphysics and ethics, before the emergence of his own synthetic and dynamic rationalism (Khatoon, 1980, 240). According to Iqbal, there are two ways of establishing connections with the Reality that confronts us. The direct way is by means of observation and sense perception; the other way is through direct association with that Reality as it reveals itself within (Iqbal, 1960, 3). Iqbal makes an effort to show that reason and intuition are indivisible, and in knowing anything by intuition, the intellect performs essential part which cannot be neglected. Iqbal found that both these paths of knowledge help each others towards ultimate knowledge.

INTRODUCTION The epistemology of the Qur’an consists three categories of knowledge which is substantial instrument in acquisition of knowledge. It starts from sense-perception, reason, reaching inspiration and prophetic revelation. The Qur’an calls these three categories namely as: 1. Ain al-yaqin, (certainty by sense-perception or empirically derived knowledge).

* Chairperson, Department of Philosophy, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan

- 120 -

2. Ilm al-yaqin, (cognitive certainty or knowledge by pure reason). 3. Haqq al-yaqin, (absolute experienced certainty or knowledge by intuition). These three categories are also named, modes of knowledge. A mystic philosopher elucidates, ‘the sensory mode is experienced through we eat and smell, the cognitive is through knowledge, whether self-evident or acquired, while the intuitive is similarly divided: It can either be self-evident or acquired. However, he who has access to intuitive, which is to say divine knowledge, knows instinctively what other must acquire through the exercise of their cognitive faculties’(Attar, 1322AH, 160-161). The epistemology of Iqbal is in fact of the Qur’an, which makes full allowance for all kinds of experience, such as sense perception, reason, intuition (love), Prophetic revelation – all these sources are various means to acquire knowledge (Anwar, 1996, 56). The whole work of Iqbal is replete with three words corresponding to one and the same meaning. They are love, intuition and religious experience; some time these words are replaced “ego” pivot or key concept of his scientific-metaphysical philosophy (Anwar, 1996, 75). For Iqbal “knowledge” is not a deterministic or limited concept, which would have had only one or two sources. He regards knowledge as a great boon. He starts from sense perception, passes through intellect, arrives at his destination, love. Thus his theory of knowledge can be categorized in term of knowledge as sense perception, reason, and love. This last word he understands in its broad sense of religious experience, intuition, and prophetic revelation (Anwar, 1996, 56). To give a better explanation of what Iqbal means by knowledge, he writes: “I have generally used the word ‘knowledge’ in the sense of knowledge based on senses. It gives man the power, which should be subordinated to religion. If it is not subordinated to religion it is a satanic force. This knowledge is first step to true knowledge as pointed out in ‘Javid Nama’. This knowledge of truth is gained first through the senses and than through direct realization”(Anwar, 1996, 60). He emphasizes sense perception as the first source of knowledge through which he sees the Ultimate Reality (Anwar, 1996, 56). At another place Iqbal says: “it is through thinking that our knowledge grows and thinking is determined by our sensuous experience. So when the nature of our senses undergoes a change, the world is changed for us. Rest, Motion, Quality and Quantity take a new significance”(Anwar, 1996, 57). That means, for Iqbal, that the Qur'an has opened for man the vast field of scientific methods, realizing the importance of the careful observation of nature and history. For Iqbal, Muhammad was the first critical observer of psychic phenomenon as is proved by the example of his interest in a psychic Jewish youth whom the traditions describe. The prophet was thirsty of knowledge, and his thirst made him the first to encourage studies (Schimmel, 1962, 127).

- 121 -

Though he saw the essence of being without veil Yet the word ‘God increase me’ (in knowledge) came from his lips (Schimmel, 1962, 127). Iqbal directed man’s attention to three sources of knowledge, which could enable him to master his fate. Nature, History, and inner experience are the three sources of knowledge open to man, “but it is in tapping the first two sources of knowledge, says Iqbal, that the spirit of Islam is seen at its best (Siddiqi, 1968, 72). The Qur’an perceives sign of ultimate reality in the ‘sun’, ‘moon’…. in fact in the whole of nature as revealed to sense perception of man. This appeal to the concrete combined with slow realization that according to the teaching of the Qur’an, the universe is dynamic in its origin, finite and capable of increase brought Muslims thinkers into conflict with Greek thoughts” (Siddiqi, 1968, 72). The first object of Iqbal’s condemnation was Plato who regarded imagination and fantasies as true while he disbelieved knowledge furnished by natural instruments (like the eyes and the ears). Iqbal was hostile to the teaching of Socrates, Mutazilites and other idealists who looked upon this world as of no use and values (Anwar, 1996, 57). Iqbal also attacked Ibn-Rusd and Al-Ghazzali, because Ibn-i-Rusd defended Greek Philosophy while Ghazzali attacked it. Both for Iqbal have trodden the same path as far as the avoidance of sense perception is concerned. Iqbal begins in a decidedly Kantian fashion. He says that knowledge is “sense perception elaborated by understanding” and that “the character of man’s knowledge is conceptual” (Khan, 1989, 57). Iqbal makes a distinction relating logical understanding and deeper movement of thought, which he identified with intuition. He repeatedly tries to define, especially in his poetry, the restriction of logical understanding, but it cannot be concluded that Iqbal was anti-intellectual or anti-rationalist. He quotes from the Qur’an that, “O Adam informs them of the names” (Q, 2:28). The superiority of Man over angles is endowed with the faculty of naming things, that is, to form concept, which are not abstract logical entities (Anwar, 1996, 56). In order to vindicate his claim Iqbal takes some quotations from the Qur’an, emphasizing the point “that man is endowed with the faculty of naming things. Forming concepts of things is capturing them. Thus the character of man’s knowledge is conceptual and it is with the weapon of this conceptual knowledge that man approaches the observable aspects of reality” (Iqbal, 1960, 10). These two basic assumptions necessarily involve the contention that human knowledge has two distinct ingredients, viz, (a) the data or the ‘given’ and (b) thought or understanding, which organizes the data into knowledge properly.

- 122 -

Iqbal emphasizes that this is true of all knowledge, including religious experience (Anwar, 1996, 66). In this context, he designated thought both as an organizing principle and as potency. Also in Kantian style, he classifies thought in its (i) discursive potency, (ii) practical potency and (iii) deeper movement. In the last stage, it is supposed to move beyond its own finitude and is capable of reaching the infinite (Anwar, 1996, 66). Iqbal clearly refuses to accept either perception or conception as the basis of knowledge. As a result, he, like Kant, tries to utilize the insights of both the empiricists and rationalists. But, unlike Kant, he does not approach the problem of knowledge systematically. Nor does he rely on the conceptual tools, which rationalists have devised (Anwar, 1996, 66). Iqbal’s analysis of the levels of matters, life, mind and consciousness leads him to the view that space and time are relative to various grades of being. He, finally, comes to the conclusion that there are different levels of knowledge yielding experience. In this regard he got some help from Whitehead, who once said, “The ages of faith are the ages of rationalism” (Iqbal, 1960, 2). Iqbal believes that the attempt of doing so is not new, it begin with the Prophet Muhammad, who himself laid the foundation of rational thinking in religion. Iqbal claims, “The search for rational foundation in Islam may be regarded to have begun with the Prophet himself” (Iqbal, 1960, 2). He says, “The birth of Islam is the birth of inductive intellect” (Iqbal, 1960, 101). As mentioned earlier sense perception and reason are the initial stages of the acquisition of knowledge. These two sources are insufficient as far as the knowledge of Ultimate Reality is concerned. Iqbal Says: This reason of mine knows not good from evil; and tries to exceed the bounds that nature fixed; I know not what has happened to me of late,My reason and my heart are ever at war(Iqbal, 1996, xxxiv). Reason is but a wayside lamp that gives. Eyes to the wayfarer on a dark night; But what does this lamp on the wayside know About the storms raging in the house? (Iqbal, 1996, xxiv) Knowledge through reason concerns with the phenomenal world, which means that it is bound to space and time and cannot transgress it, and can rightly be called human non-Divine knowledge (Anwar, 1996, 111). For Iqbal reason has ruined whole of the inner life of man, and his yearnings for Ultimate Reality. He says, “With the birth of reason and critical faculty, however, life, in its own interest, inhibits the formation and growth of non- rational modes of consciousness through which psychic energy flowed at an earlier stage of human evolution. Man is primarily governed by passion and instinct. Inductive reason, which alone makes man master of his environment,

- 123 - is an achievement; and when once born it must be reinforced by inhibiting the growth of other modes of knowledge” (Anwar, 1996, 123). Iqbal has pointed, i.e., “Rationalism was an attempt to measure reality by reason alone; it implied the identity of the spheres of religion and philosophy and strove to express faith in the form of concepts or terms of pure thought” (Siddiqui, 1968, 193). In the Asrar Iqbal say: Eternity is less than a moment of his time, Eternity receives increases from his essence. He slept on a mat of rushes, But the crown of Chosroes was under his feet…”(Schimmel, 1962, 118). And more than 20 years later the poet goes on in the same strain: “He is the meaning of Gabriel and the Qur'an, He is the watchman of the wisdom of God, His wisdom is higher than reason…(Schimmel, 1962, 118) Islamic Law becomes almost stagnant, as Iqbal says that, “partly owing to a misunderstanding of the ultimate motives of Rationalists, conservative thinkers regarded this movement as a force of disintegration and considered it a danger to the stability of Islam as social polity. Their main purpose, therefore, was to preserve the social integrity of Islam and to realize this the only course open to them was to utilize the binding force of the Shariat, and to make the structure of their legal system as rigorous as possible” (Siddiqui, 1968, 193). Iqbal has something more to say with regard to motives of the rationalists and anti rationalists. The dialectic of rationalism ruined the persona of God and reduced just to a indescribable universality while the anti-rationalist movement on the other side ruined the external reality of nature and saved the personality of God (Siddiqui, 1968, 193). “In spite of Nazzam’s theory of ‘Atomic objectification’, the atom of the Rationalist possesses an independent objective reality; that of Asharite is a fleeting moment of Divine will. The one saves nature, and tends to do away with the God of Theology; the other sacrifices nature to save God as conceived by the orthodox” (Siddiqui, 1968, 193). Therefore, Iqbal is perfectly justified in concluding that while the Mutazilah saved the nature at the expense of God, the Asharites “sacrificed nature to save God as conceived by the orthodox” (Siddiqui, 1968, 202). Iqbal has pointed out that “Rationalism was an attempt to measure reality by reason alone: it implied the identity of the spheres of religion and philosophy and strove to express faith in the form of concepts or terms of pure thought” (Siddiqui, 1968, 205). Iqbal following the Qur’anic concept puts emphasis on the other source of knowledge, which he identifies as love (ishq), intuition/ religious experience. From here we reach the mystical ideas of Muhammad’s pre-existence, and can understand, in the light of development of mystical praise, the great

- 124 - hymn which Iqbal has sung in honour of him in Asrar, when showing that “Self is strengthened by Love” Iqbal turns to the person of the Prophet: (Schimmel, 1962, 117) There is a beloved hidden within thine heart… By love of him the heart is made strong… In the Muslim’s heart is the home of Muhammad, All our glory is from the name of Muhammad (Schimmel, 1962, 117). Fazlur Rahman says: Actually, Ishq according to Iqbal is a force, which generates its own reason, which subserves it. Borrowed rationality cannot subserve the purpose of Ishq, but, rather, destroys it. Thus while Ishq perfects self-hood, borrowed rationality negates it and becomes suitable only to the slave mentality. The rise and decline of Islam further illustrates this concept. It was an unlettered prophet who had taught Muslims Ishq, transforming a primitive, unsophisticated Arab people into a world power, which at once conquered, ruled, and civilized. But later, falling into the crafty artfulness of reason, the Muslims lost hold of initiative and creativity and the “Shaikh of the Haram” himself, i.e., the Shaikh al-Islam, lost Ishq. With Ishq, Muslims conquered the world for Islam with a minimum of military force. When they lost Ishq and fell into the trivialities of reason, they lost everything; above all, they lost self-hood. It was men like Mustafa Kemal who once again blazed the trail for Muslims that they might regain their self-hood through a re-cultivation of Ishq (Rahman, 1984, 158). In Javid Nama, Iqbal denounces Ataturk for his Westernization policy. He is instructed in the dangers of secularism and Kemal’s adoption of it by Ottoman grand vizier Sa’id Halem Pasha (d. 1921) that is in the company of Jamal al-Din –Afghani in heaven: (Rahman, 1984, 159). For the West is the cleverness of reason that is the source of life; For the (Muslim) East, Ishq yields the secrets of Being. Through Ishq alone does rationality come into intimacy with the Truth (God); And the achievements of Ishq gain firmness through rationality. When Ishq become a comrade of rationality It structures the world entirely a new (Rahman, 1984, 159). For Iqbal love, intuition, religious experience and prophetic revelation are just the same in their very nature. This kind of knowledge is direct, immediate and will unveil to him new spheres of illumination, wherein there are vistas of reality, comprehending Divine presence itself (Anwar, 1996, 62). He tries to make an effort for reconciliation of reason with religious experience in the performance with his natural world-view. In Payam-i- Mashriq, Iqbal says in many poems on the topic of Love (Ishq): He says:

- 125 -

Reason that destroys the world in a flash of fire should learn from love how to brighten the world. The religious experience aim at last form of knowledge called intuition. Iqbal emphasizes that intuitive knowledge should perform with other modes of knowledge. He says in limited time it is impossible to carry out a detail analysis and study of mystic consciousness. His observations on mystic experience are as under: 1. The first point to note is the immediacy of this experience… The immediacy of mystic experience simply means that we know God just as we know other objects. 2. The second point is the unanalysable wholeness of mystic experience... The mystic state brings us into contact with the total passage of Reality in which all the diverse stimuli merge into one another and form a single unanalysable unity in which the ordinary distinction of subject and object does not exist. 3. The third point to note is that to the mystic state is a moment of intimate association with a Unique Other Self, transcending, encompassing, and momentarily suppressing the private personality of the subject of experience. 4. Since the quality of mystic experience is to be directly experienced, it is obvious that it cannot be communicated. Mystic states are more like feeling than thought. 5. The mystic's intimate association with the eternal, which gives him a sense of the unreality of serial time, does not mean a complete break with serial time… Both the mystic and the prophet return to the normal levels of experience, but with this difference that the return of the prophet… may be fraught with infinite meaning for mankind.For the purposes of knowledge, then, the region of mystic experience is as real as any other region of human experience and cannot be ignored merely because it cannot be traced back to sense perception. Nor is it possible to undo the spiritual value of the mystic state by specifying the organic conditions, which appear to determine it (Iqbal, 1996, 14).According to Iqbal, the religious experience is different from normal experience; the indispensable part of religious experience is its incommunicability. He says, “Strictly speaking, the experience, which leads to this discovery, is not a conceptually manageable intellectual fact; it is a vital fact, an attitude consequent on an inner biological transformation, which, cannot be captured in the net of logical categories” (Iqbal, 1996, 145). Intuition, he says, is a valid source of knowledge which gives experience, but it does not mean that it is detached from reason. Iqbal says, the Qur’an, recognizing that empirical attitude is an indispensable stage in spiritual life of humanity, attaches equal importance to all the regions of

- 126 - human experience as yielding knowledge of the Ultimate Reality which reveals its symbol both within and without (Iqbal, 1996, 11-12). According to Iqbal there is no difficulty that a finite being to take hold of the infinite being. He defines that how the infinite grasped by the finite. The infinite, according to Iqbal, using Qur’anic metaphor is, ‘a kind of ‘Preserved Tablet’, which holds up the entire undermined possibilities of knowledge as a present reality, revealing itself in serial time as a succession of finite concepts appearing to reach a unity which is already present in them. It is in fact the presence of the total Infinite in the movement of knowledge that makes finite thinking possible (Iqbal, 1996, 5). Hence the constant illumination of the infinite for some time permits the finite to grasp the spirit of God, the infinite. Annemarie Schimmel says: In Muhammad—whom he, as most of the mystic poets, often calls with his surname Mustafa, the Chosen One—Iqbal saw the source of everything good and useful in human life; poverty (in religious sense, according to tradition “My poverty is my pride”) and sovereignty belong to manifestation of Mustafa; he is the model for every Muslim, the visible witness of God’s beauty and power. His way is the only way to choose for the Muslims of this century who are strangers to his beauty. This idea, which animates the quatrains of the Armaghan, is expressed as early as the Jawab-i Shikwah in 1913, where God is made to say: Thou a Muslim art and Destiny thy edict must obey, Be thou “faithful to Muhammad and We yield Ourselves, To thee—not this world alone—the Tablet and Pen thy prize will be (Schimmel, 1962, 117). In mystic experience, the heart work as a medium for the acquisition of knowledge. The task of heart is mostly referred as religious experience. Iqbal says, “In the interest of securing a complete vision of Reality, therefore, sense-perception must be supplemented by the perception of what the Qur’an describes as Fuad or Qalb, i.e. heart” (Schimmel, 1962, 117). The Prophet Muhammad said: “Fear the firasah (i.e., intuitive capacity for penetrating the substance of things) of the believer, for surely he sees with the light of Allah.” Iqbal says in his well-known couplet: For thousands of years, the narcissus bemoans its blindness; It takes ages before the discerning soul, Appears in the garden. The discerning soul, according to Iqbal is who perceive with internal vision. He makes clear that higher level of experience can be explained as feelings instead of concepts. He writes, it is rather a mode of dealing with Reality in which sensation, in the physiological sense of the word, does not play any part. This for Iqbal is the mystic experience, which leads to ultimate certain knowledge. This knowledge is, Irresistible and like bright sunshine forces

- 127 - itself immediately to be perceived as soon as the mind turns its attention to it, and leaves no room for hesitation, doubt or examination, but the mind is perfectly filled with the clear light of it (Iqbal, 1960, 12). Iqbal makes an effort to show that reason and intuition are indivisible, and in knowing anything by intuition, the intellect performs essential part which cannot be neglected. He thinks that Ghazali was erroneous by claiming that reason and intuition could not perform together and were irreconcilable. Iqbal found that both these paths of knowledge help each others towards ultimate knowledge (Iqbal, 1960, 4). For Iqbal, mystic consciousness enables the self to interpret at a higher plane and is as valid as others methods of interpretation. He delineates the characteristics of the mystic experience and contends that there are intellectual and pragmatic tests to verify the knowledge gained through that experience (Iqbal, 1960, 21). He says, “By the intellectual test I mean critical interpretation, without any presuppositions of human experience, generally with a view to discover whether our interpretation leads us ultimately to a reality of the same character as is revealed by religious experience. The pragmatic test judges it by its fruits. The former is applied by the philosopher, the latter by the prophet” (Iqbal, 1960, 21-22). Later on Iqbal says: “In so far as the source of his revelation is concerned he belongs to the ancient world; in so far the spirit is concerned he belongs to modern world.” In this way Iqbal compares mystic consciousness with the prophetic consciousness. The main difference he define as “the mystic consciousness is in the main cognitive, “the prophetic consciousness is in main creative, i.e., it tends to create a fresh ethical world” (Iqbal, 1960, 71). Whereas the “mystic does not wish to return from the repose of ‘unitary experience’ “the desire to see his religious experience transformed into a living world-force is supreme in the Prophet” (Iqbal, 1960, 99). Iqbal refers to “revelation, which speaking from the inmost depths of life, internalizes its own apparent externality” (Iqbal, 1960, 142). So according to Iqbal, the origin of revelation is, internal with the prophet. Iqbal believe that ultimate reality is within human grip by using adequate methods. He writes, “The truth is that the religious and the scientific processes, though involving different methods, are identical in their final aim. Both aim at reaching the most real. In fact, religion… is far more anxious to reach the ultimately real than science”(Iqbal, 1960, 155). Iqbal tries to reconcile the objectives of revealed religion and philosophy. According to him, the distinctions between both are in terms of greater details but both are one, as far as the original objective is concerned, i.e. acquiring knowledge. Iqbal says: “The only course open to us is to approach modern knowledge with respectful but independent attitude and to appreciate the

- 128 - teachings of Islam in the light of that knowledge, even though we may be led to differ from those who have gone before us” (Iqbal, 1960, 78). It can be concluded that Iqbal advocated a broader view of knowledge. According to him the basic pattern of knowledge remains unchanged, that is, dealing with perceptual knowledge of daily life or special type of knowledge known as religious or mystic knowledge. Following the Qur’an, Iqbal compile various kinds of experience, such as sense perception, reason, intuition, mystical feelings, love (ishq), and prophetic revelation to acquire knowledge. The sources of knowledge of Iqbal may be categorized into two types. One may be described as Acquired Knowledge and the other type of knowledge may be described as God Gifted knowledge. The acquired knowledge consists of Sense Perception and Reason, while God Gifted knowledge consists of Intuition, Mystical Feelings, Love (Ishq), Religious Experience and Prophetic Experience. The sense perception and reason, described as Acquired Knowledge are the initial stages of acquisition of knowledge. These two sources are insufficient as far the knowledge of Ultimate Reality is concerned. There is need of some other source of knowledge, which Iqbal following the Qur’an, described as God Gifted Knowledge, identifies this source of knowledge as Intuition, Love (Ishq), Religious Experience, and Prophetic Experience. For Iqbal, love, intuition, religious experience and prophetic revelation are just the same states in their very nature. Iqbal becomes inspired by Muslim thinkers like al-Farabi according to whom the intellect (higher thought) rises to the level of inspiration, communion, and ecstasy. Due to the inspiration from Muslim Sufis and philosophers Iqbal could enlarge his vision concerning knowledge of man

- 129 -

REFERENCES

 Ali, Abdullah Yousaf, The Holy Qur’an, Lahore, 1988.  Anwar, Dr. Khurshid, Epistemology of Iqbal, Iqbal Academy, Lahore, 1996.  Attar, Farid al-Din, Tadhkirat al-Awaliya, ed. by R.A. Nicholson, Leiden, 1322AH, Part II.  Iqbal, Muhammad, Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, Sheikh Mohammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1960.  Iqbal, M., Bal-i-Jabriel, tr. Naeem Saddiqi, California, 1996.  Khan, Dr Asif Iqbal, Was Iqbal an Epistemologist? , Iqbal Review, Journal of Iqbal Academy, Pakistan, Vol. 30, No.1, April-June 1989.  Khatoon, Saeeda, The Development of Islamic Rationalism in the Sub-Continent with special reference to Waliullah, Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Muhammad Iqbal, PhD Thesis Department of Philosophy , University of Karachi, 1980.  Rahman, Fazlur, Muhammad Iqbal and Ataturk’s Reforms, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 43, No. 2, The University of Chicago Press, April 1984.  Schimmel, Annemarie, The Place of Prophet of Islam in Iqbal’s Thought, Islamic Studies, Journal of the Central Institute of Islamic Research, Karachi, Volume I, No. 4, Dec. 1962.  Siddiqi, Mazheruddin, A Critical Study of Iqbal’s Views on the Anti- Classicism of the Qur’an, Islamic Studies, Journal of Islamic Research Institute, Pakistan, Vol. VII, No. 1, March 1968.  Siddiqui, Mazheruddin, A Study of Iqbal’s View on Muslim Rationalism, Islamic Studies, Journal of Islamic Research Institute, Pakistan, Volume VII, No. 3, September 1968.

- 130 -

- 131 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

GENDER DIFFERENTIAL IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN, WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON HEALTH AND INCOME / WORK: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY

Social Sciences

Ahmed Ali Brohi*, Mitho Khan Bhatti† Abdul Wahid Zehri‡ & Jan Mohammad§

ABSTRACT

This study is conducted to analyze the gender differential in social development in Pakistan in general and rural areas in particular. Social development is not possible without taking gender equality into consideration. It cannot achieve its set goals. Unfortunately, Pakistani society is patriarchal society which denies women’s share in the developmental processes. The social indicators of social development are numerous ranging from access to education, provision of health facilities, freedom to participate in social activities, and political activities and work and income. This paper only focuses on the two main indicators of social development. Which are income and work and provision of health facilities. Women are lag behind in these two areas of social development. As compared to women male are provided health facilities in their ailment and are taken to hospitals and consulted with doctors. On the other hand women are not taken to hospitals and not consulted with doctors when they are ill. The same differential is observed in income and work of women. Women work most of the time but their work is not recognized and paid. Their work in the family and fields are considered their daily routine activities in patriarchal system. This paper highlights women in these indicators from sociological perspective in order to bring a clear picture of status of women in these areas in Pakistan.

* Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Sindh

† Assistant Professor, Institute of management Sciences, University of Balochistan, Quetta

‡ Lecturer, Institute of management Sciences, University of Balochistan, Quetta

§ Assistant Professor, Institute of management Sciences, University of Balochistan, Quetta

- 132 -

KEY TERMS Social Development, gender differential, differential in health and differential in income and work

INTRODUCTION World Bank (2001) in a report entitled ‘Engendering Development’ expresses that gender differential in main indicators such as knowledge, health, and freedom has negative impact on the process of the social development. In 2003 again World Bank says that “There is now a shared understanding within the development community that development policies and actions that fail to take gender inequality into account and fail to address disparities between males and females will have limited effectiveness and serious cost implications” –(World Bank (2003).In the report published by World Bank in 2001 it is reiterated that gender differential is a universal phenomenon it is experienced round the globe today, in spite of the fact that world saw a significant economic and social progress in the last century. In all regions of the developing world women do not enjoy the same legal, social and economic rights as men do. Further the report says women face the most of the problems but expenses of gender differential influence the whole society and the economy and can ultimately harm every member of the society (World Bank, 2001). There is worldwide consensus that development should be broad-based, but unfortunately women are always sidelined in the process. It does not mean all women are equally marginalized in the development process. Some may enjoy all benefits of development as men do. Generally, women as a group pay more price than men on a number of fronts, going from the incidence of poverty to protection under the law, and from access to health care to decision-making power. The problem of gender differential in social development is a universal phenomenon. It exists in each and every society of the world. Though, varies in magnitude and aspects of development yet it has its existence as problem in all societies. Still there are fewer opportunities for women than men to lead an accomplished life, and to make full use of their capabilities and resources of society. As compared to men women are less well nourished, and less healthy, more vulnerable to physical violence, less literate, faced with greater obstacles in economic and political life, and have fewer or no choices in marital decisions. In short, women faced in life with “unequal human capabilities” (Nussbaum, 2000, p. 46). Gender deferential is found mostly in developing countries with slight variation in its nature and extent (World Bank, 2001). Women as a girl-child as compared to boy-child possess lower status and lead life with fewer rights,

- 133 - opportunities and benefits in most of the underdeveloped countries. In these countries women have to face the problem of gender differential at a very young age and become almost impossible for them to get rid of it in their remaining life (Rizvi, 1980). This gender differential in social development gives a unique opportunity to draw together analysis of the situation of women in this country in general and in rural areas in particular and discuss ways forward. Like other subjects the term development has so many different aspects, gender cannot be analyzed in one or three aspects of development it would be analyzed in its fundamental all aspects, going from access to education to health, from freedom to take participation to political activities to social activities and from employment policy to property inheritance, and from decision making to poverty alleviation. But this paper only focusses on the two aspects of social development namely, provision of health and income and work disparity.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problem of gender differential has remained noticeable in all societies of the world from past to the present. Though the form and extent of gender differential have varied from society to society and from time to time yet women almost in all societies have possessed secondary status to men. In Pakistani society the dominant social system is patriarchy. In this system there is inflexible division of labor and restriction on women’s freedom to take part in social, political and religious activities in the society. In this system of patriarchy women role in everyday activities is strictly defined. Women are given central position in the family in relation not to enjoy but to work properly by maintaining family by bearing and rearing children and caring elder family members. Gender differential exist in great extent between women and men in the social indicators of social development such as education, employment, political participation, decision making, controlling the resources, access to health facilities and job this is because of the patriarchy in social system. Such type of position of women in family and in the society is not considered satisfactory in the system where women are discriminated (Tisdell, 2002). Lesser social, economic, and cultural status of women in the country has resulted in the poor health conditions for women. As in Pakistan women’s sexuality is controlled by family, they depend on man in economic affairs, and obstacles in their social mobility all these factors determine the differential access of males and females to health services. The health of women in the country is also affected by the factors such as bias in food distribution within the family, early marriages, excessive childbearing, lack of control over their own

- 134 - bodies, and a high level of illiteracy. Customary gender prejudice inside the health facility delivery system in relations to lack of female service providers, and neglect of women’s basic and reproductive health needs, intensify women’s disadvantaged health status. In Pakistani culture women’s wage work reflects a threat to the male ego and identity. Women remain engaged in various home-based economic activities which always go under remuneration. Women in Pakistan spend their most of the time in fetching water, doing laundry, preparing food, and carrying out agricultural duties. On one hand these tasks are physically hard and demanding and on the other hand they also rob girls of the opportunity to study. Though women have legitimate rights to own and inherit property from their families, yet there are very few women who have access and control over these resources. Both the unfair working environments at the workplace and overbearing circumstances at home where women continue to take the sole responsibility for domestic work, led them to the injury of their health. Form the above mentioned facts it can be concluded that women are discriminated in all indicators which are prerequisite for social development. Most of the time women are engaged in working in the house. Though women work long hours yet their work is not recognized. Society is patriarchy in nature which ensures male domination. Women lead life in poor health conditions.

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

According to Hazel Reeves and Sally Baden (2000) the term gender may be defined as the rules, norms, customs, and practices by which biological differences between males and females are translated into socially constructed differences between men and women and boys and girls. The characteristics, roles, behaviors, patterns and power relations are changeable; they vary from time to time and cultural groups to groups due to the constant variation of cultural and biased meanings of gender (Hirut, 2004).

GENDER DIFFERENTIAL The intention of feminists positioned them to claim that various differentials between women and men were socially made and consequently, changeable. The expression ‘sex/gender system’ as used by Gayle Rubin (1975, 165) to explain “a set of arrangements by which the biological raw material of human sex and procreation is shaped by human and social intervention” He further argued saying that while biological differentials are static, but gender differentials are the oppressive outcomes of social interventions that govern the social life of women and men. Women are

- 135 - oppressed as women and “by having to be women” (Rubin 1975, 204).’ Nevertheless as gender is socially produced therefore, it is changeable. It can be changed by political and social reforms that would eventually bring an end to women’s subordination. According to Rubin (1975, 204) feminists should aim to establish a “genderless (though not sexless) society, in which one's sexual anatomy is irrelevant to who one is, what one does, and with whom one makes love”. In recent times it is common to say that gender is socially constructed. It denotes that gender means both men and women are “intended or unintended product[s] of a social practice” (Haslanger 1995, 97). SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Social development is defined by Morris (2010: 144) as: “It is the bundle of technological, subsistence, organizational, and cultural accomplishments through which people feed, clothe, house, and reproduce themselves, explain the world around them, resolve disputes within their communities, extend their power at the expense of other communities, and defend themselves against others’ attempts to extend power”.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE In developed countries women are economically empowered and they are very vocal and there is wattage to their demands. On the contrary women in developing countries are silent and this silence is due to the existing strong cultural factors and to the economic dependence on women. The social indicators of social development like access to education, health facilities, income and employment, participation in political process, in social activities and in decision making process are selected as main indicators of social development, in the present paper the focus is on two main factors provision of health facilities and income and work. And gender disparity is observed in these areas of the social development.

GENDER DIFFERENTIAL IN INCOME WORK: AN INDICATOR OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT The participation of women in income generating activities and paid jobs reduce their economic dependency in society. Non dependency of women enables them to control resources and take active participation in decision making processes and gives greater chance of their social mobility. There exists a strong relationship between social development of women and income generating activities and jobs. In the support of this a review of previous literature is presented as follows: According to Batliwala (1994) women are powerless mainly due to their economic dependence. On the contrary economically independent women lead an improved and high status

- 136 - life in their all aspects of social life. It is therefore, necessary that women should be provided jobs in a supportive environment to lead a socially developed life. Heatonet al. (2005) argue in cross country research that in regions under study employment of women was positively associated with promotion of social development of women. Roy and Tisdell, (2002) in their study in India state that women do unpaid work in their homes and fields. They further, argue that recognition of women’s participation in economic activities can be helpful in the improvement of their social status. To make women participation visible socially they should work outside their home. Because in patriarchal society women work in family and in the field is not recognized as paid work rather their duty. According to Jones et al. (2006) in their study state that working women not only develop themselves but are proved to be a cause of the wellbeing of the family, but also they help in developing a just society. The countries where women are socially developed are considered prosperous countries. Tisdell, (2002) in a research paper says that reduction in the economic capabilities and limitations to their human capital is mainly due to the social restriction to their paid work. Gender differential can be reduced through enhanced women participation in economic generating activities Blumberg (2005). On one hand, female earnings increase their own resources and on the other hand it helps them control over these resources. All these help women develop socially. But it is not an easy task for women to earn and control over resources in patriarchal societies.Participation of women in paid jobs is beneficial for them only when they have full control over their remunerations. If not, their participation will prove an additional burden on them with no meaningful gain. The women development is totally dependent on economic independence of women. There are two prerequisites for social development of women they are access to job earnings and control over them. In patriarchal societies females’ wages are received by father- in-laws which is not helpful to them for their social development despite their full participation in economic activities. Participation of women in paid jobs and control over their earnings are not only lead to social change but also it is necessary for their political and economic development (Mayoux, 2001).

GENDER DIFFERENTIAL IN HEALTH: AN INDICATOR OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT In the light of above discussed facts, it is clear that in developing countries women possess low status as compared to men which have negatively affected women’s health conditions. In South Asia the health status of rural women taking into consideration and found that the mortality of rural women has increased gradually in the region. The age group 1-5

- 137 - female children much suffer from diseases and are most prone to death (Bhatia, 1985). According to her socio cultural factors which lead gender differential in access to health are: 1 attitude of parents and their discriminatory attitude is obvious from the examples such as; they usually celibate the birth of male child only; they in terms of provision of health facilities ignore female children; they provide less nutrition to pregnant women; they get girls married in their playing age: 2 Social pressure is maintained on women though these factors; women after marriage have no say in the family planning matters; they are pressurized to give birth to sons; and they are provided no proper diet when they get pregnant: 3 the physical factors which include; unplanned and frequent pregnancies and they give birth under untrained midwives. Poor health conditions of women are strongly associated with poverty in Bangladesh. Women from poor families have no access to health facilities and face continued malnourishment. They are married at very early age and have pregnancies very quickly. Mortality rate is observed in married women and found them dissatisfied from their lives (Kabir, 1988). According to the report of UNICEF (1996) titled as “The Asian Enigma”, there is prevailing exceptionally high rate of malnutrition in South Asia and it further mentions that they are embedded extremely in the gender differential. Due to the poor care by parents to their daughters and by husbands to their wives women face malnutrition. This gender differential is very high in the region than elsewhere in the world.

METHODOLOGY Exploratory and descriptive research designs are applied in this research. The reason for choosing and combining the flavor of both types is that no research happens purely either exploratory or descriptive in true essence. The two types support each other.Rural Sindh is selected as the universe of this study. The official census was conducted in 1998 which is considered reliable and authentic. But due to the political reasons attempts of conducting fresh census is sabotaged. To make the study perfect, 384 respondents as random sample were taken out. The validity of research findings has great dependence on the selection of a research sample. In the present research multistage sampling of probability methods have been used. In probability sampling methods some form of random selection is applied which enables the researcher to predict the probability of equal chance of being included into the sample (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber 1994:291).An interview schedule method is used, in this present research study, through which the respondents answered in a pen and paper format on a structured questionnaire. The main aim of using the structured data collection is to draw data about the respondents’ views on various aspects pertaining to theirsocial

- 138 - life, including the aspects of access to health, and income and work, which are taken as indicators of social development in the research.

RESULTS AND THEIR DISCUSSION INCOME/ WORK There exists a strong relationship between social development of women and income generating activities and paid jobs. The present study reveals data about personal occupation of the respondents 33.6% were household workers, 27.1% were fieldworkers, 25.5% were students, 6.0% were engaged in sewing, 3.1% were housemaids 2.3% were engaged in teaching, 1.6% were engaged in private services, and .8% were self- employee.

TABLE: NO. 1

Work Frequenc Percent Cumulative y Percent House wife 129 33.6 33.6 Self-Employee 3 .8 34.4 House maid 12 3.1 37.5 Student 98 25.5 63.0 Private Service 6 1.6 64.6 Sewing 23 6.0 70.6 School Teacher 9 2.3 72.9 Working in the field 104 27.1 100.0 Total 384 100.0

The data in table 1 reveals that women were mostly engaged in unpaid works like working in households and fields. This unpaid work led them nowhere in terms of social development but added in their pain and difficulties. This fact is well supported by the Roy and Tisdell, (2002) in their study in India who state that women do unpaid work in their homes and fields. They further, argue that recognition of women’s participation in economic activities can be helpful in the improvement of their social status. To make women’s participation socially visible they should work outside their home. It is because in patriarchal society women work in family and in the fields which is not recognized as paid work rather their duty.

- 139 -

TABLE NO. 2 Income Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent No Income 343 89.3 89.3 2001-3000 24 6.3 95.6 3001-4000 8 2.1 97.7 4001-5000 7 1.8 99.5 5001-above 2 .5 100.0 Total 384 100.0

The table 2 denotes the personal income of the respondent. The data revealed that 89.3% of the respondents were dependent on male members, 6.3% of the respondent were able to earn , 2000-3000, 2.1% of the respondents earned 3001-4000, 1.8% of the respondents earned 4001-5000, and 0.5% of the respondents earned 5001 and above. The above data revealed that majority of the women were dependent on male family members economically. Due to their dependency they were not socially developed. This fact is also supported by the Batliwala (1994) saying that women are powerless mainly due to their economic dependence. On the contrary economically independent women lead an improved and high status life in their all aspects of social life. It is therefore, necessary that women should be provided jobs in a supportive environment to lead a socially developed life. TABLE NO. 3 Response Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Yes 259 67.4 67.4 No 125 32.6 100.0 Total 384 100.0

The table 3 indicates data about the women who have more personal income are better socially developed than low income, 67.4% of the respondents responded yes and 32.6% responded No. Majority of the women were of the opinion that those women who have personal income and resources at their disposal were able to develop socially. On the other hand those who had little or no income and resources were denied of their social development. Gender differential can be reduced through enhanced women participation in economic generating activities Blumberg (2005). On one hand, female earnings increase their own resources and on the other hand it helps them to control over these resources. All these help women to develop socially. But it is not an easy task for women to earn and control over resources in patriarchal societies. In patriarchal societies females’ wages are received by

- 140 - father- in-laws which is not helpful to them for their social development despite their full participation in economic activities.

PROVISION OF HEALTH SERVICES Health is one of the important indicators of social development. The women who lead lives in poor health conditions, and give more and unplanned births, and are got married at early age will definitely not socially developed. In this regard the facts in the study are shown grim picture of the health conditions of women in rural Sindh. They are not provided health services and facilities. They are not considered even for medicine in their ailment. They have to lead a life totally depending on prayers and luck.

TABLE NO. 4 Kind of Treatment Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Alopathy 199 51.8 51.8 Homeopathy 45 11.7 63.5 Hikmat 42 10.9 74.5 Religious Healer/ 71 18.5 93.0 Spiritual No treatment 27 7.0 100.0 Total 384 100.0

The table 4 denotes data about thekind of treatment; 51.8%, of the responded received medicine Alopathy, 11.7%, of the women received Homeopathy medicine, 10.9% of the women received Hikmat medicine, 18.5% of the women during ailment were referred to Religious / Spiritual Healer, and 7.0% of the women never received any kind of medicine or Treatment. The situation in the present study presented is very much grim in terms of kind of treatment women get in rural Sindh. This indicates poor health conditions of women in the research area. Such poor health conditions are signs of underdevelopment of women in the research area.

TABLE NO. 5 No of Children Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent 1-3 90 23.4 23.4 4-8 130 33.9 57.3 9-10 38 9.9 67.2 11-above 10 2.6 69.8 No Children 116 30.2 100.0

- 141 -

The table 5 shows data about the no of children women had; 23.4% of women had 1-3 children, 33.9% of the women had 4-8 children, 9.9% of women had 9-10 children, 2.6% of women had 11 and Above children, and 30.2% of women had no children. This denotes that women in rural Sindh are having unplanned and frequent pregnancies; which have negative effects on the health of women.

TABLE NO. 6

Age at Marriage Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent 14-17 194 50.5 50.5 18-20 66 17.2 67.7 21-25 8 2.1 69.8 No response 116 30.2 100.0 Total 384 100.0

The data in table 6 denotes that 50.5%, of women got married at the age group of; 14-17, 17.2%, ofthe women got married at age group 18-20, 2.1%, of women got married at the age group 21-25, and 30.2% of respondents did not respond. This study revealed that girls in rural Sindh get married at their early age. On one hand it affects their health and on the other hand it prevents their social development. The above facts are well supported by the Bhatia (1985) she says that socio cultural factors which lead gender differential in access to health are: 1. attitude of parents and their discriminatory attitude is obvious from the examples such as; they usually celebrate the birth of male child only; they in terms of provision of health facilities ignore female children; they provide less nutrition pregnant women; they get girls married in their playing age: 2. Social pressure is maintained on women through these factors; women after marriage have no say in the family planning matters; they are pressurized to give birth sons; and they are not provided proper diet when they get pregnant: 3. The physical factors which include; unplanned and frequent pregnancies and they give birth under untrained midwives.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF HYPOTHESES

HEALTH FACILITIES

Objective: To Understand the Role of Provision of Proper Health Facilities in the Social Development of Rural Women in Sindh.

- 142 -

Hypothesis:

Ho: Provision of better Health Facilities as an indicator of social development has no role to promote social development of women in rural Sindh.

Ha: Provision of better Health Facilities as an indicator of Social Development has a significant and positive role to promote Social Development of Women in rural Sindh.

Data set: Comparing groups (Provision of Health Facilities and Social Development).

Type of observation: Unpaired.

Type of variable: Categorical (Nominal).

Sample: Large.

Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 26.320a 2 .000 Likelihood Ratio 25.841 2 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 14.373 1 .000 N of Valid Cases 384 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 35.48.

Test: χ2 Test(Chi-square test of Independence)

Significance Level 0.05

Pearson Chi-Square Value (χ2 computed value) 26.320 Degree of Freedom 2 P- Value .000 Significance level at 0.05 As the significance level (0.05) is high than the P value (0.000) therefore, the null hypothesis can’t be accepted by researcher. As a result it is concluded that there exists a relationship between Provision of Better Health Facilities and Social Development of women in Rural Sindh.

- 143 -

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

26.320 is the calculated value of chi-square drawn including 2 degrees of freedom. That indicates Ha: is accepted and Ho: is rejected. The p-value is zero, therefore, the degree of association between two variables i.e. Provision of Better Health Facilities and Social Development of Women in Rural Sindh is also strongly interconnected. Keeping in view the aforementioned data, it can be concluded that Ha: Provision of better Health Facilities as an indicator of Social Development has a significant and positive role to promote Social Development of Women in rural Sindh.is accepted as supported by the data. Thus, it is clear that there exists a strong interdependence or a significance association between variables concerned.

INCOME AND WORK

Objective: To analyze the impact of Consultation of Female on Economic Matters in their Social Development in Rural Sindh.

Hypothesis:

Ho: Consultation with women on economic affairs as an indicator of social development has no role to promote social development of women in rural Sindh.

Ha: Consultation with women on economic affairs as an indicator of Social Development has a significant and positive role to promote Social Development of Women in rural Sindh.

Data set: Comparing groups (Consultation in economic affairs & Social Development).

Type of observation: Unpaired.

Type of variable: Categorical (Nominal).

Sample: Large.

Test: χ2 Test (Chi-square test of Independence)

Significance Level: 0.05

- 144 -

Chi-Square Tests Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi- 165.671a 4 .000 Square Likelihood Ratio 159.601 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear 45.684 1 .000 Association N of Valid Cases 384 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 30.09.

Pearson Chi-Square Value (χ2 computed value) 165.671 Degree of Freedom 4 P- Value .000 Significance level at 0.05 As the significance level (0.05) is high than the P value (0.000) therefore, the null hypothesis can’t be accepted by researcher. As a result it is concluded that there exists a relationship between Consultation with females on economic affairs & Social Development of women in Rural Sindh.

165.671 is the calculated value of chi-square drawn including 4 degrees of freedom. That indicates Ha: is accepted and Ho: is rejected. The p-value is zero, therefore, the degree of association between two variables i.e. Consultation with females on economic affairs & Social Development of Women in Rural Sindh is also strongly interconnected. Keeping in view the aforementioned data, it can be concluded that Ha: Consultation with women on economic affairs as an indicator of Social Development has a significant and positive role to promote Social Development of Women in rural Sindh is accepted as supported by the data Thus, it is clear that there exists a strong interdependence or a significance association between variables concerned.

CONCLUSION Women’s subordination to men is a universal phenomenon; but in its magnitude it varies from society to society and region to region. Present research indicates a grim picture in Pakistan in general and in rural Sindh in particular; that women on one hand remain subordinate to men in their whole cycle of life and in all forms like wife, daughter, sister, and even mother, and on the other hand they are also exposed to mistreatments, disparity, embarrassment and violence and control. It is further concluded that women

- 145 - in rural Sindh are discriminated in their basic rights, like, health care, food, education, and control over productive resources, employment, livelihood and decision making. Women are not discriminated due to their natural biological differences or sex but they are denied their basic rights on the basis of socially constructed status gender. It is also concluded that Provision of Better Health Facilities plays a key role for social development of women in rural areas of Sindh. The reason is that health is very important for the physical and mental well-being of women. Health is the key variable which influences all other associated variables. Social development is dependent on provision of better facilities. The variables as mentioned earlier indicate the close dependency upon each other. Therefore, it is concluded as supported by the above contingency that without proper provision of health facilities the concept of social development is incomplete in itself.It is further concluded that consultation with females on economic affairs plays a key role in the social development women in rural Sindh. The reason is that consultation with females on economic affair is very important for the social and economic empowerment of women. Consultation with females on economic affairs is the sole variable which controls and improves all other allied variables necessary for empowerment of women in rural Sindh. Social development is dependent on empowerment of women in rural Sindh. The variables as mentioned earlier indicate the close dependency upon each other. Therefore, it is concluded as supported by the above contingency that without proper education the concept of social development is a far cry.

- 146 -

REFFERNCES  Batliwala, Srilatha. (1994). “The Meaning of Women’s Empowerment: New Concepts from Action”, in Gita Sen, Adrienne Germain and Lincoln C. Chen eds. Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment and Rights. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.  Bhatia, Shushum (1985): “Status and Survival”, Health World Vol.2, NO. 7-8, July - August.  Blumberg, R.L. (2005): “Women’s Economic Empowerment as the “Magic Potion” of Development?” Paper presented at the 100th Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association. Philadelphia, August.  Haslanger, S. (1995), “Ontology and Social Construction”, Philosophical Topics, 23: 95–125.  Heaton, R. K., Taylor, M., & Manly, J. (2001). Demographic effects and demographically corrected norms with the WAIS-III and WMS- III. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.  Hirut T (2004). Violence Against Women in Ethiopia: A Strong Case of Civil Society Concern. In: Chowdhury, S., Wais, A., and KahsaiWoldeGiorgis (Eds) Civil Society in Ethiopia: Reflections on Realities and Perspectives of Hope. African – Asian Studies Promotion Association.  Jones, M.K. and Latreille, P.L. (2006): ‘Disability and self- employment: evidence from the UK LFS”, University of Wales Swansea, WELMERC Discussion Paper No. 2006-07.  Kabir, Sandra (1988): “Women in Dark Ages”, Health World (Medical Journal), Vol.5, Nos 11-12, Nov-Dec.  Lo-Biondo-Wood, G. & Haber, J. (1994): “Nursing Research”. (3rd Ed.). London: Mosby.  Mayoux, L. (2001): “Tackling the down side: Social capital, women's empowerment and microfinance in Cameroon”. Development and Change 32 (3) 435-464, www.microfinancegateway.org/ p/site/m//template.rc/1.9.27246.  Morris, Ian, (2010): “Why the West Rules—For Now: The Patterns of History, and What They Reveal About the Future”. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.  Nussbaum, Martha C. (2000): ”Women and Human Development: the Capabilities Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  Reeves, H. and S. Baden Gender and development: concepts and definitions. (Brighton: University of Sussex, 2000) [ISBN 1-858-

- 147 -

64381-3] ... www.lse.ac.uk/collections/LSEExternalStudy/BeingAnExternalStude nt/109Intro.pdf  Rizvi, F. (1980):”Background of vocational education for girls”. The national conference on critical issues concerning women in education, March 29-April 03, 1980, Women Div. Govt. of Pakistan, Islamabad: 41.  Rubin, G., (1975): “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex”, in Toward an Anthropology of Women, R. Reiter (ed.), New York: Monthly Review Press.

 Tisdell, E. (2002): “Spiritual development and cultural context in the lives of women adult educators for social change”. Journal of Adult Development, 9, 127-140.  ibid  World Bank Policy Research Report (2001): “Engendering Development”, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

 Ibid  UNICEF (1991): Annual Report. Bangladesh.  World Bank (2003) World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People. New York: Oxford University Press.

- 148 -

- 149 -

BI-ANNUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL “BALOCHISTAN REVIEW” ISSN 1810-2174 Balochistan Study Centre, UoB, Quetta (Pak) VOL. XXVIII NO.1, 2013

FARMER’S PERCEPTIONS ON THE STATUS OF LAND DEGRADATION IN PISHIN SUB-BASIN, PAKISTAN

Social Sciences

Dr. Said Qasim, * Alam Tareen† & Aijaz Ali Wassan‡ ABSTRACT This study tried to explore farmers’ perceptions on the status of land degradation in Pishin sub-basin Balochistan, province of Pakistan. Through proportional random sampling, 200 farm households were surveyed during 2009. Percentages cross tabulations and chi square test used for the analysis of collected data. Results reveal that out of the surveyed households, 55% reported the existence of land degradation on their farms. No significant difference was found for the existence of land degradation among the farm categories. The farmers perceived that lack of rainfall and the overuse of the ground water for irrigation were the major causes of land degradation. The major types of degradation in the area were water degradation, soil erosion, vegetation degradation and salinization. Majority of the households reported that about one fourth of their farmland areas were degraded. Electricity and fuel wood were the main sources of energy of majority of the households. Majority of the households were getting fuel wood from rangelands. Significant differences were found among the household categories for the annual consumption in electricity and fuel wood sources. Results of this study suggest policy implications for sustainable use of natural resources in the study area.

KEY WORDS Farmers’ perceptions; Land degradation; Balochistan

INTRODUCTION Agriculture provides 20.9% of gross domestic product and ensures livelihood opportunities for 65.9% of the rural population of Pakistan (Bhutto

* Lecturer Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Department of Geography University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan † Lecturer, Sociology Department, University of Balochistan, Quetta

‡ Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Sindh, Pakistan

- 150 - and Bazmi, 2007). However, land degradation has affected vast areas of the country, especially Balochistan (Qasim et al., 2011). The agriculture production on farmlands is declining and may lead to food shortages in the future. Due to increasing population, the land and water resources in drylands have been severely affected. Drylands throughout the world are vulnerable to desertification and land degradation because of their limited natural resources (Agyemang et al., 2007) and are therefore, faced with myriad of environmental problems (Qi et al., 2007). Knowledge about causes and status of land related issues is crucial to the formulation of sustainable management strategies. The local farmers are the main stakeholders in land related issues. Farmers’ knowledge and perceptions about land degradation are valuable because they are directly concerned with the utilization of their lands (Qasim et al, 2011). The farmers’ perceptions can help in understanding the problems of land degradation, particularly in areas faced with scarcity of data. Such understanding will be helpful to find solutions to ameliorate the problems of land degradation. This information will also serve for implementation of the government policies in the affected places. Therefore, this study was carried out in Pishin sub-basin, Pakistan to find out the perceptions of the local farmers about land degradation problems in, Pakistan.

METHODOLOGY The Pishin sub-basin of Balochistan province of Pakistan was chosen as the study area, due to widespread land degradation (Qasim et al., 2011). The total population of the sub-basin was 471,316. A sample size of 200 farm households was suggested by the equation of Yamane (1967). The survey was conducted during 2009. The sub-basin consists of the area of the three districts namely Pishin, Killa Abdullah and Quetta. The sample households for the three areas in the basin were calculated through probability proportional to sample size and thus 118, 76 and 6 households were randomly selected from Pishin, Killa Abdullah and Quetta districts. The proportional sampling was not intended for comparison of the sample areas, but for selecting the best representative sample from the whole area. Only male respondents were interviewed because of religious and cultural limitations in the area. Questionnaire, Key informants interviews and group discussions were used for collection of primary data in the study area. SPSS version 16 was used for analysis of the collected data. Percentages, cross tabulations and chi square test were used for the analysis of data.

- 151 -

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Farmers’ knowledge of the problem of land degradation of the surveyed households 55% reported the existence of land degradation on their farms. The reported existence of land degradation by farm categories indicates that the majority of cases of land degradation occurred for the marginal category (43.6%) followed by small (30.0%), large (14.5%), medium (9.1%) and very large (2.7%) categories, respectively (Table 1). This may be due to the over cultivation of the small category farms by the farmers. However, the chi- square test did not show any significant difference for the existence of land degradation among the farm categories.

Table 1: Farmers’ knowledge of the problem of land degradation Farm category Exist Do not exist Total (acres) Percent households Marginal (0-25) 43.6 (48) 35.6 (32) 40.0 (80) Small (26-50) 30.0 (33) 32.2 (29) 31.0 (62) Medium (51-75) 9.1 (10) 13.3 (12) 11.0 (22) Large (76-150) 14.5 (16) 16.7 (15) 15.5 (31) V. Large (151-300) 2.7 (3) 2.2 (2) 2.5 (5) Total 100.0 (110) 100.0 (90) 100.0 (200) χ2 Sig. Level 0.756 Note: Figures in parentheses refer to the number of observations. Source: Field Survey, 2009.

Farmers’ perception about causes of land degradation The results show that lack of rainfall in the area was ranked as the first cause of land degradation followed by the overuse of the ground water for irrigation, overgrazing, fuel wood collection, low use of inputs and misuse of chemicals ranked as second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth respectively. The results clearly indicate that the main cause of land degradation is the shortage of water as mentioned by majority of the farmers. Besides this several human-induced causes are also present in the area as mentioned above (Table 2). About the direct causes of degradation, 48% of the farmers reported that they are caused by natural factors and the remaining 52% perceived that they are caused by human activities. The farmers perceived that the growing population of human and livestock in the area are responsible for the underlying causes of land degradation. The results show that farmers were well aware of the types of land degradation and its direct and underlying causes.

- 152 -

Table 2: Farmers’ perception about causes of land degradation Rank٭ Reasons Percent Lack of rain 98.0 1 Overuse of ground water resources for irrigation 89.3 2 Overgrazing 78.6 3 Fuel wood collection 53.1 4 Low use of inputs 31.6 5 Misuse of chemicals 2.6 6 Ranking is based on multiple response percentages. Source: Field٭ :Note survey, 2009.

Farmer’s perception about types of land degradation The farmers reported that four different land degradation types were present in the area. They are water degradation, soil erosion, vegetation degradation and salinization with response percentages as 33.4, 33.4, 32 and 2.1%, respectively. The water degradation here refers to an increase in aridity and decrease in ground water level. The vegetation degradation refers to decrease in vegetation cover and propagation of exotic non-palatable plants. The results showed that soil erosion and water and vegetation degradation were prominent in the area (Table 3).

Table 3: Farmers’ perception about types of land degradation

Percent٭ Types of land Frequency degradation Water degradation 110 33.4 Soil erosion 110 33.4 Vegetation degradation 107 32 Salinization 7 2.1 ,Percentages are based on multiple responses. Source: Field Survey٭ :Note 2009.

Farmer’s perception about proportion of degraded farmland area In terms of proportions of the farmlands that were degraded, more than half (56.36%) of the households perceived that, 0-25% of their farmland area were degraded. The other 38.18 and 5.45% respondents perceived that 0- 50% and 0-75% area are degraded, respectively. There were no respondents who thought that their farmland had more than 75% degradation.

- 153 -

Sources of household energy and fuel wood The sources of household energy included fuel wood, electricity, natural gas and kerosene. All the surveyed households were using electricity and fuel wood as their main sources of energy. The demand for fuel wood increased in winter, because it is also used to protect them from severe cold. However, besides fuel wood, electricity was the second major source for household energy purposes. Some of the surveyed households were also using natural gas and kerosene for cooking and heating purposes. Majority (41.5%) of the respondents received fuel wood from the rangelands. Because of deforestation in the past, shrubs are now used for fuel wood purposes. Removal of the vegetation has exposed the land to the erosive powers of both wind and water, thus accelerating the process of soil erosion. 33.5 percent of the respondents received fuel wood from their own land, mostly from the fruit orchards. 25.0 percent of the respondents received it from both private land and from rangeland sources.

Use of fuel wood by household size Use of fuel wood source by household size, shows that majority of the small category households (70.0%) were receiving fuel wood from their own private land, followed by large (47.2) and medium (27.9) category households. However, majority of the households from the medium category (72.1%), followed by large (52.8%) and small (30.0%) categories were getting fuel wood from the open rangelands. This may be because the fuel wood from the private lands for the medium and large sized families were not sufficient (Table 4). Overall 66.5% households were getting fuel wood from rangelands and the rest 33.5% from private land. However, no significant difference for the sources of fuel wood among the household categories was shown by the chi-square test.

Table 4: Use of fuel wood by household size Source Household size Small (1-5) Medium (6-10) Large (11-15) Total Percent households Private land 70.0 (7) 27.9 (43) 47.2 (17) 33.5 (67) Rangeland 30.0 (3) 72.1 (111) 52.8 (19) 66.5 (133) Total 100.0 (10) 100.0 (154) 100.0 (36) 100.0 (200) χ2 Sig. Level 0.719 Note: Figures in parentheses refer to the number of observations. Source: Field Survey, 2009.

- 154 -

ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF DIFFERENT HOUSEHOLD ENERGY SOURCES BY HOUSEHOLD SIZE The annual consumption of different types of household energy is shown in Table 5. The annual consumption of electricity for the small, medium and large household categories was 1,500.00, 1,935.19 and 2,281killowathours (Kwh), respectively. For fuel wood also the consumption pattern followed the household categories. The annual consumption of fuel wood was 565.75, 726.44 and 1,367 kg, respectively. However, in case of natural gas, some anomalies were found, because annual consumption of natural gas were 1,296.0, 1,206.23 and 896.67 cubic meters for the small, medium and large household categories, respectively. In case of kerosene, the annual consumption of kerosene was 0.42 and 1.42 liters for the medium and large household categories, respectively. No respondents from the small categories were found using kerosene as the household energy source. Significant differences were found among the household categories for the annual consumption in electricity and fuel wood sources. However, no significant differences were found for the annual consumption of natural gas and kerosene among the household categories.

Table 5: Annual consumption of energy sources by household size HH size Consumption pattern of different types of HH energy Electricity (kwh) Fuel wood (kg) Natural Gas (m3) Kerosene (liters) Small (1-5) 1,500.00±528.40 565.75±466.87 1,296.00±964.66 0.0±0.00 (10) (10) (10) (10) Medium (6-10) 1,935.19±552.96 726.44±313.15 1,206.23±1,43.33 0.42±2.11 (154) (154) (154) (154) Large (11-15) 2,281.67±831.45 1,367.18±641.52 896.67±1,433.84 1.42±3.70 (36) (36) (36) (36) Total 1,975.80±631.57 833.74±470.78 1,155.00±1,444.89 0.58±2.45 (200) (200) (200) (200) F.Sig.level 0.001 0.00 0.489 0.064

Source: Field survey, 2009.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The results of this study have useful policy implications for controlling land degradation in the study area. The analysis revealed that majority of the farmer were well aware of the problems of land degradation in the study area. Fuel wood use for cooking was common in the area. Majority of the households were getting fuel wood from rangelands. Fewer farmers were able to use grow trees on their farms for supplementing fuel wood. Although the farmers in the area were well aware of the land

- 155 - degradation problems, they were unaware of the conservation measures for combating land degradation. This study therefore recommends the proper guidance of the farmers for dealing with the problems of land degradation in the study area.

- 156 -

REFERENCES

 Agyemang, I., A. McDonald, and S. Carver. Application of the DPSIR framework to environmental degradation assessment in northern Ghana. 2007: John Wiley & Sons.

 Bhutto, A., & Bazmi, A. 2007. Sustainable agriculture and eradication of rural poverty in Pakistan. Natural Resources Forum 31: 253-262.

 Qasim S, Shrestha RP, Shivakoti GP, Tripathi NK. 2011. Socio- economic determinants of land degradation in Pishin sub-basin, Pakistan. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol. 18(1): 48–54.

 Qi, S. and F. Luo. 2007. Environmental degradation problems in the Heihe River Basin, northwest China. Water and Environment Journal. 21(2): p. 142-148.

 Yamane T. (1967). Statistics, an Introductory Analysis. New York: Harper & Row.