1 The Dynamic Land

Introduction plants, and climate, usually through ascending quickly to medium and even higher altitudes. There are coastal Greece is a land of contrasts (Admiralty 1944, Bintliff and inland plains in the Peloponnese and Central 1977, Higgins and Higgins 1996: and see Color Plate Greece, but their size pales before the giant alluvial 0.1). Although promoted to tourists for its sandy and karst (rugged hard limestone) basins of the beaches, rocky headlands, and a sea with shades of Northern Mainland, a major feature of the essentially green and blue, where Aleppo pine or imported inland region of Thessaly and the coastal hinterlands Eucalyptus offer shade, in reality the Greek Mainland further northeast in Macedonia and Thrace. If these peninsula, together with the great island of Crete, are are on the east side of Northern Greece, the west side dominated by other more varied landscapes. Postcard is dominated by great massifs of mountain and rugged Greece is certainly characteristic of the many small hill land, even down to the sea, typical of the regions and a few larger islands in the Cycladic Archipelago at of Aetolia, Acarnania, and Epirus. the center of the Aegean Sea, the Dodecanese islands Significantly, the olive tree (Figure 1.1), flourishes in the Southeast Aegean, and the more sporadic islands on the Aegean islands, Crete, the coastal regions of the of the North Aegean, but already the larger islands Peloponnese, the Central Greek eastern lowlands, and off the west coast of Greece such as Ithaka, Corfu, the Ionian Islands, but cannot prosper in the high and Kephallenia, immediately surprise the non- interior Peloponnese, and in almost all the Northern Mediterranean visitor with their perennial rich vege- Mainland. The reasons for the variety of Greek land- tation, both cultivated trees and Mediterranean scapes are largely summarized as geology and climate. woodlands. The Southwest Mainland is also more verdant than the better known Southeast. Geological and Geomorphological The largest land area ofCOPYRIGHTED modern Greece is formed MATERIAL by the north–south Mainland peninsula. At the History Isthmus of Corinth this is almost cut in two, forming virtually an island of its southern section (the Although there are many areas with very old geologi- Peloponnese). Although in the Southeast Mainland cal formations (Figure 1.2: Crystalline Rocks), the there are almost conti nuous coastal regions with the main lines of Greek topography were formed in classic Greek or Mediterranean landscape, not far recent geological time, resulting from that extraordi- inland one soon encounters more varied landforms, nary deformation of the Earth’s crust called the Alpine

The Complete Archaeology of Greece: From Hunter-Gatherers to the 20th Century AD, First Edition. John Bintliff. © 2012 John Bintliff. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

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11 + 10 31 34 + 33 +

9 32 +

12 5 +

8 16 4 + 3 14+ + 13 + 15 2

1 6 + + + 30 + + + +++ + + + + + ++ + + + 29 7 + + + + ++ + + +

+ A

B

C

D 17 + 27 20 + + + + 19 18 + 28 21 2626+ 04080 120 160 km + ++22 23 + +25 24

Figure 1.1 Distribution of the major modern olive-production zones with key Bronze Age sites indicated. The shading from A to C indicates decreasing olive yields, D denotes no or minimal production. Major Bronze Age sites are shown with crosses, circles, and squares. C. Renfrew, The Emergence of Civilization (Study in Prehistory), London 1972, Figure 18.12. © 1972 Methuen & Co. Reproduced by permission of Taylor & Francis Books UK.

Orogeny, or mountain-building episode, which not basal rocks of Africa and Eurasia were crushed only put in place the major Greek mountain ranges together, the bed of a large intervening ocean, Tethys, but the Alps and the Himalayas (Attenborough 1987, was compressed between their advancing masses and Higgins and Higgins 1996). In the first period of the thrust upwards into high folds, like a carpet pushed Tertiary geological era (the Palaeogene), 40–20 mil- from both ends. Those marine sediments became lion years ago, as the crustal plates which make up the folded mountains of limestone (Figure 1.2: Limestone).

BBintliff_c01.inddintliff_c01.indd 1212 22/18/2012/18/2012 3:05:253:05:25 PMPM Alluvium

Tertiary sands and clays

Tertiary conglomerates

Sandstones and flysch

Limestones including marbles

Crystalline rocks other than marbles 0 100 Miles Volcanic rocks 0 200 Km.

Figure 1.2 Major geological zones of Greece. H. C. Darby et al., Naval Geographical Intelligence Handbook, Greece, vol. 1. London: Naval Intelligence Division 1944, Figure 4.

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This plate-tectonic compression created an arc- of eroded debris in shallow water, later compressed formed alignment of Alpine mountains and associated into rock itself, flysch, whose bright shades of red, earthquake and volcanic belts (Figure 1.2: Volcanic purple or green enliven the lower slopes of the rather Rocks), which begins as a NW-SE line for the monotonously greyscale, limestone high relief of Mainland mountain folds, then curves eastwards across Greece (Figure 1.2: Sandstones and Flysch). For a long the center of the Aegean Sea, as the E-W orientation period in the next subphase of the Tertiary era, the of Crete illustrates, and also the associated island arc of Neogene, alongside these flysch accumulations, epi- volcanoes from Methana to Santorini, to be continued sodes of intermediate sea level highs deposited marine in the E-W ridges of the Western Mainland of Anatolia- and freshwater sediments in the same areas of low to Turkey (Friedrich 2000). The Ionian and Aegean seas medium attitude terrain over large areas of Greece. have been formed by differential sinking of those lat- These produced rocks varying with depositional con- eral parts of the Alpine arc, creating the Aegean and text from coarse cobbly conglomerates of former tor- Ionian Islands out of former mountain ridges, hence rents or beaches, through sandstones of slower river their often rocky appearance. But also there have been and marine currents, to fine marly clays created in still tectonic ruptures in different alignments, the most water (Figure 1.2: Tertiary Sands and Clays, Tertiary notable being that E-W downward fault which forms Conglomerates). the Gulf of Corinth. The artificial cutting of the During the current geological era, the Quaternary, Corinth Canal in 1893 accomplished the removal of from two million years ago, the Earth has been largely the remaining 8 km stretch left by Nature. enveloped in Ice Ages, with regular shorter punctua- These plate-tectonic forces still operate today, since tions of global warming called Interglacials, each the Aegean region forms an active interface between sequence lasting some 100,000 years. Only in the the southerly African and northerly Eurasian blocks, highest Greek mountains are there signs of associated and is itself an unstable agglomerate of platelets. glacial activity, the Eastern Mediterranean being dis- Where zones of the Earth’s crust are clashing, and ride tant from the coldest zones further north in Eurasia. against, or force themselves under or over each other, More typical for Ice Age Greece were alternate phases there are notorious secondary effects: frequent earth- of cooler and wetter climate and dry to hyperarid quakes and arcs of volcanoes set behind the active cold climate. Especially in those Ice Age phases of plate boundaries (Color Plate 1.1). Recurrent Greek minimal vegetation, arid surfaces and concentrated earthquakes are a tragic reality, notably along the Gulf rainfall released immense bodies of eroded upland of Corinth, and the same zone curves into Turkey sediments, which emptied into the internal and with equally dire consequences. The volcanic arc runs coastal plains of Greece, as well as forming giant allu- from the peninsula of Methana in the Eastern vial (riverborne) and colluvial (slopewash) fans radiat- Peloponnese through the Cycladic islands of Melos ing out from mountain and hill perimeters. We are and Santorini-Thera. A secondary arc of earthquake fortunate to live in a warm Interglacial episode called sensitivity runs closer to Crete and its mark punctu- the Holocene, which began at the end of the last ates that island’s history and prehistory. Around 1550 Ice Age some 12,000 years ago. Alongside persistent years ago, a violent earthquake through the Eastern plate-tectonic effects – earthquakes around Corinth, Mediterranean elevated Western Crete by up to 9 one burying the Classical city of Helike (Soter et al. meters (Kelletat 1991), lifting Phalasarna harbor out 2001), earthquakes on Crete, and the Bronze Age vol- of the ocean (Frost and Hadjidaki 1990). canic eruption of Thera (Bruins et al. 2008) – the The mostly limestone mountains of Mainland Greek landscape has witnessed the dense infilling of Greece and Crete, as young ranges, are high and ver- human communities to levels far beyond the low tiginous, even close to the sea. Subsequently these density hunter-gatherer bands which occupied it in characteristics encouraged massive erosion, especially the pre-Holocene stages of the Quaternary era or as sea levels rose and sank but ultimately settled at a “Pleistocene” period. relatively low level to these young uplands. As a result, The results of human impact – deforestation, erosion, between the limestone ridges there accumulated masses mining, and the replacement of the natural plant and

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animal ecology with the managed crops and domestic 1.3a). The coastal and hinterland plains and coastal animals of mixed-farming life – are visible everywhere, cliff-ridges rise into intermediate terrain, hill country. yet certainly exaggerated. Holocene erosion-deposits in In the South and East of Greece this is mainly Tertiary valleys and plains are actually of smaller scale and extent yellowy-white marine and freshwater sediments, than Ice Age predecessors. Coastal change in historic forming rolling, fertile agricultural land (Color Plate times may seem dramatic but is as much the conse- 1.3b), but in the Northwest Mainland hard limestones quence of global sea level fluctuations (a natural result dominate the plain and valley edges, a harsh landscape of the glacial-interglacial cycle), as of human deforesta- suiting extensive grazing. A compensation in hard tion and associated soil loss in the hinterland (Bintliff limestone zones within this hill land, including the 2000, 2002). (In Figure 1.2, the largest exposures of the Northwest, is exposures of flysch, which vary from combined Pleistocene and Holocene river and slope fertile arable to a coarse facies prone to unstable “bad- deposits are grouped as Alluvium.) land” topography. As we move upwards and further Globally, at the end of the last Ice Age, sea level rose inland, our composite Greek landscape is dominated rapidly from 130 meters below present, reflecting by forbidding ridges of Alpine limestone (Color Plate swift melting (eustatic effects) of the major ice-sheets 1.3a), sometimes transformed by subterranean geo- (Roberts 1998). By mid-Holocene times, ca. 4000 bc, logical processes into dense marbles. Frequently at the when the Earth’s warming reached its natural interface between hill land and mountain altitudes Interglacial peak, sea levels were above present. occur much older rocks: tectonic folding and faulting Subsequently they lowered, but by some meters only. after the Alpine mountain-building phase has tipped However, due to a massive and slower response of up the original limestone terrain, bringing to light landmass readjustments to the weight of former ice- earlier geological formations of the Palaeozoic or pre- sheets, large parts of the globe saw vertical land and Alpine Mesozoic eras. They were joined by post- continental-shelf movements (isostatic effects), which Orogeny localized eruptive deposits. These are dense have created a relative and continuing sea level rise, crystalline rocks such as schists, slates, and serpentines, though again just a few meters. The Aegean is an area whose bright colors and sharp edges trace the borders where such landmass sinking has occurred in recent between the towering grey masses of limestone and millennia (Lambeck 1996). The Aegean scenario is: the gentler hill lands of Tertiary sandstones or flysch large areas of former dry land were lost to rising seas which make up much of the Greek intermediate ele- in Early to Mid-Holocene, 10,000–4000 bc, depriv- vations. The intervention of such impermeable rocks ing human populations of major areas of hunting and even as thin bands at the foot of limestone massifs gathering (Sampson 2006). Subsequently Aegean sea commonly forms a spring-line, neatly lying between levels have risen slightly (around a meter per millen- good arable below and good grazing land above, a nium), but remained within a few meters of the 4000 prime location for human settlement. The recent vol- BC height, allowing river deposits to infill coastal bays canic deposits can be fertile arable land, if sufficient and landlock prehistoric and historic maritime sites. rainfall frees their rich minerals to support soil devel- Let me try to give you the “feel” of the three- opment and plant growth. Finally, in some regions of dimensional Greek landscape. From a sea dotted with Greece, mainly the Northeast Mainland, the Orogeny islands, the rocky peaks of submerged mountains played a limited role, and the mountain massifs are (Color Plate 1.2a), and occasional volcanoes, the much older dense crystalline rocks. Greek coastlands alternate between gently sloping plains of Holocene and Pleistocene sediments, and cliffs of soft-sediment Tertiary hill land or hard rock Climate limestone ridges. The coastal plains and those further inland are a combination of younger, often marshy As with its geology, Greece does not have a single alluvial and lagoonal sediments (usually brown hues) climate (Admiralty 1944, Bintliff 1977). Our image of (Color Plate 1.2b), and drier older Pleistocene alluvial long dry summers and mild winters with occasional and colluvial sediments (often red hues) (Color Plate rain reflects the focus of foreign visitors on the

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Millimeters

Under 400

400–800

800–1200

Over 1200 200 Km.

Figure 1.3 Average annual rainfall in Greece. H. C. Darby et al., Naval Geographical Intelligence Handbook, Greece, vol. 1. London: Naval Intelligence Division 1944, Figure 59.

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Southeast Mainland, the Aegean islands, and lowland drought is a constant threat to crop cultivation and Crete, where this description is appropriate. animal-raising, and is frequent enough to pose an The two key factors in the Greek climate are the adaptive challenge for any past Greek society with a country’s location within global climate belts, and the dense population and elaborate division of labor. dominant lines of Greece’s physical geography. Greece The powerful effects of geology and climate in cre- lies in the path of the Westerly Winds, so that autumn ating the diverse landscapes of Greece are also domi- and spring rainfall emanates from the Atlantic, but is nant in the mosaic of natural and artificial vegetation much less intense than in Northwest Europe. The belts which one meets in traveling from South to Westerly rainbelt decreases in strength the further south North, or East to West, and even more clearly from and east you go in the Mediterranean. Most of Modern coast to inland mountains. Greece has the same latitude as Southern Spain, Southern Italy, and Sicily, making all these regions strikingly more arid than the rest of Southern Europe. Vegetation In summer the country lies within a hot dry weather system linking Southern Europe to North Africa. In Climbing to higher altitudes in the Mediterranean winter cold weather flows from the North Balkans. produces effects comparable to traveling northwards The internal physical landforms of the country also toward the Arctic, passing out of Mediterranean into have a major effect on the distribution of rainfall, temperate, then continental and finally to subarctic snow, and frost, and temperatures through the year. climates (Admiralty 1944, Bintliff 1977, Rackham The Alpine Orogeny stamped the Mainland with 1983, Kautzky 1993). Average annual temperatures mountain blocks running Northwest to Southeast. decline, and although summers can be hot they are On Crete these ranges swing East-West toward milder than in coastal lowlands; autumn, spring, and Anatolia, so its high mountains form an island back- winter are colder and rainier; finally, winter frost and bone on this alignment, but the relative depression of snow increase with height above sea level. The posi- the Aegean Sea caused a tilting of the island, leaving tion of the uplands relative to rain-bearing autumn its western third far more elevated. These Alpine and spring Westerlies modify these effects, also true obstacles, rising in the west and central sectors of the for the winter cold climate cells which derive from Greek Mainland and Crete, force the Westerly rains to the Balkans. Thus when traveling west and north from deposit the major part of their load along the West the Mediterranean climate zone of the Southeast face of Greece and in Western Crete, making the Mainland coast and its offshore islands, or merely Eastern Mainland, the Aegean Islands, and Eastern inland and up into the hill land and then mountains, Crete lie in rainshadow, thus restricting the available we observe a succession of natural vegetation zones rainfall for plants and humans (Figure 1.3). which are related to the main vegetation zones of Temperature, rainfall, and frost-snow also vary Europe from its far south to its far north. according to altitude, and Greece is a land of rapid Evergreen trees (oaks, olives) give way to mixed altitudinal contrasts. No part of the broadest landmass, evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, then decid- the Northern Mainland, is more than 140 km from uous vegetation is gradually displaced by hardy conif- the sea, whilst for the Peloponnese the most inland erous trees, until finally in the highest or rockiest point is 45 km distant, yet in these short spans one can mountain peaks trees decline and Alpine grasses and move (sometimes in a few hours), from sea level to the low plants dominate. However, this is a picture of typ- high mountain zone. With height come lower tem- ical conditions throughout Greece in the middle of an peratures and more snow-frost, milder summers, and Interglacial period, and for the Holocene this has more severe winters than experienced in the favored been much modified by human impact. summer and winter tourist destinations of the Aegean Since people colonized the Greek landscape in Islands and coasts of the Southeast Mainland, but in large numbers, from the Late Neolithic (ca. 5000 bc), compensation, there is less risk of drought and life- they have modified natural vegetation to assist their threatening heatwaves. In the drier zones of Greece farming-herding economy, whilst from the mature

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Feet Normal upper limit of cultivation 5000

Upper slopes, Potatoes Apples 4000 intermontane basins and pears plateaus Straw- berries 3000 Vegetables Vine olives Plums Wheat (often intertilled) Nuts barley Lower slopes Peach fig 2000 (Terracing) apricot

Mulberry Tobacco 1000 Lowland and Maize valley floors (Irrigation and dry farming) CitrusFruits Cotton Sugar cane Rice 0

Figure 1.4 The vertical zonation of crops in the Mediterranean lands. J. M. Houston, The Western Mediterranean World. London 1964, Figure 28. Courtesy of J. M. Houston.

Iron Age onwards (ca. 800 bc) intensified mining and as the “agropastoral” (farmer-herder) economy adapted timber extraction has increased human impact. In to local climate and topography (Figure 1.4). In the some regions and periods in the past, natural wood- lowlands and hill lands, to several hundred meters land disappeared or was reduced to a patchwork amid above sea level, natural Mediterranean evergreen a landscape of fields, pastures or mere wasteland. woodland, alternating with dry steppe and shrubs Photographs for much of Greece from the late nine- where stoniness or aridity prevented tree cover, has teenth to early twentieth centuries frequently portray become a cultivated “woodland” of evergreen olives, treeless, almost lunar landscapes. Fortunately the figs, vines, and (after Medieval importation) citrus Greek government in recent decades has implemented fruits. Natural grasses and bulbs have been replaced increasingly effective reafforestation and woodland by the favored bread grasses wheat, barley, and the preservation programs. Redirection of the economy root crops beans, lentils, and melons. From the six- away from extensive sheep and goat raising has dra- teenth to seventeenth centuries AD onwards, the matically allowed uplands to regenerate tree cover. versatile exotic maize and exotic commercial shrubs European Union agricultural policies, and internal cotton and tobacco spread widely. In the cooler hill pressure to focus Greek farming on highly commer- lands, fruit and nut trees, which were a natural cial forms of land use, are also creating divergent paths component of the European mixed deciduous- in the previously cultivated landscape. Open lowlands evergreen vegetation, have been favored, such as and areas with plentiful pumped irrigation water are apples, whilst the milder, wetter climate suited now intensively farmed throughout the year for mul- native vegetables and Early Modern imports such as tiple crops. In contrast, vast areas of hill country where potatoes. In the higher uplands more open landscapes motor and irrigation access are restricted, and fields due to climate, culminating in high level grass-bulb small, are swiftly reverting to scrubland and bushes. landscapes, have been drastically enhanced by human Areas suitable for archaeological landscape survey are clearance (by fire, axe, and grazing) to make pasture- increasingly confined by this polarization of land use. lands, where cooler summers compared to the However, human impact from later prehistoric lowlands have encouraged specialist herders to bring times onwards has always been regionally diversified, seasonally transhumant domestic flocks.

BBintliff_c01.inddintliff_c01.indd 1818 22/18/2012/18/2012 3:05:273:05:27 PMPM Vegetation higher land in the South and much of the lower land in the North. Within the great upland zones The zonal vegetation map of Greece (Color Plate which constitute Mainland Greece’s rugged inte- 1.4) demonstrates that topography, geology, and rior, Mediterranean vegetation disappears and we climate collaborate to produce a clear trend in the find deciduous and increasingly with altitude more distribution of typical natural vegetation during a continental tree species, such as hardy conifers, the warm period such as our current Interglacial. The latter dominant as we ascend the mountains. Even drier coastlands and islands, mainly in the South without human interference there would be small and especially the Southeast, display Mediterranean zones in the uppermost mountain belts with evergreen, drought-resistant plants. If unaffected by Alpine, non-tree grassland and other low plants. fire, grazing, and cultivation (a minority of the Given the fact that in Greece one can move within landscape!) one would find savannah or woodland a short distance from the dry coastland up into composed of trees like evergreen oak, Aleppo pine, fringing mountains, it is often possible in many and wild olive. Moving away from the Southeast parts of Greece to walk in a day from Mediterranean Mainland coasts and islands, north and west, higher evergreen brushland through deciduous, then rainfall and often higher relief support mixed coniferous, woodland and see ahead the bare Mediterranean evergreen and deciduous woodland Alpine-plant zone on the crests of the mountains. species, deciduous oaks, beech, and chestnut. Such For typical, mostly natural, tree species see mixed vegetation would in the natural state typify Figure 1.5. In the Greek lowlands original woodland

1

1 Grasses A 2 2 Shrub 3 Greek fir 4 Beech 5 Hungarian oak B 6 Austrian pine 3 7 Hop-hornbeam 8 Sweet chestnut 4 9 Downy oak 10 Cypress C 5 11 Stone pine 12 Aleppo pine 6 13 Holm oak 14 Olive tree 15 Manna ash

A Alpine vegetation zone D 7 B Mediterranean montane forest zone C Deciduous forest zone 8 D Deciduous forest zone with elements of evergreen forest E Eu-Mediterranean evergreen forest zone

9

10

E

11 12 13 14 15

Figure 1.5 Vegetation sequence in Greece, from Mediterranean lowland (right) to inner mountain peaks (left). Modified from J. Kautzky, Natuurreisgids Griekenland. Vasteland en Kuststreken. De Bilt 1995, diagram on p. 23.

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cover was first removed on a large scale by later (Rackham 1983): degraded evergreen woodland Neolithic and Bronze Age times, and the cultivable becomes low shrubland (“maquis”), predominantly landscape is considered to have already possessed its prickly oak bushes. More heavily degraded land, or Early Modern appearance by Classical Greek times where bare rock is very prominent, supports thin (Bintliff 1977, 1993): a mosaic of open land (domi- grassland mixed with spiky plants (“steppe”). Finally nated by grain crops) and cultivated olive and fig in the least vegetated zones, the result of maximum orchards and vineyards. In place of woodland, human impact or the dominance of bare rock, we where agriculture is not found, human impact by find very low, widely-spaced “phrygana” or “garri- fire and grazing, or natural climatic aridity, give rise gue” vegetation, notable for aromatic fragrances and to three levels of sub-woodland vegetation, in valued by bees and humans for nourishment and decreasing order of size and ground surface cover cuisine respectively (sage, thyme).

Pollen analysis documents the evolution of vegeta- From the Bronze Age till Medieval times, the tion in Greece, taken from lake and coastal corings. natural climate seems to have been mostly warm and A prediction for a warm epoch or Interglacial, such dry. The Mesolithic hunter-gatherers (see Time Chart as our Holocene period, without human interference, in Introduction) would experience the rather differ- comes from a deep boring at Philippi in Northeast ent climate of the early interglacial model, whilst the Mainland Greece which covers the last million years Neolithic farmers would experience a transition to (Wijmstra et al. 1990). A warm, wet early phase, with increasingly drier conditions. Although the Earth had mixed deciduous and evergreen open woodland, probably not begun to shift definitively toward a late would by mid-interglacial in the lowlands give way to interglacial climate, before human-induced Global a drier Mediterranean climate, encouraging denser Warming overrode any natural cyclical patterns, cli- evergreen woodland, then be succeeded, as the era matologists argue that during the last 2000 years the moves toward a new glacial, by a cooler and wetter Earth has experienced several shorter phases of wetter, climate encouraging a rise in deciduous vegetation. colder climate. The classic example is the Little Ice This reconstruction agrees with early-mid Holocene Age between Late Medieval and Early Modern times pollen cores from the drier Southern Greek climate. (Bintliff 1982, Grove 2004). Furthermore, within the Here Bottema (1990) noted increasingly drier climate warm, dry mid-interglacial mode, and the early wetter through the early farming eras of the later Neolithic but warm mode, climatologists have also identified and Bronze Age, in Middle Holocene times (more large-scale episodes of intense drought, around 6200 pronounced from 5000 to 4000 bc), then a postulated and 2200 bc, both considered as particularly signifi- rise in rainfall, or aridity decline, in Late Holocene cant for the Eastern Mediterranean region (Weiss times (from the Iron Age on, ca. 1000 bc). Nonetheless, 1993, Rosen 2007). since the Middle-Late Holocene era coincides The vegetation of the Aegean has certainly altered with several phases of major human impact on the over the last 10,000 years, in the first place responding landscape, through woodland clearance and the to global climatic changes. These changes form long- expansion of cultivated crops and managed grazing, it term cycles, over which are superimposed smaller becomes difficult to separate out vegetational changes interruptions. Human impact, through progressive due to climate and those under anthropogenic clearance, but also cyclical, as human populations (human-inspired) influence. Combinations of natural waxed and waned, are a further factor impacting on and human factors, as with soil erosion, seem prefer- the degree of natural vegetation and its type, but we able to comprehend Greek landscapes for these now see that visible alterations may be as much due to recent millennia (Rackham 1982, Atherden and Hall natural as to anthropogenic causes, most frequently it 1994). seems a combination of these.

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Soils enrich the diet, and both excellent trade crops. Even the “wasteland” of scrub and thin woodland formed Greece’s semi-arid climate limits its soils (Figure 1.6) till recently a sustainable, fruitful extension of food from developing a great depth or elaborate mature and raw materials for rural communities (Rackham profiles. Greek soils often remain thin, accumulating 1982, Forbes 1997). slowly, and largely reflect the parent rock and sediment they develop on. Geology is therefore fundamental for soil type distribution. Thus the scattered volcanic dis- Erosion tricts are echoed by characteristic Volcanic Soils, mostly not too fertile as they border the dry Aegean Sea. Far Ever since it was commented on by the Classical commoner, hard crystalline limestone produces char- philosopher Plato, the erosion of Greece and the acteristic derived soils (Limestone Soils), thin and none resultant lowland sedimentation in valleys and plains too fertile, often patchy between rugged rock. The was envisaged as a continuous process of landscape intermediate hill land of Greece once possessed fertile transformation, and condemned as negative and deep woodland soils, but due to human impact those anthropogenic in origin (van Andel et al. 1986, 1990). parts occupied the longest, and farmed continuously, With the advent of farming and herding commenced have developed thin stony soils, here mapped along widespread woodland clearance, gaining momentum with similar naturally thin soils of the interior moun- from prehistoric times into Greco-Roman antiquity. tains (Stony Mountain Soils and bare Rock); Terra Rossas Soils were supposedly stripped or impoverished, and Rendzinas have similar properties and origins (for sloping landscapes degraded to grazing or even rock. the former, see Color Plate 1.3a). Only in some zones Ports declined as river alluvium bringing eroded do better, deeper soils survive extensively (Brown Forest debris of hinterland clearance spilled around them, Soils and Mediterranean Dry Forest Soils) (Color Plate creating a seawards retreating coastline. Even where 1.3b). Coastal plains and the drier inland basins, with sensible farmers built terraces to reduce soil loss, alluvial and colluvial sediments, have their own fertile cycles of human depopulation apparently led to their but sometimes marshy soils (Alluvial, Marsh, and neglect, releasing protected soil to flow into rivers. Meadow Soils) (Color Plate 1.2b). However, the last 40 years of scientific research into The overall picture reflects the rocky, mountainous Holocene geomorphology in Greece has revealed a topography of Greece, the limited expanses of rocks more complex picture than that just depicted, and that make rich soil, the confined zones of plain one where human impact is matched by natural pro- (excepting Northern Greece), and the dry climate. cesses (Bintliff 2000, 2002). Firstly, in parts of Greece Greece is not a naturally rich country for farming, geology or hyperarid climate restrict woodland cover. reminding us why the Greeks in many eras imported Soils here undergo natural weathering, or were always food, notably grain. However, even if we assume that thin. Secondly, in the early Holocene, till 5000 bc, an in regions with dense prehistoric and ancient settle- evolving Interglacial climate stimulated more open ment the once deeper soils have been reduced to a landscapes with enhanced natural erosion. Human thinner form, due to woodland clearance and erosion, impact is undoubtedly registered from the later these soils can still provide plentiful harvests at sub- Neolithic period (ca. 5000 bc) onwards, in cycles of sistence level (Shiel 2000), though hardly for sus- woodland clearance followed by regeneration, and in tained, large-scale export of wheat, barley or vegeta- the high population, full land use half of each cycle, bles. Moreover, in some areas, soil impoverishment such open landscapes also favored soil erosion. But based on a model of constant environmental decline now comes a vital factor, the immediate cause of may not hold true at all (James et al. 1994). In erosion, which is the weather. Studies have demon- compensation, the abundant exposures of steep and strated that severe erosion is often linked with unusual rocky, thin soils in a dry climate with low frosts make rainstorms or other highly abnormal weather condi- ideal growing conditions for two classic Mediterranean tions. Extreme storms may occur once in a lifetime or crops, the olive and the vine, the former vital to at even longer intervals.

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Dark chestnut steppe soils

Brown forest soils

Mediterranean dry forest soils

Terra rossa and rendzinas

Limestone rock and limestone rock soils

0 100 Miles Stony mountain soils and bare rock 0 200 Km. Volcanic soils

Figure 1.6 Soils of Greece. H. C. Darby et al., Naval Geographical Intelligence Handbook, Greece, vol. 1. London 1944, Figure 7.

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Height [m] +20 N S Hypothetical axis of Kara Menderes [Scamander] Valley × Yrs before present 1000 T7

20 15 10 5 0 Troy T6 Permian +10 2 km east Dardanelles Fluvial Climatic T2 3250 yrs optimum T1 T5 T3 Present floodplain surface Land 4500 BP Sea level curve 4500 yrs Present present 0 2000 yrs BP sea Brackish level 2045 BP freshwater Sandy marine embayment swamp

7000 BP –20 Silt-clay marine embayment 7000 yrs BP 7663 BP 8547 BP 7880 BP Fluvial Silt-clay marine embayment 10,000 BP –40 20796 BP 9775 BP 31961 BP Base of Holocene Depth [m] Marine embayment ürm and/or Rise-Würm Neogene? Mid-W 33238 BP MARINE SEDIMENT OLDER FILL > 39861BP –60 Mid Würm Time lines: and/or Riss Würm Fluvial Deposition erosion surfaces C14 dates corrected to 5730 ½ life –80 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 km

Figure 1.7 Cross-section of the infill of the Plain of Troy, Northwestern Anatolia, since the last glacial era. Note the dominance of marine deposits and of river sediments laid down in a former sea inlet almost to the innermost part of the plain, and the late and superficial progradation (advance) of the modern dry land plain alluvia. Author after J. C. Kraft et al., “Geomorphic reconstructions in the environs of ancient Troy,” Science 209 (1980), 776–782, Figure 3. Reproduced by permission of American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Let us predict how these complex processes might equilibrium” model). Rare phases of landscape insta- register in the Greek geomorphological (land surface) bility, apart from Early Holocene examples, lie within record. For Early Holocene erosion processes we periods of dense human occupation, but fail to cor- expect little human responsibility, then in Middle and relate with every population climax (Pope et al. 2003). Late Holocene times (later Greek prehistory till Finally we must rethink our scenarios for coastline today), cycles of high human population would be change. Firstly, it is widely forgotten that hill erosion irregularly punctuated by erosion phases, whilst even benefits the lowlands through deposition of fertile in low population phases occasional, irregular erosion alluvia and colluvia. Secondly, we must be critical of episodes could appear. Most of the time, even during the view that the frequently observed advance of river population climaxes, major erosion would be absent. deltas into the sea during historic times is clear evi- A final qualification is required: pollen analysis shows dence for ecological mismanagement of the hinter- that considerable expanses of upland Greece remained land of the Aegean coasts, due to human deforestation wooded, with low human populations, till the Early and poor soil conservation. Scientific research reveals Modern period (Bottema 1974), chiefly in the a more complex interplay between natural Interglacial Northern Mainland. The accumulating Holocene processes and human impact. Boreholes through the landscape record for Greece corresponds closely: ero- larger coastal plains of the Greek and Turkish Aegean sion in prehistoric through ancient to Medieval times coasts give comparable cross-sections, illustrating how occurs as a series of irregular, short-lived episodes, set these plains have been built up since the last glacial against longer periods of landscape stability marked period (Figure 1.7). During the last Ice Age, sea levels by soil development (what is called a “punctuated 130 meters below present, and prolonged millennia of

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open landscape with highly erosive climate, produced lost past of pre-capitalist, pre-industrial lifestyles. If deep slope and plain sedimentation in the coastlands the painter Gauguin sought this in Tahiti, others and well beyond into the present marine shallows stayed at home and tapped into folk traditions within (categorized as “Older Fill” in the Figure). In the Western Europe itself (language, music, dress, folk- Early Holocene, swift global ice-sheet melting caused lore), a movement developing since the birth of the rapidly rising sea levels, outpacing the laying down of Romantic Movement around the start of the nine- eroded sediments in river deltas, which was also dras- teenth century. tically reduced in volume as the hinterland became Now Western scholar-travelers were more inclined increasingly wooded. Till 4000 BC the sea encroached to cherish the characteristics of conservative society on coastlines, and although continued natural, and in rural Greece, previously deplored. Simple peasant human-related, erosion still brought sediments down- life, close to an unchanging nature, its spontaneity and stream, these were poured into advancing submarine semi-pagan rituals, appeared preferable to Modern bays. From this point onwards, two linked processes Life, and surely also suggested a direct insight into the interacted to reverse this general trend: sea level rise world of the ordinary people of the Classical or globally slowed down or ceased, with subsequently Bronze Age landscape. This led Sir Arthur Evans for only minor fluctuations in height, and human clear- example, excavator of the Minoan palace at Knossos, ance from Late Neolithic times onwards became a to construct a Golden Age in Bronze Age Crete, major, if cyclical, force which exposed large hinter- which later scholarship has difficulty extricating itself land terrains to potential erosion. Taken together these from (Bintliff 1984, MacGillivray 2000). Throughout effects have favored coastal plains advancing on the the twentieth century, observations of traditional life- sea. Historical references certainly match sediment ways in Greece seemed logically linked to our picture cores for Aegean coastal plains (Brückner 2003, Kraft of the remoter past, and even in the 1970s and 1980s et al. 1977, 1980, 1987), showing dramatic gains in the anthropologists were attached to archaeological teams land even over a few centuries during the last 2500 (cf. Jameson 1976), not just to bring the story of a years. However in cross-section the depth of these landscape into the present day, but in the expectation historical-era natural-anthropogenic sediments is that traditional practices could be extrapolated to the rarely great, coating a superficial skin on top of much long-term past. deeper, naturally caused, delta deposits of the earlier A belief in direct historical continuity played a cen- Holocene and Ice Age millennia. tral role. Only a minority of scholars were attracted by Fallmerayer’s nineteenth-century theory that Modern Greeks were largely descended from Slav colonization Ethnoarchaeology in post-Roman times. Most assumed that Classical Greek populations survived and dominated ethnically The study of “traditional” Greek society as a source throughout the Medieval and Early Modern eras. The for reconstructing everyday life in ancient and prehis- discovery in the 1950s that Late Bronze Age popula- toric Greece has long been popular. When Western tions, at least on the Mainland, spoke Greek, allowed Travelers began to visit Greece in significant numbers, Greek ethnicity to extend even further back. during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Renfrew’s hypothesis (1987) that the most significant ad, their reaction to Greek countryfolk was frequently populating of the Aegean occurred with Neolithic negative (Tsigakou 1981, Angelomatis-Tsougarakis farming colonization around 7000 bc, would envisage 1990). Manners, dress, houses, and education disap- ancestral Greeks in parts of the country from an pointed the visitor seeking the descendants of Pericles astonishingly early date. With such an embedded eth- or Plato. But whereas those Travelers were educated nicity, and the concept that “traditional” Greek coun- into a colonial and imperialist condescension toward tryfolk in the Early Modern period possessed limited the rest of the World, by the turn of the twentieth horizons, focused on their village and a nearby market century growing disillusionment with Western town, could one not reasonably suppose that the prac- achievements encouraged intellectuals to admire a tices of farming, house-building, social behavior, and

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ritual could have changed little over the centuries or familiar practice in many parts of the Mainland and even millennia? Crete, developed in the post-Medieval era in intimate However, during the late twentieth century, Post- relation to proto-capitalist and later capitalist markets Colonial thinking (Said 1980), and a growing interest for textile manufacture, and to modern forms of com- in globalization, led historians and anthropologists to munication enabling long-distance trade in pastoral question how untouched and authentic “traditional” products. It becomes necessary to account for alterna- societies could be. Almost none was remote enough tive economic circumstances in earlier periods (such to escape significant impact from the expansion of as palace economies), which could have stimulated colonialism and capitalism. For Greece, Halstead and supported such an elaborate lifeway in the (1987, 2006) challenged the assumption that lifeways remoter past, rather than assume, as was the case up to had changed little since the Bronze Age. the 1980s, that Aegean transhumance was an unchang- On my own Boeotia Project, cultural anthropolo- ing feature of rural life ever since prehistory. gist Cliff Slaughter radically deconstructed the “tradi- On this historically-contextualized basis, Greek tional” nature of life in the villages where our field- ethnoarchaeology has entered a new phase of indis- work was based (Slaughter and Kasimis 1986). pensable insight-production for researchers into the Although the Askra villagers are notorious today as pre-Modern eras. At the same time, it has given more in the poet Hesiod’s lifetime in the same valley com- depth to our understanding of the specific nature of munity (ca. 700 bc), for legal disputes about estate the Early Modern period itself, which has till recently boundaries, ties between antiquity and the present day been characterized as an unchanging society repre- remain limited and superficial. Farmers depart at senting ancient lifeways rapidly pulled into Western dawn for scattered smallholdings, but village incomes modernity. chiefly derive from factory work, intensive irrigation using deep machine-pump wells, massive low-interest bank loans, and income earned abroad. It is notewor- References thy that most Boeotian villagers are descendants of Albanian colonization in the fourteenth and fifteenth Admiralty (1944). Greece. 3 vols. London: HMSO, Naval centuries AD (Kiel 1997, Bintliff 1995, 2003), and Intelligence Division. conversations amongst the oldest residents are in Angelomatis-Tsougarakis, H. (1990). The Eve of the Greek Greek laced with this “Arvanitic” dialect, which most Revival. London: Routledge. rural Boeotians used as their primary tongue into the Atherden, M. A. and J. A. Hall (1994). “Holocene pollen diagrams from Greece.” Historical Biology 9, 117–130. early twentieth century. Attenborough, D. (1987). The First Eden. London: BBC This questioning of “tradition” has nonetheless Books. produced positive effects. Observations from Early Bintliff, J. L. (1977). Natural Environment and Human Modern Greece can still provide a series of possible Settlement in Prehistoric Greece. 2 vols. Oxford: BAR ways of life, against which the empirical data for a Supplementary Series 28. particular period of antiquity or prehistory can be Bintliff, J. L. (1982). “Palaeoclimatic modelling of environ- compared or indeed contrasted (Efstratiou 2007). This mental changes in the East Mediterranean region since is currently the basis for global ethnoarchaeology and the last glaciation.” In J. Bintliff and W. van Zeist (eds.), experimental archaeology. A common way of manag- Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities ing field crops, such as alternate fallow years, might in the Eastern Mediterranean. Oxford: BAR Int. Series 133, have been practiced at certain stages of population 485–530. Bintliff, J. L. (1984). “Structuralism and myth in Minoan density in the past, especially when the appropriate Studies.” Antiquity 58, 33–38. technology had become available, but for the same Bintliff, J. (1993). “Forest cover, agricultural intensity and pop- reasons would be unlikely in other periods. Likewise ulation density in Roman imperial Boeotia, central Greece.” the well-known large-scale transhumance of sheep, In B. Frenzel (ed.), Evaluation of Land Surfaces Cleared from goats, and cattle (seasonal long-distance movement of Forests in the Mediterranean Region During the Time of the herds especially between uplands and lowlands), a Roman Empire. Stuttgart: Fischer Verlag, 133–143.

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Rosen, A. M. (2007). Civilizing Climate. Lanham: AltaMira. van Andel, T. H., E. Zangger, and A. Demitrack (1990). Said, E. W. (1980). Orientalism. London: Routledge. “Land use and soil erosion in prehistoric and historical Sampson, A. (ed.) (2006). The Prehistory of the Aegean Basin. Greece.” Journal of Field Archaeology 17, 379–396. Athens: Atrapos. Weiss, H. (1993). “The genesis and collapse of third millen- Shiel, R. S. (2000). “Refuting the land degradation myth for nium North Mesopotamian civilization.” Science 261, Boeotia.” In G. Bailey, R. Charles, and N. Winder (eds.), 995–1004. Human Ecodynamics. Oxford: Oxbow, 55–62. Wijmstra, T. A., R. Young, and H. J. L. Witte (1990). “An evalu- Slaughter, C. and C. Kasimis (1986). “Some social-anthro- ation of the climatic conditions during the Late Quaternary pological aspects of Boeotian rural society: A field in northern Greece by means of multivariate analysis of report.” Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 10, 103–159. palynological data and comparison with recent phytosocio- Soter, S. et al. (2001). “Environmental analysis of cores from logical and climatic data.” Geologie en Mijnbouw 69, 243–251. the Helike Delta, Gulf of Corinth, Greece.” Journal of Coastal Research 17, 95–106. Further Reading Tsigakou, F. M. (1981). The Rediscovery of Greece. London: Thames & Hudson. Renfrew, A. C. (1972). The Emergence of Civilisation. The van Andel, T. H., C. N. Runnels, and K. O. Pope (1986). Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium BC. London: “Five thousand years of land use and abuse in the Methuen. Southern Argolid, Greece.” Hesperia 55(1), 103–128. Warren, P. (1975). The Aegean Civilizations. London: Elsevier.

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