Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Jif i Jez

Cultural Responses in the United States to Protests by African American Athletes Bachelor's Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Jeffrey Alan Vanderziel, B.A.

2020 / declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

Jin Jez

2 I would like to thank my supervisor, Jeffrey Alan Vanderziel, B.A., for his time, guidance and helpful suggestions during the writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank my dad for his continuous support.

3 Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION 5

2. ORIGINS OF THE AFRICAN AMERICAN PROTESTS IN SPORTS 7

JESSE OWENS AND THE ORIGIN OF SPORTS PROTESTS 8 JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE BLENDING OF SPORTS AND POLITICS 10

MUHAMMAD ALI, THE CATALYST 12

3. THE 1968 OLYMPICS BLACK POWER SALUTE 17

BEFORE THE PROTEST 17

THE PROTEST 20

4. COLIN KAEPERNICK'S NFL PROTEST 25

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALI, SMITH, CARLOS, AND KAEPERNICK 29

5. PRESIDENTS AND CORPORATIONS IN REGARD TO THE PROTESTS 33

PRESIDENTS 33

CORPORATIONS 34

6. CONCLUSION 38

WORKS CITED 40

SUMMARY 45

RESUME 46

4 1. Introduction

Over sixty years ago, in 1947, Jackie Robinson was the first African American athlete to compete in Major League Baseball. Back then, African Americans were yet to achieve equality, and Robinson faced animosity. Unlike his teammates he was not only an athlete, he was a subject of discussion in regard to segregation of white people and black people. He managed to prove himself in the league and used the sports platform to advocate against racism. Robinson's presence among the group of white players promised a future where African Americans and white people could coexist and be treated equally, not only in sports. Since then, black people have formally earned equality, yet in reality, some things have not changed to this day, and the political actions of black athletes remain controversial.

Nowadays, African Americans comprise a significant percentage of athletes in major league sports in the United States. However, these athletes are still the subject of discussion.

These were the words of Donald Trump, the current president of the United States, in reaction to

African American footballers kneeling to the sound of the national anthem: "Wouldn't you love to see one of these NFL owners, when somebody disrespects our flag, to say, 'Get that son of a bitch off the field right now'" (President Trump wants to see NFL players fired for kneeling during anthem). Such expression by the highest representative of a country illustrates the situation of African American athletes. African American athletes began to kneel as a form of protest against police brutality aimed towards black people. The pioneer of this gesture, Colin

Kaepernick, first used to sit out the pre-game national anthem, once he knelt public began to notice. While the form of the protest is peaceful, the reactions, such as the one from the American president, were not. It has been three years since Kaepernick first knelt and since then he has not been hired by any NFL team.

The situation is not much different from the one that had happened almost 50 years earlier. Two African American sprinters held up their black-gloved fists during a medal

5 ceremony in the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. Their gesture was a demonstration of

Black Power, a protest against racism in America. Both sprinters had then been forced to quit the

Olympic team and criticized by both the public and media. In both cases, the one from fifty years ago and the one from the recent past, African American athletes exercised their rights. Although they acted within the law, they were ostracized by the public, media, and even the president.

The main aim of the thesis is to discuss and analyze the sports protests of African

American athletes regarding racial inequality, and to inspect the response to the actions of these athletes throughout history. The main focus lies in the documentation and comparison of two major protests in sports, the 1968 Olympics Black Power Salute and Colin Kaepernick's NFL protest. The cultural response to both events is presented and discussed.

After the first chapter, which is the introduction, the second chapter provides a background in the form of three African American athletes, Jesse Owens, Jackie Robinson, and

Muhammad Ali. They illustrate the evolution of black athletes in white sports and demonstrate how they were perceived. The third chapter presents the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute. It documents and analyzes the responses to the protest. The fourth chapter discusses Colin

Kaepernick's NFL protest. It also provides responses and further compares them with those from

50 years before. Furthermore, similarities and differences between the reception of the actors of the two protests are drawn. The fifth chapter discusses presidential and corporate reactions and compares them. The final chapter is the conclusion of the thesis.

6 2. Origins of the African American Protests in Sports

When African Americans were first allowed to compete in white sports, they did not have a political agenda. The athletes took the possibility to partake in sports as a promise for the future. The ability to take part gave them a chance to at least partially abandon the low standards of living and treatment to which they were accustomed. However, although they did not mean to express themselves regarding the overall situation of African Americans i.e. racial inequality, segregation, and discrimination, their sole presence on the field or track was political. As the

African American integration into sports begun, it was a sign of the changing dynamics within

American politics.

Not only did the African American athletes contended in teams with their white counterparts, but the two parties also displayed mutual respect. Showing such affection at stadiums in front of a predominantly white audience that comprised thousands of people was in a way revolutionary. Yet, albeit the people witnessing the spectacle might have cheered for the black athletes, they perceived it only as entertainment, a performance for which they paid, and which had little in common with the real world where black people were far below them on a human scale. African American athletes were under a lot of pressure. As long as they performed on a high enough level, brought their teams to victories, they were rooted for. Nonetheless, their failures were just as significant, if not more, as their successes. Black athletes did not have the luxury to make mistakes. If they made them, they would be met with the stereotype that they are lazy and lack the discipline demanded for top-level performance. They sometimes unwillingly carried the overall image of the African American population on their shoulders. They were the representatives who were to form opinions about their people, whether or not they wanted to. As such, the sheer presence of African American athletes was political.

However, the tangible change that would manifest itself outside the stadiums could not emerge from the mere presence on the stage, the athletes had to break through the fourth wall and

7 speak out, otherwise, they would possibly remain just entertainers of the white crowd. Though at first the athletes solely did as they were told and acted as good Americans, it was only a question of time until they would fully embrace the role they were given. The process that led to the major sports protest in the form of the 1968 Olympics Black Power Salute took over 30 years, beginning with Jesse Owens as an inconspicuous originator of sports protests. Then came Jackie

Robinson, who broke the barrier between sports and politics and influenced the political scene by paving the way for the Civil Rights Movement. Finally, Muhammad Ali's actions and statements regardless of the possible damaging effect on his career and later negative reception by the public, confirmed the necessity to make a gesture that the entire world, and most importantly

America, would see. These three African American athletes stood at the origin of sports protests and the 1968 Olympics Black Power Salute.

Jesse Owens and the Origin of Sports Protests

Jesse Owens, a track and field athlete, is one of the best-regarded African Americans in history of sports and is not connected to any protest, yet there is socio-political merit to his

Olympics performance. Owens won four Olympic gold medals, a feat that at the time had never been done before. Preceding his Olympics appearance, Owens was confronted and insisted upon that he withdrew from the Olympics in Nazi Germany. Had he gone there, he would be indirectly agreeing with the racial discrimination that Jews were experiencing. Owens's decision to compete in Berlin would in case of poor performance only strengthen the conviction that other races were inferior to the white man. Therefore, Owens was asked to protest as a display of solidarity with Jews, and a display of dissent concerning white superiority.

Nonetheless, sabotage of the Olympics by not going would possibly have a similar effect as going and performing poorly. Owens would then be accused of fear of the white Nazi men, again only affirming that other races are inferior. Overall, no solution was good enough.

Moreover, perhaps Owens feared that had he protested, he would be disciplined and banned from

8 sports. To him, sport represented freedom, as is depicted in Owens's biopic Race: "Out there on that track, you're free of all this. There ain't not black and white, there's only fast and slow. For those 10 seconds, you're free" {Race). Owens did not care for the supposed responsibility towards all the other African Americans, Jews, or other races, that was imposed upon him. The only solution then, which appeared feasible, was to go to the Olympics, win and, in effect, prove that African Americans are just as good as others. Owens managed to do so and as he said: "For a time, at least, I was the most famous person in the entire world" (McDougall 68).

Although Owens did not protest by withdrawing from the Olympics, the accomplishment itself might be perceived as a form of a protest. Though Owens was not politically interested, his achievement sent a message to the white crowd and, more importantly, to the world leaders. As if the win was saying that the white leaders, be it in the United States or Germany, prohibited the other than white athletes from competing due to the fear of what their accomplishments might spark in those who do not have the privilege of displaying their competences in front of thousands of people. Such an argument may be supported by the fact that the American president at the time, Franklin D. Roosevelt, did not invite Owens to the White House while the white athletes were all invited. Moreover, Roosevelt had not recognized Owen's accomplishments and did not congratulate him, in Owens's words: "... it was our president who snubbed me. The president didn't even send a telegram" (Koren).

To conclude, Although Owens acted as a good American, brought medals to his country, and sang the national anthem, he was disregarded by the American leaders. Owens was asked to protest, and even though he refused and did not want to hurt his opportunity by acting against the racist atmosphere of the time, his accomplishments in the 1936 Berlin Olympics in then Nazi

Germany, may be perceived as an indirect, silent protest against white superiority.

9 Jackie Robinson and the Blending of Sports and Politics

After Jesse Owens, African American athletes lacked a distinctive representative, until

Jackie Robinson emerged in 1945 from the then segregated Negro baseball league to become a first black baseball player in strictly white Major League Baseball. Robinson built upon the platform that Owens rose a decade before. Owens had proved that African Americans possess the mainly physical capabilities to compete with white athletes, however, Owens competed in an individual sport, unlike Robinson, who was to compete among white players in a team setting.

While Owens served as a physical representation, Robinson's role incorporated the demonstration of the mental capabilities and whether an African American mentality would be compatible with one of the white athletes. Although just as Owens, Robinson did not care for such responsibility, yet he was inevitably put into a position, in which his every move, physical and mental, would be followed and critiqued.

The task with which Robinson was charged required immense self-control. He could not afford eccentricities, unlike white players, which was a challenge given his otherwise short temper. However, he knew that if he could manage his anger, he would soon not be the only

African American professional baseball player. Integrating a black man into a team sport was one step closer to integration into the actual world. The playing field was a microcosm, a distant relative of the world behind its seats that served as an experimentation room to observe, whether

African Americans and white Americans could in fact coexist and not be kept in separation. If they could work together as a team on a field, perhaps they could do the same outside the field.

While Robinson's political activities took place after he retired from professional baseball, his presence on the field was political, just like Owens's was on the track. Robinson faced racist behavior not only from the public but also from the opposing team, however, most importantly he faced disapproval from his own teammates, something psychologically surely taxing. Robinson had to handle the pressure from the outside and inside, unable to manifest any

10 sort of displeasure as that would only give the public the proof that African Americans cannot handle themselves around white people, proof that they are mentally inferior. Robinson had to overcome personal attacks, racial slurs, and prejudice while keeping his composure. Although

Jackie Robinson did not consciously act as a political activist and a protester on the baseball field, his resistance to that hostility made him one, whether he wanted to or not.

Similar to the case of Owens, Robinson's protest was silent and based on his abilities to physically compete with and among white players, yet more significantly, to mentally endure the pressure that was exerted on him. By avoiding conflict and holding his head high when faced with hate based on the color of his skin, Robinson managed to, if not shatter, then at least weaken the wall that separated African Americans from the rest of the United States. As Robinson himself wrote:

I can testify to the fact that it was a lot harder to turn the other cheek and refuse to fight

back than it would have been to exercise a normal reaction. But it works, because sooner

or later it brings a sense of shame to those who attack you. And that sense of shame is

often the beginning of progress. (Long and Lamb 9)

Moreover, Robinson's attitude towards the hostility and his actions, or rather lack of actions, established the basis for African American protests and movements beyond sports. While the common belief back in the first third of the 20th century might have been that politics and sports shall not interweave, the reality that arrived first inconspicuously with Owens and later more visibly with Robinson suggested that politics would affect sports and vice versa.

Such development was soon to be recognized in two concurrent movements and their actors, Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. First of them was Martin Luther King, leader of the civil rights movement, who recognized Robinson's legacy who after retiring from baseball began to speak out for civil rights. As King said:

11 He has the right, because back in the days when integration wasn't fashionable, he

underwent the trauma and the humiliation and the loneliness which comes with being a

pilgrim walking the lonesome byways toward the high road of Freedom. He was a sit-

inner before the sit-ins, a freedom rider before the Freedom Rides. (Rampersad 7)

Robinson paved the way for people like King who was able to enthuse crowds and transmit the message from sports to the real-world scenario. King later admitted that if it was not for

Robinson, he would not have been able to do what he did.

Robinson's effect on such a profound moment, the Civil Rights Movement, proves that sports may make a difference in the political sphere, even if not directly. He was the first African

American athlete who managed to influence activist movements and political systems on such a large scale which is the reason for him to still be an inspiration to present African American athletes such as Colin Kaepernick whose actions are discussed in one of the following chapters.

While Robinson argued for racial equality, his contemporary Cassius Clay known better as

Muhammad Ali stood in opposition to that stance as he rather argued for the right to be different, or racial difference to be more precise. Robinson and Ali would later find themselves in close disagreement regarding Ali's refusal of the Vietnam War. While both proposed different attitudes regarding the path to liberation, they both stand as the most significant figures in the history of sports protests.

Muhammad Ali, the Catalyst

Cassius Clay later known as Muhammad Ali is often regarded as one of the best boxers of all time, especially for his quick feet, however, he also had a quick wit which led to him being fairly controversial at the time of his peak. Ali's public persona, the one acting angry and outspoken, was inspired by a wrestler who through entertaining and ridiculous statements attracted audiences to his fights. Ali longed for publicity. More specifically, he wanted to be seen and heard by large crowds, so he adopted the tactics and began proclaiming himself as the

12 greatest boxer of all time. As Ali won all his fights in a few years and continued entertaining the crowd like none before him, he had become widely followed. It was only a question of time until a man with such many views on white supremacy would influence politics.

That time came with Malcolm X who became close with Ali and that is when Ali gravitated towards the religion of Islam, eventually becoming a Black Muslim after his win for the title of the heavyweight champion, which was turned into a religious victory to which the black Muslims could look up. As Ali embraced the idea of Black Muslims, media began to discredit him, which Malcolm X explains:

Here come Cassius, the exact contrast of everything that was representative of the negro

image. He said he was the greatest, all of the odds were against him. He won, he became

victorious, he became the champ. They knew that as soon as, if people began identifying

with Cassius and the type of image he was creating they were gonna have trouble out of

these Negroes because they'd have negroes walking around the streets saying "I'm the

greatest." (What's My Name: Muhammad Ali)

Ali began proclaiming that Allah is the greatest and subscribed to the ideas of the Black Muslims, who strongly refused the white supremacy and stood on the opposite end of the spectrum that is according to them, African Americans were not equal to white people, they were superior on both the physical and mental fronts. The supposed threat that posed to the status of white people in the country was tangible, since African Americans had someone, Ali, to identify themselves with.

Ali built himself from the ground up and was not afraid to speak his mind and to back up his words with action. For fellow African Americans, Ali had become a symbol and if enough of them had subscribed to his ideas and acted upon them that could lead to a radical change in the social and political dynamics in the country, therefore, media tried to discredit Ali. Moreover, magazines were asking questions whether the ties with Malcolm X would hurt his boxing career, while Ali's interest shifted from fighting in a ring to a fight for freedom for African Americans.

13 Ali was a center of attention in high politics as the Department of Justice had issued: "Loud mouth heavy weight champ Cassius Clay changed his name to Muhammad Ali to demonstrate his unflinching loyalty to the racist Muslim Nation of Islam" {What's My Name: Muhammad Ali).

Ali placed himself in the center of American political life.

It was not until over a year after Ali gained the title that he stepped back into the ring, after the death of his companion Malcolm X who had rejected the aggressiveness of Black

Muslims. After Malcolm's death, Ali composed himself and reduced the intensity of his fury.

However, he still spoke his mind and people gravitated towards him. Ali's outlook seemed to be more comprehensive after the passing of Malcolm X and he again appealed to not only the black audience. As Ali said:

Boxing is a stepping-stone just to introduce me to the audience ... But now, if I even say

the wrong thing, it makes news. So, boxing is just to introduce me to the struggle. When I

speak, I draw people in the States to teach my people ... to give them dignity, pride, and

self-help. (Bryant 2)

Through boxing, Ali gained the influence and attention that he was after. He could show to the

African Americans that a black man can achieve success and be respected if fear in himself is defeated. Ali's message to African Americans was that they cannot only wait for things to happen and ask the white man for permission, sometimes they have to just do the necessary thing in order to be recognized. Ali was the empowerment that African Americans needed.

While Ali's career was interwoven with politics, perhaps his refusal to partake and serve in the Vietnam War was the most controversial and elicited contrasting responses. Ali stated his position to the situation in 1967 simply and clearly in an interview: "No Vietcong ever called me

Nigger" (Orkland). Ali's issues were with his home country, not a country so far away. While some African American soldiers respected Ali's decision "I don't think he should be persecuted

14 or ridiculed because of his beliefs," some other prominent African Americans were against him, particularly Jesse Robinson who said:

The tragedy to me is that Cassius has made millions of dollars off of the American public.

And now he's not willing to show his appreciation to a country that is giving him, in my

view, a fantastic opportunity. (What's My Name: Muhammad Ali)

Robinson's stance is understandable since he did serve in the World War II and his disrespect is also evident by the use of Ali's previous name, Cassius. Also, Joe Louis, who was drafted to fight in World War II at the time when he was a heavyweight champion, was against Ali's decision.

These responses create a contrasting image, according to which the African American soldiers who were actually the ones fighting the Vietnam War respected Ali, while past champions as

Robinson and Louis who took part in World War II were against Ali. Perhaps they partially envied Ali for his resilience, or they were angry that they fought the war so that another influential African American could generally worsen the condition for all African Americans in the country because he painted an image of a black man unable to follow orders and stand up for his country.

Ali explained his decision: "Why should they ask me to put on a uniform and go 10,000 miles from home and drop bombs and bullets on brown people in Vietnam while so-called Negro people in Louisville are treated like dogs and denied simple human rights" (Ezra 125). To Ali, participation in the war would have been an act of disrespect to African Americans. He wanted to fight for his people in his country and the Vietnam War was not in accordance with that belief.

Although the African American soldiers stood by Ali:

When I was in Nam, Muhammad Ali was refusing to take the oath. Our reaction was that

we shouldn't have taken it either. We felt that the American Dream didn't really serve us.

What we experienced was the American Nightmare. (Appy 224)

15 Their voices were disregarded, and Ali was sentenced to five years in prison, convicted by an all- white jury. Later, he was stripped of the sentence, however, he lost his title and was banned from the ring until 1970. Ali went to prison and lost his title and was prohibited from entering the ring by the power of a few white representatives.

He was unsupported by past fellow athletes yet supported by soldiers. Ali's opposition towards war, even through the struggle it brought upon him while pointing out the flawed

American system, was the catalyst that led to the protests during the 1968 Mexico City Olympics were African American athletes would stand in unity against the oppression caused upon fellow

African Americans.

16 3. The 1968 Olympics Black Power Salute

Before the protest

The 1968 Olympics are recognized for their significance in the fight for Civil Rights, which is still symbolized by American sprinters raising their gloves in protest on the podium.

This statement provoked many reactions throughout history and has become one of the most significant nonsporting occurrences during Olympics history. The Olympic Games in Mexico

City in 1968 were due to take place against a backdrop of multiple political upheavals, not only regarding the United States, which were in the middle of the Vietnam War where Muhammad Ali refused to serve. Given the then political state of affairs, the 1968 Olympics were bound to serve as a stage for political expression, even though according to Avery Brundage, the president of

International Olympic Committee who in 1936 wanted to ban Jewish athletes from the then Nazi

Berlin Olympics, stated that politics should not intersect sport. Yet, not even two weeks before the Olympics begun, students protested with signs such as: "We don't want Olympics, we want a revolution" (NBC). That stance corresponded to the one of African American athletes who originally planned to boycott the Olympics altogether.

In 1967, African American athletes under the leadership of Dr. Harry Edwards formed the

Olympic Project for Human Rights. Athletes who were expected to bring medals from the

Olympics threatened to not attend, among them sprinters Tommie Smith, John Carlos and Lee

Evans. Before the foundation of the OPHR, Smith declared: "I would give up athletics in a minute to die for my people" (Simkin). African American athletes then called for racial justice more than the permission to attend the Olympics. Sport had become secondary as it was losing meaning amidst the injustice that fellow African Americans were experiencing daily. The founding statement of the OPHR says:

We must no longer allow this country to use few so-called Negroes to point out to the

world how much progress he made in solving her racial problems when the oppression of

17 African Americans is greater than it ever was ... So we ask why should we run in Mexico

City and crawl home? (Carlos and Zirin xii).

Edwards and his athletes demanded racial justice and were inspired by the group of influential black athletes who expressed support to Muhammad Ali's decision to not attend the Vietnam

War. According to Edwards, the university professor, the state of things in the college sports at the time was that black athletes did not have a future at their universities, they were there only to bring prestige to the school, while by the end of their studies they should be forgotten. College sports did not employ black coaches, and Edwards as an African American professor was an exception. Edwards who was a college athlete himself understood the struggle of these graduates and the OPHR was a means to reform their situation in the future. If taken further, it could be said that sports were just modern slavery, valuing African American physical abilities more than their minds and if they were not top tier athletes, they were at the bottom of American society. In his words: "What would we do if we had the opportunity to leverage sport as a vehicle for change"

(NBC). Edwards's cause was to be further publicly supported by Martin Luther King, who encouraged Carlos to participate in the project. However, before King could make his statement, he was assassinated, only 11 days after the meeting.

The project received attention, especially after Lew Alcindor, the best college basketball player in the country declared that he would not try out for the Olympics team. Alcindor was also influenced by Muhammad Ali and the teachings of Malcolm X, stood against the war and expressed his view as follows: "Somewhere each of us has got to take a stand against this kind of thing. This is how I make my stand — using what I have. And I take my stand here" (Smith).

Alcindor's defiance of 1968 Olympics was a major indicator of the seriousness with which the black athletes took the boycott. Few months later Alcindor said in an interview: "Yeah, I live here, but it's not really my country" (Smith). According to Alcindor, the United States were not

18 home to African Americans because if it was and if they truly were perceived as Americans, they would not have to struggle for rights. Therefore, Alcindor could not participate in the Olympics.

The media responded to the OPHR expectedly by portraying the group as vandals, ungrateful group of individuals with headlines such as "The Angry Black Athlete" regarding

Smith. Although a significant group of athletes aimed to boycott the games, a larger group of black athletes was not at favor of such action as it would disrupt their dreams of competing in the

Olympics. Therefore, the OPHR stated demands which, if met, would promise their participation in the American Olympic team. Among those demands was the restoration of Muhammad Ali's title, inclusion of African American coaches and removal of Avery Brundage from the IOC, since according to the OPHR, Brundage directly represented what was wrong with American society.

To Brundage, African Americans truly were subordinate to white people as illustrated from his response to OPHR: "I don't think any of these boys would be foolish enough to demonstrate at

Olympic games" (NBC). Brundage referred to these athletes as boys, a problematic term in regard to African Americans and slavery, moreover, called them foolish. To Brundage, these athletes were children who did not understand their actions and needed to be led, ideally by white men. However, some demands of the OPHR were met, including the inclusion of African

American coaches, and Edwards subsequently called off the boycott. Nevertheless, although the boycott was then canceled, it generated a conversation among the athletes and society as a whole.

When Smith was asked what could then happen at the games, he replied: "All I can say is you can expect almost anything" (NBC). Even though the boycott was off, its spirit was not, and given the months of asserting the boycott and urging for change, the protests at the games themselves were perhaps inevitable.

19 The Protest

The Olympic games commenced without the African American athletes attempting to get attention for their political mission. Nevertheless, it did not take much time for them to make their statement. When two of the most prominent members of the Olympic Project for Human

Rights placed first and third at the 200 meter dash, one of the most remembered displays in the sporting world concerning human rights would take place. The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute performed by Tommie Smith and John Carlos brought the attention they were after to the racial injustice in the United State. As they stepped on the podium, barefoot to depict African

American poverty, they raised their black gloved fists into the air to the sound of the American national anthem, representing black power and cry for freedom. Carlos even covered the USA logo on his jersey by a black t-shirt. As Tommie Smith said: "This was to draw attention to the malfunctioning of a nation that was supposed to represent (all people) equally but it did not"

(Tommie Smith - Interview Part A). Although the moment carries the name of Black Power salute, according to Smith that name is not entirely accurate as it proposes the idea that the salute only represented black people. However, Smith claimed that their salute did not call only for black rights, but human rights in general.

The response to their action was immediate as the spectators booed them off believing that politics had no place in sport. Smith in the post event press conference said:

If I win, I am an American, not a black American. But if I did something bad then they

would say 'a Negro'. We are black and we are proud of being black. Black America will

understand what we did tonight. (1968: Black Athletes Make Silent Protest)

Smith targets the opportunistic nature of white media and society. Only a day after, Smith and

Carlos were escorted from Mexico City and suspended. In an interview soon after, when told that they have everything they could want, meaning publicity and medals, Carlos replied: "I can't eat that, the kids around my block I grew up with they can't eat it, the kids that's gonna grow up after

20 them they can't eat publicity, they can't eat gold medals. As Smith said, all we ask for is equal chance to be a human being." (NBC)

Jesse Owens, who had struggled to find a job after his Olympic victory in 1936 even though that at the time he kept his head low was entrusted to talk to the American team to prevent further protests with his main argument being that if they protested, they would not be able to find jobs. Yet, Owens, an example of an obedient athlete, did not have one. Therefore, Owens and his talk remained worthless and stood as yet another example of a past athlete standing against protests. The responses from other American athletes were swift and polarizing, however they display a pattern. The New York Times published these responses on October 19, 1968. "I think it was a disgrace. In my opinion, an act like that in the medal ceremony defiles the

American flag," said by Barry Weisenberg, a white water-polo player. "I am in open opposition.

Their action at the victory ceremony had nothing to do with the games. It was in no way intended to be an insult to the American flag," said Vincent Matthews, an African American member of the relay team (Sheehan). The United States committee expressed itself:

The untypical exhibitionism of these athletes also violates the basic standards of good

manners and sportsmanship which are so highly valued in the United States, and therefore

the two men involved are suspended forthwith from the team and ordered to remove

themselves from the Olympic Village. (Sheehan)

The immediate response seems to divide the athletes and organizations into two parties, one expressing support and one expressing regret and disapproval. For the most part, the support came from fellow African American athletes, while the disapproval from the white athletes and officials.

In response and encouraged by the OPHR, the American sprinters winning gold medals, stood on the podium with black berets as a symbol for Black Panther Party, a political party demanding racial justice. Yet, these men were not persecuted, for they had taken off those berets

21 as the American anthem began. Besides these sprinters, African American athletes competing in the long jump contributed to the cause of raising awareness regarding racism. Bob Beamon, the gold medalist, stood on the podium with his pants rolled up high so that his black socks, symbolizing protestation, showed. On his left Ralph Boston, placing third, stood barefoot just like

Smith and Carlos. Before the games, Boston was against the idea of a boycott, saying: "I believe

Negroes can do more good for themselves and their race by going to the Olympics and doing well than they can by staying home" (Wiggins and Miller 294). Boston's stance is similar to the situation Jesse Owens had found himself in. Had the African American athletes not gone to the games, they would once again be depicted as lazy, unworthy of an equal opportunity.

Nonetheless, if they do go and do well, then their protesting gesture carries more weight, as if it is earned. After the Smith's and Carlos's protest Boston, although disapproving of the way that the

Olympic Committee handled the situation, understood, yet he stated: "They are going to have to send me home too, because I protested on the victory stand" (Sheehan). Nonetheless, Boston was not sent home as if the committee could not afford to remove another athlete of the team since such action could eventually lead to a greater controversy.

Moreover, the US committee at first did not mean to remove Smith and Carlos, however, the IOC, led by Brundage, threatened to ban an entire American team, therefore Smith and Carlos had to be removed to prevent such an action from happening. Also, had the entire American team been removed for a protest initiated by two African Americans, the overall situation of African

Americans might worsen, not only in the field of sports, but in general. From this point of view, the escort of the two athletes was perhaps the only acceptable move. Doug Roby, a white president of the USOC at the time stated: "We suppressed the demonstrators because we felt if we let it go it would get progressively worse, it would become a tip-off to others, white as well as black" (Doug Roby). The sense of the action was then to prevent further demonstrations, yet few of them still happened although on a smaller scale hence the USOC let them by. Even though it

22 was African American athletes, who took a standby attending the ceremonies with various symbols in support of fight for racial justice, they were not the only ones as the Harvard rowing team publicly expressed their support of the OPHR. Unfortunately, the rowing team placed 8th which made the team's proclamations a double-edged sword which Roby utilized: "Certainly serious intellectual degeneration has taken place in this once great University if you and several members of your crew are examples of the type of men that are within its walls" (Roberts 130). A team of white men was painted as a group of degenerates given their poor performance and support of the OPHR cause. Not only were the black athletes disrespected, so were their white supporters.

The team of American boxers, both black and white, seemed to remain mostly unmoved by Smith's and Carlo's protest. Harlan Marbley stated: "Everybody has a personal opinion. I have got mine and I keep it for myself (Some Negro Athletes Threaten to 'Go Home' Along

With Smith and Carlos). Boxer George Foreman, a gold medalist, stood at the ceremony with an

American flag in his hand, a polar opposite of the sprinters' action which made the impression that he wanted to refute the protest, however, Foreman was just proud, it was a personal gesture.

He said: "Look at what I've done" (1968 - A Mexico City Documentary). However, since the protest, every gesture by African American athletes was perceived as political. Foreman was unlike Smith and Carlos invited to the White House after the games as if the president wanted to demonstrate that if an African American waves a flag and keeps his head down, he too may achieve success in life. Originally, even Smith and Carlos were supposed to revive an invitation to the White House, though in the end, the memo supposedly wrote: "believe the President would have little to gain and there is the potential for much embarrassment" (Maese). Just like in 1936, the president refused to meet African American athletes.

The press was relentless in trying to get Smith's and Carlos's responses, yet one article stands above all. Brent Musburger, then a columnist for the Chicago's American newspaper,

23 wrote an article where he describes these athletes as "black-skinned stormtroopers" which refers to special forces unit of a German Army during World War. Musburger also wrote:

Protesting and working constructively against racism in the United States is one thing, but

airing one's dirty clothing before the entire world during a fun-and-games tournament

was no more than a couple athletes who should have known better. (Corbett)

Musburger seemingly argues for a constructive approach in a fight against racism while such an approach was merely nonexistent. Essentially, Musburger response depicts that the African

American athletes were still slaves in a sense, expected to only use their body and through that bring glory to the nation run by only white people. Carlos responded to Musburger's article in a

2012 interview: "Here we are, standing up to apartheid and to a man in Avery Brundage who delivered Olympics to Hitler's Germany. And here's Musburger calling us Nazis" (Zirin). The weight of the media in response to the protest was overwhelming for the two men, they were followed who according to Smith have received multiple death threats and were afraid to walk at their house or go to school.

Overall, the immediate response to the 1968 Olympics Black Power protest was polarizing as it generated reactions from other African American athletes, white athletes, the media and the officials. African American athletes did not react in unity, their responses varied, some contributed to the movement by making their silent protests, some tried to distance themselves from the event. Not even white athletes were united, some were strictly against, while some expressed support. Media attempted to demonize Smith and Carlos, even portraying them as Nazis and affecting their personal lives. Throughout history, more athletes would comment on the events of the 1968 Mexico City Olympics.

24 4. Colin Kaepernick's NFL protest

In the year 2016, almost fifty years after the Olympic protest in Mexico City, an

American footballer Colin Kaepernick stirred the debate regarding racial issues in the United

States like no other black athlete since Smith and Carlos. Since that protest, African American athletes mostly shun involvement in politics. It could have been because money and respect had become more important to them than truth, which would be understandable and not unlike white athletes. Nonetheless, in Kaepernick's view, African Americans could not afford the luxury of ignorance towards lives of fellow citizens. When Kaepernick took the knee during the national anthem in a pre-season game, the dynamics between sport and politics would evolve once again.

Originally, Colin Kaepernick decided to simply sit out the national anthem, protesting against police brutality and killings of African Americans. When he did so, almost nobody noticed, partially because at the two games where he did so, he was not dressed in the gear as he was post multiple surgeries and not a starting player. Even after he dressed up into the uniform for the following game, almost nobody noticed. He said to a reporter who did notice:

I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black

people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on

my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave

and getting away with murder. (Wyche)

Such was the initial statement given by Kaepernick trying to bring attention to the pressing issues of racial abuse. He added: "I am not looking for approval. I have to stand up for people that are oppressed. ... If they take football away, my endorsements from me, I know that I stood up for what is right" (Wyche). Kaepernick did not inform anyone about the protest he was going to do and was well aware of the possible consequences of his action.

His action elicited many responses, however, almost all ignored the reason for which he did not stand during the anthem. Most looked at Kaepernick as someone who disrespects the

25 American flag, the military and the nation. In response to those claims, the NFL issued a statement: "Players are encouraged but not required to stand during the playing of the national anthem," and the coach of Kaepernick's team said: "It's not my right to tell him not to do something" (Wyche). At first, the NFL and the team backed Kaepernick, even though many voiced their opinion against him. Drew Brees, a white quarterback, said: "He can speak out about a very important issue. But there's plenty of other ways that you can do that in a peaceful manner that doesn't involve being disrespectful to the American flag" (Mather). Brees's response that

Kaepernick's protest is disrespectful to the American flag points out an issue that further troubled the black athletes later on. Essentially, what Brees said was that Kaepernick should not have protested on the field and rather should have done it someplace else. However, if Kaepernick wanted to bring as much attention as possible, there was not any other place where that many people could notice.

After the outrage, Kaepernick decided to consult Nate Boyer, an American who briefly played in the NFL and wrote an open letter to Kaepernick. Together, they figured a better way to protest, a way that would not disrespect American military. Boyer said: "I am not pro-

Kaepernick's protest... I am definitely defending his right to do what he's doing ... What matters is he started a discussion" (Green Beret & Former Seattle Seahawk Nate Boyer on Colin

Kaepernick's Protest). The two men agreed that Kaepernick would kneel during the anthem since soldiers kneel in front of graves of their fallen comrades. Boyer stood next to Kaepernick as he took a knee during the national anthem. Soon, Kaepernick was not the only one kneeling as many other players followed his example and cause.

Boomer Esiason, a commentator for CBS said: "I cannot say it in the strongest, most direct way, that it's an embarrassment and it's about as disrespectful as any athlete has ever been"

(Wilson). So, Kaepernick's protest was perceived as sheer disrespect to the country, however, almost exclusively by white people. Just like with Ali, Smith and Carlos, white players, media,

26 spectators stood against the idea that African Americans could protest. However, the biggest issue was that still the majority did not care for the message that Kaepernick wanted to get across.

The main concern was the means of the protest and an argument that such an act is disrespectful.

Moreover, Kaepernick has been accused of simply trying to get attention since he lost his starting position on the team given his surgeries and lack of practice. Tony La Russa, a white manager of multiple teams, said: "I remember when he was on top. I never heard him talk about anything but himself. Now, all of sudden he's struggling for attention and he makes this big pitch.

I don't buy it" (Tony La Russa: Colin Kaepernick protest all publicity, no substance). Yet, the hypothesis that Kaepernick's only concern was attention for himself would be flawed since

Kaepernick was an eager student of the African American heritage. Kaepernick even visited

University of California in Berkeley for a course on black representation. Furthermore,

Kaepernick was already organizing camps for African American children that could help them figure their identity. Also, Kaepernick thought over the protest for many months before it actually happened. Therefore, stating that he was attention hungry would be dismissing all that he studied and did regarding African Americans. The reactions to Kaepernick's protest also demonstrated how divided the American sports and society were. As long as players remained quiet, they maintained the illusion that everyone is the same and has the same rights. The organizations and teams stand together as they fight for victory and race should not matter in such an environment.

However, as soon as a black player decides to speak out about the issues in the American society, he is being tarnished. The immediate response to Kaepernick's actions were then quite aggressive, he was accused of being anti-American while only respectfully pointing at real issues of the country that prides itself in the fact that people are free to do and say whatever they want, since freedom is one of the core American values. Yet, as it shows throughout history of African

American protesters, that freedom cannot be utilized equally by everyone.

27 The following months were carried in the similar spirit, Kaepernick protested throughout the season and many other African American players protested along with him. Kaepernick's message also reached outside the circle of black athletes, Megan Rapinoe, a female white football player joined the cause and took the knee, she commented: "Being a gay American, I know what it means to look at the flag and not have it protect all of your liberties" (Salazar). Rapinoe too became a target for displaying un-American behavior. Many comments under her tweet that states: "It's the least I can do. Keep the conversation going," were hostile (@mPinoe). For example: "You represent our country at the highest level for Women's sports, and this is how you show respect... JOKE" (@scott_ford). Just like Kaepernick and other black athletes, Rapinoe has been told to find a different country to live in if the US does not suit her. The call for moving to another country was and still is a common argument of those disagreeing with these protests. It is a response that illustrates the misunderstanding of these actions. As Kaepernick said at the beginnings of the protests: "Once again, I'm not anti-American. I love America. I love people.

That's why I'm doing this. I want to help make America better" (Mather). Essentially, the simple statement of wanting to make America better encapsulates the African American sports protests throughout history. Robinson, Ali, Smith, Carlos and Kaepernick, none of these African

American athletes stated that America is terrible, none of them wanted to disrespect the country and its people, they only wanted the country to stand by its values and in effect provide a better living situations for other than white people.

Six months after the commencement of the protests, Kaepernick withdrew from his contract with his NFL team in search for another contract, however, as of April 2020, Kaepernick has not been signed by a different team and has not played an official match since 2016. Teams avoided Kaepernick for the controversy he would bring. However, although Kaepernick could not play and missed on the field, the protests did not stop. President Trump addressed them:

"Wouldn't you love to see one of these NFL owners, when somebody disrespects our flag, to say,

28 'Get that son of a bitch off the field right now. You're fired'" (President Trump wants to see NFL players fired for kneeling during anthem). The president's reaction to these athletes was pitiless and, in many ways, resembling the public's response in Twitter threads. Not even the current president could empathize with these black athletes and the issues they were pointing towards and wished to discuss. However, Trump's response to them only strengthened their stance as even the white managers stood with their arms locked with their players.

Colin Kaepernick decided to protest against police mistreatment regarding the African

American citizens. His intention was to create a conversation and do so in the most respectful yet visible means which in his case was kneeling at the stadium during the national anthem. His actions were criticized and after departing from his then current team, he has not managed to sign with another one due to those actions. Although Kaepernick could not play, his cause resonated with other, not necessarily black athletes. Colin Kaepernick took the most courageous and important step since the 1968 Olympics, essentially sacrificing his football career for equality that still misses in the American society.

Similarities and Differences between Ali, Smith, Carlos, and Kaepernick

In the year 1968, Tommie Smith and John Carlos raised their fists during a medal ceremony to the sound of the national anthem. It was a gesture that is still being discussed to this day. They stood for equality for the African American citizens of the United States. The reactions to their action were mixed, however, it was perhaps the most substantial action taken by black athletes until then, as more also protested at the games. Smith and Carlos were then banned from the sport, leaving them struggling to make a living. Then for many years, African American sports protests quieted down. Until in the year 2016, Colin Kaepernick decided to kneel during the national anthem. The protest stood against police brutality committed upon African American citizens. The protest has then evolved from just being Kaepernick's action into a sort of movement as many black athletes also kneeled. The reactions to these actions were vocal, often

29 hostile, and aggressive. After Kaepernick left his then-current team, he has failed to find a team that would offer him a job. Almost fifty years apart, yet the protests initiated by Kaepernick,

Smith, and Carlos resemble one another to a large extent.

All three lost their jobs in which they were among the best, therefore, technically they should have been able to keep them. However, they were ostracized due to their beliefs which although almost fifty years apart, were the same, that is that African American citizens should be treated the same as white citizens. All three were accused of acting against the country and the flag while their message was either missed, misunderstood, or simply spurned. Harry Edwards addressed the three athletes: "You don't make this sacrifice, pay this price, unless you love this country. What they are saying is, 'We're better than this as Americans'" (Longman). They stood for what was right according to them and according to the supposed American values, but they were rejected for it. This stance towards black athletes resonates with the idea that black athletes are modern-day slaves and it is a stance that has not changed in a long time.

Until Muhammad Ali was just an outspoken boxer, he was adored or at least tolerated.

However, as he refused to go to war based on his beliefs, he took the punishment. Smith and

Carlos followed a similar path. Kaepernick is a follower of these sport leaders in the fight for equality and half a century later, he took the same punishment as them, as if nothing had changed over that time. Carlos commented on Kaepernick:

Through his commitment and sacrifice to speak about the awareness of police brutality

against blacks in America, Kaepernick has cemented his status in my books as one of

many great individuals whose name will be spoken alongside the likes of Muhammad Ali,

Jackie Robinson, Dr. Tommie Smith, Peter Norman, and myself. (Nathan)

Kaepernick gained the respect of these athletes who fought for the same thing that he does.

Kaepernick was also compared to Ali by Harry Edwards who said that Kaepernick is the

"Muhammad Ali of his generation" (Longman). Kaepernick commented regarding Ali: "He is

30 someone who helped pave the way for this to happen ... I can't let him die in vain. I have to be able to carry that on and try to fight that same fight until we accomplish our goal" (Nathan). The bond in-between these athletes is strong. It could seem that Ali, Smith, and Carlos had little effect on the dynamics and evolution of racial perception since Kaepernick has proceeded to take very similar actions while standing for the same cause, and then being persecuted just like those athletes. However, those protests made it possible for Kaepernick to spark a larger conversation about race at the time when various technology, namely social media, can be a useful tool that was not available to those before him.

Ali, Smith, and Carlos could not control how their story and message would be forwarded to the public. They were at a mercy of media, which were often against them. Marc A. Thiessen wrote an article for The Washington Post called "Disrespecting the flag is a disgraceful way to protest Trump," reacting to the protests taking place in 2017 after Trump's statement that these athletes should be fired while calling them sons of bitches (Thiessen). While Kaepernick and his actions were also painted in the media, he could still to an extent control his story and message since he could use social media. The New York Times article analyzes Kaepernick's use of social media, concluding that Kaepernick rarely uses his own voice but rather shares what others say of him and his cause (Hoffman). This way Kaepernick managed to create a narrative that differs from the one in media, he created a narrative in which his cause is heavily supported. Thus

Kaepernick, unlike Ali, Smith, and Carlos has a little more control than they had, however, since they protested before him, the society could already somewhat accept the idea of an African

American sport protester, it was not completely new. Moreover, since the idea of a black sport protester already existed, other black athletes could better resonate with Kaepernick's protest and take his side. They knew that truly not a lot has changed over fifty years and they need to support the conversation around racial injustice.

31 Kaepernick's protest and its effects last longer than those of Ali, Smith, and Carlos and more importantly, more African American athletes, but not only them, joined Kaepernick and the conversation. Nowadays, these athletes have more resources than fifty years ago and can carry the conversation without the necessity of traditional media. Many African American athletes and fans and celebrities have expressed support to Kaepernick by using a hashtag #imwithkap, among them the actress Zendaya, rapper Common, and basketball player Steph Curry. Some posted pictures of them wearing Kaepernick's merch, for example, basketball player LeBron James.

Kaepernick's merch is yet another factor after social media that helps him control the narrative.

His clothing line available for purchase has "I know my rights" written over it and since anyone can buy these clothes, Kaepernick gains a closer connection with his supporters.

The fact that Kaepernick may to an extent control the narrative is perhaps the biggest difference between then and now. However, Ali, Smith, and Carlos were the ones who prepared the way for Kaepernick who expands on their ideas. Kaepernick capitalizes on the possibilities of today so that the conversation does not stop and actually moves forward. Kaepernick utilizes these possibilities in a way that might help the protest make a bigger step forward than the protest of Smith and Carlos.

32 5. Presidents and Corporations in Regard to the Protests

Presidents

The political perception of the African American sports protesters has remained largely the same since Jesse Owens who did not actually protest but his appearance at the 1936 Olympics was political in itself, for he was a black man. Then, President Roosevelt did not invite Owens to the White House following his achievements as the honor of meeting the president was reserved for white athletes only. Essentially, the president ignored Owens. In 1968, Lyndon B. Johnson remained silent regarding Tommie Smith and John Carlos. Johnson received a suggestion to invite all Olympic medal winners to the White House, including Smith and Carlos, however, the official excuse was that the president was unfortunately too busy to solidify the event. Smith and

Carlos protested relatively shortly after the Civil Rights Acts. Then, the equality of African

Americans was still fresh, therefore, the ignorance of these athletes is understandable given the circumstances. Smith and Carlos were simply sidelined. The highest politicians, representatives of the country, did not react to the protest.

Colin Kaepernick protested while the first African American resided in the White House and Barack Obama commented on Kaepernick:

There are gonna be a lot of folks who do stuff we don't agree with.. .but as long as they're

doing it within the law, then we can voice our opinion objecting to it, but it's also their

right... I want Mr. Kaepernick and others who are on a knee, I want them to listen to the

pain that that may cause somebody who, for example, had a spouse or a child who was

killed in combat and why it hurts them to see somebody not standing. But I also want

people to think about the pain he may be expressing about somebody who's lost a loved

one that they think was unfairly shot. (Obama discusses Kaepernick's anthem protest)

Obama targeted the two major aspects of Kaepernick's protest that were the cause of the unrest.

Kaepernick had the right to protest and to express the opinion, albeit some might disagree with

33 him. Moreover, the second part of Obama's comment regards the allegations of being un-

American, unpatriotic, and offensive towards the men and women of the military. Kaepernick took the knee as the form of protest since that seemed to be the least controversial while still adverting to an issue. Obama then urged the others to actually look at the issue that Kaepernick wanted to discuss. It seemed that Obama was willing to discuss and develop upon Kaepernick's initiation, however, he was at the end of his presidential term and Donald Trump took his place.

Therefore, the debate did not truly move forward with Obama, although his attitude promised future action.

Trump's expressions towards the protest were much different, and the protests intensified due to them. Besides urging the teams to either fire or suspend the protesters, Trump even addressed the NFL fans and encouraged them to leave the stadium, should any player kneel during the national anthem: "The only thing you can do better is if you see it, even if it's one player, leave the stadium. I guarantee it, things will stuff. Just pick up and leave" (Time).

Moreover, Trump also posted on Twitter the following: "The issue of kneeling has nothing to do with race. It is about respect for our country, flag and National Anthem" (@realDonalTrump).

The president declared that a protest against institutional racial injustice did not relate to race.

Just like the public, President Trump did not consider the reasoning behind the protests, but rather called such actions offensive to the country and the flag. Trump's stance towards these protests was another political wall awaiting African American sports protesters. Evidently, politics has not proven to be an effective communicator of the African American sports protesters throughout history.

Corporations

While the political response to the African American protesting athlete might have stayed similar throughout history, a new party has gotten involved in the process. Besides social media, which athletes like Kaepernick have been able to leverage to their advantage, brands have lately

34 embarked on the socio-political discussions. Since brands have attained high values throughout the past fifty years, they have started to express themselves regarding issues and causes that affect them. Sports brands are significant because every top tier team and athlete nowadays is sponsored and wears a specific brand. Sports fans then gravitate towards the brand that sponsors their favorite team and athlete. The customer who then wears the product essentially expresses an agreement with the company's general message. Therefore, when a brand expresses their opinion on a socio-political issue, such as Colin Kaepernick and racial inequality, the brand in effect involves the people who buy its products, thus contributing to the discussion.

When Smith and Carlos protested, they were unsupported by the circle outside mostly other black athletes, however, Kaepernick besides leveraging social media has had support from the biggest sports brand in the world which is Nike. In 2018, Nike launched its "Dream Crazy" global campaign starring Colin Kaepernick. Kaepernick who narrates the advertisement makes in it the following statement: "Believe in something, even if it means sacrificing everything" (Nike).

Kaepernick refers in the advertisement to his situation of not being able to pursue his career in football due to believing in the absence of racial equality and standing up to the issue. Through that statement, Kaepernick also pays respect to Smith and Carlos who were in the same situation.

The campaign was controversial, as many users on twitter posted photos and videos of their burning Nike shoes, torn socks, and other products, expressing their disagreement with

Kaepernick's involvement. Furthermore, the hashtag #BoycottNike was trending on Twitter.

Even President Trump gave a statement, he clearly disagreed:

I think it's a terrible message that [Nike] are sending and the purpose of them doing it,

maybe there's a reason for them doing it. But I think as far as sending a message, I think

it's a terrible message and a message that shouldn't be sent. There's no reason for it.

(Bieler)

President Trump says that there is not a reason for supporting a cause regarding racial inequality.

35 Besides people tarnishing their Nike gear, another trend emerged on Twitter, as people shared Kaepernick's statement, however, they replaced Kaepernick's photo with a one of Pat

Tillman, a former NFL player who in 2004 died in the military in Afghanistan. Once again, the argument that Kaepernick stands against the military emerged, while overlooking the cause for his actions. Tillman's widow said in an interview:

The very action of self-expression and the freedom to speak from one's heart — no matter

those views — is what Pat and so many other Americans have given their lives for. Even

if they didn't always agree with those views. (Taylor)

Tillman would have probably agreed with Kaepernick's stance, or at least with his right to protest. Athletes appearing in the campaign also expressed support to Kaepernick through sharing the campaign and tagging Kaepernick in those posts. Serena Williams, an African American tennis player, stated in an interview:

I think every athlete, every human, and definitely every African American should be

completely grateful and honored how Colin and Eric are doing so much more for the

greater good. They really use their platform in ways that [are] really unfathomable. I feel

like they obviously have great respect from a lot of their peers, especially other athletes,

people that really are looking for social change. (Boren)

Williams also referred to Eric Reid, who like Kaepernick remained unemployed after kneeling, although as of 2020 plays for another team. Nike's campaign demonstrated how influential a brand can be in regard to socio-political issues. Although the advertisement caused controversy and outrage in some, others have expressed more support to Nike and Kaepernick. Nike displayed that a brand has the ability to drive the conversation forward, which is something that the highest politicians failed and continue in failing to do.

36 Besides Nike, the sports brand Puma engaged itself in the socio-political discussion, commemorating the 50th anniversary of Tommie Smith's salute with its #REFORM campaign.

Puma states on its website:

#PvEFORM is directly inspired by Olympian Tommie Smith, and his 'Silent Gesture' that

sparked global debate around the issues of civil rights and universal equality at the 1968

Mexico City Olympics. Our goal is FASTER reform, as we are inspired by the courage of

those who risk everything to stand for what they believe in. (#REFORM)

Puma's clothing line inspired by Smith called "Power through peace" is a direct form of wearing a statement, unlike only wearing regular branded clothing. The proceeds from the sales of those clothes were donated to organizations striving for equality. Although Smith raced in 1968 in

Puma's shoes, the brands were not as influential then, they did not dispose of as many resources as in the past decade. However, as times and technology advance, brands have become more engaged with their athletes.

The support from these large companies like Nike and Puma might be one of the aspects that helps carry the conversation further than it could have gone in the 1960s. Although it could be argued that these brands are involved only for the profit, after all, they are businesses, that would not change the fact that they communicate with the athletes they sponsor and support, in effect encouraging their causes and appeal to the people. While these companies have expressed support and understanding for these athletes' actions, American presidents have generally not.

37 6. Conclusion

To conclude, this thesis documents and discusses the history of African American athletes, who have decided to protest against racial inequality. It particularly focuses on the responses by fellow athletes, politicians, media, and the public. The main part of the thesis presents two of the most significant organized athletic protests, the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute and the 2016 National Football League protests. Although the protests are separated by almost 50 years, the general response to them stayed mostly the same.

To understand the emergence of organized sports protests, the thesis provides the necessary background dating to Jesse Owens and the 1936 Berlin Olympics. The objective is to demonstrate that the presence of African Americans in sports is inherently political, whether black athletes wish to or not. Then a chapter about Jackie Robinson depicts the mixing of sports and politics and how they coexist and affect one another, although the general belief then was that sports and politics should not mix. It also demonstrates that the inclusion of black athletes in organized sports served as an experiment that would later be implemented into the real world.

Robinson proved that black people and white people can coexist and cooperate. The chapter about Muhammad Ali follows and exemplifies the first major African American revolt against the political system, when Ali refused to fight in the Vietnam War, resulting in the loss of his champion title. Ali was the first black athlete who so openly stood against inequality. Ali's action resulted in a manifold higher and vociferous emergence of responses and opinions than ever before regarding a black athlete. Media, politics, the public, former and present athletes as well as soldiers, all expressed their opinions.

The oppression and mistreatment of African Americans remain a persevering issue on which athletes have wanted to bring attention through planned protests in 1968 during the

Olympic Games in Mexico City, and almost 50 years later in 2016 during the NFL season. The main actors of these protests, Tommie Smith with John Carlos and Colin Kaepernick, have

38 suffered similar consequences due to their actions. They were forced to stop competing and faced a hostile reception from various parts of society. To determine whether the perception of a protesting African American athlete has changed, the thesis provides statements, comments, and interviews regarding these and other occurrences of protesting athletes. Generally, the response to these athletes has remained the same. The most common argument among the adversaries is that these gestures are disrespectful to the American flag, anthem, and the nation. The reasons for these protests, which are the racial inequality and police mistreatment of black people, are then often overlooked.

Finally, the thesis discusses the situations and perceptions of these athletes in the presidential and corporate sphere. It aims to determine how have these parties responded to the

African American protesting athletes and whether their responses were adequate and beneficial to the intensification of a search for solutions to the issues that the athletes point out. Companies like Nike and Puma have expressed support to these athletes and although they may have been motivated by potential profits that such an expression could bring, that does not invalidate the public support they presented. While presidents have generally either not responded or responded harshly, companies have embraced protesting black athletes.

The past and present of protesting African American athletes are marked by resounding disapproval from different societal spheres. However, although the general perception of a protesting black athlete remains the same for over 50 years, the future might be optimistic. Even though Colin Kaepernick lost his job in the NFL, through modern technology and a much better financial situation than in 1968, he has been able to at least partially control the narrative of the story and issues he wanted to tell and point out. Furthermore, the public is slowly but surely getting used to the protesting black athletes and should be prepared to listen to their message, rather than just look at their sole gestures.

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44 Summary

This thesis examines the perception of African American athletes in the United States. It aims to determine, whether the reception of protesting African American athletes has changed or remained the same over the course of 50 years. The introductory chapter presents three African

American athletes, Jesse Owens, Jackie Robinson, who both played an important role in the integration of African American athletes in white sports. They demonstrate the interconnectedness of sports and politics. Then, the subchapter about Muhammad Ali presents how a protesting African American athlete is perceived.

The following chapters document and analyze two protests organized by African

American athletes, the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute, and the 2016 National Football

League protests. The 1968 protest was led by Tommie Smith and John Carlos, the 2016 protest was led by Colin Kaepernick. Both protests intended to highlight the racial inequality troubling the United States. The thesis documents responses from several sources to provide a complex image of how society responded to these athletes. In neither case were the reactions united and athletes received both support and dissent. While the general reception of these athletes remained the same, the future of protesting African American athletes seems to be positive as the public is getting used to them and will be prepared to better listen to why these athletes protest.

45 Resumé

Tato práce zkoumá pohled na afroamerické sportovce ve Spojených státech amerických.

Cílem je zjistit, zda se v průběhu 50 let změnil pohled na protestující afroamerické sportovce, či zůstal stejný. Úvodní podkapitoly prezentují dva afroamerické sportovce, Jesseho Owense a

Jackieho Robinsona, kteří hráli důležitou roli při integraci afroamerických sportovců do sportů pro bílé. Názorně ukazují propojení sportu a politiky. Dále, podkapitola o Muhammadu Alim prezentuje, jaký je pohled na protestujícího afroamerického atleta.

Následující kapitoly dokumentují a analyzují dva protesty zorganizované afroametickými sportovci, pozdrav černé síly během olympiády roku 1968 a protesty během národní fotbalové ligy v roce 2016. Protest v roce 1968 byl veden Tommiem Smithem a Johnem Carlosem, protest v roce 2016 byl veden Colinem Kaepernickem. Účelem obou protestů bylo poukázat na rasovou nerovnost sužující USA. Pro poskytnutí komplexního obrazu ohledně reakcí veřejnosti na tyto sportovce, práce dokumentuje reakce z mnohých zdrojů. V žádném případě nebyly reakce jednotné a sportovcům se dostala jak podpory, tak odporu. Zatímco obecné přijetí těchto sportovců zůstalo stejné, budoucnost protestujících afroamerických sportovců se zdá být pozitivní, jelikož veřejnost si na ně zvyká a bude připravena lépe naslouchat tomu, z jakých důvodů protestují.

46