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The Spiritual Sword CHAPTER OUTLINE Renunciation of the Body Chapter Ten: The Spiritual Sword CHAPTER OUTLINE Renunciation of the Body Origins of Christian Asceticism Monasticism and the Christian Mission Monastic Reform and Transformation Church and State Popes and Kings: The Era of Cooperation The Militant Church Reform and Confrontation Popes and Councils The Church and The People The Pattern of Christian Life Extraordinary Christians The Mind s Road to God School and University The Age of Faith and Reason The Glory of Gothic CHAPTER SUMMARY Christianity emerged as the major religious, cultural, and even political force in the Middle Ages. Many new movements within the Church emerged during this period, including the idea of asceticism; ascetics denied the needs of the body by remaining virgins, martyring themselves, or otherwise restricting themselves. Some followers became hermits, segregating themselves from society in order to fully understand and devote themselves to God. Others were martyrs, killed for their faith in Christianity, and those martyrs became heroes for future generations of Christians. Eventually, these ideas merged to create the system of monasticism. Monastic communities could be either male or female. Monks spent their days in prayer, singing and engaging in manual labor in order to help the monastery survive. Women s monasteries, called convents in the west, allowed women a chance to express their devotion to God. Nuns, like monks, took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and spent their days in dedication to God. The leaders of the convents, called abbesses, were often women of great learning and influence. Monasteries also provided a refuge for children, especially those sons and daughters wh o would not share in the inheritance of the family s estate. These children often brought a dowry of sorts with them, in order to allow the monastery to educate them and care for them. In time, these contributions, along with the donations from others, led many monastic communities to become wealthy, and corruption reigned. In time, the Church began to realize the liberties being taken within the communities, and reforms were demanded. The most important changes, those initiated by the Cluniac monks, led to dramatic reforms. Other orders emerged as well, including the mendicant orders, which remained poor in order to avoid the temptations that had faced other orders. The consistent problem of wealth and the Church led to the formation of the Inquisition, a board of inquiry which was to root out heresy within the Church, regardless of where or how it happened. One of the reasons that the Church grew in power was because of its relationship with the rulers of Europe. Charlemagne viewed himself as the protector of Rome, and the popes were happy to acquire territory with the assistance of the Frankish king. The Church continued to educate men who became important advisors of the monarchs of Europe. The Church also took on a more militant role, creating the Crusades and supporting the reconquista in Spain. In addition, the Church created a series of military orders, whose members took vows but led a military life, often in support of the Church. Unfortunately for those orders, their existence was seen as a threat to many of the emerging monarchs, and they were forced to disband, often violently, and their land confiscated. While Christianity was expanding its role in the world, it came into conflict with the other major monotheistic religion in 1 Europe, Judaism. During the Middle Ages the Christian attitude towards Judaism became far more hostile, and anti-Semitism spre ad. Jews were expelled from countries all over Europe, and were violently suppressed in others. Even other Christian faiths were not safe from the power of the Roman Catholic Church: the official schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Western Roman Catholic Church occurred in 1054, but in reality the rift had begun years earlier, primarily over the issue of the Trinity (the Western Church believed that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son, while the Eastern Church believed the Spirit proceeded only from the Father). The two churches have never reconciled, although there were overtures made by the Eastern Church just prior to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Church also had to contend with disobedience from many of its members. The rulers of Germany attempted to establish their supremacy over the Church by appointing or investing bishops. The Church responded by excommunicating the king, Henry IV, and it took decades before the Concordat of Worms established guidelines for these positions. Other rulers, like Henry II of England, had criticisms from Church leaders in their own countries, although few had their opponents murdered in response to those criticisms as Henry did. The ultimate test for the Church occurred in the fourteenth century, when the papacy, under the leadership of Clement V, relocated to Avignon. The previous pope, Boniface, had been captured by Philip IV of France, and had died shortly after his release. The Avignon papacy, which lasted until 1377, led directly to the Great Schism. During the Great Schism, which lasted from 1378 to 1417, the Church was divided over who the true pope was; the result of the Schism was the creation of a new set of laws that clearly demonstrated how the pope was to be chosen. While the leadership of the Church made its way through the Middle Ages, the people of the Church remained faithful. The idea of Purgatory, a sort of waiting area between Heaven and Hell, had developed in late antiquity, and fear of being consigned there for an extended period led many Christians to maintain good behavior. The issue of penance was one of major concern for medieval Christians, and the fear that someone might die without penance was foremost in their minds. In fact, this fear led to the creation of indulgences, which allowed for those who had died in a questionable state of grace (i.e., it was unknown whether or not they had received penance) to have their forgiveness bought for them. The other sacraments, including baptism and marriage, were also crucial for those living in medieval times. Those who fought for their faith, who sacrificed themselves for their beliefs, were embraced by the Church and often became saints, whose intercession was sought by average Christians. Many of these saints were women, from a variety of social classes and standings in society. Some members of the Church began to question practices of the Church, and they found themselves condemned by the Catholic Church and subjected to censure, torture, or death. Some of these individuals, like Joan of Arc, were embraced by the Church after their deaths; others, like John Wyclif, remain anathema to those in Catholicism. This was especially true of intellectuals who turned against the Church. The intellectual movements of the time, most notably scholasticism, embraced Catholicism and rational thought. The best known innovator, St. Thomas Aquinas, helped create a theology on a systematic philosophical basis. Universities and other centers of learning developed, and education became increasingly important. The other aspect of life which demonstrated the role of the Church, the buildings of worship themselves, became increasingly Gothic and elaborate. These Gothic buildings demonstrated the importance of the Church and its role in the world. KEY POINTS Renunciation of the Body: The Church demands the renunciation of the body, exalts saints and martyrs, and promotes monasticism as the ideal pattern of Christian life. Church and State: As the Church accumulates property and its clergy accumulates skills, it guards its autonomy against nobles and monarchs, while defining itself against other monotheisms. The Church and the People: The rhythms and rituals of the Church define the lives of ordinary Christians, while some among them become mystics, saints, or heretics. The Mind s Road to God: Schools and universities nurture developments in philosophy, theology, medicine, and law--all fundamental to Western thought about nature, politics, and God. 2 SUGGESTED FILMS Christianity: The First 1000 Years--The Church and Empire. A&E, 50 minutes Christianity in World History--to 1000 A.D. Coronet, 14 minutes Art and Architecture: Lesson I. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 30 minutes The Christians--The Battle of Europe (410-1054). McGraw-Hill, 39 minutes Christianity: The First 1000 Years--The Glory of Byzantium. A&E, 50 minutes 3.
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