Hints for Getting More from Your Function Generator 10 Application Note 1497

Table of contents Introduction

Hint 1: Quick tips for completing common tasks faster 2 Advances in software, microprocessors and Hint 2: Why your function generator outputs twice 3 display technology have expanded the cap- the programmed voltage abilities of modern function generators. The Hint 3: Two easy ways to create arbitrary waveforms 4 latest models can produce a variety of signals, Hint 4: Importing and editing arbitrary waveforms 5 including common waveforms, arbitrary Hint 5: Using a function/arbitrary waveform 6 waveforms and sophisticated modulated generator to generate pulses waveforms. Many use direct digital synthesis Hint 6: Using a function generator to create 7 (DDS), which creates a stable, accurate output for PWM waveforms clean, low-distortion sine waves. DDS also enables Hint 7: How to connect two or more signal generators 8 square waves with fast rise and fall times. to create a multi-channel waveform generator Hint 8: Adding a DC offset to the output of your 9 The added capability gives you more fl exibility function generator for testing your devices. The hints in this Hint 9: Reduce noise when adjusting amplitude 10 application note will help you take advantage Hint 10: Create a variety of frequency sweeps 11 of the features of your function/arbitrary using frequency modulation waveform generator so you can get your Glossary 12 job done more easily. Appendix: Agilent function/arbitrary waveform generators 13 Related Agilent Literature 13 Quick tips for completing common tasks faster

A well-organized and clearly labeled Tip: Use the graphical display user interface makes it easy for you to set up complex signals Hint to set up and adjust the output signal—whether it’s a simple sine Use the “Graph” key to activate the waveform or a complex arbitrary graphical display, which lets you waveform. An efficient interface will make quick work of setting up more make it easy for you to take advantage complex signals, such as modulated of the tips presented here. waveforms or arbitrary waveforms. You can see a modulated signal Tip: Keypad or knob? change on the graphical display as you adjust parameters such as Choose the best way to modulation depth. enter/adjust parameters You can adjust parameters using the Tip: Store settings for later use knob or the keypad. Use the keypad Once you configure your function if you want to adjust the generator to generator to output a desired signal, a specific setting, such as 1230 kHz. take the time to store the state. 1 The knob is better for adjusting or Storing the function generator’s state tuning the frequency in real time. Use allows you to recall the complete the arrows below the knob to high- state with a single button press. light the digit (order of magnitude) You can even name your state (for you want to adjust. example, “VENTURI,” “JIMS” or “ACME_LAB”) for easier recall, Tip: Take advantage of soft keys rather than having to remember Soft keys accelerate the set-up process the storage location number. by displaying only the parameters and units that are relevant to the task Tip: Generate a precise DC voltage you are performing. For example, the source softkeys are defined as Vrms or Vp-p when you are changing amplitude; You can generate a DC voltage with the same keys re-labeled “frequency,” the same accuracy as the DC Offset. “amplitude” and “DC offset” when you Go to the “Utility” menu and select are configuring a sine wave. For even “DC On.” The voltage is adjusted the more convenience, press the softkey same as other parameters using the repeatedly to toggle between similar keypad or the knob. You can enter parameters, such as “frequency” and any DC voltage from -5 V to +5 V with “period.” To stay organized, always 4 digits of resolution. adjust parameters using the soft keys from left to right.

Figure 1. The Agilent 33210A, 33220A, and 33250A function generator user interface groups together with common waveforms and provides clearly labeled keys so you can complete simple tasks more easily.

2 Why your function generator outputs twice the programmed voltage

As the default setting, Agilent func- voltage to compensate for the different Hint tion generators display voltage as impedance. For a 50-ohm source, the though it were terminated into a desired voltage (Vmeasured) into an 50-ohm load. When a high-impedance impedance (R) can be calculated as device such as an oscilloscope is used to measure the output of the function Vmeasured=V[R/(R+50)], generator, the waveform appears to be twice the voltage shown on the where V=2 x display or display of the function generator. Vmeasured=display[2R/(R+50)] To remedy the discrepancy, you may be able to change the oscilloscope’s The Agilent 33210A, 33220A, and input impedance from standard high 33250A function generators have impedance to a 50-ohm termination the ability to do this calculation for (not all oscilloscopes allow you to you and directly display the desired do this). Another solution is to add voltage. They include a feature that a 50-ohm feedthrough to the oscillo- allows the output termination to be 2 scope’s input BNC. set to any impedance from 1 ohm to 10k ohms, or infinite. For example, Other common impedances are 25, if the output termination is set to 75, 93, 135, 150, and 600 ohms. Video 75 ohms and the generator is con- systems are most often 75 ohms and nected to an oscilloscope with a many audio systems use a balanced 75-ohm termination (or 75-ohm 600-ohm termination. If you are not feedthrough), the function generator terminating the output of the function display will match what is displayed generator into a 50-ohm load, it may on the scope. be necessary to adjust the output

Function Function generator generator

50 Ω + + 50 Ω + +

Vmeasured Vmeasured V Display 50 Ω V Display – – – – V = 2 x display V = 2 x display

Vmeasured = 1/2V = 1/2 (2 x display) Vmeasured = V = 2 x display Vmeasured = display Vmeasured ≠ display

Figure 2. When you add a 50-ohm load to the output of the function generator, as shown in the diagram on the left, the measured and displayed voltage will be the same.

3 Two easy ways to create arbitrary waveforms

With modern arbitrary waveform When creating arbitrary waveforms, generators that use direct digital the function generator will always Hint synthesis (DDS) technology, you replicate the finite-length time record can create arbitrary waveforms two to produce a periodic version of the ways: you can define waveforms data in waveform memory. However, using the front panel or by down- as shown in Figure 3, it is possible loading a waveform. Agilent’s free that the shape and phase of a signal IntuiLink software allows you to may introduce a discontinuity at the create arbitrary waveforms using a end point. To avoid discontinuities— graphical user interface on your PC, and the resulting frequency domain and then download them into your leakage errors—it is important to cre- function generator. The latest ate arbitrary waveforms as a single version of IntuiLink is available at period or as integer-multiple periods. www.agilent.com/find/intuilink. It’s also worth noting that the gen- A graphical user interface and linear erator outputs the entire arbitrary interpolation make it easy to create waveform at the specified rate. When 3 simple waveforms from a generator’s an arbitrary waveform is defined as front panel. When you create an arbi- multiple cycles, the actual output trary waveform, use the entire verti- frequency may be higher than the cal resolution for defining amplitude, specified rate. For example, if a if you can. Many function generators waveform is defined as 10 cycles of use a scale of –1 to 1; defining a a sine wave and it is output at 1 kHz, waveform with values between 0 the actual frequency will be 10 kHz. and 1 would give you only half the amplitude resolution.

0° 90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360°

1 cycle

Figure 3. Create arbitrary waveforms as a single period or as integer-multiple periods to avoid discontinuities

4 Importing and editing arbitrary waveforms

In addition to generating standard it into the Tools folder. IntuiLink signals, function generators are used contains help and examples for Hint to simulate real-world signals for creating your own tools. test or characterization. Real-world signals are not always perfect sine If you have already saved your waves or pulses. It can be more use- waveform data or have received a ful to capture a real-world waveform, waveform file from another source, modify it, and recreate the waveform IntuiLink Waveform Editor can be with a function/arbitrary waveform used to import and edit waveform generator. You can use the flexibility data stored as comma separated vari- and editing features of Agilent’s free ables (*.csv), text (*.txt), and space IntuiLink software to capture a wave- delimited variables (*.prn). This can form from an oscilloscope, or to edit also be useful when importing wave- an existing waveform file. The latest form data from other applications. version of IntuiLink is available at www.agilent.com/find/intuilink. Once you have imported the wave- form data or opened your waveform 4 To import data from an oscilloscope file, you can use IntuiLink’s editing using IntuiLink, connect to the oscil- functions. The first step is to avoid loscope then use the Tools menu to discontinuities by editing the wave- import the waveform. If your oscil- form so that a complete cycle is loscope is not listed, you may need downloaded to the generator. Math to install an add-in. Add-ins for functions can be used to add, filter, oscilloscopes, as well as additional or reduce noise (smoothing). You functionality (such as pulse creation, can also resize the waveform to take filtering, and equation editing) can advantage of the full memory depth be found on the IntuiLink home page. and vertical resolution of the function/ You can also create your own tools by arbitrary waveform generator. creating an ActiveX DLL and copying

Figure 4. Use IntuiLink Waveform Editor to create or open waveform files then edit the data using math functions.

5 Using a function/arbitrary waveform generator to generate pulses

Basic applications such as trigger Pulse mode: Many newer function gen- signals, clock signals and logic con- erators, such as the Agilent 33210A, Hint trol usually don’t require the perfor- 33220A, and 33250A function/arbi- mance of a dedicated pulse genera- trary waveform generators, have tor. Often, you can use a relatively built-in pulse capability, which gives inexpensive general-purpose func- you an easy, flexible way to generate tion generator to create pulses using pulses. You simply specify the main three techniques. parameters of a pulse: period, pulse width and edge time (rise/fall time). Square wave: Most function generators let you create pulses by varying the In all three cases, you can use burst duty cycle of a square wave, typically mode to output multiple cycles between 20 and 80 percent. You can (N-cycle burst) to create longer, more achieve higher or lower duty cycles complex pulse trains. If an external using burst mode, which lets you out- gating signal is available, it can also 5 put a single cycle (pulse) of a square be used with burst mode to create wave and then wait a specified peri- gated bursts. od before sending the next pulse. Once you have configured your Arbitrary waveform: You can create function generator to generate a a wide variety of custom pulses pulse or pulse train, you can use and patterns using the arbitrary burst mode and triggering to further waveform capabilities of a func- define the output. You can create a tion/arbitrary waveform generator single pulse or a burst of pulses using to define the desired shape and triggering. Most function generators parameters. While this is not the can accept an external trigger as easiest approach, it does offer lots of input and most also provide an exter- flexibility (limited only by memory nal trigger signal. You can set a delay depth). For best results, use all the programmatically or from the front available points to describe the pulse. panel to offset the pulse from the The more points you use, the better external trigger, if you want. your time resolution will be. You can simplify the task by using IntuiLink software (see Hint 3) to create your arbitrary waveform on a PC.

90% 90%

50% 50% Pulse width

10% 10%

Rise time Fall time Period

Figure 5. Pulse waveform parameters

6 Using a function generator to create PWM waveforms

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) offers pulses, you would have to edit the a simple way for digital control logic entire arbitrary waveform or create Hint to emulate analog control in devices a new one from scratch. such as light dimmers, electric motors and automotive engine controllers. The most versatile solution is to use To help test this type of control a function generator with built-in circuit, many function generators can PWM capabilities—the Agilent 33210A produce a variety of PWM signals. and 33220A are good examples of low-cost alternatives to a dedicated The simplest starting point is a pulse generator. With the 33210A square wave, which is the foundation and 33220A, you have quick access to of every PWM signal. With a duty cycle all the PWM parameters (frequency, of 50 percent it is the equivalent of a amplitude, and deviation), which steady-state control signal at half- makes it easy to modify and experi- power. Most function generators let ment with a waveform. You can use you vary the duty cycle from 20 per- either an internal or an external cent to 80 percent, which may allow waveform as the modulation source. 6 some basic troubleshooting of a device that’s controlled by a PWM These capabilities make it possible signal. (As described in Hint 5, you to use the 33210A and 33220A to can use burst mode to achieve lower emulate a digital control device for duty cycles.) system evaluation. As an example, testing the venturi in an automobile Another alternative is to create a engine requires a PWM signal, modu- PWM signal using your generator’s lating a triangle wave will open and arbitrary waveform capability. close the venturi gently (see Figure 6). However, this method has an impor- With a few front-panel commands tant limitation: the duty cycle of each you can configure the 33210A and pulse is fixed. To change parameters 33220A to emulate the engine control such as duty cycle or the number of circuit that drives the venturi.

Figure 6. Modulation with signals such as a triangle wave makes it possible to create dynamic PWM signals like this one, which will open and close an engine venturi.

7 How to connect two or more signal generators to create a multi-channel waveform generator

It is simple to connect two or more instruments. You can change the signal generators to create a multi- phase relationship via the front Hint channel waveform generator. This panel of the source or do it technique works for all types of wave- programmatically. forms: sine waves, square waves, and arbitrary waveforms. Alternately, you could trigger both generators using a common trigger Waveforms with externally-referenced signal. With both the 33210A, 33220A clocks maintain a constant phase and 33250A, there is a second BNC offset from one another and do not available, so you can use the Trig In/ drift. To externally lock two or more Out BNC of one generator to trigger single-channel sources, you need a the other generator. Sharing a com- common clock signal, often called an mon trigger will create a phase offset “external reference.” of 20 ns or less when you trigger the 33210A or 33220A and 1 ns when you If you want to combine multiple trigger a 33250A. However, this is less 33210A and/or 33220A Single-channel precise than using a scope or counter 7 function/arbitrary waveform genera- and manually adjust the offset. tors, you need to add the external reference option to each generator It is important to note that digital to accept the external reference. The function generators will lock to higher-performance 33250A func- 10 MHz only. Most generators will be tion/arbitrary waveform generator able to lock to one frequency with a includes external reference capabili- limited range (the digital circuitry ties as a standard feature. and precise clocks cannot be “pulled” too far to match an external clock), If you are using multiple 33210As, although some will allow harmonics 33220As, or 33250As, you can use of the cardinal frequency or multiple one unit to supply the external clock frequencies. Once a function genera- signal to the other units with a BNC tor is synchronized to another func- cable. Once the generators are syn- tion generator, the two generators chronized, you can set the actual will have an unknown phase offset. phase difference between the two Usually you can manually adjust the generators. Use a scope or universal phase or use a common trigger to frequency counter to observe the start the waveforms simultaneously. phase relationship between the two

10 MHz In 10 MHz Out 10 MHz In 10 MHz Out ±5V ±1Vpp ±5V ±1Vpp

42V 42V pk ! pk ! Modulation Ext Trig/ Modulation Ext Trig/ In FSK / Burst In FSK / Burst ±5V TTL ±5V TTL

42Vpk 42Vpk

33220A 33220A

Figure 7. Two externally locked 33220A generators. The generators are using a common clock signal and a common trigger signal.

8 Adding a DC offset to the output of your function generator

Most function generators have a supply to ground makes it possible built-in DC offset that can be added to calculate the voltage at the Hint to any waveform. The built-in offset output of the function generator. function in the 33210A, 33220A and The output voltage will be the DC 33250A can be used with any wave- supply voltage plus the peak voltage form to generate any combination of of the generator. amplitude and offset within a –5 Vdc to +5 Vdc window into a 50-ohm load. The diagram below shows a model For applications that require a larger of the 33220A, the connections to offset, you may be able to use an an external supply and the load. external power supply to generate the additional offset. To use an An easy way to make these connec- external supply to create the DC tions on the 33210A, 33220A, and offset, follow these three steps: 33250A is to access the floating ground through the modulation-in 1. The function generator needs to BNC, which is located on the rear be isolated from ground “floats.” panel. You can use a BNC connector The 33210A/33220A/33250A can minus the center conductor; connect 8 this wire to the high of the power float up to 42 volts (output plus DC offset) from earth ground. supply. Use just a wire to connect the The maximum DC offset can be signal output—the center conductor calculated by subtracting the peak of the output BNC of the function output from 42 volts. generator—to the high side of the load (do not use the shield of the output 2. The DC power supply needs to BNC). The low side of the load is be connected in series. A BNC-T connected to the low of the power cannot be used, as this would supply. Finally, the power supply connect the supply in parallel. low is connected to earth ground. 3. The voltage at the output of the function generator should be less than 42 V. Connecting the power

Agilent 33220A BNC cable A 50 Ω B VOUT VGEN RL

1M Ω 45 nF

DC power supply

+ Voffset –

Point A center conductor on output BNC Point B outside shield on modulation in BNC

Figure 8. 33220A block diagram, showing connections to an external supply and the load

9 Reduce noise when adjusting amplitude

Function/Arbitrary waveform gener- feature. When range hold is enabled, ators use a combination of amplifiers the attenuator and amplifier settings Hint and attenuators to adjust the signal are locked into their current state to the final output amplitude. Using and will not switch as the amplitude the right combination of attenuation is adjusted. This will eliminate the and amplification provides the wid- momentary disruptions caused by est range of amplitude values while the switching of the attenuators, preserving the waveform fidelity by however the offset accuracy and keeping noise out of the waveform. resolution (as well as waveform In the default mode, autoranging is fidelity) may be adversely affected enabled and the function generator when reducing the amplitude below automatically selects the optimal the expected range change. settings for the output amplifier and attenuators. To use range hold, set the generator to the maximum amplitude required When the amplitude is adjusted from for your application. From the front one range to another, momentary panel, press “Utility” and select the 9 disruptions or “glitches” may be “Output Setup” softkey. Then press noticed. Some generators, such as the “Range” softkey to toggle between the Agilent 33210A, 33220A, and the “Auto” and “Hold” selections. 33250A function/arbitrary waveform generators incorporate a range hold

Figure 9. Range Hold eliminates the momentary disruptions during amplitude adjustments.

10 Create a variety of frequency sweeps using frequency modulation

Many function/arbitrary waveform First, set up your basic waveform generators provide a sweep capabil- the same as you would have for a Hint ity, or the ability to smoothly change sweep, by selecting the wave shape, from a specified start frequency to amplitude, and offset. Next, enter the the specified stop frequency. The rate carrier frequency as the frequency of at which this change is made usually the waveform: can be either linear or logarithmic, and setting the stop frequency either Carrier (center) = (start frequency + above or below the start frequency stop frequency) / 2 can be used to vary the direction of the sweep. Turn on frequency modulation and set your source to internal (rather However, some applications require than external). Set the deviation a variation of frequency sweep, such based on the start and stop as stepped sweep, which means frequencies (half the absolute value moving from the start frequency by of the difference): a set incremental frequency or in a specific number of steps until the Deviation = |start frequency – stop 10 stop frequency is reached. You can frequency| / 2 create a stepped sweep, as well as The modulating frequency is equal more complex pattern sweeps, using to the inverse of your sweep rate: frequency modulation. Modulating frequency = 1/ sweep time Frequency modulation uses carrier frequency (center) and deviation Now select the type of sweep. An rather than start and stop frequency, upward linear sweep is a positive requiring some “translation” between ramp. A downward linear sweep is a sweep and modulation parameters. negative ramp. A triangle wave will ramp the frequency in both direc- tions. An upward logarithmic sweep is an exponential. Using the arbitrary waveform fea- Stop frequency tures of your generator, you can add more choices to your sweep library. A stepped sweep is created with a staircase waveform, the number of steps equaling the number of discrete frequencies desired.

Center frequency The arbitrary waveform shown in Figure 10 can be used to create a stepped sweep. This particular waveform would output nine discrete frequencies from the start to stop frequency. Adjustments to the width of these steps will change the dura- tion (relative dwell time) of each Start frequency frequency. Adjustments to the height of these steps will modify which fre- Figure 10. Arbitrary waveform used with FM mode to create a stepped quencies are output. You can create sweep. a pattern sweep by independently adjusting the dwell and frequency for each step.

11 Glossary

Arbitrary waveform — a waveform that Modulating frequency — the signal has been digitally defined and placed applied to the carrier signal to in memory. The analog waveform is produce amplitude, frequency, phase produced by applying the waveform or pulse width modulation. memory content to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) and filtering the Period — the repetition rate of a output. waveform measured in seconds; for the purposes of this application note, BNC (Bayonet Neill Concelman) — the time between pulses; also, the a type of bayonet (twist-lock) coaxial inverse of frequency. connector commonly used in connec- tions involving small coaxial cables. Phase lock — the condition in which a phase-correcting feedback loop Deviation — In PWM, used to vary maintains control of an oscillator the duty cycle of the pulse (e.g., a to achieve a consistent relationship 10 percent duty cycle with 5 percent between the phase of the oscillator deviation would cause the duty and a reference signal within the cycle to vary between 5 percent limits of one cycle. and 15 percent). Pulse width — the amount of time a Direct digital synthesis (DDS) — pulse remains at a specific (normally a method of generating a waveform “true”) logic state. Can either be by taking points of a sampled wave- measured from 1) the time between form stored in memory and applying the leading edge at 50 percent ampli- them to the digital port of a digital-to- tude to the trailing edge at 50 percent analog converter. The DAC is clocked amplitude or 2) the time from the at a constant rate, and frequency beginning of the leading edge to the adjustments are made by repeating beginning of the trailing edge. a single memory location for multiple clock cycles to obtain low frequencies, Pulse width modulation — a modulation while high frequencies are obtained method that uses the amplitude of by sampling the stored points. the modulating signal to determine the width of the resulting pulse. Duty cycle — the percentage of time Commonly used in data communica- a pulse train is at its higher voltage. tion and digital control applications. Edge time — the rise or fall time; some Range Hold – fixes the attenuators instruments may use edge time as a and amplifier in the output circuitry means to set both the rise and fall to eliminate momentary disruptions time to equal values. associated with the switching of ranges when adjusting amplitude. External clock reference — a precise Range hold disables autoranging reference signal used to improve (optimal settings are automatically the frequency accuracy of a single selected). function generator or provide a common clock for two or more Rise time — the time it takes to function generators. transition from low to high state; often measured at the 10 percent Fall time — the time it takes to and 90 percent levels. transition from high to low state; often measured at the 10 percent and 90 percent levels.

12 Appendix: Agilent function/arbitrary waveform generators

Value-priced generators with the versatility of custom waveforms • Up to 11 standard waveforms, with sine and square to 10 MHz, 20 MHz or 80 MHz • Arbitrary waveforms at 50 MSa/s or 200 MSa/s • THD less than 0.04% and flatness as low as ± 0.1 dB The Agilent 33210A, 33220A and 33250A function/arbitrary wave- form generators give you a range of 33210A, 33220A and 33250A specifications features including up to 11 standard 33210A 33220A 33250A waveforms and the ability to create Frequency range 10 MHz 20 MHz 80 MHz (sine, square) versatile arbitrary waveforms. The 33210A offers an optional 8K point Standard waveforms Sine, square, pulse, Sine, square, pulse, Sine, square, pulse, arbitrary waveform generator with triangle, ramp, noise, triangle, ramp, noise, triangle, ramp, noise, 14-bit resolution and a sample rate dc volts. Option 002 sin(x)/x, exponential sin(x)/x, exponential of 50 MSa/s. The 33220A and 33250A includes sin(x)/x, rise and fall, cardiac, rise and fall, cardiac, offer the arbitrary waveform genera- exponential rise and dc volts dc volts fall, cardiac tor standard with 64K points and 14-bit resolution (33220A) or 12-bit Arbitrary waveforms Optional 2 to 8 K points 2 to 64 K points 1 to 64 K points resolution (33250A) and a sample Sample rate 50 MSa/s 50 MSa/s 200 MSa/s rate of 50 MSa/s (33220A) to 200 Modulation AM, FM, PWM, sweep AM, FM, PM, FSK, AM, FM, FSK, sweep MSa/s(33250A). In addition, all three and burst (all internal/ PWM, sweep and burst and burst (all internal/ function generators can generate external) (all internal/external) external) pulse waveforms with variable Sweep Linear or logarithmic; Linear or logarithmic; Linear or logarithmic; edge time. up or down up or down up or down Start with the signals a device under Burst Gated, N-cycle Gated, N-cycle Gated, N-cycle test is supposed to see, then add External clock Optional External lock Optional External lock Standard External lock noise, harmonics, spurs and other reference range: 10 MHz ± 500 Hz range: 10 MHz ± 500 Hz range: 10 MHz ± 35 kHz extraneous signals to see how well Internal frequency: Internal frequency: Internal frequency: it responds. Built-in modulation 10 MHz 10 MHz 10 MHz capabilities and both linear and log Connectivity GPIB, USB, LAN GPIB, USB, LAN GPIB, RS-232 sweeps further expand your test (IntuiLink SW included) possibilities without requiring addi- tional generators. Plus, the external clock-reference timebase increases Related Agilent Literature the frequency stability while letting you generate precise phase-offset Publication title Publication type Publication number signals, phase-lock to another 33210A, 33220A or 33250A, or to 33210A 10 MHz Function/Arbitrary Data sheet 5988-8926EN Waveform Generator a 10 MHz frequency. 33220A 20-MHz Function/Arbitrary Data sheet 5988-8544EN Waveform Generator

33250A 80 MHz Function/Arbitrary Data sheet 5968-8807EN Waveform Generator

How to Generate Low Duty-Cycle Pulses Application note 5988-7507EN with a Function Generator

How to Connect Two or More Signal Generators Application note 5988-8151EN to Create a Multi-Channel Waveform Generator

Using a Function Generator to Create Pulse-Width Application note 5988-9904EN Modulation (PWM) Waveforms

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