The Helen H. Berkeley Gallery of Ancient Art opened 12/16/09 1
The Helen H. Berkeley Gallery of Ancient Art:
The Arts of Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome
The works of art produced by these powerful civilizations shaped a cultural legacy that has influenced Western artistic traditions for thousands of years.
These remarkable and enduring ancient cultures emerged along the Nile River and Mediterranean coastline as early as 4,000 BCE. They developed over time into sophisticated societies defined by their unique religions, writing systems, architecture, and art. Over the next three millennia, conflict, colonization, and commerce created an ebb and flow of artistic, social, and cultural exchange throughout the region.
What do “BCE” and “CE” mean?
BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (Common Era) refer to the same time periods as the more traditional BC (Before Christ) and AD (“Anno Domini,” which means “The Year of our Lord”).
In today’s global society, constant interaction between people of all religious beliefs requires a shared, or common, way of reckoning time. Although the terms BCE and CE have their origins in the Christian calendar, they are now widely used by people of many faiths and cultures.
For this reason, the Memorial Art Gallery has adopted BCE and CE for use in its galleries.
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Egypt
Preparations for the afterlife inspired the ancient Egyptians’ religious practices, social customs, and technological innovations.
Tomb sculptures, funerary objects, personal possessions, and hieroglyphic writings tell the stories of Egyptian kings, officials, laborers, servants, and their numerous gods. Egyptian culture and the arts that reflect it survived 5,000 years of changing dynasties and foreign conquests. Egypt’s cultural and artistic traditions proved stronger than any political rival or military invader until the rise of the Roman Empire.
Gods and Goddesses
Ancient Egyptians worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses, all integral to the natural cycle of life, death, and rebirth.
Many gods and goddesses symbolized elements of the natural world like the sky, earth, air, sun, or moon. Some also represented concepts such as wisdom, fertility, love, or chaos. A number of gods offered protection and good fortune, but others inspired dread and fear. All of these deities played important roles in the ways that Egyptians lived their lives on earth and how they prepared for an eternal life after death.
Djed-pillar Third Intermediate to Late Period The God Osiris as a Mummified Man (1069—332 BCE) Third Intermediate to Late Period Faience (1069—332 BCE) 28.168 Bronze 51.116
The God Osiris Seated Late Period (664—332 BCE) Bronze 28.2003L
Osiris, Egyptian god of the Underworld, ruled as king of all Egyptian gods and goddesses. The djed-pillar represents Osiris and symbolizes the strength of his backbone.
The God Khepri as a Scarab Beetle Late Period (664—332 BCE) The scarab was one of the most popular Stone and powerful amulets in ancient Egypt. 16.2003L
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Gods and Goddesses, con’t
The Goddess Neith The Goddess Wadjet Third Intermediate - Late Period, Saite Period (685—585 BCE) (1069—332 BCE) Bronze Bronze 51.118 51.117
The God Horus as a Youth Late Period (664—332 BCE) The God Thoth as an Ibis Bronze Late Period (664—332 BCE) 51.119 Bronze 28.400
The God Thoth as a Man The God Horus as a Falcon with an Ibis' Head Saite Period (664—525 BCE) Late Period (664—332 BCE) Bronze Faience 53.44 28.182
The God Anubis as a Jackal Late Period (664—332 BCE), The God Sokar as a Falcon with later restoration Late Period (664—332 BCE) Wood, pigment Wood, pigment 28.398 13.2003L
The God Anubis as a Man The Goddess Bastet with the with a Jackal's Head Aegis Shield Third Intermediate - Late Period, Late Period (664—332 BCE) 1069—332 BCE Bronze Faience T338 28.180
Sphinx Ptolemaic Period (332—30 BCE) Granite 51.307
The sphinx, a mythical creature with a human head and a lion’s body, is found in many ancient cultures. In ancient Egypt, the sphinx, a version of the solar god Horus, represented the dawn and the early rising sun. Egyptians associated ruling pharaohs with Horus and his royal powers. Large stone sphinxes frequently guarded the tombs of pharaohs and high priests.
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Protected for Eternity
Ancient Egyptians believed that funerary rituals of mummification, ceremonial rites, and proper burial would enable them to live again in the afterlife.
To begin the deceased’s journey into the afterlife, priests preserved the body through a complex and elaborate ritual called mummification. This process transformed the corpse into a body that would last for eternity.
An embalmer would remove the brain and some internal organs, preserving them in special containers. The body itself dried out for about 40 days, packed in a natural salt called natron. Ritual prayers, thousands of yards of linen wrappings, and protective amulets completed the body’s preservation, and allowed the deceased safe passage through the afterlife.
Inner Coffin of Pa-debehu-Aset Ptolemaic Period, 332—30 BCE Wood, polychromy, gilding, with glass, stone and shell inlay Shrine Coffin of Pa-debehu-Aset 2000.11.2 Ptolemaic Period, 332—30 BCE Wood, polychromy 2000.11.1
The Coffins of Pa-debehu-Aset
This pair of nesting coffins once held the mummy of Pa-debehu-Aset, an Egyptian official from the city of Asyut, midway down the River Nile.
Pa-debehu-Aset’s mummy, now lost, would have been placed in the anthropoid, or human- shaped, coffin. The anthropoid coffin would have nested in and been protected by the rectangular outer coffin, called a shrine coffin because it resembles the sacred shrine of a god. Both of Pa-debehu-Aset’s coffins are decorated with images and symbols of the gods and goddesses, as well as spells and prayers that would guide his soul into the afterlife.
Like all ancient Egyptians, Pa-debehu-Aset believed that the mummy was the eternal dwelling place for the spirits of the deceased. The divine powers of gods and goddesses would protect him during his life and after his death. Because of its human shape, the anthropoid coffin could serve as a substitute body should Pa-debehu-Aset’s mummy be destroyed.
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Protected for Eternity, con’t
Sacred Protection for the Afterlife
Ancient Egyptians believed that ornamented masks and body coverings as well as sacred texts could magically protect the mummy in the afterlife.
This mask, collar, and sandals are made of cartonnage, a material of plaster and linen similar to papier-mâché. In ancient Egypt, these cartonnage forms, frequently ornamented and painted with depictions of gods and goddesses, were placed on the body after it was mummified. These images, along with hymns and texts from the Book of the Dead, protected the mummy in the afterlife in the same way as the decoration on anthropoid coffins.
Mummy Mask Roman Period (30 BCE—350 CE) Cartonnage, pigment 15.2003L
Collar Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 CE) Cartonnage, pigment 21.2003aL
Sandals Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 CE) Cartonnage, pigment 21.2003b&cL
Eye Inlays New Kingdom to Late Period (1550 BCE—332 BCE) Bronze, stone, ivory 30.2003a – b
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The Peabody Essex Mummy Roman Period (30 BCE—350 CE) Linen, cartonnage, human remains, wood, pigment, gilding Loaned by the Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, E5817A (33.2003L)
The Peabody Essex Mummy
This is the mummy of a man who died around 50 CE, when Roman rulers controlled Egypt. Found by George A. Peabody in Fayum, Egypt on May 9, 1901, the mummy belongs to the collection of the Peabody Essex Museum in Salem, Massachusetts.
Priests wrapped his body in strips of linen, now discolored by the resins and ointments used during mummification. The painted designs on his coverings show protective gods and goddesses, including a winged sun disc and the kneeling goddess Nut. The gold of his mask indicates his ascendancy into the realm of the gods. His hair, painted blue, is decorated with a winged scarab.
Why are Mummies in American Museums?
During the 1800s and early 1900s, many Europeans and Americans traveled to Egypt. These travelers, who were fascinated by ancient Egyptian life and history, frequently found or purchased amulets, scarabs, coffins, and mummies. Some mummies were displayed as curiosities in private homes; others were collected by museums and studied in universities. But many were destroyed, either deliberately or through neglect. In recent years museums have made enormous efforts to preserve and protect these deceased individuals through careful conservation and proper environmental conditions.
Medical Technology and Mummies
X-rays and CT scans allow scientists to learn about mummies without damaging them. X- rays clearly show the condition of the skeleton, while CT scans—X-rays that are taken from multiple angles and combined to produce a cross-wise “slice” of a body structure—provide information about the soft tissues that surround the bones. The X-rays and CT scans of The Peabody Essex Mummy show that his arms are crossed across his chest, emulating the god Osiris. The images also demonstrate that almost every bone on his left side is disarticulated, or separated at the joints. Specialists determined that this damage happened after death, possibly because of poor burial conditions, looting, or transport from Egypt to Salem in the early 1900s.
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Amulets
Amulets are small objects that represent gods, goddesses, and symbols of rebirth. Made of bronze, clay, or stone, they offered the wearer sacred protection both in the world of the living and in the afterlife. Ancient Egyptians wore amulets as jewelry during life; priests would also place amulets within the wrappings of a mummy as they prepared it for burial. Certain amulets were placed in specific locations on the mummy, such as over the heart, the throat, or the incision on the abdomen.
The djed-pillar is the symbol of the god Osiris’ backbone and represents stability and strength. Priests placed small djed-pillar amulets near the spine of the deceased during the wrapping process.
Djed-pillar Amulet Egyptian, Late Period (664—332 BCE); faience; Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, E26478 (26.2003L)
The two-fingers amulet represents the fingers of Osiris and symbolizes his protective and healing powers. Priests placed this amulet near the incision used for removing the mummy’s internal organs because it would magically heal the wound.
Two-fingers Amulet Egyptian, Late Period (664—332 BCE); stone; Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, E54620 (29.2003L)
The wedjat-eye represents the eye of the god Horus and is a powerful symbol of healing, rebirth, and protection.
Wedjat-eye Amulet Egyptian, Late Period (664—332 BCE); faience; Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, E5764 (18.2003L)
The tyet sign represents the girdle, or belt, of the goddess Isis. Amulets with tyet signs, always included in the wrappings of mummies, were usually placed on the neck. This amulet shows six tyet signs linked together.
Tyet Sign Amulet Egyptian, Late Period (664—332 BCE); faience; Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, E5766 (19.2003L)
The figure of the ba-bird has a human head on a bird’s body and symbolizes the ba, one of the human spirits that could return to the body after death. Ba-bird amulets were usually placed on the mummy’s chest and, if necessary, could act as a substitute for the ba of the deceased.
Ba-bird Amulet Egyptian, Third Intermediate Period (1069—664 BCE); faience and pigment; The C. Herbert Ocumpaugh Collection, 28.261.1
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Amulets, con’t
Anubis was the god of mummification and protected the deceased’s body from harm. Amulets of Anubis would not have been worn as jewelry by the living but would only have been placed in the linen wrappings of the mummy.
Amulet of the God Anubis Egyptian, Late Period (664—332 BCE); faience; The C. Herbert Ocumpaugh Collection, 28.179
The papyrus scepter, which represents the papyrus plant and fresh vegetation, symbolizes rebirth.
Papyrus Scepter Amulet Egyptian, Late New Kingdom (1550—1070 BCE); faience; The C. Herbert Ocumpaugh Collection, 28.170
Taweret, shown as a pregnant hippopotamus, was a domestic rather than funerary goddess. Women wore amulets of Taweret to protect them during childbirth.
Amulet of the Goddess Taweret Egyptian, Late Period (664—332 BCE); faience; Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, E5745 (17.2003L)
Amulets of nude dwarfs probably represent Ptah, the god of craftsmen, and were worn by many workers for protection.
Amulet of of a Nude Dwarf God, possibly Ptah Egyptian, Late Period (664—332 BCE); faience; The C. Herbert Ocumpaugh Collection, 28.153
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Canopic Jars
During the process of mummification, the embalmer removed four major internal organs—the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines. He mummified these organs separately and placed them in special containers called canopic jars. The lid of each jar represented one of a group of gods called “the Four Sons of Horus.”
Canopic Jars – Set of 4 (Human, Jackal, Baboon, Hawk) Late Period (664—332 BCE) Stone Loaned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art; Gift of James Douglas, 1890, MMA 90.6.31-34 (3-6.81L)
The human-headed god Imsety The jackal-headed god Duamutef guarded the liver. was in charge of the stomach.
The baboon-headed god Hapi The falcon-headed god Qebhsenuef watched over the lungs. protected the intestines. .
Ibis Mummy with Jar & Lid Late Period, 664—332 BCE Pottery, linen, ibis remains 14.2003a-cL
Cat Mummy Late Period, 664—332 BCE Linen, animal remains 23.2003L
Mummy Wrapping Fragment Linen 35.2003L
Small bowl of natron salts
Heart Scarab Late Period, 664—332 BCE Stone 25.2003L
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The Blessed Afterlife
Ancient Egyptians believed that death was not the end of life, but the end of one journey and the beginning of another.
In preparation for the afterlife, Egyptians filled their tombs with prized possessions, foods, and goods from everyday life. Decorative wall carvings and shawabti figures provided support and comfort to the deceased.
After burial, the spirit began the dangerous journey through the underworld, facing a series of tests and trials. A successful journey relied on spells and prayers from The Book of the Dead, recited by priests and placed with the body in the tomb. If proven worthy, the spirit would live on eternally with the gods.
Relief from the Tomb of Metetu, ca. 2400—2250 BCE Old Kingdom (2686—2125 BCE) Limestone 73.64
This fragment of carved stone was once part of the decorative walls of a tomb for an Egyptian man called Metetu, who is pictured seated at the top left corner of the block. The hieroglyph signs in the top row of the fragment spell out his name and his position. They tell us that Metetu worked in the “great house,” or the king’s court, as a metalworker.
Tomb carvings from Metetu’s time used colorful scenes from daily life to illustrate the sources of the food offerings required by the dead. The bottom row of this fragment shows two men, identified as “guardians of the flock.” The man on the right holds the horn of a valuable long-horned cow, while the hieroglyphs around his head tell of “bringing the fattened calf” from the farm known as “Keth.”
King Ny-user-r, ca. 2390—2360 BCE Old Kingdom (2686—2125 BCE) Red granite 42.54
This figure of King Ny-user-ra wears a royal striped linen headdress and carries a mace— a symbol of power—in his right hand. His name means “the one who belongs to the god Ra.” Ra, one of the earliest and most powerful Egyptian gods, was associated with the sun. The sculpture was probably buried in the King’s tomb to serve as the repository for Ny- user-ra’s ka, or life force.
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Striding Man, ca. 1700 BCE Standing Male Figure, Middle Kingdom (2055—1650 BCE) 2680—2258 BCE Bronze Old Kingdom (2686—2125 BCE) 79.39 Wood, paint 40.66
Ex-Voto (Altar Offering) Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 CE) Limestone 29.66
Black-Topped Red Ware Vessel Cylindrical Jar Predynastic Period (ca. 5300— Predynastic Period (ca. 5300—3000 BCE) 3000 BCE) Terracotta, paint Terracotta 51.201.1 28.106
Boat Model from a Loaf of Bread from a Tomb, Child's Tomb before 3400 BCE Predynastic Period Predynastic Period (ca. 5300— (ca. 5300—3000 BCE) 3000 BCE) Terracotta 28.122 28.362
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Shawabty Figures
Ancient Egyptians believed that the gods would require them to work hard in the afterlife regardless of their wealth or status. In order to guarantee an eternity free of labor, they placed shawabti figures—small models of human beings made of stone, wood, or faience—in their tombs. The deceased could call upon these figures, painted or carved with images of agricultural tools like hoes and baskets, to serve as substitute workers. Inscriptions on the front often give the name of the deceased and a promise to perform the necessary tasks.
Shawabti of Padi-Osiris, Shawabti of Pa-tchaw-medi-Amun Overseer of the Army Third Intermediate Period, Late Period (664—332 BCE) (1069—664 BCE) Faience Faience, pigment 28.405 32.2003L
Shawabti of Imhotep Shawabti of Pa-di-Khonsu Late Period (664—332 BCE) Ptolemaic Period (332—30 BCE Faience Faience 38.20 22.2003L
Shawabti of Psamtek Shawabti Late Period (664—332 BCE) (unknown date) Faience Faience 51.123 37.52
Shawabti Overseer Figure Shawabti of Hor, Son of Mer-Neith Third Intermediate Period Late Period (664—332 BCE) (1069—715 BCE) Faience Faience 12.2003L 28.431
Shawabti Box, 700—625 BCE Late Period (664—332 BCE) Wood, pigment 24.2003L
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Essentials of Daily Life
Everyday items such as cosmetic vessels, jewelry, and household goods illuminate aspects of domestic life in ancient Egypt.
Men and women from all levels of society used scented ointments, perfumed oils, and mineral-based cosmetics to protect the skin from the harsh desert climate as well as enhance personal appearance. Jewelry fashioned from precious metals, colored glass, and faience served as ornamentation, displayed social status, and often protected against evil. These and other personal items accompanied the deceased’s mummy into the tomb for continued enjoyment and use in the afterlife.
Standing Figure of the Finance Minister Maya, ca. 1330 BCE New Kingdom (1550—1295 BCE) From Saqqara Limestone 42.55
The Tomb of Maya
This drawing, made in 1843 by the German archaeologist Richard Lepsius, shows the complete relief panel from Maya’s tomb. Maya holds his staff of office and faces his wife Meryt, who offers a large unknown fruit, identified in the hieroglyphic inscriptions as “The Fruit of Life of Amun.”
Above the two figures, four large columns of hieroglyphs offer prayers for continued supplies of food and other goods to sustain their spirits in the afterlife. Each column ends with Maya’s titles and his name:
Royal Scribe, Overseer of the Royal Household, Maya, Nobleman, true of voice.
New Year's Bottle Saite Period (664—525 BCE) Terracotta, glaze 51.200
The celebration of the ancient Egyptian New Year included gifts of these distinctively shaped vessels incised with garlands, geometric designs, and inscriptions that invoke the gods to grant the owner life, health, and happiness. Two baboons, sacred to the calendar god Thoth, sit on each side of the papyrus-flower neck of the bottle. The bottles possibly contained perfumes or oils used in New Year ceremonies, or perhaps water from a sacred pool. An Introduction to the Ancient World Reinstallation – Part 1 12/17/09 14
Essentials of Daily Life , con’t
Wedjat-eye Amulets Strainer Third Intermediate Period Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE— (1069-664 BCE) 30 CE) Faience Bronze 28.205 28.337
Necklace with Symbols and Amulets Container, 1200 – 1070 BCE New Kingdom (1550—1295 BCE) New Kingdom (1550—1295 BCE) Faience Steatite 52.55 28.227
Bracelets (2) Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 Jar in the Form of a Human Head CE) (unknown date) Terracotta, faience glaze Clay, paint 28.233, 28.236 28.497
Jar for Cosmetics Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 CE) The Goddess Taweret Alabaster Third Intermediate to Late Period 28.247 (1069—332 BCE)
Faience Palette for Cosmetics 28.156 Predynastic Period (ca. 5300—
3000 BCE)
Green slate
82.16 The God Bes
Roman Period (30 BCE—350 CE) Spatula Ceramic Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 CE) 31.2003L Carved and incised ivory
20.69
Hairpin with a Female Head
Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 Scarab (Beer-drinkers) CE) New Kingdom (1550—1069 BCE) Ivory or bone Stone 28.336.2 27.2003L
Stylus with a Crocodile Head
Ptolemaic Period (332 BCE—30 Scarab (Hunter with Bow) CE) New Kingdom (1550—1069 BCE) Ivory or bone Stone 28.336.1 28.163
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Greece
Ancient Greek culture set the standard of perfection for later western civilizations in the arts, philosophy, and literature.
Greek artists specialized in depictions of the human figure in marble and bronze as well as fine pottery featuring scenes from myths and daily life. As these works spread via trade routes throughout the Mediterranean region, artists from other cultures prized, collected, and copied them. The aesthetic influence of this sophisticated culture continued for centuries after the decline of Greek political and military power.
The Spectrum of Life in Ancient Greece
Much of what we know about ancient Greek society comes from the scenes painted on pottery vessels, religious offerings, and tomb decoration.
Greek art often depicts scenes of the gods and goddesses, festivals, combat, and drama that reflect the richness of this ancient culture. These artworks show the use of a variety of objects, such as arms and armor, bronze and ceramic figures, and vessels in ceremonial and everyday life. Many of these works also illustrate the differences between the lives of men and women. Women's lives revolved around their homes and children, while men engaged in athletics, politics, theatrical performances, and intellectual gatherings.
Grave Stele, 399—300 BCE Greek, from Salamis Pentelic marble 36.54
This gravestone depicts the classic Greek funerary image of the dexiosis, or handshake, between a husband and wife. This motif either refers to a final farewell or is symbolic of a couple reunited in death. Athenian workshops probably mass- produced these gravestones, which were then transported to other areas and inscribed with the names of the deceased at the time of purchase. On this stele, the names Kleitomache and Eumachos appear above the heads of the figures.
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20.75
Oil Lamp Red Figure Pelike, Carthaginian, Republican Period, 500—401 BCE before 146 BCE Terracotta Terracotta 29.89 20.73
Red Figure Askos (Oil Lamp Filler) Classical Period, 499-400 BCE Oil Lamp Terracotta Carthaginian, Republican Period, 43.2 before 146 BCE Terracotta
Baby Rattle, 400—301 BCE Terracotta, polychromy 90.13
Jointed Doll Holding a Tambourine, 400—301 BCE Bombylios (Baby Feeder) Terracotta Carthaginian, Republican Period, 28.99 before 146 BCE Terracotta 25.51
Battle and Warfare
Greek city-states engaged in near-constant battles for prominence and new territory. Each relied on its noblemen, who had the means to purchase the weapons and armor necessary to serve their king at a moment’s notice. Athletic competitions enabled these soldiers to stay in peak physical condition. Rulers rewarded their success with a variety of gifts, including finely-made gold wreaths and other extravagant objects.
Wreath of Oak Leaves, ca. 300 BCE 28.7 Hellenistic Period (332—30 BCE) Gold on resin 99.57 Black-Figure Kylix with Warriors in Battle, 600—501 BCE Terracotta, paint Corinthian Helmet, 29.91 ca. 633—601 BCE Bronze 2008.70 Horse on an Openwork Stand, 750—700 BCE Bronze 53.43 Strigil (Skin Scraper), 400— 301 BCE Bronze
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Art and Greek Drama
During the Hellenistic Period (323-146 BCE), the Greek love for theatrical performances spread throughout the ancient world. Greek tragedy focused on stories from mythology and history, while comedy targeted political and social issues, important public figures, and aspects of everyday life. Theatergoers purchased small-scale ceramic figurines, later called Tanagra figurines after the archaeological site where they were found, as souvenirs of performances. In Ptolemaic Egypt, where Greek theater was very popular, these figurines took the form of small heads made from the red clay of the Nile River. They depicted a wide variety of comic actors, including bald men with huge noses, wide mouths, and enormous ears.
Miniature Actor's Mask, 399—100 BCE Eros with a Torch, 323—90 BCE Bronze Bronze 28.8 51.183
Figure of a Woman (Tanagra Type), 323—90 BCE Grotesque Heads (3) Terracotta, polychromy Ptolemaic Period, 299—200 BCE 66.14 Made in Egypt Terracotta 28.84.7 28.84.19 28.84.21
Comic Actor (Tanagra Type), 323—90 BCE Terracotta, polychromy 51.187
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The Art of the Vessel
Pottery vessels from the ancient world help document religion, legends, and noteworthy events in Greek society.
Greek artisans produced a wide variety of pottery vessels with distinctive shapes. These containers served everyday needs, such as storage, transport, cooking, eating and drinking, and holding the ashes of the deceased after cremation.
Master potters and painters frequently created vessels with elaborate, highly decorative scenes from mythology, history, and everyday life. Pottery of the Greek world spread through trade, and thus served as the inspiration for potters and painters throughout the Mediterranean region.
Miniature Lekythos (2) Storage Jar, ca. 1300 BCE Greek, 600—501 BCE Mycenaean 29.87.1 - 2 2007.6
Kylix with Dionysian Revelers, Corinthian-style Globular 599—500 BCE Aryballos Greek Greek, 615—600 BCE 29.90 29.2009L
Bell Krater, 399—300 BCE Greek 69.6 Piriform Jar, ca. 1250—1150 BCE Minoan, from Crete 2006.76 Cinerary Urn Carthaginian, 799—700 BCE 25.42
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The Mycenaeans
Named for Mycenae, the largest of their fortified royal cities, this pre-Greek civilization dominated the lands of the Aegean Sea from 1400 to 1100 BCE.
Greeks celebrated the Mycenaeans as the legendary heroes of the Trojan War, recorded by the famous Greek poet Homer. Described in his Iliad as “rich in gold,” the city of Mycenae led a highly organized system of city-states ruled by strong military leaders, priests, and bureaucrats. The wealthy Mycenaeans maintained an extensive trade network throughout the eastern Mediterranean.
Kraters with Chariot Processions, 1275—1225 BCE Mycenaean 51.203, 51.204
The krater is a large, wide-mouthed jar, often used for mixing wine and water. These two kraters were found on Cyprus, an important island in the trade routes of the ancient Mediterranean and location of a significant Mycenaean colony. They likely served a funerary function, holding wine at the funeral feast, or containing the cremated remains of the deceased.
The similar scenes on these two kraters represent the popular Mycenaean decorative motif of horse-drawn war-chariots. The vase painter represented the two horses as a single body with two heads, two tails, and two pairs of forelegs and hind legs.
The scene may refer to honors for a fallen warrior as described by Homer in the Iliad, where, during the Trojan War, the Greek hero Achilles led a solemn chariot procession in tribute to his dead companion Patroclus.
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The Etruscans: Italy's First Civilization
Etruscan artists combined their unique practices and styles with elements borrowed from Greek art.
By about 700 BCE, the ancient Etruscans had founded the first urban civilization on the Italian peninsula. In a region rich in metals, the Etruscans became master bronzesmiths whose work was exported throughout the Mediterranean. The Etruscans achieved prominence in overseas trade and commerce, and maintained close contact with Greek colonies in southern Italy. They particularly prized Greek painted vases, and adapted Greek styles and methods to create new forms of pottery. Over the next three centuries, Etruscan culture disappeard as it was gradually subsumed by the newly powerful Roman Republic.
Man Clutching Serpents, Votive Head of a Woman, 600—401 BCE 300—1 BCE Bronze Clay 57.30 47.14
Helmet Attachment with Winged Silenus, 600—401 BCE Bronze The God Mars as a Warrior 57.31 499-400 BCE Bronze 53.41 Miniature Mask of the River God Acheloüs, 600—401 BCE Terracotta T705
Hercules (no date) Bronze 73.18
Mirror Bronze 37.2009L
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The Etruscans, con’t
Bucchero Ware Oinochoe, Bucchero Ware Kylix, 400—301 BCE 560—450 BCE Terracotta with black glaze Terracotta with black paint 51.179 51.180
Cinerary Urn with Lid, 200—100 BCE Terracotta with polychrome 44.49a - b
A portrait of the deceased reclining adorns the lid of this cinerary urn, a uniquely Etruscan motif. The body of the urn features a popular scene depicting the sons of Oedipus fighting over the throne of Thebes. The two winged figures at the sides represent the double presence of Vanth, the Etruscan female demon, who carries a torch to light the way to the underworld.
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Rome
Roman artists created distinctive works of art that celebrated imperial greatness as well as individual accomplishments and wealth.
Rome emerged from a small community, eventually developing into a city-state ruled by Etruscan kings. In 509 BCE, Romans rebelled and established the Republic, a new form of government controlled by a privileged class of Roman citizens. Through conquest and diplomacy, Rome soon expanded beyond the Italian peninsula into present-day Europe and the Middle East, becoming a vast empire until its fall in 476 CE. Art created for both public and private society reflected the imperial strength and wealth of this major world power.
Roman Sculpture
The public and private display of marble sculpture demonstrated the wealthy Roman’s aristocratic tastes and good breeding. Inspired by the white marble sculpture of the Greeks, Roman sculpture emphasized the recognizable features of the individual, sometimes to unflattering effect. Public areas of the city displayed sculptures ranging from commemorative statues to funerary monuments, while busts of noteworthy ancestors in domestic shrines confirmed a family’s noble lineage and predicted future greatness.
Portrait Head of a Man with a Beard, 100—199 CE Nervan-Antonine Period (96—192 CE) Marble 46.39
Torso of a Young Man, 99—1 BCE Roman, Republican to Julio-Claudian Period (509 BCE—68 CE) Marble 36.53
This youthful male torso, nearly life size, is likely based on a Greek bronze original. This Roman copy required iron bars and dowels to support the weight of marble limbs. Evidence of long, wavy hair remaining on his shoulders may identify this youth as the young Dionysus, Greek god of wine and revelry.
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Portrait Head of a Young Man, 1—99 CE Roman, Julio-Claudian to Nervan-Antonine Period (27 BCE—192 CE) Marble 49.74
Sarcophagus with Portrait Medallion, Orpheus, and Two Lion Heads, 250—274 CE Roman, Soldier Emperors Period (235—284 CE) Marble R. T. Miller Fund, 49.72
This sarcophagus, a carved marble coffin, once featured a matching marble lid. The central round frame holds a portrait of the deceased, likely a later personalization added by the sculpture workshop. Roman sarcophagi were not buried, but displayed with other markers and monuments along the main roads outside of the city gates.
Conspicuous Consumption
The display of statuary, expensive luxury items, and rich, colorful wall paintings demonstrated a family's personal wealth and sophistication.
The domus, or family home, served as the center of private life and identity for well-to-do Roman citizens. The home was primarily the woman's domain, where she raised children, supervised household servants, and ensured that the domus reflected the family's social status. Lavishly decorated reception rooms, dining rooms, and other public areas enabled the family to receive important guests properly. High-quality objects made of glass, bronze, and ceramics emphasized the importance of beauty in everyday life.
Fresco Fragment with Cupid Holding a Mask, before 79 CE Two Keys, 100—1 BCE From Pompeii Bronze, made in Palestine Plaster, paint 28. 45 – 46 28.75
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Conspicuous Consumption, con’t
Oil Lamp, 100—199 CE Molded terracotta Oil Lamp in the Shape of a 20.77 Bull’s Head, 100—1 BCE Bronze 51.124 Silenus Head Oil Lamp, ca. 200—300 CE Molded terracotta T706
Ampulla, 100—299 CE Blown glass 51.131 Female Torso (Roman miniature copy after Praxiteles’ 4th century BCE Cnidian Aphrodite) Marble 8.68L Unguentarium (Perfume Bottle), 200—399 CE Blown glass 51.136 Mirror in a Rooster-shaped Frame, ca. 300—699 CE Syro-Palestinian Terracotta with glass inlay Miniature Ampulla, 1—99 CE 28.4 Blown glass 51.26
Fish, 300—599 CE Blown, applied, and tooled glass Alabastrum, 300—1 BCE 28.324 Made in the Eastern Mediterranean Core-formed glass 28.231 Tweezers, 1—99 CE Bronze 28.49
Pair of Double-headed Flasks, 200—399 CE Three Bracelets, 1—100 CE Mold-blown glass Glass; made in Palestine 28.68.1 - 2 28.23 – 24 – 25
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Conspicuous Consumption, con’t
Beaker, 67—199 CE Blown glass 51.135
Lachrymatorium or Balsamarium (Toilet Bottle), ca. 200—300 CE Blown glass; likely made in Palestine 28.30 Ribbed Bowl, 99 BCE–-99 CE Cast glass; likely made in Egypt 51.241 Vase with Acanthus Design, 1—99 CE Roman, made in Egypt Kylix with Hinged Handles, Terracotta, glaze 1—99 CE 51.198 Bronze 51.168
Ancient Glass
The growth of the Roman Empire created an increased demand for luxury goods, including ointments and perfumes in small glass containers. Improved techniques of casting and glassblowing transformed such glass from rare and expensive pieces to highly affordable everyday objects available at all levels of society. Containers for traditional grave offerings account for most of the Roman glass objects that have survived.
Power and Politics
Monumental public statuary and coins with inscriptions and portraits celebrated imperial power, political achievements, and military victories.
Roman sculptors produced realistic portraits to commemorate venerated ancestors as well as prominent public figures. Large-scale public sculptures, images of the deceased on sarcophagi, and the tiny but recognizable features of current rulers on coins all attest to the vital importance of creating a Roman civic identity. As citizens attained greater status and personal wealth, a flourishing trade network of goods, including glass, marble, and agricultural commodities, dispersed Roman artistic traditions throughout the Empire.
Lion Head edallion, Jar with Cover, 33—199 CE 100—199 CE Blown glass Roman, from Caesarea, Palestine 28.16 Bronze; 28.10
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Power and Politics, con’t
Silver of the State During the Republican Period, the Roman Senate authorized the issue of coinage featuring Roma, the spirit of the city of Rome, on the obverse, or front side. The reverse, or back side, depicts the twin gods Castor and Pollux, legendary defenders of Rome.
Denarius of Lucius Sempronius Pitio, 148 BCE Republican Rome (509—27 BCE); silver; Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Ralph Alexander, 95.34
The name of the mint official appears on both sides of his coin: PITIO on the obverse, and L SEMP on the reverse.
Economies of Empire Roman imperial coinage commonly features a profile portrait of the current emperor on the obverse, along with abbreviations of his numerous honors and imperial titles. The reverse incorporates symbols that celebrate the emperor’s benevolent power, military victories, and associations with the gods.
Dupondius of Augustus Caesar and Marcus Agrippa, 10—14 CE Roman Empire, Julio-Claudian Period (27 BCE—68 CE); made in Nemausus, Gaul (modern Nîmes, France); bronze; Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Ralph Alexander, 95.32
This coin celebrates the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) which brought Egypt under Roman rule. It was minted decades later in a colony settled by veterans of that battle.
Sestertius of Emperor Nero, 54—68 CE Roman Empire, Julio-Claudian Period (27 BCE—68 CE); bronze; Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Ralph Alexander, 95.29
The reverse of Nero’s coin features a scene of Annona, the Roman personification of Grain. She stands before the seated goddess of the harvest, Ceres.
Quadrans of Emperor Trajan, 98—117 CE Roman Empire , Nervan-Antonine Period (96—192 CE); bronze; Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Ralph Alexander, 95.30
Trajan uses this coin to associate himself with the Greek hero Hercules. The reverse shows the Nemean Boar, killed by Hercules as one of his Twelve Labors.
Coin of Emperor Constantine the Great, 307—334 CE Roman Empire, Constantine Period (306 -364 CE); probably minted in Nicomedia (modern Turkey); bronze; Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Ralph Alexander, 95.25
The reverse of this coin depicts a Roman army camp gate. The inscription translates as “To the Foresight of our Emperors” in honor of Constantine’s imperial ancestors.
Transport Amphora, 1—99 CE Roman, Julio-Claudian to Nervan-Antonine Period (27 BCE—192 CE) Terracotta 44.51
This large, roughly-constructed storage vessel is one of thousands produced by pottery workshops throughout the Mediterranean region. Pointed bases enabled amphorae to be stored upright, embedded in sand. For shipment by sea, they packed horizontally, fitting head-to-end for stability in rough waters. The distinctive shape of this amphora may identify it as a Spanish-made vessel for shipping garum, a fermented fish sauce that was a staple at Roman banquets.
Togatus, 1—99 CE Roman, Julio-Claudian to Nervan-Antonine Period (27 BCE—192 CE) Marble Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 73.146
This man was a significant public figure in ancient Roman society. His toga – the traditional status garment symbolic of Roman citizenship – the scroll in his hand, and the box of scrolls at his feet mark his high status. He may have been one of the 300 members of the Roman Senate who addressed important matters of civic law, religious practice, or foreign policy, aspects of Roman life controlled by the Senate.