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KIOWA BELIEF and RITUAL Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians Series

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KIOWA BELIEF and RITUAL Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians Series KIOWA BELIEF AND RITUAL Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians Series EDITORS Raymond J. DeMallie Douglas R. Parks KIOWA BELIEF AND RITUAL Benjamin R. Kracht Published by the University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, in cooperation with the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington © 2017 by the Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: Kracht, Benjamin R., 1955– author. Title: Kiowa belief and ritual / Benjamin R. Kracht. Description: Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, in cooperation with the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, [2017] | Series: Studies in the anthropology of North American Indians | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016039778 (print) LCCN 2016040279 (ebook) ISBN 9781496200532 (cloth: alk. paper) ISBN 9781496201461 (pdf ) Subjects: LCSH: Kiowa Indians— Religion. | Kiowa Indians— Rites and ceremonies. | Indiana University, Bloomington. American Indian Studies Research Institute, issuing body. Classification: LCC E99.K5 K73 2017 (print) | LCC E99.K5 (ebook) | DDC 978.004/97492— dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016039778 Set in Merope by Rachel Gould. For B. Harold Kracht and Clifton Tongkeamah, my fathers. And my children, Elena and Robert. Contents List of Illustrations viii Kiowa Pronunciations ix Preface xiii Acknowledgments xix Introduction: Ethnographic Studies of Plains Indian Religions 1 1. Kiowa History, 1832– 1868 35 2. Kiowa Beliefs and Concepts of the Universe 53 3. Acquiring, Maintaining, and Manifesting Power 85 4. Bundles, Shields, and Societies 137 5. The Kiowa Sun Dance 197 Conclusion: The Collapse of the Horse and Buffalo Culture and the Sun Dance 251 Appendix: Kiowa Sun Dance Chronology, 1833– 1890 281 Notes 287 Bibliography 313 Index 335 Illustrations Following page 136 1. Kiowa kinship terminology 2. Painted tipi, Water Turtle tipi 3. Pa- tsonhi Buffalo shield 4. Floor plan of a tipi 5. Floor plan of sweat lodge for the Ten Medicines 6. Stack of Ten Medicines in sweat lodge 7. Arrangement of bundles outside sweat lodge 8. Taime 9. Taime shield and cover 10. Koɔde shield 11. Hotoyi shield 12. Gudlgut dancer 13. Little Bluff’s “battle tipi” 14. James Mooney’s reconstruction of the Kiowa Sun Dance circle 15. Sun Dance lodge 16. Make- buffalo ceremony 17. Sun Dance altar 18. Sun Dance lodge, floor plan viii Kiowa Pronunciations Though some scholars today use the Parker McKenzie system for ren- dering Kiowa language terms (Palmer 2003; Meadows 1999, 2008, 2010), I prefer the system utilized by Laurel Watkins (1984). Kiowa phonemes are as follows: CONSONANTS (WATKINS 1984, 7) p’ Ejective labial stop; articulated forcefully.1 t’ Ejective dental stop; articulated forcefully. k’ Ejective velar stop; articulated forcefully. ph Aspirated labial stop; articulated forcefully.2 th Aspirated dental stop; articulated forcefully. kh Aspirated velar stop; articulated forcefully. p Voiceless labial stop; as in pat. t Voiceless dental stop; as in tag. k Voiceless velar stop; as in cone. ? Voiceless laryngeal stop; glottal stop. b Voiced labial stop; as in boat. d Voiced dental stop; as in dog. g Voiced velar stop; as in goat. ts’ Ejective alveolar affricate; hissing noise. ts Voiceless alveolar affricate; as in soap. s Voiceless alveolar fricative; as in sit. h Voiceless laryngeal fricative; as in hide. z Voiced alveolar fricative; as in zebra. m Labial nasal; as in mine. n Dental nasal; as in nice. ix l Dental liquid; as in leaf.3 y Palatal glide; acts as a diphthong with back vowels u’, o’, and w’ and with low front vowel a. i High front vowel; as in he.4 VOWELS (WATKINS 1984, 9) e Mid front vowel; as in hay. a Low front vowel; as in law. u High back vowel; as in you. o Mid back vowel; as in toe. ɔ Low back vowel; as in caught. Precisely following the Watkins orthography, however, is somewhat problematic since it was published later than most sources on Kiowa culture and religion; hence variant spellings of names appear through- out published and unpublished sources. Kiowa names appearing in this work are spelled according to cited sources. As the majority of the 1935 fieldnotes are typewritten, the limited number of keys representing international phonetic alphabet, tone, nasal, and stress markers, as well as variant spellings, make orthography somewhat inconsistent. In some cases, the students rendered words phonetically or added diacritical markers in pencil, so I tried to follow the handwritten spellings whenever possible. Because 1935- era typewriters did not have a key for low back vowel /ɔ/, /w/ was used instead. Because word- processing tools allow for the use of IPA characters, I substituted /ɔ/ for /w/ whenever possible. For instance, the word for power, which appears as dwdw in the fieldnotes, is rendered as dɔdɔ in the text. Otherwise I have maintained the integ- rity of the original spellings. I also adopted the spellings used by each student, regardless of inconsistencies. Variant spellings of names also were cross- checked using the “List of Persons” published by Merrill et al. (1997, 335– 438). Notably, scholarly works on the Kiowas by William C. Meadows (1999, 2008, 2010) have modified the original orthography from the 1935 field- notes into the Parker McKenzie system, potentially changing the pro- nunciation and meaning of the firsthand spellings. In addition, such modifications do not account for the presence of four Kiowa dialects x KIOWA PRONUNCIATIONS associated with the modern communities near Anadarko, Carnegie, Hobart, and Meers, Oklahoma. Regarding different orthographies, it should be pointed out that within the Kiowa community, there is no single system that has widespread usage. For instance, I attended a conversational Kiowa class in Anadarko on May 23, 1994, taught by David L. Paddlety and have a copy of the work sheet that was distributed that day. The orthography employed by Pad- dlety is somewhat similar to the style used in the photocopied Kiowa hymnals available in some of the Baptist and Methodist churches. Nev- ertheless, Paddlety commented that the language classes taught in Car- negie use a different orthography. KIOWA PRONUNCIATIONS xi Preface Unfinished Business: The 1935 Santa Fe Laboratory of Anthropology Expedition Given the grim economic depression of the 1930s, it is truly remarkable that the Laboratory of Anthropology in Santa Fe, New Mexico, sponsored two ethnographic field schools in the Southern Plains (Ewers 1992, x), an area typically overlooked by researchers favoring the indigenous cul- tures of the Southwest or the Northern and Central Plains. In 1933, the first field school, directed by Ralph Linton (University of Wisconsin), was conducted in southwestern Oklahoma among the Comanches, and the second field school, directed by Alexander Lesser (Columbia Uni- versity) in 1935, focused on the neighboring Kiowas. Both field schools compiled massive data resulting in a number of publications on these formerly nomadic Plains tribes (Hoebel 1941, 1960; Linton 1935; Wallace and Hoebel 1952; Mishkin 1940; Richardson 1940; Collier 1944), though the planned collaborative ethnographies never materialized (DeMallie and Ewers 2001, 37). Recently, the collective Comanche fieldnotes were compiled and edited by Thomas W. Kavanagh (2008), but the much more extensive Kiowa fieldnotes, which contain invaluable informa- tion about the prereservation- period horse and buffalo culture, remain largely unpublished.1 Due to budget cuts in 1935, the Santa Fe Laboratory of Anthropol- ogy was compelled to eliminate funding for archaeology, so that year fellowships were available to students only for the ethnographic field study among the Kiowas. Applications were due by April 5, and scholar- ship recipients were to be notified by director Jesse L. Nusbaum in early xiii June. Successful candidates would receive round- trip transportation to the field site— Anadarko, Oklahoma— in addition to subsistence costs during the nine- week period.2 The Kiowa field party was one of the final Rockefeller Foundation– funded ethnographic field expeditions spon- sored by the Laboratory of Anthropology.3 Alexander Lesser arrived in Anadarko on June 19 to establish “living quarters” for the students and then spent the next four days traveling “many hundreds of miles visiting the old men and women of the tribe and explaining our purposes and plans. Thus, informants and interpret- ers were available before the group assembled.”4 On June 24, 1935, five anthropology graduate students converged in Anadarko for their first official meeting with Professor Lesser: Donald Collier (University of Chi- cago), R. Weston LaBarre (Yale University), Jane Richardson (University of California), William R. Bascom (University of Wisconsin), and Bernard Mishkin (Columbia University). By the time they departed on August 28, they had compiled over thirteen hundred pages of single- spaced field- notes derived from cross-interviewing thirty- five Kiowas employing as many as twelve interpreters.5 In his final report, Lesser noted that the students had gathered “ample, perhaps exceptional, material on Kiowa economics, political organiza- tion, authority, law, rank, kinship, family life, warfare, societies (men’s and women’s), religious conceptions, the vision complex, medicine men and sorcery, the Sun Dance, the Ten Medicine complex, cult movements,
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