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National Librar y Bibliothèque nationale I*l of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services senices bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, nie Wellington OttawaON KIAW OttawaON KIAOW Canada canada The author has g-anted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive pemettant a la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distriiute or sell reproduire, prêter, disûiïuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/fïlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Supervisor: Dr. Geoffrey N. O'Grady One of the rnost important questions in Australian comparative linguistics over the last 40 pars is the validity of a Pama-Nyungan node in the Australian family tree. Much of the comparative research done on Australian languages has supported the notion of a Pma-Nyungan family, and its validity is now well-established. How- ever. much work remains to be done. both in establishing the relationships among the Pama-'iyungan languages and in reconstructing proto-Pama-Nyungan and deter- mining the details of its development in the various branches of the family tree. This dissertation is a contribution towards the latter effort. The prima- purpose of the present study is to determine the development of the three initial veiars. *k. 'ng and *W. in 2.5 Pama-Nyungan languages through 1361 cognate sets. The cognate sets are also an important resource for the study of other aspects of phonological change in Pama-Nyungan languages. The data provide evidence for the weakening of medial consonants. the assimilation of initial velar glides and nasals to the following vowel. prenasalizat ion of media1 stops. the development of triconsonantal clusters. and the presence of both a laminal lateral and a retroflex series of consonants in proto-Pama-Yyungan. In addit ion. statistical evidence is presented which supports the hypothesis that assimilation of the second to the first vowel is an important process in the history of many Pama-Nyungan languages. This dissertation also discusses important issues regarding the Neogrammarian hypothesis and the comparative method. In particular. the data presented here sup- port the idea that not al1 sound changes apply in a lexically abrupt, regular manner. Many of the sound changes seen in the data appear to affect only a portion of the eligi- ble forms. and t hus provide evidence for the t heory of lexical diffusion. Furt hermore. most of the changes are found not just in individual languages. but in a number of the languages under study. The data therefore support the notion of pandemic i rregulari t y. Contents Contents List of Tables List of Maps ix List of Abbreviations X Acknowledgements xii Dedication xiv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Previous work on Pama-Xyungan .................... 3 1.1.1 Phonology ............................. 6 1.1.2 Grammar ............................. 8 1.1.3 Lexicon .............................. 9 1.14 Semantics ............................. 10 1.2 Proto-Pama-Nyungan ........................... 11 1.3 Languages in the S t udy .......................... 14 1.3.1 Sociolinguistic Informat ion .................... 16 1.3.2 Data Sources and Transcription ................. 20 1.3.3 Phonerne inventories ....................... -1-2-- 1.3.4 Assumed Subgrouping ...................... 26 2 Methodology 29 2.1 Review of the Comparative Method .................. :IO 2.2 Alternative Views on Sound Change ................... 38 9.2.1 Campbell ............................. 39 2.2.2 Lexical Diffusion ......................... 41 2.2.3 Labov ............................... 13 2.2.4 Pandemic Irregularity ...................... 16 2.2..i Role of t he Neogrammarian Hypot hesis ............. 18 2.3 Bottom-C'p and Top-Down Cornparison ................. 50 2.4 hlethod Ysed in this Study ........................ 52 24.1 Overview ............................. 53 2-42 Details of the klethod ...................... 5-1 3 *k-Initial Etyma 63 3.1 'ka- .................................... 66 .3.2 "ki- ..................................... 116 3.3 "ku- .................................... 123 4 *ng-Initial Etyma 171 4.1 'nga- .................................... 171 4.2 "ngi- .................................... 193 4.3 'ngu- .................................... 19-5 5 *w-Initial Etyma 206 1 "wa- .................................... 206 .j.? "wi- .................................... 242 3 "wu- .................................... 254 6 Analysis of Cognate Sets 262 6.1 Consonant Changes ............................ 262 6.1.1 Initial Velars ........................... 16:3 6.1.1.1 *k- > ng- ........................ 263 6.1.1.2 *k-> u9- ......................... 265 6.1.1.3 %->@......................... 261 6.1.1.4 'ng-> cï- ........................ 268 6.1.1 ..? 'ng->@ ......................... 271 6.1.1.6 *w>@......................... 2Z 6 Summary ........................ ?7:3 3"' 6.2 Medial Leni t ion .......................... -13 6.1.2.1 StopstoNasals ..................... .]-ra-9 6.1.2.2 Stops to Glides ..................... 276 6.1.2.3 Nasals to Glides .................... 276 6.1.3 .\ssimilation of [nit ial Velars to VI ............... 277 6.1.4 Prenasalization .......................... 278 6.1.5 Triconsonantal Sequences .................... 280 6.1.6 Laminal Lateral .......................... 281 6.1. T Ret rotlexes in prot O- Pama-Nyungan ............... 283 6.1 Assimilation of Vl to & ......................... 28.5 6.2.0.1 Problems in Reconstruction .............. 286 6.2.0.2 St at is t ical Evidence for Assimilation ......... '288 7 Conclusions References 300 Appendix A .Form Index .. * LIST OF TABLES Vlll List of Tables 1.1 Dixon's proto..Aust ralian Consonant Inventor- ............. 1'2 1.2 O'Grady's pPS Consonant Inventory .................. 13 1.3 List of Sources ............................... 'LI 4 Phoneme Inventories (part 1 ) ...................... 23 1.5 Phoneme Inventories (part 2) ...................... 24 6.1 Observed Frequencies of Vland V2 ................... 292 6.2 Expected and Observed Frequencies: VI= V2 ............. 293 List of Maps 1.1 Approximate Locations of Languages . 1.5 List of Abbreviations Bagandji Bayungu Bidyara-Gungabula Bundjalung Diyari Dyirbal Gumbaynggir Gupapuyngu Gugu-Yalanj i Kaurna Kala Lagaw Ya Xgarlurna Nyangumarta Xyangumart a-S t relley dialec t Syangumarta-CVaIlaI dialect Syungar Pint upi Pitta Pitta Pankarla Umpila Wembawernba Wadjuk (Nort hem Xyungar ) Nadpiri CVik Mungkan LVoiwurrung Yanyuwa Y idiny Guugu Yimidhirr pCK pKXX proto- Kanyara pKAR proto-Karnic pNG prot o-Xgayarda pSY proto-Nyungic p?X (D) proto- Syungic ( Desert languages ) p?;IWY prot O- Xyungo- Yuulngic P p pPM proto- Parna-Mark pPN proto-Pama-Syungao pPX (E) proto- Pama-Xyungan ( Eastern languages) pPN- proto- Pama- N yungan (no sout heast ern languages) p LP- K proto- Western-Karnic pYrR proto- Yura Acknowledgements I would like to thank mj- supervisor. Dr. Geoffrey O0Grady. for the training he has given me in historical linguistics. for sharing his incredible knowledge of Aus- tralian languages. and for his unbounded enthusiasm for my work. Thanks also to Dr. O'Grady for staying on as my supervisor for many years after his ret irement. and to 51rs. .Uix O'Grady for her support. 1 rvould also Iike to thank the other members of my cornmittee. Dr. Barry Carlson. Dr. Thomas Hess and Dr. William Alkire. and rny erternal examiner. Dr. Kenneth Hale. for their cornments and suggestions. .\[y thanks especially to Dr. Carlson for many interesting courses and discussions. and for his confidence in me. Special thanks to Dr. Hale for going to the trouble and expense of attending my delense in person. and for his suggestions regarding future work. Thanks to my fellow graduate students in the depart ment. My t hanks especially to .inne Gilbody and Murray Schellenberg for friendship. support and innumber- able cups of tea. and to Violet Bianco. who has been both a kindred spirit and an inspirat ion to me. 1 would like to acknowledge the University of Victoria and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. for providing me with fellowships during the course of my graduate studies. Finally. I would like to thank my husband. Kevin Cattell. Without his help and computer expertise, 1 would not have been able to undertake a study of this size. More importantly. he has endured many ups and downs during Our long years as students. and has given me his patience. wisdom. encouragement and love. Dedicat ion To rny son. Jasper Cattell. and to my baby due in eight weeks' time. You have taught me more about life than 1 could have learned in a lifetime of formal education. Chapter 1 Introduction One of the most important questions in hustralian comparative linguistics over the last 40 years is the validity of a Pama-Syungan node in the Australian phylic tree. In 1962. Hale proposed that the Pama-Xyungan languages form a family. which is almost certainly a member of the Australian phylum. hlt hough many researchers have
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