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C3. DEEPWATER FISHERIES by Ross Shotton * Insufficient for Photosynthesis

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C3. DEEPWATER FISHERIES by Ross Shotton * Insufficient for Photosynthesis 188 C3. DEEPWATER FISHERIES by Ross Shotton * insufficient for photosynthesis. Thus fish in deeper layers depend on organic material convected downward; this can happen in various THE DEEPWATER HABITAT ways. Dead phytoplankton and nekton sink, and The deep-seas are the largest habitat on earth. though much is consumed as it sinks, sufficient The area over 4000 m in depth covers 53 percent of it enters the deepwater to sustain much of the of the sea’s surface or 38 percent of the world’s deepwater fauna. Many species undergo surface. The continental slopes alone occupy extensive diel vertical migrations, feeding near 8.8 percent of the world’s surface, compared to the surface and descending during the day, 7.5 percent for the continental shelf and shallow presumably to avoid predation in the surface seas (Merrett and Haedrich 1997). The deep-sea waters. In this way, surface production is can be classified into four zones: the cascaded through progressively deeper layers mesopelagial is uppermost and ranges from 200 though the concentration of organic material to 1 000 m; the bathypelagic occupies the 1 000– decreases exponentially with depth. Organic 4 000 m depth zone; the abyssopelagic goes from material from large carcasses sinking to the 4 000 to 6 000 m and the hadal zone mentioned seafloor, e.g. dead whales, and sulpha-based for completeness, is the habitat of the deep ocean organic production associated with deep-sea trenches (See Figure C3.1). From a demersal seafloor hot-water vents are of relatively minor fishery, the deepwater region can be taken as the importance. continental slopes, starting at the shelf break and It is now known that seasonal effects in the corresponding to the mesopelagic and surface layers are transferred into even the deeper bathypelagic and , beneath, the continental rise regions of the oceans so that despite the physical which extends down to the abyssal planes at uniformity of the deep oceans, an annual around 6000 m. Complicating this picture are the production signal exists resulting in seasonal existence of seabed features that may rises migrations and reproductive cycles in deep-sea thousands of metres above the surrounding fauna. areas–seamounts, or form regions of “hills” or knolls. WHAT ARE THE DEEPWATER The main thermocline rarely extends below FISHES? 1200 m; below this the temperature falls to around 2ºC and even lower in areas where water Given the continuity of the oceans as an masses sink, such as the Weddel Sea and high- ecosystem, any depth-based zonation will be latitude areas in the NE Atlantic. Active current arbitrary. Some workers use 500 m as the start of effects are encountered to at least mid-slope the deepwater habitat, others consider deepwater depths of about 800 m, a result of eddies and turbulence caused by Figure C3.1. Depth Zones of the Oceans the poleward flow of western boundary currents. Wind-driven surface currents can also cause mid-depth upwelling of water and species and down welling of surface waters and species. On the seabed, bottom-sea friction can cause cross-shelf water movement and vertical movement of water. No light penetrates beyond 1 000 m and even at depths of 150 m light intensity is reduced to 1 percent of that at the surface 189 fishes to be those living at depths greater than continents and oceanic ridges has resulted in 400 m - no rigid definition of what are deepwater regional differences that are believed to have fishes has been found to be always acceptable. arisen from continental drift and subsequent However, deepwater fishes can be categorized ocean formation. Another important feature of into mesopelagic, bathypelagic and benthopelagic deepwater fishes is that much remains unknown– categories. Mesopelagic and bathypelagic species new discoveries continue, e.g. recently that of a are true pelagic fish, generally of small adult size 4.5 m 750 kg shark (megamouth shark) and a six- and unlikely to be exploited on a commercially gilled ray, both representing new taxonomic scale. Mesopelagic fishes, such as lantern fishes families. Indeed, deepwater elasmobranchs are (Myctophidae) and cyclothonids (Gonosto- one of the groups of particular conservation matidae) live beneath the photic zone to concern even when not exploited, given their low approximately 1000 m depth. Bathypelagic fishes numbers, their late maturity, low fecundity and live below 1000 m and are usually highly adapted intermittent reproduction. to life in a food-poor environment. The Though there have been some traditional benthopelagic species live on, or close, to the deepwater fisheries (the drop line fishery for bottom, a zone now known to be differentiated in black scabbard fish (Aphanopus carbo) in its biological characteristics. Madeira and the Azores is one of the more Here, deepwater species are defined as those interesting), the most important commercially are beyond and below the depth of the continental those that are harvested by trawling. Many of shelf, i.e. those inhabiting the continental slopes these occur in association with sea mounts and and below. The behavioural characteristics of seafloor ridges while others have been taken at many “deepwater” species further complicate a shallower depths in the past but fishing has search for an easy and useful definition. Many extended in to deeper waters as deepwater fishing deepwater species migrate toward the surface at technology has improved and stocks have been night returning during the day thereby forming a fished down at shallower depths. trophic link between surface waters and the Important species that form deepwater benthopelagic fishes when these latter prey upon aggregations include orange roughy fish returning from the surface layers. Other (Hoplostethus atlanticus) and the oreos fishes make this diel migration themselves, (Allocyttus spp., Neocyttus spp. Pseudocyttus feeding in the surface layers and then descending, spp., etc), which are often fished together, presumably to avoid being eaten themselves. alfonsinos (Beryx spp.) in lower latitude fisheries, Some species only inhabit deepwaters in their Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) adult stage, and may be exploited during both in Southern Ocean fisheries, pelagic armourhead their shallow - and deepwater phases - (Pseudopentaceros wheeleri) and various species complicating the interpretation of whether such of Scorpaenidae found on both coasts of North catches be defined as deepwater or not. America. The first existing deepwater demersal species Away from seamounts, Gadiforme fishes such as were present around 80 million years ago and, in the Macrouridae predominate. These species too order of their occurrence in the fossil record, tend to be slow growing but are not so “extreme” were the Holosauridae, Bythitidae, Ophidiidae in their characteristics as those species associated (cusk eels and brotulas), Macrouridae (rat-tails with seamount fisheries. Other species that may and grenadiers), Scorpaenidae (rockfishes), be included in this group are sablefish Trachichthyidae, and most recently, (Anoplopoma fimbria), Greenland halibut Notocanthidae and Moridae (morid cods) (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), morids (Andriyashev, 1953). Because the demersal (Moridae), cusk-eels (Brotulidae) and hakes fishes are distributed according to depth, those (Merlucciidae). Some of these species were inhabiting the slope and rise are spread along thought by many to be unmarketable but with ribbon-like bathymetric-defined regions around effective marketing and careful processing the perimeters of the oceans. Where deepwater (failure to properly remove all surface waxes pelagic species impinge on these habitats feeding from orange roughy fillets during processing can opportunities are created for both groups. cause diarrhoea) even the sceptics have been While most of these families occur world-wide, surprised at the market penetration that has been the existence of deepwater basins bounded by the achieved by many deepwater species. 190 Orange roughy Their eggs float near the sea surface and the larvae also inhabit surface waters. In Australian Figure C3.2 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) waters, spiky oreo are more abundant at of Orange roughy 10 0 intermediate depths (600-800 m) and warty oreo, 90 Atlantic in deeper waters (900-1 200 m). Both species are 80 Indian benthopelagic feeders consuming salps, 70 Pacific 60 crustaceans, fish and squid. 50 40 Management of these fisheries on the high seas is 30 confounded by lack of obtaining required data. 20 Ageing data from Australia and New Zealand 10 0 indicate that the maximum age for smooth oreo is 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 86 years and 153 years for black oreo. Natural Source FAO mortality for smooth oreo has been estimated at 0.063 yr-1 and 0.044yr-1 for black oreo. Estimates The Orange Roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) from New Zealand indicates “MSY” to be of the (Figure C3.2), is a Trachichthyidae found in the order of 1.6 percent of B if the population is not North and south Atlantic, Southern Indian Ocean, 0 to be reduced to a biomass of less than 0.2 B0 Tasman Sea, New Zealand sea, South Pacific. It (probability <0.2). For operational reasons, where is caught at depth over 800 m by fisheries that they are managed at all, smooth, black and spiky often target spawning aggregations associated oreos may be managed as a single stock with the with seamounts. The fraction of the resource dangers this implies (Annala, Sullivan & O’Brien present in other areas is unknown. 1999). The slow growth and exceptional longevity of this species means that fisheries have depended Alfonsinos on serial stock depletion. Recruitment appears to be episodic and high market demand stimulates Figure C3.4 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) of Alfonsinos exploitation. Rates of sustainable exploitation 16 14 may be ≈5 percent of virgin biomass. This Atlantic + Mediterranean species exists as national, transboundary, 12 Indian straddling and high seas stocks. High sea 10 Pacific management is confounded by the difficulty of 8 obtaining required data.
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