ISSN 2334-3745 Volume XIII, Issue 6 December 2019 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 13, Issue 6 Table of Contents Welcome from the Editors...............................................................................................................................1 Articles Terrorism and Ideology: Cracking the Nut....................................................................................................2 by Donald Holbrook and John Horgan The Crime and State Terrorism Nexus: How Organized Crime Appropriates Counterinsurgency Violence..........................................................................................................................................................16 by Philip L. Johnson Political Violence from the Extreme Right in Contemporary Portugal......................................................27 by Riccardo Marchi and Raquel da Silva Civil Liberties, National Security and US Courts in Times of Terrorism....................................................43 by James M. Lutz and Georgia W. Ulmschneider Southeast Asian Fighters from Islamic State Document Leaks: A Historical Snapshot..............................58 by Shashi Jayakumar & Cameron Sumpter Converging Patterns in Pathways in and out of Violent Extremism: Insights from Former Canadian Right-Wing Extremists..................................................................................................................................73 by Maxime Bérubé, Ryan Scrivens, Vivek Venkatesh and Tiana Gaudette Research Note Effectiveness in Counter-Terrorism and Countering Violent Extremism: A Literature Review.................90 by Joshua Sinai, with Jeffrey Fuller and Tiffany Seal Resources Dirk Baehr, Der Weg in den Jihad. Radikalierungsursachen von Jihadisten in Deutschland [The Road to Jihad. Causes of Radicalisation of Jihadists in Germany]...........................................................................109 Reviewed by Alex P. Schmid Counterterrorism Bookshelf: 20 Books on Terrorism & Counter-Terrorism-Related Subjects...............111 Reviewed by Joshua Sinai ISSN 2334-3745 I December 2019 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 13, Issue 6 Bibliography: Terrorism Prevention............................................................................................................116 Compiled and selected by Judith Tinnes Bibliography: Terrorism by Country – Mali...............................................................................................167 Compiled and selected by David Teiner Recent Online Resources for the Analysis of Terrorism and Related Subjects..........................................193 Compiled and selected by Berto Jongman Conference Monitor/Calendar of Events (December 2919 – March 2020)................................................229 Compiled by Reinier Bergema Announcements About Perspectives on Terrorism..................................................................................................................237 ISSN 2334-3745 II December 2019 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 13, Issue 6 Welcome from the Editors Dear Reader, We are pleased to announce the release of Volume XIII, Issue 6 (December 2019) of Perspectives on Terrorism (PoT). Our free and independent online journal is a publication of the Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI), Vienna, and the Institute of Security and Global Affairs (ISGA) of Leiden University’s Campus in The Hague. All PoT issues are available at https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/perspectives-on-terrorism. Now in its thirteenth year, Perspectives on Terrorism has more than 8,700 registered subscribers and many more occasional readers and website visitors worldwide. The articles of its six annual issues are fully peer- reviewed by external referees while its Research and Policy Notes, Special Correspondence, Resources and other content are subject to internal editorial quality control. A brief look at the content of the current issue: The first of the six articles in this issue, by Donald Holbrook and John Horgan, explores the controversial relationship between ideology and terrorism. This is followed by Philip Johnson’s article on the adoption of state terrorism tactics by organised crime groups in Mexico. Next, Riccardo Marchi and Raquel da Silva analyze four decades of right-wing political violence in Portugal. Then James Lutz and Georgia Ulmschneider look at the impact of counter-terrorism on civil liberties in the United States, and Shashi Jayakumar and Cameron Sumpter explore the profiles of S.E. Asian foreign fighters, based on documents leaked from the Islamic State. In a final article, Maxime Bérubé and three of her colleagues reconstruct why ten Canadian right-wing extremists joined and ultimately left extremist violence-prone groups. The articles section is followed by a Research Note on the literature on Counter-Terrorism (CT) and Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) by Joshua Sinai, our Book Reviews Editor. The book review section begins with Alex Schmid’s review of a remarkable dissertation by Dirk Baehr on the root causes of radicalisation of jihadists in the German Federal Republic. Joshua Sinai presents more new books by listing their tables of content while Associate Editor Judith Tinnes continues her series of extensive hand-searched bibliographies with one on Terrorism Prevention. David Teiner offers our readers a bibliography on terrorism in Africa, focusing especially on Mali. This is followed by Associate Editor Berto Jongman’s regular survey of new web-based resources on terrorism as well as related subjects such as radicalisation and extremism. The December issue concludes with an overview of recent and upcoming conferences, symposia and workshops on terrorism-related subjects by Assistant Editor Reinier Bergema. The current issue of Perspectives on Terrorism has been put together by Associate Editor Dr. Aaron Y. Zelin and Editor-in-Chief, Prof. em. Alex P. Schmid, with the support of co-editor, Prof. James J.F. Forest, and Associate Editor for IT issues, Christine Boelema Robertus, as well as with the help of Editorial Assistant Jodi Moore. As this year comes to an end, we wish our readers a more peaceful and secure 2020. ISSN 2334-3745 1 December 2019 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 13, Issue 6 Terrorism and Ideology: Cracking the Nut by Donald Holbrook and John Horgan Abstract An enduring bugbear in the study of terrorism is conceptualizing the role ideology plays for individuals involved in such activities. Explanations range from presenting ideology as a key determinant to those who argue that it is often barely relevant at all. In this article we seek to reconcile competing notions of ideology in the emergence of terrorism by making the case for a non-binary conceptualization of ideology. Our approach here emphasizes interpretations of social identity over depictions of the doctrinal. We divide key concerns about ideology in individual processes to terrorism into three related arguments: ‘cognition’, ‘causation’ and ‘exposure’ and explore how these can be reconciled. This more nuanced conceptual understanding of ideology in processes leading to terrorism, we suggest, will aid our analysis of terrorism and the way in which we may approach ideological variables in its context. Keywords: terrorism, ideology, cognition, belief, violence. Introduction The question ‘what causes terrorism?’ is perhaps both the most frequent and inevitable response to violent extremist events today. Though the search for satisfactory answers continues to elude even the most dedicated researchers, one common assumption centers around the role of ideology. That is to say, despite not necessarily knowing much about the precise mechanisms involved, we might safely assume that when it comes to explaining terrorism (as opposed to other kinds of illicit violent activities), that ideology plays at least some role in the development of violent extremist activity. However, there is no consensus in discussions about terrorism of what the role of ideology in these processes may look like. This article seeks to address that divergence. On one end of the spectrum, depictions of terrorism as manifestations of cohesive ‘ideologies’ are a constant theme in the reactions of political leaders to such events, and these are amplified in the post-event dissections of the news media and other commentators.[1] Terrorists are thus simply seen as acting on behalf of some hostile ‘ideology’ as they carry out acts of violence. Counterterrorism efforts, in turn, become framed in explicitly ideological terms. A former British prime minister, for instance, declared that combating terrorism involved a “generational […] battle against a poisonous ideology”.[2] Such depictions seem to limit explanations for the causes of terrorism to the presence of ideology, to which many are exposed, whilst terrorism remains a rare outcome of a very complex set of processes.[3] On the other end of the spectrum, there exists a strong body of scholarship—and one that has grown over the years—illustrating that consumption of, or commitment to, an ideology that endorses violence is not a strong predictor of involvement in terrorism. These scholars often see the role of ideology in the emergence of terrorism at an individual level as minimal or even absent.[4] Yet, while adoption of an ideology does not in itself lead people to become involved in terrorism, its role in these processes (and where and when precisely it becomes relevant for the individual) remains unclear, despite the attention the