~ of 1978 Annual CDunci1

SDA Profi ional ® _® ons

A Quarterly Journal of the Association of Adventist Forums Volume 9, Number 4

A tury of A jJ • r' •onism 1978 GeOscience Field CDnference

--- - -~---.--- __ __ E-__ o---,t4---- ~ ~ ------~~:~#']Dld------+~e ---~u:jJ "--F~~~rl---1~ Genesis 1 as Theo1CW SPECTRUM EDITOR Gary Land Eric Anderson Margaret McFarland History History Urban Planner Roy Branson Andrews University Pacific Union College Toledo, Ohio Ro berta J. Moore Raymond Cottrell LaVonne Neff EXECUTIVE EDITOR Journalism Theology Author Richard Emmerson Loma Linda University Loma Linda, California College Place, Washington Charles Scriven' Helen Evans Ronald Numbers EDITORIAL BOARD Theology Academic Dean History of Medicine Graduate Theological Union Southwestern Adventist College University of Wisconsin Roy Branson Ethics, Kennedy Institute Ottilie Stafford Judith Folkenberg MelvinK. H. Peters Georgetown University English Researcher Old Testament Atlantic Union College Washington, D.C. Cleveland State University Molleurus Couperus Physician Lawrence Geraty Edward E. Robinson Angwin, California EDITORIAL Old Testament Attorney SDA Theological Seminary Chicago, Illinois Tom Dybdahl ASSISTANT Fritz Guy Gerhard Svrcek-Seiler Journalism Nola-Jean Bamberry United States Congress Theology Psychiatrist SDA Theological Seminary Vienna, Austria Richard Emmerson English CONSULTING Jorgen Henrikson Betty Stirling Walla Walla College Artist Board of Higher Education EDITORS Boston, Massachusetts General Conference ofSDA Alvin L. K wiram Kjeld Andersen Eric A. Magnusson Chemistry Physician L. E. Trader University of Washington Lystrup, Denmark President Education Avondale College, Australia Marienhoehe Gymnasium, W.Germany Association ofAdventist Fonuns EXECUTIVE Of International Relations Corresponding Secretary Lake Molleurus Coupeurus Sean McCarthy Walter Douglas COMMITTEE Physician Undergraduate Church History President Angwin, California Columbia Union College SDA Theological Seminary Glenn E. Coe Takoma Park, Maryland Berrien Springs, Michigan State's Attorney Of Membership West Hartford, Connecticut Ronald Cople Treasurer Northern Pacific Business Richard C. Osborn Lanny Fisk Vice President Silver Spring, Maryland History Biology Lyndrey A. Niles . Takoma Academy Walla Walla College Communications Of NatIOnal Programs Takoma Park, Maryland Walla Walla, Washington Howard University, Washington, D.C. Danielle Wuchenich Attorney Southern· Executive Secretary Loma Linda, California REGIONAL Claire Hosten Attorney REPRESENTATIVES Washington, D.C. STAFF Atlantic Legal Consultant Richard B. Lewis, J r. Bradley Litchfield Advertising Southern Pacific DIRECTORS Attorney Boston, Massachusetts Stan Aufdemberg Of Academic Affairs Washington, D.C. Graduate Student Leslie Pitton Central Pacific Systems Consultant Medicine Youth Director Paul Dassenko Loma Linda, California Central Union Conference William Carey Financial Analyst Lincoln, Nebraska Silver Spring, Maryland San Francisco, California Of Communications Systems Manager Colnmbia Cecil Coffey Don McNeill Charles Bensonhaver Publishing Computer Programmer Physician Walla Walla, Washington Spencerville, Mary land Kettering, Ohio SPECTRUM is a journal established to lishing of SPECTRUM depends on subscri­ encourage Seventh-day Adventist participa­ tions, gifts from individuals and the volun­ tion in the discussion of contemporary issues tary efforts of the contributors and the staff. from a Christian viewpoint, to look without prejudice at all sides of a subject, to evaluate SPECTRUM is published quarterly by the Association of Adventist Forums. Direct· editorial correspondence to the merits of diverse views, and to foster SPECTRUM, Box 431, College Place, WA 99324. In mat­ Christian intellectual and cultural growth. ters of style and documentation, SPECTRUM follows The Although effort is made to ensure accurate MLA Style Sheet (rev., 1970). Manuscripts should be type­ written, double spaced. Submit the original and two copies, scholarship and discriminating judgment, along with a self-addressed, stamped envelope. Due to limi­ the statements of fact are the responsibility of tations of space, responses from readers may be shortened contributors, and the views individual au­ before publication. . thors express are not necessarily those of the In order to receive SPECTRUM, send a membership fee ($12 per year, except $14 in Canada and in other foreign editorial staff as a whole or as individuals. countries) to Association of Adventist Forums, Box 4330, The Association of Adventist Forums is a Takoma Park, Maryland 20012. Single copies may be pur­ nonsubsidized, nonprofit organization for chased for $3.50. Send correspondence concerning address changes to the same address, enclosing address labels. Pay which gifts are deductible in the report of by check made out to the Association of Adventist Forums. income for purposes oLtaxation .Thep.llb- «)1979. All rights reserved. 26737 In This Issue ARTICLES Volume Nine, Number Four, Published January 1979 The 1978 Annual Council: A Report and Analysis Donald R. McAdams 2 Seventh-day Adventist Professional Organizations Jocelyn Fay 10 SPECIAL SECTION Genesis 'Sciences of Satanic Origin': Adventist Attitudes Toward Evolutionary Biology and Geology Ronald L. Numbers 17 The Geoscience Field Study Conference of 1978 Lawrence Geraty 31 The Yellowstone Petrified Forests Harold G. Coffin 42 Genesis, Chapter One: A Theological Statement Herold Weiss 54 RESPONSES FROM READERS T. Crosby, R. Lewis, 63 G. Colvin, E. Webster

About This Issue uring the first six One of the scientists at the Institute, Harold D years of this journal's Coffin, has kindly allowed us to publish a publication, the years of Molleurus version of the lecture he delivered on the field Couperus' editorship, articles concerning the trip. A longer form of his article describing relationship of science and religion appeared important research on the fossil forests at frequently. We are happy to return to this Yellowstone Park (also discussed by Richard enduringly important topic. Not only is sci­ Ritland in SPECTRUM, Vol. 6, No. 1-2) is ence the focus of this number of SPEC­ available by writing Dr. Coffin at the Geosci­ TRUM, but also additional articles on the ence Research Institute, Andrews Universi­ subject will be published in the next and sub­ ty. Finally, after readers have taken a histori­ sequent issues. "Genesis," the heading for cal and scientific look at the topic, they can the current cluster, refers both to the act of read Herold Weiss' theological analysis of the original formation and also to the first book creation account in the book of Genesis. of the Bible. Also in this issue are two articles on the All the articles in this issue's cluster coin­ shape of the Adventist community. Donald cide in referring to the Biblical account of the McAdams, a delegate to the 1978 Annual original formation of the world, but they do Council, analyzes the forces at work in that so from a variety of perspectives. Ronald session and the degree to which its actions Numbers, as an Adventist historian of sci­ will have enduring significance for the ence, provides an overview of debates within Church. Jocey Fay's useful listing of profes­ Adventism concerning science and religion sional associations within the Adventist .de­ from even before the organization of the de­ nomination reveals their remarkable growth nomination to the formation of the Geosci­ and strength. Organizational theorists have ence Research Institute. Lawrence Geraty long considered that one way to measure the advances the account to the present by recall­ health of a society is to examine how vigor­ ing what he learned and heard this past sum­ ously voluntary associations flourish within mer while being introduced to the topic of it. If they are right, Adventists should be geology on the most recent field trip con­ reassured by Jocey Fay's article. ductedbythe~Geosdehce·ReseafChlhstitllte . ·::::---'1'ne=Ed-itefs· The 1978 Annual Council: A Report and Analysis

by Donald R. McAdams

one of the delegates 3,265,000. The goal, he stated, referring to N could anticipate the the theme of the Annual Council, "Har­ most momentous action taken by the 1978 vesttime," was 1,000 baptisms a day. The Annual Council - the election of a new Gen­ report reviewed the evangelistic activities of eral Conference president, ushering in a new the church, department by department. era in the denomination's history. But before Clearly, in Elder Pierson's view, each agency the delegates assembled for the opening and institution of the church is evaluated by meeting, Oct. 10, they had received from measuring its contribution to winning con­ Clyde Franz, secretary of the General Con­ verts. "Evangelism," he said, "is still the ference, a letter, enclosing a preliminary watchword of the hour." "This is the time agenda and calling particular attention to for worldwide advance." "Victory may yet three items: a request from the regional con­ be ours in our day." ference presidents to establish two black The following morning, Wednesday, Oct. unions in the North American Division, a 11, the secretary and treasurer gave their offi­ request from health care administrators to cial reports to the delegates. K. H. Emmer­ take hospital supervisory personnel and son noted that as of Oct. 1, 1978, exchange union health care corporation officers off the rate adjustments had cost the church nearly General Conference wage scale and pay them $5.5 million. That morning, an important according to community wage rates, and the action was taken to broaden representation at introduction of major changes in the church the 1980 General Conference Session. The retirement plan. delegates voted that at least ten percent of the In his opening address to the delegates, regular delegates to the 1980 session must be General Conference President Robert H. women, youth and church members not de­ Pierson abandoned the traditional sermon for nominationally employed, and at least one­ a report on the state of the church. He pro­ third of the regular delegates from each union jected that by the time of the General Confer­ must be citizens of the country or countries ence Session membership would reach of the union. (This makes it less likely that an American missionary will be chosen as a del­ Donald R. McAdams, who received his doctorate from Duke University, has taught history at Andrews egate to represent an overseas union.) Some University. He is the president of Southwestern Ad­ new procedures were adopted for the Gen­ veiifisf College~ ... ·erarC6n.ferericeHessionNomlri-atirig~eom- Volume 9, Number 4 3 mittee to insure that each division, including administrators, 7) black representation at the North American Division, has access to meetings of union presidents on the basis of the full nominating committee when nomi­ equality. Elder Earle also suggested that re­ nation is made for workers assigned espe­ gional conference subsidies to union colleges cially to that division. and black representation on union college Concommitant with the leadership's boards should remain unchanged. commitment to increased internationaliza­ Calvin Rock then took the floor and en­ tion of the church was the evolution of the thralled both black and white delegates with North American Division into a separate di­ a masterful speech. "This is an animated de­ vision organization. To bring this about, the bate," he said, "but no one is angry. " To General Conference Committee was asked to clarify the issue, Rock listed what black "thoroughly explore the advisability of re­ unions were not. They are not, he said a structuring the relationship between the cop-out on brotherhood, a rebellion nor "the North American Division and the General hasty efforts of ambitious men wanting Conference, including the creation of a sepa­ unionjobs." Rather, he said, they are recog­ rate division organization, structured along nition of the fact that we are culturally two the same lines as the present world divisions, different people. "We believe we can be cul­ ..." This study is to be completed well turally twain and spiritually one." The high before the 1980 General Conference Session. point of Rock's presentation came when he referred to church leadership and specifically y midafternoon on to Elder Pierson. He acknowledged that Wil­ BWednesday, nearly son and Pierson were opposed to black everyone was talking about the upcoming unions, but then, in reference to the recent debate on the proposal to form two black pronouncement by Spencer Kimball, presi­ unions in the North American Division. (For dent of the Church ofJesus Christ of Latter two opposing views on this proposal, see Day Saints, who recently announced a reve­ SPECTRUM, Vol. 9, No.3) It was rumored lation that improved the position of black that reporters from the Washington Star and men in the Mormon Church, he turned di­ Washington Post would be in the gallery the rectly towards Elder Pierson and added with next day, as well as scores of black pastors a touch of humor in his voice, "I could wish from all over the east coast. that the President of the General Conference The business meeting on Thurs., Oct. 12, would stand up like the Mormon head re­ began at 9 a.m. with the council sitting as the cently did and say, 'I have had a revelation.' " North American Division Committee on For the first time of the day, there was laugh­ Administration (NADCA), and with Neal ter and general applause. Wilson presiding. Following Elder Wilson's Rock then called upon all eight black re­ opening remarks, there was a frustrating 45 gional conference presidents to come for­ minutes of parliamentary confusion before a ward. It was a dramatic moment. One by one positive motion was placed before the coun­ they gave their reasons for favoring black cil to create two black unions within the unions. One president stated that, though he North American Division. enjoyed his work greatly, he had been presi­ G. R. Earle, president of the Northeastern dent of his conference since 1962 with no Conference, began the debate by summariz­ opportunity to transfer to another field. The ing the arguments in favor of black unions. black conference presidents made it abun­ They allow 1) greater cohesiveness for the dantly clear that one of the central issues was black work, 2) easier transfer of black work­ power. L. R. Palmer, J r., president of the ers from one conference to another, 3) more Allegheny East Conference, stated it most effective evangelism in the inner cities, 4) forcibly when he said, "Black unions are not provision of better educational opportunity the multiplication of position, but the shar­ for black young people, 5) increased visits to ing of power." black churches by union departmental men, It was not until midafternoon that Elder 6}greater=-up:ward=-careecIDQbilit}'::(of::black WihQll;stillchllirmilllofthe·couucil sessiQn, 4 Spectrum rose to speak for the President's Executive General Conference. Elder Kemmerer used a Advisory Committee (PREXAD). He re­ chart to show that 52 percent of the counted again, this time in more detail, the $8,379,000 that came to the General Confer­ history of the request for black unions. The ence from black Adventists in 1977 was re­ first formal request in 1968 was renewed in turned directly to the black work in North 1971. Partially in response, the Annual America. W. L. Murrill, assistanttreasurer of Council of 1971 accepted 16 points to in­ the General Conference, added that regional crease integration and improve opportunities conferences were not unfairly supporting the for blacks within the existing church struc­ church retirement fund as some had charged. ture. As a part of this program, blacks were Concluding the comments on finances, Elder moved into union officer positions Wilson stated that, in his opinion, two black throughout the North American Division. In unions, if created, would have to carry the mid-1976, continued Elder Wilson, black full financial responsibility for Oakwood leaders, seeing little implementation of the 16 College. points, renewed the request for black unions. PREXAD looked carefully at the proposal, ne of the high points setting up study groups and commissioning O of the day's oratory position papers, but responded negatively to came when Elder Wilson yielded the floor to the black conference presidents at the 1977 C. E. Bradford, associate secretary of the Annual Council. General Conference for North America. Following this rejection, which was made Elder Bradford was ostensibly speaking in public on the back page of the Oct. 27 Re­ support of the PREXAD position, but after view, black leaders carried the issue to their indicting the union conference presidents for own people. This activity led to a reconsid­ failing to take pastoral care of their regional eration of the question at the 1978 Spring conference presidents, he brought down the Council and referral once again to PRE­ house with a quotation from the 1930 Gen­ XAD. Now, for the second time, said Elder eral Conference minutes that rejected Negro Wilson, PREXAD recommended rejection conferences with some of the same argu­ ments that Elder Wilson had used earlier in the afternoon to show why regional unions were not in the best interests of the church. "The high level of debate made The council adjourned at five-thirty and it abundantly clear that no reconvened at six forty-five. In intelligent disagreement could stand and spirited speeches, prominent black and in the way of the common white church leaders spoke both for and against the establishment of black unions. commitment of black and white Those black delegates who opposed black speakers to the work and unity unions expressed concern that this step of the church. . . ." would weaken the commitment to integra­ tion and fellowship between the races. The attitude of the whites who supported black unions was best summarized by Dr. of the request. He acknowledged that one Josephine Benton, associate pastor of the research study reported that 52 percent of Sligo Church. "Perhaps," she said, "we can black Adventists favored black unions and 80 show our brotherhood best by saying we percent desired substantive changes, but he trust you enough to allow you to judge for said that this was not the time to pull farther yourselves how best to carryon your work." apart and spend the additional $1.5 to $2 Spontaneous applause echoed through the million annually required to set up and sup­ church. Following Elder Pierson's summa­ port two black unions. tion ofPREXAD's position and the offering Elder Wilson then yielded the floor to of two prayers, the delegates cast secret bal­ Martin Kemmerer, under;;,;treasurer~of-tlre lots rej ecting ·19()~toB3,the~moti(jnto~e~;:fab- Volume 9, Number 4 5 lish two black unions in the North American he second major Division. T agenda item that Though it may be true that a majority of Elder Franz had brought to the attention of the black delegates present supported the the delegates in his Sept. 21 letter, the hospi­ motion, and a majority of the white delegates tal wage scale, was introduced by Elder Wil­ present opposed it, the council was not split son to the council, sitting as NADCA, on on racial lines. Among black delegates, de-. Sunday morning, Oct. 15. The problem, he part mental workers appeared to be the said, was that the church had established new likeliest opponents of black unions. White hospitals or expanded existing ones without conference presidents seemed most likely to adequate denominational personnel to staff support the proposal. The strong opposition them. In order to attract non-Adventist of Elder Pierson and Elder Wilson was deci­ health care professionals, hospitals began sive. Most delegates were strongly inclined paying community rates of pay. Of course, to follow the counsel of the top administra­ Adventist employees, performing equal tive officers of the church. The high level of work, expected equal pay. Consequently, the debate made it abundantly clear that no Adventist hospitals abandoned the denomi­ disagreement could stand in the way of the national wage scale and paid community common commitment of black and white rates. Only hospital administrators and other speakers to the work and unity of the church, top supervisory personnel remained on the an important fact, since the request for black lower denominational wage scale. For some unions will probably come before the council time now, said Elder Wilson, some of these agam. administrators have been receiving addi­ Recognizing the need for greater in­ tional compensation by such methods as per­ teraction between blacks and whites, the sonal use of a hospital-owned car, drastically council did accept, on Monday afternoon, reduced rents for hospital-owned housing, Oct. 16, a report from the Commission on or low interest home loans. Recognizing that Strengthening the Black Work in North they were acting out of policy, the union America. The Office of Regional Affairs in health care corporations that own and oper­ the General Conference will be replaced by ate most Adventist hospitals were now rec­ an Office of Ethnic Relations. The office will ommending to NADCA that hospital ad­ initiate programs bringing about greater in­ ministrators and supervisory personnel re­ teraction between blacks and whites at ceive salaries comparable to those paid to church and conference levels and improving equivalent employees in non-Adventist hos­ employment opportunities for minorities. pitals. The implication, never made explicit, Since the Executive Committee of the office was that hospital administrators would no will be chaired by the vice president of the longer work for the denomination unless General Conference for the North American they received higher wages. Division and include the top General Confer­ Our options, concluded Elder Wilson, ence administrators in the fields of health were to: 1) close or sell the hospitals, 2) trans­ services, education, publishing and the fer the hospitals to nonchurch owned and Ministerial Association, the office has the po­ controlled corporations, 3) establish corpora­ tential for exercising considerable power tions at arm's length from the church, but within Adventist institutional life. The di­ still including church leadership on the cor­ rector of the office will hold the title of As­ poration boards, 4) try to return the hospitals sociate Secretary of the General Conference. to a strict denominational wage scale, which, In addition to these structural changes in the said Elder Wilson, was "desirable but totally General Conference, the council voted to impossible," 5) maintain the status quo, place in the Church Manual a positive declara­ which, said Elder Wilson, was not honorable tion on ethnic relations and include in the because these policies were not presently baptismal vow a statement defining the being followed, 6) the only practical option, church as a multiracial, multiethnic fellow­ in his opinion: establish a separate wage scale. 'ship; "Tliepropc>saFiiowplaCediii thenaiids of 6 Spectrum the delegates called for the administrator's hospital and publishing house incomes from salary to be computed by multiplying the non-Adventist sources. D. A. Delafield, as­ arithmetical mean for all nurses' wages in a sociate secretary of the White Estate, given hospital by 195 percent. This, for strongly and movingly urged the delegates to example, would give the administrator of the follow the counsels of Ellen White and have White Memorial Hospital an annual salary of faith that the Lord would provide a solution $30,420 in addition to regular educational, to this problem. medical and retirement benefits received by When the time came to vote, the chairman most other denominational employees. If asked for a show of hands instead of taking a this method did not bring the hospital ad­ secret ballot. With a large majority abstain­ ministrator's wage into line with community ing, the proposal carried. It seemed obvious rates, the hospital board would be allowed to that most delegates opposed the motion, but move its administrator to a maximum of 90 the position of church leaders was un­ percent of the salary paid to the highest-paid equivocal. Following the unwritten rule that administrator in the Adventist system of commits union presidents, who have gone hospitals. Strict controls would be estab­ over important agenda items in advance, to lished to make sure that no additional com­ support proposals that meet strong opposi­ pensation was paid by methods currently in tion, several union presidentsjoined the chair use. With this policy, concluded Elder Wil­ in support of the motion. Reluctant to op­ son, "we have reached an honorable agree­ pose church leaders and unwilling to accept ment." It was clear that negotiations had the consequences of saying no to the health been going on between two almost equal care administrators, the majority of the dele­ powers and that the church was losing its gates silently watched the proposal become ability to make policy for Adventist hospi­ church policy. tals. During the debate that followed, it became he action on the hos­ very apparent that the great majority of the T pital wage scale con­ delegates were opposed to the recommenda­ tinued a trend pointed out by Tom Dybdahl tion. Even those who supported the recom­ in his analysis of the 1976 Annual Council mendation frequently acknowledged that (SPECTRUM, Vol. 8, No.2). Commenting they did so with great reluctance. Some on the actions of that year regarding divorce speeches against the motion pointed out the and remarriage, the functions of the licensed inconsistency of paying some classes of minister and the use of tithe, Dybdahl iden­ church workers at community rates, even if tified as a trend the "accommodation of the they were generating income from non­ policies and standards of the church to exist­ Adventist sources, when other classes of ing practices or current situations." The ac­ church workers, such as industry managers tion of the 1978 Council on the hospital wage at colleges and universities, also generated scale demonstrated again the church's will­ income from non-Adventist sources and yet ingness to solve administrative problems remained on the denominational wage scale. with pragmatic solutions, even if these mod­ Dr. Charles Hirsch, executive secretary of ify significantly historically held positions the Kindergarten through Grade Twelve that, in the minds of many, are based on the Board of Education, pointed out that at writings of Ellen White. Church leaders in­ Loma Linda University the president of the terpreted and applied the writings of Ellen university would now makes less than the White in administrative areas more freely hospital administrator and his associates, as than they allow scholars to interpret and well as the deans of all the health-related apply them in scientific, historical or theolog­ schools. Several speakers referred to the ical areas. explicit counsel given by Ellen White in the Of course, the most dramatic moment of 1890s opposing higher wages for Adventist the 1978 Annual Council occurred at 9 a.m. physicians and publishing house managers on Monday, Oct. 16. Following the morning who,af thattillle,generatedthelllaj():rifY of worship,ElderPiers()n,wifhhiswif€~athis Volume 9, Number 4 7

side, announced that "in harmony with med­ owever, in signifi­ ical counsel, we plan to leave Washington for H cant respects, Elder a few weeks' rest and then retire Jan. 3, Pierson's analysis of the North American Ad­ 1979." The decision, said Elder Pierson, was ventist Church of 1978 is inaccurate. In his made after much prayer and agonizing the final appeal, Elder Pierson used as his text a previous Sabbath morning just before leav­ long quotation taken from Elder and Mrs. ing home for Sabbath School. Most of the Ralph Neall, based on the original paradigm delegates had not yet heard the news and were of church evolution by Ernst Troeltsch. "A genuinely surprised, even shocked. sect," said Elder Pierson, Everyone knew that Elder Pierson would is often begun by a charismatic leader with retire in 1980, and many church workers tremendous drive and commitment. .. it knew ofhis health problems, but few realized arises as a protest against worldliness and that he was subject to transient ischemic at­ formalism in a church .... The group has tacks (TIA) that brought numbness to his left strict standards and controls on behavior .. side. Only immediate relief from his heavy . . And then it passes on to the second responsibilities could reduce the high risk of generation ....Children born into the stroke. movement do not have to make personal This is not the time to evaluate the man, R. decisions to join it. . . . Preachers arise H. Pierson, or his administration. This needs more by selection and by apprenticeship to to be done carefully and perceptively. older workers than by direct inner com­ Perhaps a church historian will accept this pulsion. In the third generation, organiza­ challenge and give us an analytical biography tion develops and institutions are estab­ or at least an article in SPECTRUM or Ad­ lished. The need is seen for schools to pass ventist Heritage in the near future. The man on the faith of the fathers. Colleges are deserves the full treatment of scholars, for he established .... Youth question why they is undoubtedly the most prominent Advent­ are different from others, and intermarry ist of our day and the one who has had the with those not of their faith. In the fourth greatest influence on this generation of Ad­ generation there is much machinery; the ventists. number of administrators increases while the number of workers at the grassroots level becomes proportionately less. Great church councils are held to define doctrine. "Church leaders interpreted and More schools, universities and seminaries applied the writings of Ellen White are established. These go to the world for accreditation and tend to become sec­ in administrative areas more ularized. There is a reexamination of posi­ freely than they allow scholars tions and modernizing of methods. Atten­ to interpret and apply them in tion is given to contemporary culture, scientific, historical or theo­ with an interest in the arts: music, architec­ ture, literature. The movement seeks to logical areas." become "relevant" to contemporary soci­ ety by becoming involved with popular causes. Services become formal. The group enjoys complete acceptance by the The twin commitments of the Pierson world. The sect has become a church! years were reemphasized in Elder Pierson's Then, in his own words, Elder Pierson pas­ final appeal: preservation of traditional Ad­ sionately pleaded: "Brethren and sisters, this ventism and the evangelization of the world. must never happen to the Seventh-day Ad­ Many of the delegates considered him their ventist Church. This will not happen to the personal friend. He has always had the ability Seventh-day Adventist Church. This is not to remember people as individuals and show just another church - it is God's church!" a personalinteresttn therhahd theirfatnilies. No carefulobsetVer oftontempotaty 8 Spectrum American Adventism can doubt that much of According to the amendment establishing this has already happened. Even the agenda the procedure for electing a president at the of this Annual Council with so much atten­ time of an Annual Council, specific provis­ tion given to adminstrative structure, the ion was made that "persons elected at a Gen­ wage scale and the retirement plan is evi­ eral Conference Session to the offices they dence that the sect has become a church. The hold will be eligible to serve on this nominat­ challenge to Adventism is not to resist the ing committee." This significant statement evolution from sect to church; such a change made it possible for division and General has already happened. The challenge is to Conference officers, who are usually retain the spark, commitment and message excluded from participation on the nominat­ that gave the sect its original power, while ing committee, to dominate it. No one was accepting the institutional, structural and cul­ surprised when the ad hoc committee tural changes that are the inevitable con­ brought in its report Tuesday morning fol­ comitant of growth in the real world. While lowing the morning worship. The 66 mem­ it is appropriate, indeed obligatory, to op­ bers of the special nominating committee in­ pose heresy, loss of commitment and aban­ cluded the overseas division presidents and donment of moral standards, it is futile to secretaries, and a few other overseas workers oppose change and attempt to exist outside who happened to be attending the Annual the reality of contemporary culture. Council, the General Conference secretary, treasurer, vice presidents and a select group of other General Conference administrators he only question re­ and departmental representatives, the union T maining after the conference presidents, the presidents of delegates absorbed the shock of Elder Pier­ Loma Linda University, Andrews Univer­ son's resignation was whether a successor sity, Oakwood College and the General would be elected immediately or later in the Conference Radio-TV Center at Thousand year when more overseas delegates could be Oaks. This nominating committee, unlike present. Everyone knew that Elder Neal Wil­ nominating committees at General Confer­ son would succeed Elder Pierson, but was it ence sessions, was the church's power elite. worth an additional $100,000 in travel ex­ The nominating committee began its penses to bring in more overseas representa­ work immediately. It was later learned that tives and follow the 1975 Annual Council action that provided for the election of a Gen­ eral Conference president between General "Would the overseas church feel Conference sessions? Would the overseas left out of this important church feel left out of this important decision if the Annual Council went ahead and elected decision if the Annual Council Elder Pierson's successor? PREXAD deter­ went ahead and elected Elder mined that it was more important to save the Pierson's successor? PREXAD money, especially since some overseas workers would not be able to obtain visas at determined that it was more im­ any time in the near future, and go ahead portant to save the money .... " with as much advice as possible from over­ seas delegates present. Accordingly, the council amended the 1975 action so that they on the first ballot 61 of the 64 votes cast were could proceed to elect a president. The coun­ for Elder Wilson. At three o'clock, the spe­ cil also accepted PREXAD's recommenda­ cial nominating committee chairman, Cree tion that PREXAD and the division presi­ Sandefur, president of the Pacific Union, and dents serve as an ad hoc committee to nomi­ secretary, Calvin Rock, president of Oak­ nate a special nominating committee to wood College, brought the report to the nominate a new General Conference presi- floor. Neal Wilson was placed in official dent. nominationbefore·thehod¥and~was~_unani- Volume 9, Number 4 9 mously and enthusiastically elected president unions in the North American Division was of the General Conference. Noone seemed rejected and the changes in the hospital wage to doubt that Elder Wilson would have been scale will affect very few church workers and elected regardless of the composition of the have no impact on any church activity. The nominating committee and with or without resignation of Elder Pierson and the election extensive representation from the overseas of Elder Wilson, though unexpected at this divisions. He is almost universally acknowl­ time, only accelerated a change which would edged to be the best qualified man for the job. undoubtedly have taken place in Dallas in The 1978 council did not, in the end, make 1980. Still, the 1978 Annual Council will al­ any decision that will change significantly the ways be unique as the first one to elect a life of the church. The request for black president of the General Conference. Seventh-day Adventist Professional Organizations

by Jocelyn Fay

ore than 20 profes­ of the organizations are so closely integrated M sional organizations into the denominational structure that the exist within the Seventh-day Adventist church employs personnel to conduct much, Church in North America, publishing at if not all, of their business: Academy of Ad­ least 18 journals or newsletters. The societies ventist Ministers, Association of Privately drawn from the medical professions com­ Owned Seventh-day Adventist Services and prise the oldest and largest Adventist profes­ Industries and the Association of Seventh­ sional organizations. The first professional day Adventist Educators. The Seventh-day association to be organized (1932) and pres­ Adventist Hospital Association is limited to ently the largest by far (4,931 members) is institutions owned and operated by the the Lorna Linda University School of church. Medicine Alumni, which draws together Only professional organizations, not so­ Adventist physicians. The second oldest is cial or recreational associations, have been the National Association of Seventh-day included. The list has also been confined to Adventist Dentists, organized in 1943, and organizations that are national or interna­ instrumental in establishing the denomina­ tional in scope. We have not included, for tion's School of Dentistry at Lorna Linda. example, organizations of Adventist lawyers Although it did not organize until 1967, the in the Southern and Lake Union Confer­ Association of Seventh-day Adventist ences. No organization of Adventist lawyers Nurses has the second largest membership exists on the national level. We also have not· (2,200 members). Many may be surprised to included the Association of Western Advent­ learn that the Public Health Association of ist Historians, although they are an active Seventh-day Adventists, organized in 1966, group which meets annually at one of the has 700 members, 250 more than the dental west coast colleges. association. Other professional groups are interested in Several associations were organized in the forming organizations. The Adventist 1960s, but almost half of those listed below teachers in college and university depart­ have come into existence in the 1970s. Some ments of religion and theology at the 1977 meeting of the American Academy of Religion/Society of Biblical Literature seri­ Jocelyn Fay, a graduate of Atlantic Union College, ously discussed forming an association, but is the assistant editor of the Adventist Review. agreed toreqllests froill theG~lleralC()nfer- Volume 9, Number 4 11

ence to postpone organizing for at least a dents actively pursuing a degree in one of the be­ year. The nurse anesthetists are considering havioral sciences. Fee: $2.50. forming an association as well. Persons who Overseas member: Professionally trained behav­ are interested should write to Arthur N. ioral scientist residents outside North America who do not opt for regular (full) membership. Fee: Norcliffe, Lorna Linda University, Lorna $3.00. Linda, California 92354. Although information has been provided Institutional memberships in which SDA colleges or departments help support the association. Fee: for all the professional organizations about $25 for a department, $100 for a college, $150 for a which facts could be found, there are, no university. doubt, other groups that should have been Purpose: To promote intellectual and spiritual growth included. As much as possible, comparable among SDA behavioral scientists through profes­ information has been provided for all the sional meetings, workshops and publications; and associations. Obviously, in some cases only to assist the church in its discharge of its worldwide the facts available could be included. This evangelistic responsibilities. directory, though, should be the start of a Publications: Newsletter, The Adventist Behavioral fuller awareness that such organizations Scientist, published twice a year and sent to all members; The Journal of the Association of Adventist exist. SPECTRUM is interested in keeping Behavioral Scientists, published twice a year and sent up with the activities of all these organiza­ to full members. Other members may order copies tions and would appreciate receiving infor­ of the journal at the cost of publication plus post­ mation about activities of existing organiza­ age. tions, news from groups inadverdently omit­ BUSINESS EDUCATORS ted from this directory, and facts about new Seventh-day Adventist Business Education Associa­ societies considering organization. tion AVIATION President: Rosa Banks Adventist Aviation Association Oakwood College Huntsville, AL 35806 Executive Director: Bill Smith Established: 1972 Andrews University Berrien Springs, MI 49104 Number of members: 33 In process of reorganization. Membership: Educators in Seventh-day Adventist secondary schools, colleges and universities whose BEHAVIORAL SCIENTISTS responsibilities include areas of training in secretarial/business education who have paid the Association of Adventist Behavioral Scientists national and district dues as required by the bylaws; and Seventh-day Adventist teachers not currently President: Adrian Zytkoskee employed in SDA schools whose primary profes­ sional interest is in secretarial/business education Office address: P.O. Box 876 who have paid the national and district dues as Loma Linda, CA 92354 required by the bylaws. Established: 1976 Membership fee: $10.00 a year

Number of members: More than 120 Purpose: To open channels of communication among SDA secretarial/business education teachers for Membership requirements: mutual assistance and the disseminating of profes­ sional information; to foster and promote profes­ Full member: Graduate degree in one of the behav­ sional excellence; to stimulate research in ioral sciences or related fields, or professional prac­ secretarial/business education; to actively recruit tice in such field. (The association includes the fol­ personnel for office work; to encourage and work lowing as behavioral sciences: anthropology, psy­ with denominational business educators and office chology, sociology, psychiatry and social work.) workers in setting up an organization to elevate the Fee: $10. standards of the secretarial profession by uniting for their mutual benefit persons who are or have Associate member: Persons interested in or in­ been engaged in denominational office work; to volved in the behavioral sciences in a professional promote the organization oflocal chapters for sec­ way, but without a graduate degree in such a field. retaries. Fee: $3.00. Publications: News and Views, published November Student member: Undergraduate or graduate stu- 15 and March 15 each year. 12 Spectrum

CHAPLAINS Number of members: 450 Chaplains' Division of the Seventh-day Adventist Hospital Association Membership: Graduates of an accredited dental school and members of the Seventh-day Adventist President: Chaplain E. E. Christian church. Porter Memorial Hospital 2525 South Downing Street Membership fee: $25 Denver, CO 80210 Purpose: To support Adventist dental clinics around Established: 1967 nationally; East and West Coast Di­ the world and provide fraternal fellowship among visions had been functioning earlier. Adventist dentists.

Number of members: 211 Publication: NASDAD News, published quarterly.

Membership: Institutional membership for Seventh­ DIETITIANS AND NUTRITIONISTS day Adventist persons engaged in church service who are duly recognized by the church in perform­ Seventh-day Adventist Dietetic Association ing that service. Certified membership for Seventh-day Adventist persons who have been cer­ President: PatriciaB. Mutch, Ph.D., R.D. tified by the College of Chaplains of the American Home Economics Department Protestant Hospital Association. Andrews University Berrien Springs, MI 49104 Membership fee: None Office Address: P.O. Box 75 Purpose: "To foster the highest standards of ministry Loma Linda, CA 92354 of making men whole, bringing them into a heal­ ing, saving relationship with God and their fel­ Established: 1954 lowmen." N umber of members: 250 Publication: The Adventist Chaplain, published quar­ terly. Membership: Seventh-day Adventist registered dieti­ tians and nutritionists. Other Seventh-day Advent­ ists who have suitable academic training in the field CHURCH MUSICIANS of nutrition and/or home economics and who have Seventh-day Adventist Church Musicians' Guild successful experience in college teaching of foods and nutrition or in administering a food service are President: Albert E. Mayes, Jr. eligible for associate membership. Membership is 9511 Hatillo Avenue by application, through which professional eligibil­ Chatsworth, CA 91311 ity is determined.

Local chapters in southern California, Michigan, New Membership fee: $10 a year; less for students York City, Washington, D.C. and Frederick, Mary­ land. Purpose: To assist its members in enhancing their professional contribution as leaders in food admin­ Established: 1976 istration, clinical dietetics and nutrition education in church-related medical and educational institu­ Number of members: Approximately 200 tions; and to make more effective the participation Membership: Persons interested in Seventh-day Ad­ ofits members in the health ministry of the church. ventist Church music. Publication: Newsletter, SDADA News, published Membership fee: Approximately $5.00; varies from six times a year. Subscription price: $4.00. chapter to chapter. Purpose: To upgrade the music in the Seventh-day EDUCATORS Adventist Church. Association of Seventh-day Advenitst Educators

Publication: The Score, published quarterly. President: Richard T. Orrison Andrews University DENTISTS Berrien Springs, MI 49104 National Association of Executive Secretary: Walton]. Brown Seventh-day Adventist Dentists Education Director General Conference ofSDA President: Eldon C. Dickinson, D.D.S. 6840 Eastern Avenue, N.W. Office: Box 101, Loma Linda, CA 92354 Washington, D.C. 20012 Established: 1943 Established: 1970 Volume 9, Number 4 13

Number of members: approximately 800 Adventist colleges and academies in North America. Membership: Regular: SDA personnel who have the baccalaureate degree equivalent, or who hold SDA Purpose: To determine goals and objectives for Ad­ educational credentials, and who constitute the ventist English teachers, to share material, tech­ faculty, staff and administration of Seventh-day niques, experience, research with other English Adventist institutions, whether in early childhood, professionals in the Adventist circle, to disseminate elementary, secondary or higher education; SDA our ideals and objectives to Adventists outside our educators who are teaching in public, government profession. or private schools; SDA graduate students; indi­ viduals sponsored by the General Conference Meetings: At NADHEC sessions and either the MLA Committee; retired SDA educators. annual meetings or NCTE meetings.

Associate: SDA undergraduate students; parapro­ Publication: The Adventist English Newsletter, quar­ fessional personnel terly Editor, Beverly Beem, Walla Walla College. Membership fee: $1.00 annually, payable October 1 HISTORIANS Purpose: To promote and encourage the ideals and principles of Christian education; to seek to main­ Association of Seventh-day Adventist Historians tain Christian education on a high spiritual and professional level; to strive toward a goal of moral President: Erwin Sicher and professional excellence; to interpret Christian Southwestern Adventist College education within the overall objectives of the Keene, TX 76059 Seventh-day Adventist Church; to explore and make known to the members of the association Established: 1973 methods and materials for improvement and growth; to foster cooperation nationally and inter­ Number of members: approximately 80 nationally between and among professional educa­ tors. Membership: Those who are interested in the organi­ zation and who accept its objectives. Publication:Journal oj Adventist Education. Membership fee: $2.50 annually

ENGINEERS AND ARCHITECTS Purpose: To provide intellectual and social fellowship Association of Adventist Engineers and Architects among its members; encourage scholarly pursuits in all the historical disciplines; identify Seventh-day President: David Hensel Adventist teachers of history both within and Association of Adventist Engineers and without the church's educational system as well as Architects researchers and graduate students working in his­ P.O. Box 25 torical fields; acquaint others with the members' College Place, W A 99324 contributions as historians. Phone: (509) 527-2766 Publications: Newsletter and directory; is one of the Number of members: 150 organizations sponsoring Adventist Heritage, a magazine of denominational history. Membership: Adventist engineers, architects or craftmen in associated fields. HOSPITALS Membership fee: $5.00 application fee, $15 annual Seventh-day Adventist Hospital Association dues President: D. R. Ammon, Administrator Purpose: To aid the church in its objectives by the use Portland Adventist Medical Center of these professional people. 10123 S.E. Market Street Portland, OR 97216 Publication: Adventist Engineer, published quarterly in Phone: (503) 257-2500 conjunction with the educational paper ofthe Walla Walla College School of Engineering. Established: 1960 Number of members: 45-50 hospitals ENGLISH TEACHERS Association of Adventist English Teachers Membership: Institutional rather than individual. Membership is limited to hospitals owned and op­ President: Minon Hamm erated by the church, and participation is by mem­ Southern Missionary College bers of the administrative staff of member institu­ Collegedale, TN 37315 tions.

Membershi.p: Members of departments of English in The Hospital Association also has a numoerof 14 Spectrum

subsidiary, affiliated groups in various technical MINISTERS and professional areas. These groups, in turn, meet Academy of Adventist Ministers in conjunction with the annual meetings in their own specialty field, but function as subsidiaries of President: Daniel A. Skoretz the parent association, which each year names ad­ Ministerial Association ministrators to serve as the liaison with these General Conference ofSDA groups. They in~lude. chaplains: .personnel a~­ 6840 Eastern Avenue, N.W. ministrators, radlOlogical teChnICIanS, finanCIal Washington, D.C. 20012 administrators, personnel directors, pharmacists, respiratory therapists, medical technologists and Established: 1972 directors of social services. Number of members: approximately 600 Membership fee: Based on a formula related to the number of occupied beds. Membership: Ministers of the Seventh-day Adventist Church through payment of a yearly membership Purpose: The organization is sponsored by the Gen­ fee and by providing evidence of a minimum of 50 eral Conference and was established to strengthen clock hours per year of study that provides some and advance the work of SDA hospitals in the measurable results. North American Division. It is advisory, not pol­ icy making, in function. \ Membership fee: $15 annually

HOME ECONOMISTS Purpose: To encourage the pastor to keep abreast of Home Economics Association of Seventh-day Ad­ the very latest and best information essential to his ventists leadership growth.

President: Martha Lorenz Publication: None. Department of Home Economics Andrews University NURSES Berrien Springs, MI 49104 Association of Seventh-day Adventist Nurses

Established: 1976 President: Maxine Blome Portland Adventist Medical Center Number of members: 25 10123 S.E. Market Portland, OR 97216 Membership: Regular (voting) membership open to Seventh-day Adventists with a bachelor's, master's Established: 1967 or doctor's degree in some area of home econom­ ics; or Seventh-day Adventists with a bachelor's, Number of members: 2,200 (North America) master's or doctor's degree in a field related to home economics plus a minimum of two years' Membership: Currently licensed registered nurses or experience in home economics-related professional licensed practical nurses who are. members of the activities; or Seventh-day Adventist graduate ~tu­ Seventh-day Adventist Church. dents in home economics. Associate (nonvotmg) membership open to Seventh-day Adventist ll:n­ Membership fee: $15 annually dergraduate students majoring in home economICS or p~raprof~ssional J?en and women in home eco­ Purpose: To keep their missi<:>n ~efore SDA nurse~, to nomICS serVIces. promote the ideals and pnnCIples ofSDA nursmg, to encourage SDA young people to enter the nurs­ Membership fee: $5.00 per year ing profession, to keep members informed as to the need for SDA nurses in denominational work and Purpose: To promote the id.eals and principle.s.of pro­ other places, to encourag.e practic!ng n~rses to giv:e fessional home economICS to serve famIlIes and spiritual assistance to patIents whIle carIng for theIr individuals; to seek to maintain Christian education physical needs according to the instructions and for family life on a high spiritual and professional teachings of the denomination, and to advance the level; to strive toward a goal of moral and profes­ standards of SDA nurses and nursing, the care of sional excellence; to interpret the goals of profes­ the sick, and the honor and character of the nursing sional home economics within the overall objec­ profession. tives of the Seventh-day Adventist Church; to ex­ plore and make known to t~e members of the Publication: Forum, published quarterly. association methods and materIals for growth and improvement as professional home economists; OPTOMETRISTS and to foster cooperation nationally and interna­ tionally between and among professional Association of Seventh-day Adventist Optometrists Seventh-day Adventist home economists. President: Harry Oster Publication: HEASDA Newsletter, published each P.O. Box 1648 spring andEall .... Omak,WA98841 Volume 9, Number 4 15

Address inquiries to: Fred Wright, Secretary tion; to develop a system whereby each member Association of SDA Optome­ may be aware of the needs of other institutions in trists the association; and to promote health-related 115 North Main Street careers among Seventh-day Adventists. Sweetwater, TN 37874 Publication: News and Views, published monthly. Established: 1958

Number of members: 65 PHYSICIANS Adventist International Medical Society Membership: Seventh-day Adventists who are mem­ bers of the American Optometric Association. President: Carl Bauer, M.D.

Membership fee: None Office: 11188 Anderson Street Lorna Linda, CA 92354 Purpose: To promote the role of the Adventist op­ tometrist at home and in overseas mission service, Established: 1977 and to promote a greater interest in the field of optometry. Number of members: 100

Publication: Newsletter. Membership: Adventist physicians.

OSTEOPATHS Membership fee: $100 National Association of Seventh-day Purpose: To foster medical mISSIOns and fraternal Adventist Osteopaths bonds among Adventist physicians.

President: Gordon P. Guild, D.O. Publication: Journal of World Missions, forthcoming, National Association ofSDA Osteopaths monthly. 33 Peach Grove A venue Centerville, OH 45459 * * * Alumni Association of the Lorna Linda Established: 1966 University School of Medicine

Number of members: 200 Presiderit: Joan Coggin, M.D.

Membership: Seventh-day Adventist doctors of Office: 11188 Anderson Street osteopathy. Lorna Linda, CA 92354

Purpose: To promote Christian medicine with os­ Established: 1932 teopathic concepts. Number of members: 4,931 Publication: Monthly paper, NASDAO. Membership: Graduates of the Lorna Linda Univer­ PERSONNEL MANAGERS sity School of Medicine. Hospital Personnel Management Association (Division of the Seventh-day Adventist Hospital As­ Membership fee: $70 sociation) Meetings: Once a year at Lorna Linda University President: Richard U. Fuss Paradise Valley Hospital Publications: Alumni Journal, published six times a 2400 East Fourth Street year; Alumni Directory, published once a year. National City, CA 92050

Established: 1968 PUBLIC HEALTH Public Health Association of Number of members: 86 Seventh-day Adventists

Membership: Seventh-day Adventist hospital per­ President: Joel Haas sonnel directors or administrators who are also in Great Lakes Adventist Health Services, Inc. charge of personnel functions. 34 South Vine Street Hinsdale, IL 60521 Membership fee: None Phone: (312) 920-1100

Purpose: To foster the highest standard of personnel Established: 1966 administration; to coordinate the personnel policies and functions of all the institutions in theassocia- Number of members: 700 16 Spectrum

Membership: Consists of nine classes - regular, af­ according to professional and ethical standards; in filiate, associate, student, missionary, military, business for at least one year; and recommended by sponsorship, institutional and life. local and union conference administrations and their ASI secretaries and local pastors. Membership fee: $6.50 Membership fee: personal - $15 annually; family - Purpose: The primary purpose of PHASDA is to $20 annually; self-supporting schools and busi­ bring together all professionals and those interested nesses with 2 to 9 employees - $25 annually; with in the health ministries of the church whether they 10-25 employees - $35 annually; with more than be professionals or lay persons, to discuss the 25 employees - $50 annually church's health ministries and to plan and carryon an educational program for members and non­ Purpose: For the promotion of the interests of SDA members of their churches. privately owned and operated self-supporting en­ terprises in North America. Publication: None. Publication: ASI News, free to members, $5.00 annu­ PUBLIC RELATIONS ally for nonmembers. Adventist College Public Relations Alumni and Development Association SOCIAL WORKERS Association of Seventh-day Adventist Social Workers President: Donald G. Prior Vice-president for Public Relations and President: June Horsley Development Box 377 Loma Linda University Loma Linda, CA 92354 Loma Linda, CA 92354 Members voted recently not to continue with a na­ Established: 1976 tional organization. They are in the process of reorganizing into local groups. Number of members: about 35 SPEECH PATHOLOGISTS AND AU­ Membership: Automatic membership for all public DIOLOGISTS relations, development, alumni and recruitment personnel in Adventist colleges and universities in Speech and Hearing Association of Seventh-day Ad­ North America. ventists

Membership fee: None President: Roy Hartbauer 6756 South Highfield Drive Purpose: To exchange information and ideas. Oak Creek, WI 53154

Publication: None Established: 1972

Meets each July in connection with the National Number of members: Averages between 100 and 125 Council for the Advancement and Support ofEdu­ cation meeting. Membership: Professionals and students in speech pathology and audiology.

SERVICES AND INDUSTRIES Membership fee: $5.00 regular, $2.00 student, annu­ Association ofPrivately Owned Seventh-day Advent­ ally ist Services and Industries Purpose: To contribute to the evangelistic outreach of Executive Secretary: J. J. Aitken the church among the handicapped, to provide in­ General Conference ofSDA formation about training programs to interested 6840 Eastern A venue, N. W. students, to provide information to denomina­ Washington, D.C. 20012 tional institutions about qualified professionals available for employment, to encourage and devise Established: 1947, reorganized 1951 ways to extend services to language, speech and hearing handicapped Adventist members and their Number of members: more than 500 families, and to provide Christian fellowship for Adventist students majoring in these professions at Membership: Institutions and personal enterprises nondenominational schools. operated by SDA church members in harmony with denominational standards and principles, and . Publication: Shasda Report, published biannually. 'Sciences of Satanic Origin': Adventist Attitudes Toward Evolutionary Biology and Geology

by Ronald L. Numbers

"Again and again we shall be called to meet public. Fifteen years later, on the eve of de­ the influence of men who are studying sci­ nominational organization, Charles Darwin ences of satanic origin, through which Satan brought out his monumental Origin of is working to make a nonentity of God and of Species. For most American Christians, in­ Christ." Ellen G. White, Testimony for the cluding many evangelicals, the crucial issue Church, No. 37. raised by Darwin concerned the argument from design: did evolution by natural selec­ " ... there ought to be no doubt whatever tion negate the view of a divinely planned that the popular forms of geology and world? Relatively few Americans publicly paleontology should be included as 'sciences expressed concern about the impact of Dar­ of satanic origin.' " George McCready Price, winism on the Genesis story of creation, Theories of Satanic Origin. which most observers regarded as being suf­ ficiently vague to accommodate devel­ opmental views requiring periods of time he birth of Sev­ well in excess of 6,000 years. 1 Adventists, enth-day Advent­ T however, staunchly defended both the his­ ism coincided with the opening of the torical and scientific accuracy of the first nineteenth-century debate over evolution. In chapters of Genesis. 1844, the year of the Great Disappointment, By far the most influential early Adventist the Scottish author and publisher Robert was Ellen G. White, whose visions and tes­ Chambers anonymously published his Ves­ timonies molded the sect's thinking on mat­ tiges of the Natural History of Creation, the ters ranging from diet to eschatology. Like book that first brought the subject of evolu­ her fellow believers, few of whom had been tion to the attention of the American reading exposed to the influence of higher education, Ronald L. Numbers, chairman of the department of Mrs. White consistently subordinated sci­ the history of medicine, University of Wisconsin, is ence to the Scriptures. "The Bible is not to be the author ofCreation by Natural Law (Univ. of Wash­ ington Press) and Almost Persuaded Oohns Hopkins tested by men's ideas of science," she wrote, Press); - "butstience is tobe brought to the test of this 18 Spectrum unerring standard." Since Moses had written legitimacy of science within its own sphere. his account of creation "under the guidance "Science deals chiefly with one sort of truths , of the Spirit of God," any theory contradict­ religion with another class of truths." If only ing it was to be rejected out of hand. So far as this division were honored, he thought all she was .concerned, Moses had left no doubt conflict would cease. 4 In an article in the that the days of creation were six in number Health Reformer in 1874, he called for a "care­ and of24 hours' duration, and that the mode ful scrutiny of the arguments" in favor of of creation had not involved the use of natu­ evolution and an end to jeers and sneers. rallaws. 2 While adhering to the special creation of The editors of the Review and Herald shared species in the beginning, he conceded that Mrs. White's views on the relationship be­ much of Darwin's theory was based on "in­ tween science and religion. Early in 1859, disputable" facts. 5 several months before the publication of the Origin of Species, they reprinted an excerpt dventists placed their from a non-Adventist source claiming that A faith in the Bible "while the Bible does not teach science, rather than science because of a deep suspi­ when it does refer to science it is always cion ofhuman reason, and nothing seemed to correct."3 This theme appeared frequently in confirm this suspicion better than the science early Adventist literature. of geology, which depended so crucially on One of the few warnings against an unrea­ the assumption of uniformity. Thus, while the soning dependence on the Bible in matters of leaders of American thought were discussing science came from a member of the small the merits of biological evolution, Advent­ educated minority in the church, a physician ists were often preoccupied with the real or named John Harvey Kellogg, recently imagined fallacies of geology, which they graduated from the Bellevue Hospital Medi­ saw as providing a foundation for organic cal College in New York City and serving as evolution - both theories going "hand in professor of physics in the denomination's hand to destroy faith in the word ofGod."6 newly founded Battle Creek College. Writ- Seldom did they miss an opportunity to point a scoffing finger at "the dreamy, in­ coherent utterances of geologists."? Uriah "Adventists placed their faith in Smith, editor of the Review and Herald, occa­ the Bible rather than science sionally led the attack himself. Though he had never attended college, he had no fear of because of a deep suspicion of doing battle with the Goliaths of the scientific human reason, and nothing world. Who, he asked, had "ever proven or seemed to confirm this suspicion tried to prove" the validity of the uniformity principle? "Nobody," he answered. "Usu­ better than the science of ally it is either 'presumed that the reader will geology ...." be convinced' of the matter, or certain results are 'supposed to have been effected by such causes as are operating at present.' "8 ing in 1879 in a small volume entitled Har­ From time to time, Smith opened the mony of Science and the Bible, Kellogg listed as pages oftheReview and Herald to other critics one of the chief factors responsible for the of geology. Their titles alone adequately re­ recurring conflict between religion and sci­ veal their message: "The Blunders of ence the habit of religionists of "holding the Geologists," "The Uncertainty of Geologi­ Bible as unimpeachable authority on all sub­ cal Science" and "False Theories of jects, as the universal test of truth, and attach­ Geologists."9 Typical was the comment of ing all importance to a particular interpre­ George W. Amadon, the 28-year-old editor tation of its language." Though Kellogg of the Youth's Instructor, a periodical for Ad­ apparently believed in a special creation, he ventist young people. "No class of scientific expressed a willingness_to recognize the men are more hasty and rash in making asser- Volume 9, Number 4 19

tions than some geologists," he wrote. "As a conclude that "the only certain thing about science it is not demonstrative, and its oracles [geological science], is its uncertainty." 14 are contradictory and clash with each other."lo OSt Adventists un­ Smith and his colleagues regularly re­ M derstandably refused printed what they considered to be devastat­ to admit harboring any hostility toward ing examples of the "extravagant preten­ what they liked to call "true science," that is, sions" and the "absurdity" of geology. In science based upon "facts" and in agreement one of these, a Reformed Presbyterian minis­ with the Bible. They directed their criticism ter in Chicago, Robert Patterson, remarked solely at "science falsely so-called," that to construct the earth's history from hypothetical science in conflict with revela­ 15 processes currently observable was like tion. Scientific theories and hypotheses re­ measuring "a youth of six feet high, and garding the history of the earth were accept­ finding that he grew half an inch last year, able only under the severest restrictions. In [concluding] thence that he was a hundred formulating them, scientists were not to "as­ and forty-four years old." II In another, Pres­ sume any condition of the world, the exis­ identJoseph F. Tuttle of Wabash College was tence of any agents, or the occurrence of any said to have scored "a capital hit on that events, the reality of which they cannot dem­ popular farce and prime minister of skepti­ onstrate; and all their assumptions and rea­ cism, geological guess-work," when he sonings must be consistent with all the facts, suggested that fossils - particularly human and all the laws of nature, which the question ones - found in geological formations much affects."16 It did not disturb Adventists that lower and earlier than usually assigned to these stipulations also ruled out as unscien­ men had probably dropped to that level dur­ tific all supernatural explanations of the crea­ ing earthquakes. 12 tion of the world. They happily transferred Among the sizable group of Adventists to the entire question of origins from the sphere comment on geology, not one had any first­ of science to the realm of faith. 17 hand acquaintance with the science and few In defending their extreme Baconian view gave any evidence that they had read more of science, many Adventists revealed an than popular accounts of what geologists anti-intellectual prejudice, not uncommon did. A notable exception was Elder Alonzo among Americans with little education. In T. Jones, a self-taught ex-soldier converted 1872, the Review and Herald reprinted an ad­ while stationed at Fort Walla Walla, Wash. dress by the Pres byterian minis ter John Hall, Unlike many of his colleagues, Jones took in which he warmly thanked scientists for geology seriously enough to read Archibald collecting so many useful facts, then denied Geikie's Textbook of Geology, one of the most them an exclusive right to interpret what authoritative works in the field, three times they had discovered. "When they come to through. All this study, however, merely reason upon these facts," he said, convinced him of the total unreliability of they use just the same kind of mind that geology, a theme he developed at length in a God has given me; and I endeavor to use series oflead articles for the Review and Herald my mind upon these facts aright, just as in 1883.13 Here he accused geologists not truly as they claim to use their minds upon only of beginning their reasonings with an the facts. Hence. . . I claim the right to assumption, but also of using circular argu­ reason upon them just as truly as they can ments. The most blatant instances of the lat­ claim it; and I do not think the less of ter, he thought, were two statements by myselfifin many instances I draw conclu­ Geikie on dating. "One of these says that the sions from the facts that have thus become relative age of the rocks is determined by the common property that are not the conclu­ fossils. The other says that the relative age ofthe sions that they venture to drawp 8 fossils is determined by the rocks." "What is Most Adventists could not have agreed this but reasoning in a circle?" asked Jones. more. 19 This example and others like it forced himto AdVentistoppositiou····to:...developmental 20 Spectrum

theories, both organic and inorganic, focused of creation would undermine the doctrine of not on the uncertain status of these ideas but the Sabbath along with the rest of the Bible. on their apparent conflict with revelation.. If the days of creation were assumed to be The Bible clearly stated that God made the long, indefinite stretches of time, then world in "six natural days," and Adventists the period of man's toils and cares before a rebelled at the thought of sacrificing this di­ day of rest, is also immense, covering mil­ vine truth" on the altar of geological specula­ lions of years. And if the last day of the first tion." Few spelled out the implications of week, the day on which Jehovah rested such a sacrifice more sharply than David from his work, was another immense in­ Nevins Lord, a New York millenarian and definite period, the weekly Sabbath of the former editor of the Theological and Literary Old and New Testaments, which was Journal. Genesis and geology, he asserted, are made for man and commanded in the mutually contradictory. If the geologists are moral law to be kept holy, is also an im­ correct, the Mosaic record is false and God is mense period of time. a liar. And "it is impossible that God should not have spoken the truth." The decision to accept or reject geology thus took on tre­ mendous theological significance. "If "The fact that theistic evolution founded on just grounds, [geology] dis­ had won widespread acceptance in proves the inspiration, not only to the record in Genesis of the creation, but of the whole of the Christian world. . . carried no the writings of Moses, and thence, ... of the weight with Adventists. It was whole of the Old and New Testaments, and merely additional evidence of the divests Christianity itself of its title to be received as a divine institution."20 apostasy afflicting the nation's Compounding the difficulty ofharmoniz­ leading churches . ... " ing any developmental view with the Bible were the statements of Ellen White. Writing in Spiritual Gifts in 1864, she claimed to have seen in vision the actual creation of the Such ideas, making the Bible seem absurd, world. Specifically, she saw "that the first obviously could not be tolerated. 23 week, in which God performed the work of The only accommodation to an expanded creation in six days and rested on the seventh timescale Adventists ever entertained was the day, was just like every other week. "21 For possibility of allowing an extended period of many Adventists, the rejection of her tes­ time between an initial creation of inorganic timony would have been tantamount to re­ matter "in the beginning," depicted in the pudiating God's own word. first verse of Genesis 1, and a later six-day creation about 6,000 year~ ago. In the opin­ dventists especially ion of at least one Adventist, a midwestern A feared anything that minister named J. P. Henderson, this view might weaken their arguments for observing did "no violence to a single statement in the the seventh-day Sabbath as a memorial of Bible."24 Yet, despite its innocuousness, this creation. And theories of evolutionary compromise never gained much popularity development threatened to do just that. Ac­ among Adventists until the late 1890s, when cording to Ellen White, "the infidel supposi­ both the Review and Herald and Signs of the tion, that the events of the first week required Times came out in support of an old-earth seven vast, indefinite periods for their ac­ theory. Still, the prevailing attitude remained complishment, strikes directly at the founda­ that earlier expressed by J. N. Andrews, who tion of the sabbath of the fourth command­ insisted that there was "blank nothing" prior ment."22 Her husband, James, president of to the week of creation: "Even the materials the General Conference, likewise warned which subsequently formed the worlds had 5 that any deviation from the traditional view no existence. ".:1 _ Volume 9, Number 4 21

Their strict adherence to a literal reading of description of Darwin as an unintelligent Genesis prevented Adventists from adopting atheist and reprinted a statement that "all the even the most theistic of evolutionary ideas leading scientists who believe in evolution, and thus separated them from the main­ without one exception the world over, are stream of American thought. Well before infidel. "30 The fact that theistic evolution had 1859, educated Americans had reinterpreted won widespread acceptance in the Christian Genesis to make room for the advancement world - "almost all-pervading in the or­ of science. During the 1830s and 1840s, Ed...; thodox and evangelical churches, schools, ward Hitchcock of Amherst College influ­ and colleges" - carried no weight with Ad­ enced many to embrace a view similar to that ventists. It was merely additional evidence of advocated by Elder Henderson, with the sig­ the apostasy afflicting the nation's leading nificant difference that Hitchcock's disciples churches, explained W. H. Littlejohn, presi­ allowed for the appearance of a succession of dent of Battle Creek College. 34 plants and animals prior to the Mosaic crea­ tion. In the following decades, the educated often found it more reasonable to assume that ontheological con­ the six days of Moses represented not 24 hour N siderations played a periods, but long intervals, a compromise secondary, but significant, role in the Ad­ advocated by scientific notables like Yale's ventist resistance to organic evolution. Benjamin Silliman and James Dwight Dana Human vanity rebelled at the prospect of and Princeton's Arnold GuYOt. 26 Either of relinquishing an honored position at the head these interpretations permitted the orthodox of created beings only to be herded together to adopt a theistic brand of evolution without "with four-footed beasts and creeping seeming to depart from the intended revela­ things," over which man had formerly had tion. dominion. Darwinism, complained one un­ Adventists also ran counter to prevailing happy critic, "tears the crown from our theological currents in America when they heads; it treats us as bastards and not sons, insisted upon miraculous special providences and reveals the degrading fact that man in his as the mode of creation. By the second half of best estate - even Mr. Darwin - is but a the nineteenth century, the religious leaders civilized, dressed up, educated monkey, who of America, including many evangelicals, has lost his tail. "32 For those who believed were placing less emphasis on supernatural they had been created in the image of God interventions in the natural order and more himself, the demotion was indeed humiliat­ on God's general providence through the mg. secondary laws of nature. Thus, without dif­ Those who rejected the evolutionary his­ ficulty, they could explain evolution simply tory of life necessarily had to provide an al­ as God's way of creating with naturallaws.27 ternative explanation of the fossil record, and Adventists, however, saw evolution as re­ here Adventists invariably turned to the stricting, if not altogether abolishing, God's Noachian Flood for virtually all solutions to role in the work of creation. It "is the last and their geological and paleontological prob­ most plausible attempt of infidelity to vote lems. Encouragement to do this came from the throne of the adorable Creator vacant," Ellen White, who wrote that if individuals wrote one author in the Review and Herald. 28 would only recognize "the size of men, ani­ Another described it as "only an attempt to mals and trees before the flood, and ... the eject God, and to postpone him, and to put great changes which took place in the earth," him clear out of reach."29 they would have no trouble accepting the Because of the allegedly impious tenden­ "view that creation week was only seven cies of evolution, Adventists commonly literal days, and that the world is now only labeled it "atheistic" or "infidel," and its about six thousand years old." She believed founders and supporters fared not better. that the recent findings of earth scientists The Review and Herald, for example, un­ were providential, designed by God to "es­ apOlogetically published Thomas Carlyle's tablish the faithof men in inspired history;" 33 22 Spectrum Following her lead, the editors of the Review the discovery of organic remains, suffi­ and Herald widely publicized any new dis­ cient to show beyond a sane doubt, that at coveries that might conceivably corroborate some period in the past there existed on the occurrence of the flood. this earth a class of gigantic men and ani­ Adventists adopted a similar approach in mals, in comparison with which the pres­ defending Mrs. White's explanation of the ent species are but pigmies. 36 multiplicity of species: amalgamation. Ac­ Despite their tendency to subordinate science cording to her, to the Scriptures, Adventists did not hesitate Every species of animal which God had to employ the growing aut1:lOrity of science created were [sic] preserved in the ark. The when it served their purposes. confused species which God did not create, which were the result of amalgamation, * * * * were destroyed by the flood. Since the flood there has been amalgamation of man hroughout the nine­ and beast, as may be seen in the almost T teenth century, Sev­ endless varieties of species of animals, and enth - day Adventists could turn to no in certain of men. 34 scientists of their own, except for a few This statement in Spiritual Gifts (1864) - physicians. Thus, the appearance of the first especially the allusion to human races - un­ Adventist "scientist," George McCready derstandably raised questions in the minds of Price, represents a new phase in the his tory of some readers. Which races of men did Mrs. the denomination's attitudes toward science. White have in mind? And did she mean that Price was born in eastern Canada in 1870. some races were partially animal? Critics When his widowed mother joined the Ad­ charged her with teaching that Negroes were ventist church, he, too, embraced that faith. not members of the human race. But as During the early 1890s, young Price attended Uriah Smith pointed out in The Visions of Battle Creek College in Michigan for two Mrs. E. G. White (1869), a book warmly years and subsequently completed a teacher recommended by James White, such accusa­ training course at the provincial normal tions were unfair. The mere possession of school in New Brunswick.37 some animal blood, Smith argued, did not The turn of the century found him serving strip one of humanity, because individuals as principal of a small high school in an iso­ were human if they had "any of the original lated part of eastern Canada, where one ofhis Adamic blood in their veins." On the other few companions was a local physician. The hand, no one familiar with "the wild doctor and the teacher enjoyed discussing Bushmen of Africa, some tribes of the Hot­ scientific matters, and the former almost suc­ tentots, and perhaps the Digger Indians of ceeded in making an evolutionist of his fun­ our own country, &c." could reasonably damentalist friend. On at least three occa­ doubt the validity of Mrs. White's view, sions, Price nearly succumbed to evolution, thought Smith. "Moreover, naturalists af­ or at least to what he always considered its firm that the line of demarkation between the basic tenet: the progressive nature of the fos­ human and animal races is lost in confusion. sil record. Each time he was saved by prayer It is impossible, as they affirm, to tell just - and by reading Mrs. White's book Patri­ where the human ends and the animal be­ archs and Prophets, which attributed the fossil gins."35 record to the N oachian Flood. 38 As a result of Smith also appealed to contemporary sci­ this experience, he decided on a scientific ence to corroborate Ellen White's statements career championing what he called the "new about the size of man and animals before the catastrophism," in contrast to the old catas­ flood. Referring to the recent discovery of trophism of the French scientist Cuvier. what had erroneously been identified as huge By 1906, Price was living in southern human bones, he reported that evidence California and working as a handyman at the is now almost daily coming up fresh from Loma Linda Sanitarium. That year he pub­ ·thebosoill()f the earth-evidenceftom lisheda ·slirrivollifueentitlea IlZogicdlGeolo- Volume 9, Number 4 23 ,gy: The Weakest Point in the Evolution Theory, that Price obtain some "direct contact with in which he confidently offered a $1,000 re­ problems regarding fossils"43 penetrated the ward "to anyone who will, in the face of the weakest spot in the creationist's armor: his facts here presented, show me how to prove lack of any formal training or field experience that one kind of fossil is older than another." in geology. (Price apparently observed field Essentially, he argued that Darwinism rested work for the first time at age 63.) Price was, "logically and historically on the succession however, a voracious reader of geological oflife idea as taught by geology," and that "if literature, an armchair scientist who self­ this succession oflife is not an actual scientific consciously minimized the importance of fact, then Darwinism ... is a most gigantic field experience. "It has long been notori­ hoax."39 Throughout his life, Price saved his ous," he once said, "that field naturalists are sharpest barbs for uniformitarian geology, often mere children when attempting to han­ since, in his opinion, "the modern theory of dle the larger problems of science." Darwin evolution is about 95% due to the geology of was an excellent example.44 Lyell and only about 5% to the biology of During the next 15 years, Price taught in Darwin. "40 several Adventist schools and authored six Readers of Price's book responded in more books attacking evolution, particularly widely divergent, but predictable, ways. The its geological foundation. Although not un­ head of a theological seminary in Ohio wrote known in fundamentalist circles before the that he had never read anything clearer and early 1920s, he did not begin attracting wide­ more convincing on the subject,41 while spread national attention until then. Shortly David Starr Jordan, president of Stanford after the fundamentalist controvery entered University and an authority on fossil fishes, its anti-evolution phase, Price published his told Price frankly that he should not expect New Geology, the most systematic and com­ "any geologist to take [his work] seriously." prehensive of his two dozen or so books. In it, he restated his "great law of conformable strati­ graphic sequences. . . by all odds the most important law ever formulated with refer­ ence to the order in which the strata occur." "Despite their tendency to According to this law, "Any kind offossilifer­ subordinate science to the ous beds whatever, 'young' or 'old,' may befound occurring conformably on any other fossiliferous scriptures, Adventists did not beds, 'older' or 'younger.' JJ45 To Price, so­ hesitate to etnploy the growing called "deceptive conformatives" (where authority of science when strata seem to be missing) and "thrust faults" (where the strata are apparently in the wrong it served their purposes." order) proved that there was no natural order to the fossil-bearing rocks, all of which he attributed to the Genesis flood. Although The New Geology pleased many fundamentalists, it scarcely improved Price's Jordan conceded that Price had written "a reputation among practicing scientists. very clever book," but went on to describe it Charles Schuchert of Yale, in reviewing as "a sort of lawyer's plea, based on scatter­ Price's book in the journal Science, accused ing mistakes, omissions and exceptions the creationist not only of "harboring a against general truths that anybody familiar geological nightmare" but of outright dis­ with the facts in a general way cannot possi­ honesty in appropriating a number of his bly dispute. It would be just as easy and just illustrations from other authors. 46 (In a as plausible and just as convincing if one heated exchange with the editor of Science, should take the facts of European history and Price protested his innocence and threatened attempt to show that all the various events to sue for libel, but the affair was never satis­ A7 were simultaneous."42 Jordan's suggestion factorily resolved. ) 24 Spectrum

espite attacks from Bryan's and the best-known scientist in the D the scientific estab­ fundamentalist camp. Unfortunately, Price lishment, Price's influence among non­ was teaching at the time in an Adventist col­ Adventist fundamentalists grew rapidly. By lege outside London and could not attend the the mid-1920s, the editor of Science could trial. Instead, he wrote Bryan a letter advis­ accurately describe Price as "the principal ing him to avoid any scientific arguments and scientific authority of the Fundamental­ to charge the evolutionists with being un­ ists,"48 and Price's byline was appearing with American for compelling a parent to pay increasing frequency in a broad spectrum of taxes "to have his child taught something religious periodicals: The Sunday School that he utterly repudiates and considers Times and Moody Monthly each published anti-Christian. "51 . about a dozen of his articles, and such diverse At one point during the epic trial, Clarence journals as Bibliotheca Sacra, Catholic World, Darrow asked Bryan ifhe respected any sci­ Princeton Theological Review and The Bible entist. When Bryan named Price, Darrow Champion eagerly sought his literary ser­ scoffed: "You mentioned Price because he is vices.49 Through his numerous articles and books, Price significantly altered the course of fun­ damentalist thought, slowly but perceptibly "Through his numerous articles steering it in the direction of the traditional and books, Price significantly Adventist interpretation of Genesis. Prior to altered . .. fundamentalist the appearance ofPrice on the fundamentalist scene, many evangelicals had compromised thought, slowly but perceptibly with the teachings of modern science. As late steering it in the direction as 1910, for example, the editors of The Fun­ of the traditional Adventist damentals, the series ofpamphlets whose pub­ lication often marks the beginning of the so­ interpretation of Genesis." called fundamentalist movement, chose George Frederick Wright, a clergyman­ geologist from Oberlin College, to write on the only human being in the world so far as evolution and religion. His selection is sur­ you know that signs his name as a geologist prising in retrospect, because Wright was that believes like you do ... every scientist in one of the best-known Christian Darwinists this country knows [he] is a mountebank and in the United States, having long promoted a a pretender and not a geologist at all." Even­ theistic view of evolution. Although he faith­ tually, Darrow browbeat the broken old man fully defended the Bible's historical accuracy, into conceding that the world was indeed he saw no conflict between Genesis and geol­ more than 6,000 years old and that the six ogy and no reason to insist on a worldwide days of creation had probably been longer flood. It was not until after World War I, than 24 hours each - departures from strict when Price emerged as their scientific fundamentalism that Price never forgave. 52 spokesman, that fundamentalist leaders While Bryan and Darrow matched wits in began insisting on a 6,000-year-old earth and Tennessee, Price busily prepared for a show­ a universal deluge. down in London with Joseph McCabe, a On the eve of the Scopes trial in July 1925, prominent evolutionist and former Jesuit. in which a high school biology teacher in The debate, held September 6 in Queen's Dayton, Tenn., was found guilty of violat­ Hall, was by all accounts a fiasco. Shortly ing a state law prohibiting the teaching of after the event, Price complained to a friend evolution in public institutions, the high­ in the United States that "during my last 15 priest of fundamentalism, William Jennings minutes I was heckled and interrupted a great Bryan, invited Price to assist the prosecution deal, and was not permitted to finish as I as an expert witness. 50 Price was a logical might have done. At one time, I suppose a choice, being both an acquaintance of thousand people were on their feet at once , Volume 9, Number 4 25 yelling and arguing with me or with their ally, he broke with Price on three major next-seat neighbours. It was a lively time."53 points: glaciation, stratification and tec­ The New York Times reported that "interrup­ tonics. 56 Beginning with the summer of tions became so frequent that half the audi­ 1929, Clark devoted his vacations to study­ ence seemed to be on their feet arguing ing glaciation in the mountains of the West, among themselves. One young woman ... and the evidence he saw convinced him that, shouted so determinedly at [Price] that at last contrary to Price, there had indeed been ex­ he sat down." After such harsh treatment, it tensive glaciation, that ice had once covered is perhaps understandable why Price thought large portions of North America. 57 the English were "prejudiced" against him In the summer of 1938, he visited the oil and his views. 54 fields of Oklahoma and northern Texas and His experience at the conservative Victoria received what he later described as a "real Institute in London did little to change his shock." For years, he had unquestioningly mind. Although the Institute awarded him accepted Price's topsy-turvy view of the fos­ its Langhorne-Orchard Prize in 1925, for an sil record, but the order and system he ob­ essay on "Revelation and Evolution," many served in the Southwest convinced him that members resented the North American's at­ strata followed a predictable sequence. Other tempt to export the fundamentalist con­ investigations persuaded him that the evi­ troversy to England, where science and reli­ dence for overthrusts was "almost incon­ gion were coexisting in relative harmony. trovertible. "58 One of the Institute's scientists sharply re­ By 1940, Clark had substituted a non­ buked Price for attempting "to drive a wedge Adventist text for Price's New Geology in his between Christians and scientists," as had course at Pacific Union College and was de­ been done in America. The editor ofthe Insti­ scribing Price's book as "entirely out of date tute's transactions advised his colleagues that and inadequate in its handling of its prob­ it would be foolish for British Christians to lems." 59 When Price learned of this, he launch a new crusade against evolution sim­ exploded, angrily accusing his former stu­ ply because Price thought they should. After dent of suffering from "the modern mental all, even a literal reading of the first verses of disease ofuniveristy-itis" and of currying the Genesis provided ample opportunity for ac­ favor of "tobacco-smoking, Sabbath­ commodating long-term geological devel­ breaking, God-defying" evolutionary opments.55 geologists.60 Although Clark continued to Late in 1928, as the fires of fundamentalism believe in a literal six-day creation and uni­ burned dim, Price returned to the United versal flood, his acceptance of the geologic States. He continued to preach his "new column was sufficient evidence for Price to catastrophism," but came to realize by the conclude that he was satanically inspired. late 1930s that he was fighting for a lost Clark repeatedly tried to placate Price, but cause. Not only was the public losing interest to no avail. 61 In 1941, Price filed formal in his crusade, but even his own students heresy charges against Clark with the Pacific were beginning to defect. The most trauma­ Union Conference. A specially appointed tic defection was that of Harold W. Clark, committee ofleading Adventists met in San who had studied with Price in 1920 and then Francisco to investigate Price's charges, but succeeded him as professor of geology at the results proved inconclusive.62 Neverthe­ Pacific Union College in northern Califor­ less, Price continued his vitriolic attacks on nia. Later, Clark earned a master's degree in Clark, which culminated in late 1946 (or biology from the University of California. early 1947) with the publication of a pam­ phlet entitled Theories of Satanic Origin, un­ n his early scientific mistakably aimed at PUC's geologist.63 I writings, like Back to Price's conduct in this affair undermined Creationism (1929), Clark followed his men­ his position as the church's most respected tor closely, but the more he observed, the spokesman on scientific matters and created more he questionedPrice'sviews. Evelltu- sYHl,pathyJorCI;trk; who~as about to offer 26 Spectrum the denomination a new flood paradigm.64 mals in one day. Thus, it seemed unreason­ To explain paleontological evidence in terms able to equate the "kinds" of Genesis with the of the Biblical record, Clark developed a species of the twentieth century. To reduce theory of ecological zones, which held that the confusion, Marsh suggested calling the the various fossil-bearing strata represented originally created types baramins. 68 the different ecological zones of the antedilu­ Despite the rise of Clark and Marsh, who vian world. He published this theory in 1946 themselves disagreed on the limits of specia­ in a volume called The New Diluvialism, the tion and the role of amalgamation, Price con­ tinued to influence Adventist science until his death in 1963 at age 93. During the last dec­ "Marsh insisted on using the his­ ades of his life, he worked closely with a toric Adventist interpretations small but growing community of Adventists in southern California interested in problems of the Bible and the writings of related to creation and evolution. As early as Ellen White as the foundation of 1936, this group had urged the General Con­ his scientific investigations." ference to sponsor field work in areas like the Grand Canyon, but the expense of such a program apparently frightened the Takoma first really constructive effort by an Advent­ Park brethren.69 Rebuffed, Price and his ist to make sense of the geological record. friends in Los Angeles area organized the Until this time, Adventist writers had de­ Deluge Geology Society in 1938 to collabo­ voted most of their energy to poking holes in rate "in the upbuilding of a positive system of the prevailing scientific theories. 65 faith-building science." Between 1941 and The 1940s marked the eclipse not only of 1945, they p'ublished The Bulletin of Deluge Price's geological views but his biological Geology and Related Sciences, mailed to over ideas as well, particularly those relating to 200 subscribers. 70 As described by Price, the speciation. In Genes and Genesis (1940), Clark society consisted of "a very eminent set of took issue with the "extreme creationism" of men .... In no other part of this round globe Price, who insisted on the special creation of could anything like the number of scientifi­ all known species (as defined by the Swedish cally educated believers in Creation and op­ naturalist Linnaeus). Although he believed ponents of evolution be assembled, as here in that no new "kinds" had appeared since the Southern California."7! Among the active creation, Clark agreed with Darwin that nat­ members of the group were several physi­ ural selection had indeed produced many cians, including Cyril Courville and Mol­ new "species." 66 leurus Couperus, and Benjamin F. Allen, an amateur geologist and frequent contributor our years later, to Signs of the Times. Fanother young Ad­ A schism in 1945 between the physicians ventist scientist, Frank Lewis Marsh, pub­ and Allen resulted in the disbandment of the lished a more sophisticated treatment of the original group and the creation of the Society species question in Evolution, Creation, and for the Study of Natural Science, composed Science. Marsh, a former student of Price's at largely of the same membership, except for Emmanuel Missionary College, was appar­ Allen. Until 1948, this organization pub­ ently the first Adventist to earn a doctoral lished The Forum for the Correlation of Science degree in biology, having received a Ph.D. and the Bible, edited by Couperus. During from the University of Nebraska in 1940.67 this time, The Forum devoted considerable Like Clark, he rejected the Linnaean theory, attention to the age of the earth, with Price advocated by Price, that all species had origi­ and Couperus arguing for an earth "probably nated by separate creative acts. Zoologists, older than two billion years" and Clark de­ he pointed out, had identified thousands of fending the "ultra-literal view. . . that the species of dry-land animals, yet Adam had matter composing the earth was spoken into been able to name all the newly created ani- e:xistenceas tllefiISLst~P iJ]tlles:ix-d4~c:rea- Volume 9, Number 4 27 tion process."72 By 1947, this organization When Hare's research on amino acid ratios was dying for lack of interest. 73 in marine shells yielded a much greater age A major breakthrough for Adventist sci­ than that traditionally accepted by the ence occurred at the 1947 Autumn Council. church, he candidly advised the General The General Conference Committee, con­ Conference of the potential problem. He also cerned that the church still lacked a single mentioned the impossibility of working Ph.D. in geology or paleontology, voted harmoniously with Marsh, who believed "that arrangements be made to send two ma­ "the only value oflaboratory research is to ture, experienced men of proved loyalty, to corroborate the conclusions one reaches by a take special studies in [geology and paleon­ study of the Scriptures and Spirit of tology] in qualified institutions for advanced Prophecy. "79 The following year, President study. "74 The closest to being a professional R. R. Figuhr notified Hare that he was free to paleontologist was Richard Ritland, who had remain with the Carnegie Institution in recently received a doctorate from Harvard Washington, since the primary purpose of University in biology, with considerable the Berrien-Springs institute was to read, emphasis on paleontology and comparative write and study - "looking for inconsisten­ vertebrate anatomy. cies in the evolutionary writings that appear" Within a year, the General Conference had - rather than do original research. 80 When selected its candidates for advanced study: Hare subsequently left the Geoscience Re­ the mature and experienced Frank Lewis search Institute, his position went to Harold Marsh and P. Edgar Hare, a young chemistry Coffin, a traditionally minded biologist who teacher from Pacific Union College who shifted the balance of opinion in Marsh's di­ wanted to enter the field of geochemistry. 75 rection. Marsh enrolled at Michigan State Universi­ Through the early 1960s, Marsh, who di­ ty; Hare, at the California Institute of rected the institute, urged the General Con­ Technology. Together, they represented the ference to endorse his conservative views. Research Division of the General Conference President Figuhr, however, apparently felt Department of Education, to which a third "that this discussion [regarding the age of the member, Ritland, was added in 1960.76 earth] has gone on during the 40 years that he'd been in the ministry, and he didn't think efore long, the Re­ that it really amounted to much; it wasn't search Division, re­ B something that we should put too much time named the Geoscience Research Institute and on. "81 In 1964, the General Conference re­ moved to Berrien Springs, Mich., split down tired Marsh, who attributed his fall to "a the middle. Marsh insisted on using the his­ no-holds-barred process of indoctrination" toric Adventist interpretations of the Bible carried on by his" open-minded" colleagues. and the writings of Ellen White as the foun­ A consolation appointment in the Andrews dation of his scientific investigations. Hare and University Biology Department seemed to Ritland, on the other hand, expressed a will­ him little better than "banishment into the ingness to reinterpret the Biblical account of farthest corner of Siberia."82 creation and writings of Mrs. White if the scientific evidence so indicated, an "open­ Marsh's successor, Ritland, did indeed minded" approach their colleague regarded prove to be more "open-minded" than his as "satanic."77 Marsh could not understand, predecessor. Unlike Marsh, who allowed his for instance, "why [as he thought] both Hare understanding of the Bible and the writings and Ritland and most of the SDA chemistry of Ellen White to determine his science, Rit­ and physics teachers in our colleges insist on land believed that God had revealed Himself believing in the radioactive timeclocks even both through nature and the Scriptures. Ap­ after it is known that they place Creation parent conflicts between the two revelations Week hundreds of millions of years ago. The might just as easily result from misreading Bible gives us ... only a few thousand years the written work as from misinterpreting the since CreationWeek."78 naturaLrecQrd. U singtbis apprQilQb,RitJaJld 28 Spectrum prompted many Adventist scientists and not the Institute quickly swung into line behind a few administrators to reevaluate their at­ the Pierson administration. Those scientists titudes toward geology and paleontology who resisted the revival of the White­ and to abandon the notion that the N oachian Price-Marsh philosophy soon found them­ flood explained virtually the entire geologi­ selves without a platform or, worse yet, cal record. 83 In his book A Searchfor Meaning without ajob. A serious problem remained, in Nature (1970), he emphasized the positive however. Because the church had never evidence of design in the world rather than adopted a creed, identifying orthodoxy - the negative aspects of modern science. 84 and heterodoxy - sometimes proved dif­ This approach, however, proved too lib­ ficult. To remedy the situation, church lead­ eral for the administration of Robert H. Pier­ ers, working with the Institute's trustees and son, who soon after his election to the presi­ staff, in 1976 drew up a formal "statement on dency in 1966 made his position clear: "In our creation," affirming the denomination's controversy with proponents of the evolu­ commitment to Ellen White's interpretation tionary theory," he declared in the Review of Genesis. The opening paragraph of a and Herald in 1968, "we must keep in clear widely circulated draft read: perspective - the Bible and the Spirit of In harmony with the basic position of Prophecy are not on trial. ))85 It soon became the Seventh-day Adventist Church regard­ evident that Ritland's days as director were ing the divine inspiration of the Scriptures, numbered, that Marsh was now more at­ we accept the historical accuracy of the tuned than he to the pulse of the church. In book of Genesis (including chapters 1-11) 1971, Ritland, finding it increasingly difficult as providing the only authentic account of to function within the constraints imposed the divine creation of this earth and the by the administration in Takoma Park, re­ creation oflife upon it in six literal days, of signed his position as director of the Geosci­ the fall of man, of the early history of the ence Research Institute and joined Marsh in human race and that of the Noachian Flood what was becoming an Adventist Siberia, the of worldwide dimensions. 86 Andrews University Biology Department. Clearly, Adventist leaders as late as the mid- The church's brief experiment with "open­ 1970s still considered evolutionary biology mindedness" thus came to an end. and geology to be "sciences of satanic ori­ Under its new director, Robert H. Brown, gin." NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Ronald L. Numbers, Creation by Natural Law: Association, 1879), pp. 10-11, 28-29. Later Kellogg Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis in American Thought (Seat­ seems to have become a theistic evolutionist. See tle: University of Washington Press, 1977), pp. 105- Richard W. Schwartz, John Harvey Kellogg, M.D. 118. Roughly the first half of the following essay (Nashville: Southern Publishing Association, 1970), appeared originally in my article, "Science Falsely p.190. So-Called. Evolution and Adventists in the 5. [John Harvey Kellogg], "Evolution," Health Re­ Nineteenth Century," Journal oj the American Scientific former, 9 (May 1874), 159. See also "Darwinism," Affiliation, 27 (March, 1975), 18-23, and is reprinted Ibid, 8 (Dec. 1973), 381. with the permission of the editor, Richard H. Bube. 6. A. T. Jones, "The Uncertainty of Geological 2. Ellen G. White, "Science and Revelation," The Science," R & H, 60 (Aug. 21,1883),530. Signs of the Times, (March 13, 1884), 161; Spiritual 7. "Geology and the Bible," R & H, 26 (Oct. 17, Gifts: Important Facts of Faith, in Connection with the 1865), 157. History of Holy Men of Old (Battle Creek, Mich.: Seventh-day Adventist Publishing Association, 8. [Uriah Smith], "False Theories of Geologists," R 1864), p. 93. & H, 59 (Sept. 5, 1882), 568. Smith had attended 3. "Science and the Bible," Advent Review and Sab­ Phillips Exeter Academy for several years, but finan­ cial considerations had prevented him from going on bath Herald, 14 (Feb. 24, 1859), 107. This statement is attributed to a Dr. Cumming, probably Dr. John to college. Cumming, the Scottish divine known for his studies 9. "The Blunders of Geologists," R & H, 26 (Oct. of Biblical prophecies. Hereafter the Advent Review 24,1865), 161-62;Jones, "The UncertaintyofGeolog­ and Sabbath Herald, better known as the Review and ical Science," p. 529; [Smith], "False Theories of Herald, will be cited as R & H. Geologists," p. 568. 4. J. H. Kellogg, Harmony of Science and the Bible on 10. [G. W. Amadon], "The Skeptic Met," R & H, the Nature of the Soul and the Doctrine oj the Resurrection 16 (Sept. 4, 1860), 121. (13attle.Creek, Mich.: Review and Herald Publishing 11 .. "Geological Chronology, '''R&H,3S (Feb. 8, Volume 9, Number 4 29

1870), 51. Reprinted, with an introduction, from an 31. W. H. Littlejohn, "The Temple in Heaven," R article by Patterson in the Family Treasury. & H, 62 (Feb. 24, 1885), 116. Uriah Smith explained 12. "That Old Skull," R & H, 36 (Oct. 25,1870), the "defection ofleading Christians ... to the ranks of 146. Reprinted from a work by Tuttle. the evolutionists" as being the result of Satanic influ­ 13. A. T. Jones, "The Uncertainty of Geological ence; "Giving Way," p. 664. On the widespread Science," R & H, 60 (Aug. 7, 1883),497-98; (Aug. 14, teaching of evolution in American colleges, see "Do 1883),513-14; (Aug. 21,1883),529-30. The following Our Colleges Teach Evolution?" Independent, 31 year Jones published another series on " 'Evolution' (Dec. 18, 1879), 14-15. and Evolution," R & H, 61 (Mar. 11, 1884), 162-63; 32. Russel, "Darwinism Examined," p. 153. See (Mar. 18, 1884), 178-79; (Mar. 25,1884),194-95. also Adolphus Smith, "Science, Falsely So Called," R 14. Jones, "The Uncertainty of Geological Sci­ & H, 42 Guly 8, 1873), 31. ence," pp. 513, 530. 33. Ellen G. White, Spiritual Gifts, pp. 92-95. See 15.]. O. Corliss, "Geologists vs. the Mosaic Rec­ also Waggoner, The Literal Week,.!). 3. ord," R & H, 55 (Feb. 19, 1880), 116-17; Ellen G. 34. Ellen G. White, Spiritual Gijts, p. 75. White, "Science and the Bible in Education," The 35. [Uriah Smith], The Visions of Mrs. E. G. White: Signs of the Times, 10 (Mar. 20, 1884), 177; Stephen A Manifestation of Spiritual Gifts According to the Scrip­ Pierce, "Does the Bible Agree with Science?" R & H, tures (Battle Creek: SDA Publishing Association, 38 (Oct. 3, 1871), 121; and Jones, " 'Evolution' and 1868), pp. 102-104. Regarding this work, James Evolution," p. 195. White wrote: "I felt very grateful to God that our 16. [D. N. Lord], "The Structure of the Earth," R & people could have this able defense of those views H, 55 (Feb. 12, 1880), 99. Lord was an evangelical which they so much love and prize, and which others editor known for his writings on science and religion despise and oppose. This book is designed for a very and on the fulfillment of Biblical prophecies. wide circulation." James White, "New and Important 17. See, for example, R. F. Cottrell, "The An­ Work," R & H, 32 (Aug. 25, 1868), 160. tiquity of Man," R & H, 45 Gan. 21, 1875),29; and 36. [Smith], The Visions of Mrs. E. G. White, pp. Jones, "The Uncertainty of Geological Science," p. 74-75. See also D. T. Bourdeau, "Geology and the 530. Bible; or, a Pre-Adamic Age of Our World Doubt­ 18. "Turning the Tables," R & H, 39 (Apr. 9, 1872), ful," R & H, 29 (Feb. 5, 1867),98-99. 130. This article was taken from an address by the 37. For Price's biographical information, see Rev. John Hall, a Presbyterian minister and writer. Harold W. Clark, Crusader for Creation: The Life and 19. See, for example, "Too Knowing for Faith," R Writings of George McCready Price (Mountain View, & H, 60 (Nov. 8,1877),148; and Corliss, "Geologists Calif.: Pacific Press, 1966). vs. the Mosaic Record," p. 116. 38. G. M. Price to H. W. Clark,June 15,1941 (price 20. [Lord], "The Structure of the Earth," p. 98. Papers, Heritage Room, Andrews University Li­ Uriah Smith made an equally strong pronouncement brary). See also George McCready Price, "Some in "Giving Way," R & H, 60 (Oct. 23, 1883), 664. Early Experiences with Evolutionary Geology," Bul­ 21. Ellen G. White, Spiritual Gifts, p. 90. letin of Deluge Geology, 1 (Nov., 1941),77-92. 22. Ibid., p. 91. E.]. Waggoner, an Adventist physi­ 39. George McCready Price, Illogical Geology: The cian and minister repeats Mrs. White's views in The Weakest Point in the Evolution Theory (Los Angeles: Literal Week ("Apples of Gold Library," No. 18; Oak­ Modern Heretic Co., 1906), p. 9. land, Calif.: Pacific Press Publishing Co., 1894), p. 2. 40. G. M. Price to Martin Gardner, May 13,1952 23. [James White], "The First Week of Time," R & (courtesy of Martin Gardner). H, 55 (Feb. 12, 1880), 104-105. 41. William G. Moorehead to G. M. Price, Nov. 6, 24.]. P. Henderson, "The Bible. -No.7," R & H, 1906 (price Papers). 64 Guly 5, 1887),419. In 1860, the editors ofthe R & H 42. David Starr Jordan to G. M. Price, Aug. 28, reprinted a passage from The Bible True, by the Pres­ 1906 (price Papers). byterian minister William Plumer, advocating a simi­ 43. David Starr Jordan to G. M. Price, May 5,1911 lar interpretation; "Geology," R & H, 16 Guly 3, (price Papers). 1860),49. Dr. Kellogg, in his early years, also seems 44. G. M. Price to Harold W. Clark, Nov. 20,1941 to have leaned toward this view; see Harmony of Science (Price Papers). and the Bible, p. 20. 45. George McCready Price, The New Geology 25.J. N. Andrews, "The Memorial of Creation," R (Mountain View, Cali£.: Pacific Press, 1923), pp. & H, 24 (Apr. 7, 1874), 129. See also D. T. Bourdeau, 637-638. "Geology and the Bible; or, a Pre-Adamic Age of Our 46. Charles Schuchert, Review of The New Geology, World Doubtful," R & H, 29 (Feb. 5, 1867), 98; and by George McCready Price, Science, 59 (May 30, "The Creation of Light," R & H, 34 (Sept. 28, 1869), 1924), 486-487. 112. 47. George McCready Price, Letter to the Editor, 26. Numbers, Creation by Natural Law, pp. 88-104. ibid., 63 (Mar. 5,1926),259; G. M. Price toJ. McKeen 27. Ibid., pp. 77-87. Cattell, Mar. 22,1926 (price Papers). 28. P. R. Russel, "Darwinism Examined," R & H, 48. Science, 63 (March 5, 1926), 259. On Price's 47 (May 18, 1876), 153. reputation, see also Martin Gardner, Fads and Fallacies 29. DeWitt Talmage, "Evolution: Anti-Bible, in the Name of Science (New York: Dover Publications, Anti-Science, Anti-Commonsense," R & H, 60 (Apr. 1957), p. 127. 24, 1883),261. Talmadge was an immensely popular 49. G. M. Price to Molleurus Couperus, Nov. 1946 and controversial minister in the Presbyterian church. (courtesy of Molleurus Couperus). 30. "Carlyle on Darwin," R & H, 51 Gan. 17,1878), 50. William Jennings Bryan to G. M. Price,June 7, 19; TalIIl:ldge, "Evolution," p. 261. _ 1925 (Bryan Papers,. Box 4 7,Library .of Congr~ss). 30 Spectrum

51. G. M. Price to William Jennings Bryan, July 1, doctrine in relation to the data of the various sci­ 1925 (Bryan Papers, Box 47). ences." Harold W. Clark, "The Positive Aspects of 52. L. Sprague de Camp, The Greatest Monkey Trial Creationism," Ministry (May 1944), p. 5. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 401-402. 66. Harold W. Clark, Genes and Genesis (Mountain For Price's view of Bryan's performance, see George View, Calif.: Pacific Press, 1940). McCready Price, "What Christians Believe About 67. For biographical information, see Frank Lewis Creation," Bulletin of Deluge Geology, 2 (Oct. 1942), Marsh, "Life Summary of a Creationist," unpub­ 76-77. lished MS, Dec. 1, 1968 (courtesy ofF. L. Marsh). 53. G. M. Price to E. S. Ballenger, Sept. 28,1925 68. Frank Lewis Marsh, Evolution, Creation and Sci­ (author's personal collection). Regarding the debate, ence (Washington: Review and Herald Publishing As­ see Is Evolution True? Verbatim Report of Debate Be­ sociation, 1944). On the differences between Marsh tween George McCready Price, M.A., andJoseph McCabe and Price, see Frank L. Marsh to G. M. Price, Sept. 5, (London: Watts, 1925). 1943 (Price Papers). Despite their disagreements, 54. "Shout Down American in Evolution Debate," Price praised Marsh's book (G. M. Price to Harold W. New York Times, Sept. 7, 1925,. p. 5; "Says Millions Clark, Oct. 23, 1944 [Price Papers]). Here Oppose Darwinism," ibid., Sept. 8, 1925, p. 9. 69. Clark, Crusader for Creation, p. 58. Two of Price's disciples, Francis D. Nichol and 70. "Bulletin Mailing List, etc. -1944, 1945, 1946" Alonzo L. Baker, had recently debated the (Courtesy of Molleurus Couperus). The Bulletin of evolutionist Maynard Shipley in San Francisco; see Deluge Geology and Related Sciences appeared in five Alonzo L. Baker, "The San Francisco Evolution De­ volumes between June 1941, and December 1945. In bates, June 13-14,1925," Adventist Heritage, 2 (Winter 1946, it was superseded by The Forum for the Correla­ 1975),23-31. tion of Science and the Bible, which continued until 1948 55. Discussion of George McCready Price, "Reve­ under the editorship of Molleurus Couperus. lation and Evolution: Can They Be Harmonized?" 71. G. M. Price to H. W. Clark, Oct. 23,1944 (Price Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, 47 Papers). (1925), 183, 187. See also George McCready Price, 72. George McCready Price, "In the Beginning," "Geology and Its Relation to Scripture Revelation," The Forum, 1 (1946-1947), 9; Molleurus Couperus, ibid., 46 (1924),97-123. "Some Remarks Regarding the Radioactive Time Es­ 56. Harold W. Clark, "What Is 'Flood Geology'?" timation of the Age of the Earth," ibid., 2 (1947-1948), Naturalist, 26 (Summer, 1966), 10-11; personal inter­ 119; Harold W. Clark, "In Defense of the Ultra­ view with Harold W. Clark, May 11,1973. Literal View of the Creation of the Earth," ibid., 1 57. Harold W. Clark to Richard M. Ritland, June 2, (1946-1947), 11. 1963 (courtesy of Richard M. Ritland). 73. Molleurus Couperus to H. W. Clark, May 8, 58. Ibid.,; interview May 11,1973. 1947 (courtesy of Molleurus Couperus). 59. Harold W. Clark to G. M. Price, [Apr. 9,1940] 74. Minutes of the Autumn Council, Oct. 25,1957, (price Papers). 226th Meeting, General Conference Committee, Vol. 60. G. M. Price to Harold W. Clark, Apr. 21 and 19, Book 5, p. 1004 (Archives, General Conference of June 9, 1940 (price Papers). Seventh-day Adventists). 61. Harold W. Clark to G. M. Price, Apr. 23, April 75. Minutes of the 259th Meeting of the General 30, and Aug. 14, 1940 (Price Papers). Conference Committee, Apr. 24,1958, ibid., p. 1156. 62. Harold W. Clark to G. M. Price, Oct. 20, 1944 (Price Papers); Glenn Calkins to the Members of the 76. Minutes of the 108th Meeting of the General Committee Appointed to Listen to Professor George Conference Committee, Jan. 21,1960, Vol. 20, Book McCready Price and to Professor H. W. Clark, April 3,p.511. 6, 1941 (publishing Department Papers, General Con­ 77. Marsh, "Life Summary ofa Creationist," p. 5a. ference of Seventh-day Adventists). Price insisted that 78. Frank L. Marsh to G. M. Price, March 14, 1962 he had not filed a charge of heresy, but "a charge of (price Papers). slander, of legal libel" (G. M. Price to Harold W. 79. P. Edgar Hare to Richard Hammill, Feb. 7,1963 Clark, Oct. 23,1944 [Price Papers]). (courtesy ofP. Edgar Hare). • 63. Although Price did not mention Clark by name, 80. R. R. Figuhr to P. Edgar Hare, Feb. 5, 1964 he did refer to Clark's publications (George (courtesy ofP. Edgar Hare). McCready Price, Theories of Satanic Origin [Lorna 81. Personal interview with Frank Lewis Marsh, Linda, Calif.: Published by the author, n.d. ]). A letter Aug. 30, 1972. that accompanied copies of the pamphlet further iden­ 82. Marsh, "Life Summary of a Creationist," pp. tified the target as a professor "from our college at 5b-5c. Angwin" (George McCready Price to Fellow Work­ 83. Personal interview with Richard M. Ritland, ers, n.d. [courtesy of Molleurus Couperus]). May 7,1973. For evidence of Ritland's influence, see 64. L. E. Froom to G. M. Price,July 12,1942 (Price G. M. Price to F. L. Marsh,Jan. 10, 1960 (courtesy of Papers) . F. L. Marsh), and H. W. Clark to F. L. Marsh and 65. Harold W. Clark, The New Diluvialism Others, Nov. 19, 1960 (courtesy ofR. M. Ritland). (Angwin, Calif.: Science Publications, 1946). In 1944, 84. Richard M. Ritland, A Search for Meaning in Clark wrote: "Unfortunately, most of our attention Nature: A New Look at Creation and Evolution (Moun- up to this time has been directed toward the negative tain View, Calif.: Pacific Press, 1970). . aspects of the problem. We have been intent on find­ 85. R & H, Oct. 10, 1968, p. 23, quoted in Marsh, ing the flaws in the evolution theory, but have ne­ "Life Summary of a Creationist," p. 5c. glected to build up a positive creationism which 86. "Tentative Creation Statement," SPEC­ w()ll!dgive .one a definite concept of the creation TRUM, 8aan.!~77),58. The Geoscience Field Study Conference of 1978

by Lawrence Geraty

ruck drivers on west­ The whole effort of the field study confer­ T ern American high­ ence, carefully conceived and efficiently or­ ways during July and August of 1978 were ganized, was characterized by one participant startled to hear their citizen band radios "as analogous to a group oflawyers persua­ crackling with debates concerning the age of sively arguing its case before a jury without the earth and the extent of the N oachian any contrary evidence admitted before the Flood. The 20-car caravan they overtook bar." Though not a completely fair assess­ included 84 Seventh-day Adventist adminis­ ment - since contrary data were available in trators, Bible and science teachers, editors, the assigned reading, were consciously ad­ students, spouses and children participating dressed in occasional lectures , and did often in the fifth geoscience field study conference surface in discussion - it, nevertheless, aptly sponsored by the Geoscience Research Insti­ characterizes the intended and dominant ap­ tute (GRI)*fromJuly 16 to Aug. 12, 1978 (see proach of the conference. Such an approach the list of official participants.) The CB dis­ was welcomed by many of the conference cussions, the formal lectures at sites visited in members. It confirmed their convictions and seven western states (see map, p. 41), and the fortified their faith. assigned reading revolved around two scien­ On the other hand, since the group con­ tific questions and their theological implica­ sisted largely of scholars (in contrast to the tions: 1) How old is life on earth? and 2) Did two other most recent field conferences of the Noachian Flood produce nearly all the 1976 and 1977, which were organized fossiliferous rock strata in the earth's crust? primarily for administrators), many were These two questions were linked together by not used to a method of presentation which the assumption that a defense of a short selectively marshalled the evidence in favor chronology for life on earth together with a of denominational interpretations. One pro­ literal seven-day creation week was possible fessor suggested, "Because of our training, only if the Flood deposited nearly all the rock most of us would have been more at home strata. Lawrence Geraty, associate professor of archaeol­ *GRI was established under General Conference ogy and the history of antiquity, Andrews Universi­ sponsorship by the Autumn Council of 1957. One of ty, is the curator of the Horn Archaeological Museum the institute's major goals was to find support for the and director of the Archaeological Expedition in Tel traditional interpretation of the Scriptural accounts of Hes ban,J()rdan. specialcreationandth~Noachian Flood. 32 Spectrum with an approach that would have looked at Period only. We learned, however, that they all the pertinent data, considered the occur throughout the geologic column. The strengths and weaknesses of current evolu­ only acceptable alternative apparently al­ tionary and creation-flood models, and then lowed by a 6,000-year model is to conclude attempted to discover and set forth the har­ that the reef cannot be in position of growth; mony between revelation through God's hence, Roth pointed out some difficulties in Word and revelation through His works." the standard interpretation and suggested at This is not to suggest that such attempts were least part of the "reef' complex could have not made, but when they were they left been washed into place during the Flood. others in the group with an uneasy feeling that (their interpretations of) the Bible and he reef presented the writings of Ellen G. White had not re­ T many separate but re­ ceived due priority. At each of the sites, lec­ lated problems. For instance, salt beds with tures and discussion highlighted the basic some 200,000 layers occur in the basin in issues raised by what the participants were front of the reef. The usual explanation is that shown. these layers formed by evaporation of sea July 16-19, Area Around Carlsbad, New water over a long period of time - perhaps Mexico. At the beginning of the trip, Ariel 200,000 years. Clyde Webster presented an Roth presented nine theological models for alternate transport model associated with the the earth's origin - ranging from creation in Flood. seven literal days about 6,000 years ago at one There was also the problem of solution end of the spectrum, to naturalistic evolution features in the limestone core of the reef, at the other. Roth suggested that as one represented most dramatically by the moves along this spectrum God becomes less Carlsbad Caverns. The caverns were consid­ important; by implication, the only accept­ ered to be of post-Flood origin. On a 6,000- able model is creation in seven literal days year model, however, this requires very about 6,000 years ago. rapid lithification and solution rates because The Carlsbad area was the first test of the we are locked in by the occurrence of the suggested model. There we studied in some Flood about 4,300 years ago (one may add detail a 50-mile-long, semicircular reeflike 1,000 years to that figure if following the structure from the Permian "Period." (See Septuagint genealogies) and carbon-14 dates geologic column, p. 34. The relative se­ from within the cave. In a major lecture, quence of the geologic column in the earth's Robert Brown said that carbon-14 dates can crust was accepted by the GRI staff, though generally be accepted as far back as the 4,000 not its time implications.) The "reef' fea­ years for which we have historical confirma­ tured a massive core said to be built up by tion. Because Brown's chronological in­ organisms, talus built up by debris sliding terpretation of the Genesis genealogies does down from the core toward the basin, and not allow him to place the Flood earlier than back reef or shallow lagoon deposits. about 5,000 years ago, Brown suggested fac­ In a lecture about modern reefs, Roth con­ tors which might have produced major cluded, after extrapolating from maximal changes in the relationship between C-14 growth rates of a couple of coral species, that time and calendrical time immediately after even the largest modern reefs could have the Flood. He showed how changes in the grown within a 6,000-year time frame. Even earth's magnetic field coupled with fossiliza­ so, this conclusion poses a problem if tion during the Flood of the carbon in pre­ Carlsbad's Permian reef is in position of Flood plants and animals could compress all growth. A reef of this size certainly could carbon-14 dates between 40,000 (70,000 not grow in a single year. This forces one to given new methods) and 4,000 into the short place the Flood somewhere else in the earth's period of time between the Flood and the crust - either above or below the reef. That earliest fixed historical date of 1991 B.C. might be possible if such in-position-of­ July 19-21, Northeastern New Mexico. As growth features characterized the Permian the caraVan passed CIQvisanci:FolsQID,two Volume 9, Number 4 33

successive type sites for extensive paleo­ radiometric age data that they do not pre­ Indian cultures, Edward Lugenbeal intro­ clude a 6,OOO-year history of life on earth. duced the group to the archaelogy of north­ July 21-23, Colorado Springs Area. The eastern New Mexico. He pointed out the most important stop in the Colorado Springs data that suggest an old world origin for new area was at Crystola where we were shown world Indians. Though this relationship fits good examples of clastic dikes, foreign the Biblical data nicely, it soon became obvi­ bodies of sandstone intruded into crystalline ous that the evidence for the time involved granite. The standard model separates the provided a convenient test for Brown's rein­ formation of these two rocks by hundreds of terpretation of carbon-14 dates. The millions of years. During such a vast span of carbon-14 age of the Clovis and Folsom cul­ time, the sand should have turned into tures is at least 10,000 years. This implies the sandstone, but according to Roth the clastic arrival of man in the new world was com­ dikes could not have formed if the sand had, in plete prior to 4,000 years ago. The question is fact, become sandstone. He concluded that whether man, after migrating from the contrary to current geological views, the Tower of Babel, could in a few generations dikes must have formed at approximately the populate the new world from Alaska to same time as their host rock, not hundred of Argentina where at scores of correlated sites millions of years later. 'successive paleo-Indian cultures are as­ July 23-26, Central Wyoming. To the west sociated in a vertical stratigraphical sequence of Laramie, our route took us over the with successive kinds of bison and other Snowy Range of the Medicine Bow Moun­ animals. tains where sedimentary Precambrian rocks At Capulin Mountain, a volcanic cinder are exposed. Some SDA scientists believe cone, we heard of archaelogical finds that had Precambrian rocks can sometimes be as old as their radiometric ages imply. Later in the field conference, Robert Brown gave a lec­ "Since the group consisted ture that clarified this point of view. Brown largely of scholars, ... many marshalled an impressive list of evidences for the antiquity of the solar system and a lifeless were not used to a method of earth. He suggested these evidences could be presentation which selectively explained by the apparent age concept as de­ marshalled the evidence sign features of a recent creation, or accepted at face value as features that developed in the in favor of denominational normal operation of the universe for billions interpretations. " of years prior to the Genesis creation of life. In the absence of explicitly revealed instruc­ tion to the contrary, he preferred the latter. been related to Capulin lava flows with Therefore, based on the position ofPrecamb­ anomalous results. The potassium-argon rian rocks in the earth's crust and on the dates assigned to the flows are much older assumption they contain no bona fide fossils, than the carbon-14 dates assigned to the ar­ some Adventist scientists have speculated chaeological materials even though the flows that Precambrian rocks were formed prior to cover the archaeological finds. According to Creation Week. Of importance to the con­ Brown's lecture on radiometric dating, such ference, therefore, was the fact that the Pre­ examples throw into question the basic as­ cambrian rocks Harold Coffin showed us sumption that radioactive "clocks" were "set contained laminated structures called to zero" when the mineral was either formed "stromatolites," thought by geologists to be or deposited at its present location; rather, organic in origin, perhaps formed by algae. If the mineral inherits source-area radiometric these stromatolites are evidence for life, the age characteristics. The implication was that age of at least some Precambrian rocks and there are so many difficulties associated with their relationship to Creation Week and the macleil1g historically correctinterpretation~ of Flood is placed ina ciifferent Hght. 34 Spectrum

The highway passing along Wind River Though reasonable, this explanation has cer­ Canyon made possible spectacular viewing tain unresolved problems and seems to re­ of Mesozoic, Paleozoic and Precambrian quire more time than a 6,OOO-year model can rocks, including the contact between Cam­ allow; hence, alternate hypotheses were brian sediments and Precambrian granite. The suggested such as that cracks were formed as latter is so severely decomposed (interpreted the mountains were catastrophically uplifted as a consequence of weathering) it appears to and the rivers sought out these cracks. What­ have seen considerable passage of time before ever the explanation, we learned that evi­ the Cambrian was laid over it. We learned dence for temporal breaks within this se­ that decomposed horizons occur throughout quence of events (the uplift of the mountains, the geologic column. These horizons (if the the filling of the basins with tens ofthousands result of normal weathering) are difficult to of feet of sediment eroded from the fringing square with the theory that most of the rock mountains, and the subsequent removal layers were deposited in one year by the through erosion of much of this basin-fill Flood. sediment) is a knotty problem for those who would attribute all these events to processes nother important related to the Noachian Flood. A question posed by An important example of catastrophism Wind River Canyon and others through was pointed out in the many exposures of the which we passed was why the course of the low-angle Heart Mountain detachment or river cut directly through the mountains in­ gravity fault which we passed. As a prime stead of taking the path of least resistance example of "out-of-order" rocks (Mississip­ around the mountains? A currently popular pian rocks above Eocene rocks), it has been explanation is the theory of "superposition." used by some to denigrate the concept of a According to this theory, the rivers origi­ geologic column. Coffin explained, how­ nally flowed over the top of mountain struc­ ever, that there is clear evidence the Missis­ tures that were buried by a covering mass of sippian rocks were thrust up over the Eocene sediment. As removal by erosion of this less rocks, and though it cannot be used to negate consolidated cover mass occurred, the rivers the standard geological sequence ofrocks and were let down and began cutting into the fossils, it is important for a Flood model be­ mountains through which they now flow. cause tremendous blocks of sedimentary

GEOLOGICAL COLUMN

Era System or Period Series or Epoch Estimated Age in Millions of Years Recent Quaternary Pleistocene 2.5 Cenozoic Pliocene 7 Miocene 26 Tertiary Oligocene 38 Eocene 54 Paleocene 65 Cretaceous Upper, Lower 136 Mesozoic Jurassic Upper, Middle, Lower 190 Triassic Upper, Middle, Lower 225 Permian 280 P ennsy1 vanian Upper, Middle, Lower 325 Mississippian Upper, Lower 345 Paleozoic Devonian Upper, Middle, Lower 395 Silurian Upper, Middle, Lower 430 Ordovician Upper, Middle, Lower 500 Cambrian Upper, Middle, Lower 570 Precambrian LJRper, Miclclle;Lower 4000 Volume 9, Number 4 35 rock have been moved over great distances tive weathering and erosion, in the vicinity of on a very low gradient. Just how they could Pinedale we were able to distinguish at least be deposited and indurated during a year so three distinct sets of glacial deposits. We they could slide and detach in the same year were given the evidence for these deposits would still be a problem, however. representing glacial periods separated by July 26-30, Yellowstone Region. The key nonglacial intervals. Each glacial period was reason for visiting Yellowstone was to see punctuated with advances, standstills, re­ the fossil forests made famous in Adventist treats and readvances of its own. Thus, the circles by Richard Ritland (and others) and story on glaciation appears far more complex reported in SPECTRUM, Vol. 6, Nos. 1-2 than can be accounted for in a single glacial (1974), pp. 19-66. There he described some period. On Brown's carbon-14 transforma­ 40 buried forest levels in the Gallatin Moun­ tional model, we learned that all of this was tains and discussed the evidence that the pet­ completed at least 4,000 years ago. Hence, rified stumps were in position of growth. the defense of a short chronology necessitates Coffin acknowledged that the in situ model the development of alternative explanations "is so obvious and so natural, that any alter­ for the differences in erosion (less difficult to nate explanation would appear strained if not do) and weathering (more difficult to do) incredible," but because of the problems between the various sets of glacial deposits. posed for a short chronology for the history In addition, we learned that we will have to oflife and the evidences observed in the field, contend with mounting evidence for glacia­ Coffin proposed that the forests were drifted tion not only in the Pleistocene Epoch to their present locations by water and then (post-Flood in most models), but also in the buried by volcanic mud slides. Since his Upper Paleosoic, Lower Paleosoic and even views are presented elsewhere in this issue Precambrian. It obviously will be difficult to (see pp. 42-53), I will not elaborate, except to accommodate several ice ages within the year note that his conclusions were supported in a allotted to the Noachian Flood. lecture by Ivan Holmes, who argued that X-ray diffraction, infrared and spark source s if this were not a mass spectrometry analysis of the mineral Adifficult enough task, contents demonstrate a close similarity in Lugenbeal pointed out further data that pose the sequence of volcanic sediments - evi­ constraints on a short chronology. Since each dence that might be difficult to account for if glacial event destroys much of the record of there had been many eruptions widely sepa­ previous events, the sedimentary record in rated in time. While some participants felt glaciated terrains is extremely discontinuous. Coffin's research constituted a major This means that for a relatively continuous achievement, a number of others thought the record one must look elsewhere. More com­ field evidence warranted suspension of plete records of Pleistocene climatic history judgment. have been found in deep sea sediments, lake July 3D-Aug. 1, Western Wyoming. The real­ sediments, peat bogs and polar ice sheets - ity of a Pleistocene Ice Age is so strongly and all seem to confirm the theory of numer­ supported by the data that few would quarrel ous glaciations separated by nonglacial with its existence. The various lines of evi­ periods. Radioactive dating techniques indi­ dence were clearly presented both in the field cate these records span 3,000,000 years of and in lectures by Edward Lugenbeal. We time. In an attempt to test this radioactive learned that an Ice Age is compatible with a timescale, Lugenbeal presented a ratio 6,000-year chronology only if it occurred chronology that was completely indepen­ immediately after the Flood and the conti­ dent of radioactive methods. It was based on nental ice sheets grew and melted at the assumption of relatively constant rates of maximum rates. Unfortunately, numerous sedimentation in deep sea sediment cores and Pleistocene outcrops suggest a major period calibrated by means of counting what are of bedrock weathering prior to the onset of thought to be annual layers in lake sediments. glaciation: Hurther:more ,on the· basisofrela~ Theconcurrence:hetweenthese completely 36 Spectrum independent times cales was excellent - a suggested by Price and the SDA Bible Com­ concurrence that can scarecely be purely mentary, Vol. 1, but rather remnants of a coincidental. shrinking (post-Flood?) lake. Further, we Aug. 1-2, Southwest Wyoming/Northeast learned that under the Great Salt Lake, a Utah. The oil shales of the Green River For­ 1 ,OOO-foot core of sediment seems to indicate mation found in Wyoming, Utah and Col­ that the lake basin filled up and dried out orado are well known for their fossilized fish. many times, and that the latest such cycle ties The field conference route took us through in directly with the last stage of glaciation. some excellent exposures of this formation traditionally thought to have been deposited in a deep Eocene Epoch lake. We were able to find several fossil fish for ourselves in the "We learned that an Ice Age is alternating layers of paired laminae. These compatible with a 6,OOO-year couplets ("varves") - one dark and com­ posed of organic material, the other lighter chronology only if it occurred and made up of calcium carbonate - are immediately after the Flood and commonly thougl:It to have been deposited the continental ice sheets grew annually on the lake bottom. Several million sequential Green River varves present an ob­ and melted at maximum rates." vious challenge to a short chronology. Knut Andersson reported that Paul Buch­ heim, of Loma Linda University, while ac­ cepting the standard view that the Green As we moved through mining country, it River Formation was deposited in a lake, has was natural to consider the origin of some of found convincing evidence that at least some these minerals. Clyde Webster reported his of the "varves" were not annual. Further­ significant discoveries with regard to the more, he found no detectable evolution in the development of uranium ore. So-called ro11- fish from bottom to top such as one would front deposits of this mineral, in the standard expect in millions of years, nor enough fos­ model, have been thought to have developed silized fish feces to span such a time. But even over thousands of years. But in his labora­ if the laminations are interpreted as daily, tory, Webster has been able to develop them some ten to twenty thousand years would be in months in the presence of organic mate­ involved, and, of course, given clear strati­ rial. This could be a genuine scientific break­ graphicrelationships, this would all be post­ through. Flood and pre-Pleistocene glaciation. The Green River Formation is approxi­ f major interest also mately the same geologic age as the Yel­ O was the origin of lows tone fossil forests; consequently, it is coal, commonly thought to be plant material difficult to have the latter being floated into that accumulated slowly in ancient peat bogs. place by the Noachian Flood, while just to Harold Coffin presented the evidence against the south one has the fluctuating fortunes of a this view and suggested coal beds were living lake. Nor can one escape this dilemma washed in by the Flood as mats or masses of by claiming that Eocene in one location is not floating vegetation. Coffin emphasized the contemporary with Eocene at the other, be­ lateral extensiveness and thickness of some cause in this case there is a physical strati­ seams (compressed from much thicker layers graphic tie between the formations in ques­ of vegetation), and the even, smooth nature tion. of their top and bottom surfaces as evidence Aug. 2-5, Central Utah. In the Salt Lake against the standard theory. We did learn of City area, we learned that the ancient shore some counter evidences - for example, the lines so easily identifiable up to 1 ,000 feet or predictability of the location of coal beds by so above the present great Salt Lake, are not geologists prospecting for coal. In a flood evicl~l1cc: fQlthe universal deJuge as would not there be . more randomness~and Volume 9, Number 4 37 accident? Deep in a coal mine, we observed This unconformity extends as far north as perhaps the most dramatic counter evidence Montana where we did see caves and sink - dinosaur tracks and trackways on top of holes filled with Pennsylvanian Period sedi­ coal seams. (The miners we talked to stated ments in the Mississippian rocks that form they almost invariably found tracks pre­ the walls of the Big Horn Canyon. served at the top of coal seams.) Later, we One of the striking formations we did ob­ learned of one exposure where tracks coming serve in the canyon was the Coconino from several directions converged on upright Sandstone with its large-scale cross­ fossilized stumps that were rooted in coal stratification. It has traditionally been inter­ beds! If coal seams represent mats of vegeta­ preted as wind-deposited sand dunes. But tion afloat in flood waters, how were they Leonard Brand reported that in his labora­ able to bear the tonnage ofso many dinosaurs tory he had been able to produce animal at so many levels, and where were the beasts tracks similar to those in the formation better going? under water than on dry sand. In his field Aug. 5-10, Grand Canyon Region. Several work, he found the tracks always went up­ issues concerned us in the Grand Canyon hill, so concluded that they represent the region. One was how the Grand Canyon tracks of animals escaping from the rising could have been formed in a few years. Be­ waters of the Flood. cause of the carbon-14 dates from Indian caves on the riverbank, we know the canyon n many ways, the looked essentially as it does today at least I climax of the confer­ 4,000 years ago; thus, on a 6,000-year model ence came when Ariel Roth presented a series one has only a few years to deposit, cement oflectures on his Flood model. We had been and then erode this sedimentary sequence. getting pieces for the puzzle all along the Of the various models available, Roth pre­ way, but it was now that he tried to put it ferred a model that postulated the rapid together in an organized fashion by first de­ draining of ponded water bodies through a scribing the model, then selecting the evi­ cracked dome. He repeatedly called our at­ dence that would support it, and finally deal­ tention to the conformable nature of many of ing with certain objections to it. He re­ the Canyon's rock strata as a strong argu­ minded us that sedimentary rocks are of spe­ ment against the passage of long periods of cial interest when considering a Flood model time; otherwise, he indicated, one would ex­ because they represent transported material pect to see huge valleys and canyons similar and contain fossils, which are evidence of to the ones we were seeing on the modern past life. On the continents, they form a layer Colorado Plateau between these rock strata. averaging about 1 Y2 km. thick. As the Bible We viewed the conformable nature of the does not seem to allow for life before Crea­ rock strata not only from Dead Horse Point tion Week and there is not much time for the and the North Rim but also on a hike down accumulation of thick layers of sediment be­ the North Kaibab Trail. fore or after the Flood under normal condi­ We did not hear about the Cambrian layers tions, Roth's model puts most of these that at some horizons contain numerous sedimentary layers into the Flood. He tubes and possible burrows such as one suggested that the continents were depressed would expect on a quiet ocean floor. 0 We during the Flood, with subsequent mountain were not shown the four zones of the Red building and continental drift at the end of Wall Formation, each with distinct fossil the Flood. Because the continental masses are types such as one would expect in a mi­ lighter and float, sinking them would run croevolutionary sequence. Nor did we learn counter to natural law; this can be explained about the unconformity between the Missis­ solely through divine intervention. As the· sippian and the Pennsylvanian rocks, where continents sank, pre-Flood ocean waters major evidence for solution activity and rose, bringing with them material, perhaps cavern development prior to the deposition of even fossils, from the pre-Flood ocean floors. the Pennsylvanian Period rocks can be seen . We were told that the repeated alternation 38 Spectrum of rock layers with marine and land fossils the gnawing feeling that we had already seen and the occurrence of fossils of advanced enough contrary evidences to wonder if they forms of life exclusively in the higher could ever be adequately explained by a (younger) sedimentary layers can be ex­ single event - particularly one occurring plained by a theory of "ecological zonation." about 4,000 years ago. According to Roth, the rising waters at­ Presentations Unrelated to Geography. Before tacked and sequentially destroyed distinct proceeding to a report of the last region vis­ ited on the field conference, I must sum­ marize some of the other lectures given along the way that were very pertinent to the over­ "Richard Hammill ... argued all concerns of the conference but not particu­ that if creation did not occur in larly related to the locales in which they were gIven. six literal days about 6,000 years Edward Lugenbeal reviewed the evidence ago, then the Sabbath doctrine on the origin and history of fossil man. He of the SDA Church is not im­ pointed out the discontinuities in the primate record - the missing links between lower portant, and there is no need and higher forms of primate life and he for a special church like ours." showed how the recent well-publicized dis­ coveries of the Leakeys in Africa of fossils more manlike than previously known from rock layers of such antiquity demonstrate ecological zones and inland seas located at that the story on fossil man is more complex different elevations. The life forms in these than first thought. On the other hand, in ecological zones and seas were then redepos­ spite of the discontinuities, there does seem to ited in more or less the same order they were be a real sequence in the primate fossil record. destroyed. Of course, this theory implies Creationists will have to deal with this fact. man, mammals and flowering plants and trees were restricted to the uplands of the sing as a basis Wil­ pre-Flood world (despite apparently con­ U liam J. Shea's 1977 trary descriptions in the writings of Ellen G. Geoscience Field Study Conference papers White - Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 90; (included in revised form in the 1978 Spiritual Gifts, p. 62.) notebook), I summarized the discoveries of Evidence presented in support of this archaeology that illustrate the remarkable model included: 1) The renewed trend to­ confirmation back to Abraham of Biblical ward catastrophism in geology, 2) the re­ chronology. But, for the period beyond Ab­ cently developed turbidity-current concept raham, I reflected a consensus of Adventist of rapid subaqueous deposition, 3) the pres­ archaelogists, historians and chronologists in ence of very widespread limestone layers on suggesting that the Bible does not make the continents containing ocean fossils, 4) the chronological statements. Based on abun­ deposition of thin distinctive layers over dant chronological evidence from the ancient wide distances, 5) the decrease in rock layers Near East, however, I concluded that the with ocean fossils as one goes up the geologic foundation of the earliest dynasties in Egypt column, 6) the more worldwide distribution can hardly be later than about 3,000 B.C. of species in the fossil record than now exists (Two additional factors are important for suggesting either much transport or a more dating the Flood: A reasonable period for uniform climate, 7) the paucity oflarge ero­ migration from Anatolia and dispersion into sional features between layers, and 8) the these areas, and then a period long enough to claim that local depositional environments accommodate the evidence for prehistoric are rare in the sediments. In general, how­ cultures that preceded the rise of the historic ever, Roth's presentations were well rea­ dynastic civilizations.) Now, if the time span sOIl~d~!l

Egypt a millennium after the foundation of Prophets, p. 138), or by the suggestion that the first dynasty and half a millennium after she did not try to settle a question on which the construction of the greatest pyramids. the Biblical sources themselves are not clear Interpreted chronologically, however, the (whether Israel spent 215 or 430 years in genealogy in the Hebrew text of Genesis 11 Egypt). Some participants could not see why allows for only about four centuries between anyone of these reasons could not be applied the Flood and the birth of Abraham. with equal validity to her 6,000-year state­ The conflict between such an interpreta­ ments, though this is not the position taken tion of Genesis 11 and our sources from the by the White Estate. ancient Near East is self-evident. There seem Aug. 10-12, Bryce and Zion Region. After a to be only three options available in an at­ visit to breathtakingly beautiful Bryce Can­ tempt to resolve the problem: 1) Shorten the yon and Cedar Breaks National Monument, chronology of the ancient Near East as we made a stop in a bristlecone pine forest to iconoclasts such as Velikovsky and Courville discuss the question of dendrochronology. It have attempted to do - but one is then left is of special interest to anyone concerned with major historical and archaeological, not with the age of life on the earth, because a to mention Biblical, inconsistencies. 2) number of trees in excess of 4,000 years of Lengthen the chronology by utilizing the age have been reported and a master higher birth ages from a text tradition other chronology going back more than 7,000 than the Hebrew, such as the Septuagint - years has been published. The method as­ but since the Septuagint. employs a sumes that one growth ring is equivalent to chronological system at other points in Bibli­ one year and that two specimens of wood cal history that can in some cases be demon­ with similar distinctive ring patterns grew at strated to be inferior and never superior, it the same time. appears that the weight of evidence still favors as the original the Hebrew test, the riel Roth offered sev­ one underlying Ellen White's chronological Aeral arguments system. 3) Lengthen the traditional chronol­ against the validity of the method. He told us ogy by suggesting that there is a gap (or that: 1) The chronology is constructed with a omissions) in the genealogy of Genesis 11 - high percentage of cross-matched specimens and, in fact, this appears to be the most rea­ with ring patterns that are not very distinc­ sonable option given sound exegetical and tive. 2) Sometimes there are multiple rings in theological method unbiased by tradition. a given year. (As a visual aid, he pulled out of Such a conclusion did not set well with a few his pocket a section of a fig branch from a and provoked animated CB discussions; on seedling he planted in Loma Linda four years the other hand, others were of the opinion ago - it had 12 rings per year; the obvious that it had the advantage of doingjustice to all implication was that bristlecone pine trees the evidence from both Scriptural and histor­ could behave in the same manner - when, of ical revelation. course, presently known specimens, as Roth Richard Hammill, in discussing Biblical acknowledged, do not; actually, missing chronology, argued that if creation did not rings are more of a problem.) 3) The occur in six literal days about 6,000 years chronology cannot be used as an independent ago, then the Sabbath doctrine "of the SDA check of radiocarbon dating because church is not important, and there is no need carbon-14 is used to achieve "ball-park" for a special church like ours." matching of ring specimens. 4) There are Paul Gordon of the White Estate said that difficulties connected with correlating rings some discrepancies did exist in Ellen White's even within a single tree. Roth also raised the chronological comments on various topics. issue of scientific integrity because all the data He suggested that these could be explained upon which the chronology is based have not by her use of marginal information from her been published. Other field conference parti­ Bible (Prophets and Kings, p. 459), by her use cipants, however, pointed out that this mas­ of a convenient literary form (Patriarchsan.d ter·.cl1::ronQIQgy<::orf'ehl:tedwelLwithdates~ar- 40 Spectrum rived at independently long ago by Egyptian conference. Some came away convinced, as archaeology or more recently by varve was Lawrence Maxwell, that: "Although counts from Lake ofthe Clouds in Minnesota, many questions remain to be answered, the and that independent master chronologies Geoscience staff members are increasingly are now being developed in Europe and the sucessful in searching out the most accurate Middle East for other species with similar data available. More and more, the evidence results, and that both living bristlecone pine they are turning up gives scientific support trees and trees older than 4,000 carbon-14 for Creation and the Flood" (Adventist Re­ years when the difference in age between the view, Oct. 5,1978, p. 25). Others, however, oldest and youngest rings of a specimen is felt there were now more questions than be­ determined by carbon-14 dating and by a fore - not with the historicity of the creation ring count. and Flood events, but with the timescale and It is generally known that on the 1976 field certain of the evidences advocated. They pre­ conference an ad hoc committee worked on ferred to take the view of William North the content of the "statement of belief' deal­ Rice, concluding that it was even truer today ing with creation and that the last field study than when he articulated it more than a cen­ conference in 1977 concluded with Willis tury ago, "Let the lesson of the past be Hackett from the General Conference discus­ heeded. As one theory after another, sup­ sing this statement and the one on posed to be inseparably connected with inspiration/revelation. Because these state­ Christianity, has been swept away, Chris­ ments, since revised, appeared as the last tianity has but risen from the shock stronger items in our conference sourcebooks and had and purer .... The foundation of our faith been strongly defended by Richard Hammill will remain unshaken in the future as in the on the trip, some wondered whether a simi­ past, whether the sun revolves around the lar session was planned for us. Our confer­ earth, or the earth around the sun, ... - ence, however, concluded with a spontane­ whether the duration of man's existence be ous testimony service and a devotional mes­ six thousand or sixty thousand years. . ." sage presented by Robert Brown. He com­ (New Englander, 26 [Oct., 1867], 634-635). pared us to the spies who were sent out by Moses to spy out the promised land and The 43 official participants included the following wondered what kind of report we would take conference members in addition to GRI staff: back. Given the denomination's investment from the General Conference: Orley M. Berg in the conference of at least $60,000, he hoped (Ministerial Association), Paul A. Gordon (E. G. the influence of our report would aid the White Estate), Willis J. Hackett (General Vice Pres­ ident) - part-time, Richard Hammill (General church in its divinely appointed mission. Vice President) - part-time, F. E. J. Harder Brown felt that while the traditional interpre­ (Board of Higher Education), Charles R. Taylor tations of Genesis were difficult to square (Education); with many scientific arguments, Adventists from the Inter-American Division: David H. Rhys could be confident that Genesis 5 and 11 were (Education); from Andrews University: Lawrence T. Geraty (Old intended to be complete chronologically and Testament and Archaeology), A.JosefGreig (Reli­ that the figures in the Greek Septuagint text gion), S. Clark Rowland (physics), John Stout of these chapters were closer to what Moses (Bio1ogy), Douglas Waterhouse (Religion); intended than those preserved in the Hebrew from Lorna Linda University: William M. Allen Masoretic text. (Chemistry), Brian S. Bull (Pathology) - part­ time, Leonard Brand (Biology) - part-time, Ivan Holmes (Administration) - part-time, Edwin hat, in fact, was the Karlow (Physics) - part-time, Jack W. Provonsha W overall impact of the (Religion), Ivan Rouse (Physics), Clyde L. Web­ trip on the participants and what will be its ster, Jr. (Chemistry); ultimate effect on the church? These ques­ from Columbia Union College: Donald G. Jones (Chemistry), Luis A. Oms (Mathematics and tions are particularly hard to answer because Physics); of the obvious differences of scientific and from Pacific Union College: Vernon Winn (Chemis­ theolQgical Qpinionthatcharacterized the try); Volume 9, Number 4 41 from Southern Missionary College: Henry Kuhlman from West Indies College: Gerald Vyhmeister (Sci- (Physics), David A. Steen (Biology); ence); - from Home Study Institute: Ted Wade (Administra­ from Union College: Ward Hill (Religion), Richard tion); Tkachuck (Biology); from The Pacific Press: Editors Lawrence Maxwell, from Walla Walla College: Ronald Carter (Biology Max Gordon Phillips, Humberto Rasi; and Religion); and graduate students: Knut Andersson (geology, University of Wyoming) - part-time, Richard from Antillian College: Loron T. Wade (Theology); Bottemley (physics, University of Toronto), Wil­ liam Fritz (geology, University of Montana) - from Seminar Marienhoehe: Heinz Zech (Mathemat­ part-time, and Eckhard Huefing (religion, An­ ics); drews University).

l. MONTANA I \ .r-Jr ·He~{M~;;;-;t:;;~ -.-.-! -J"' - r \ Yellowstone National Park Wind/Big Horn ! GEOSCIENCE If) j River I FIELD CONFERENCE Grand Teton National ParfJ '\ \ ITINERARY

I o Pinedale WYOMING I IDAHO I ~ . -·-·-·r·-·---·-l I ~ Uintah Medicine Bow G""LltL~ I Mountains Mountains ! Salt Lake City ~:rna~~ ~~~f~~~{·-·-·-·-·.1.-·-·-·- I . Monument I I Green River I UTAH Crystola I 00 Colorado Springs >--­ Cedar Breaks .:4 National Bryce gCOLORADO Monument Canyon cr:; · N' '1 P k fl D aNational San Juan River ZlOn atIona. ar frJ' P ar k r'-'-'-'-' '-'-'-'-'00-'''-'- Capulin Folson Mountain ! National \ Monument , \ I Rio Grande Clovis 0 i

ARIZONA I NEW MEXICO \

Carlsbad Caverns National Park ._. _._ . .si? -' _ ... ""'"" --- !'-'-' TEXAS '-._._._ . .L.~ The Yellowstone Petrified Forests

by Harold G. Coffin

he Petrified Forests The Petrified Trees T of Yellowstone have The most striking feature of the petrified been known for nearly 100 years, but only a trees is the erect position of many of the few of the thousands who visit the park see stumps. Without doubt, this is the strongest this world-famous attraction. Those who argument for the trees being in situ. take the effort to climb to the sites are im­ Nevertheless, many features of the petrified pressed by the upright position of many of trees are inconsistent with an in situ interpre­ the stumps and come away with the convic­ tation. tion that each level of petrified stumps repre­ Abrupt Root Terminations. If the trees were sents an ancient forest buried in position of washed out of a growing forest and trans­ growth. planted to their present location, some of the This interpretation is so obvious that any roots, especially the large roots, would be alternate explanation runs the risk of appear­ broken. Observations of roots of trees ing incredible. Despite this risk, I propose bulldozed out of the ground in clearing oper­ that the stumps (both prostrate and erect), ations have shown that although the smaller leaves, needles and other plant debris floated roots are usually intact the larger roots are to their present location and settled onto t~e sometimes broken. I have found seven surface of successive underwater volcamc examples of abruptly terminating "broken" mud slides. Thus, many levels accumulated roots in the Yellowstone Fossil Forest. Many in a relatively short time. The Genesis flo~d other examples are suggestive of sudden root makes an attractive source for the water m terminations, but a positive field iden­ this model. tification of this feature is often difficult be­ We will now examine the evidence that cause of postpetrification breakage and the supports this interpretation. difficulty of digging into the well-indurated rock in order to expose the roots.

Harold G. Coffin, research scientist at the Geosci­ Overlapping trees. Superposed levels of ~p­ ence Research Institute, is the author of Creation - right stumps are sometimes only a ve~t~cal Accident or Design? foot apart. Qcc;lsiQnally, ast:U1l1p~a:I"1smg Volume 9, Number 4 43

from a lower level extends through or into the "forest" level above it. These "overlap­ ping" stumps are compatible with the growth interpretation if the upper level trees are small because a protruding snag from a lower level would then be exposed to decay only during the short lifespan of the small trees on the upper level. If, however, the stumps on the upper forest level are from large trees, there should have been sufficient time for decay of the exposed top of the overlapping stump. For example, in the clas­ sic Fossil Forest, the top of a Sequoia 45 centimeters in diameter terminates at the root zone of an adjacent large stump rooted in a higher level (Figure 1). Since most of the top Figure 1. Overlapping trees in the classic Fossil of the large stump is still covered by hard Forest in the Lamar Valley. The roots of the rock, its age cannot be determined by a ring larger tree are to the left of the person (Lanny Fisk) and the smaller tree which arises from a count, but other petrified Sequoia stumps of lower level is to the right. comparable size have approximately 500 rings. Although Sequoia is Specimen Creek Specimen Ridge V.rtlcal Horizonal Vertical Horizontal known to be durable wood, a small dead Sequoia snag ~ only 45 centimeters in diam­ ~l:.eV'112 eter should suffer extensive ~u",,, I decay after 500 years of ex- posure in a semitropical forest. Instead, it possesses distinct rings and shows no Level II '7 ,,,"" 1 % signs of decay. Orientation. Prostrate logs

Lev.t 23 and the long axis of the cross sections of the tops of stand­ ><, .... ", ing stumps seem to show a \ tendency to be aligned in the same direction (Figure 2).

~ ~ ~L.,eI8 C Level 21 floors) not adjacent to clear­ ings or canyon walls have failed to establish a preferred orientation for even the ~"~ ~"'" prostrate trees, let alone a Figure 2. Orientation of vertical and horizontal petrified trees in common orientation for the Specimen Creek and Specimen Ridge areas, Yellowstone Na­ tional Park. For levels with five or less measurable trees, each tree is prostrate trees and the long represented by a line. Numerals beside rose graphs represent sam­ axis of asymmetrical up­ pIe size: right trees: 44 Spectrum

he similarity of T orientation for pros­ trate logs and upright stumps seems to re­ quire a common force (such as moving wa­ ter) acting on both. A log moving with a current will align with the current direction, but will an upright floating stump with only slight variation in stump symmetry also align itself with the current? I believe it will be­ cause the asymmetry is usually a reflection of the major roots which have produced but­ tressing of the lower tree trunk. Therefore, currents acting on the roots of drifting stumps could produce the observed orienta­ tions. Diverse Flora. Knowlton (1899), Read Figure 3. A small petrified tree from the Speci­ (1933) and Dorf (1960) have identified over men Creek area surrounded by coarse breccia. 100 species of plants in the Yellowstone Pet­ rified Forests. Pollen studies increase the fig­ evidence that the stumps grew where they ure to over 200. now stand. But absolutely no matching has The ecological diversity represented by the been found using the manual skeleton plot species is unexpected if the trees are in posi­ technique. Two trial runs with computer tion of growth. Species range from temper­ matching have also proved unsuccessful. ate (pines, redwoods, willows) to tropical Computer research is continuing on a more and exotic (figs, laurels, breadfruit, catsura), detailed and controlled basis. and from semidesert to rain forest types. This It is difficult to understand why matching diversity may be an indication that the Fossil connot be seen with relative ease if the trees Forests are an artificial assemblage of stumps, are in situ. If the trees have been brought leaves and pollen transported during the together from diverse habitats and geo­ Flood from several pre-Flood ecological graphical areas by water transport, the lack of zones. matching is more readily understood. Dendrochronology. Dendrochronolgy is Small Erect Trees. Characteristically, based on the principle that trees subjected to neither bark nor limbs are preserved on the similar environmental conditions will trees. Some of the large prostrate logs origi­ develop rings that exhibit similar trends of nally may have had limbs a foot or more in growth. A sequence of wet or dry years will diameter but now only scoured knots are left. be reflected in the relative thickness of the If subaerial volcanic mud slides were suffi­ rings. Although each tree is individualistic in ciently strong to break off the limbs and strip its growth response to the environment, away the bark from rooted trees, why were there is enough similarity among the trees of the very small trees not bent or broken? a forest to permit plots of ring width to be Small trees down to three centimeters in di­ matched ring for ring. ameter are seen (Figure 3). The boulders The basic requirements for successful den­ incorporated in the surrounding breccia are drochronology are: 1) trees with variable sometimes much larger in diameter than are rings; 2) rings that persist all the way around the trees against which they rest, yet of the the trunk; and 3) trees that grew in similar hundreds of petrified trees examined over the habitats. years, only two have been seen with a green­ If they are in position of growth, the pet­ stick fracture (Figure 4). If the trees were rified trees in Yellowstone meet these transported, that is, if they moved with the minimum requirements. Matching ring pat­ mud in which they are buried, they would terns from the same leveL would be strong not have been subjetted to horizontal shear . Volume 9, Number 4 45

The Organic Levels as support for the growth model. However, To this point in our discussion, we have water that destroyed a pre-Flood forest and been considering only the stumps found in transported the plants and trees could also the Yellowstone Petrified Forests. As­ take with it the litter that had accumulated on sociated with the erect stumps at root level the pre-Flood forest floor. This litter could are bands of organic matter consisting of then settle out of the water along with the leaves, needles and plant debris which have stumps. been interpreted as the forest floors on which odern forest soils are the trees grew. However, in almost every M riddled with rootlets. specific detail, study of these levels indicates Although small streaks of vegetable structure that they are atypical of true growth levels. can be seen occasionally in the fossil organic Three aspects of the organic levels have levels or below them, our survey ofhundreds been used as evidence for the in situ interpre­ of cross sections of levels confirms our tation of the trees: 1) the organic matter oc­ statement that rootlets are rare. Since they are curs at the root levels of the stumps; 2) the so uncommon and could easily be the result organic matter consists ofleaves, needles and of the fortuitous vertical arrangement of debris typical of material that falls from small plant fragments that became mixed growing trees; and 3) the organic levels and into the volcanic mud slides, this feature can­ the ash below them contain rootlets. not be used as a strong argument for the The location of the organic band at the growth model. Decay of most of the original level of the roots of the upright stumps is rootlets cannot be defended because bits and indeed similar to modern forests where or­ pieces of well-preserved, very small, fragile ganic litter is scattered on the forest floor, but plant fragments are found scattered in the the drift model can also account for this fea­ ashy matrix of the breccia layers as well as in ture. Wood and plant fragments could settle the organic zones. out of a body of water along with the stumps Preservation. Only once have I seen fossil to produce the observed association between organic matter that appears like ancient the roots of standing stumps and organic humus. In the hundreds of other cases, matter. leaves, needles and wood chips are obvious. The fact that the organic material looks In so me instances, the preservation is like typical forest floor litter might be taken phenomenal - so perfect that the plant struc-

Figure 4. A pet­ rified tree from Tom Minor Basin near the northwest portion of the park that illustrates the only green-stick fracture so far dis­ covered. Notice the complete ab­ sence of an organic level. 46 Spectrum bands have hiatuses and split and recombine, the thickness of the bands changes little. Spatial Relationships. Fifty-nine organic levels on the slopes above Specimen Creek ranged in measured thickness from only a trace to 15 centimeters. The average is about three centimeters. Trees arising from within breccia beds and lacking any organic level at their base have been found in all of the pet­ rified forest exposures I have seen. It is possible to see mature living trees growing on rocky slopes almost devoid of humus . Usually, humus has not accumulated because of the steepness of the slope or be­ Figure 5. Beautiful preservation of buds and cause of the porous nature of the rocky ter­ leaves from the Specimen Creek Petrified Forest. rain. The Yellowstone Petrified Forests are tures in the thin sections look like fresh living almost flat, and the ashy nature of the matrix tissue (Figure 5). Quick burial by volcanic in which the organic debris is located makes lahars would provide the mechanism for the use of such modern examples irrelevant. good preservation of organic matter in either The horizontal bedding in almost all the model. However, there is an aspect of pres­ organic levels is striking. Of course, most ervation which seems difficult to explain by a needles, leaves and branches that fall from growth model. In a living forest floor, decay growing trees accumulate on the ground increases downward into the ground. Re­ horizontally. However, ground-level shoots cently fallen litter may be little decayed, but and the buried roots of growing herbs, that which has fallen in successively more shrubs and trees constitute an important frac­ remote seasons shows progressively increas­ tion of vertically oriented material. This is ing decay until eventually only dark uniden­ seldom seen in the organic levels. tifiable humus remains. The absence of dif­ Sedimentary Features Typical of Water Depo­ ferential decay is universal in the petrified sition. One hundred and ten thin-section slides forests of Yellowstone. It might be said that of organic horizons have been examined. the volcanic lahars have mixed and disturbed The evidences of water action are striking. the natural forest floor. However, if the or­ Table 1 tabulates 15 different features as­ ganic matter was so consistently and thor­ sociated with water activity but not with oughly mixed by the volcanic mud slides, gradual soil formation. Normal grading one would expect irregular thick lenses of (from coarse to fine upward) is obvious for organic matter. Instead, the organic bands nearly half of the slides (Figure 7). In many are remarkably consistent horizontally. Ref­ instances, the grading starts several cen­ erence to Figure 6 shows that although the timeters below the organic matter and con-

20 30 60 eo '0 '00 110 Meters Figure 6. Survey oflevels 33 to 37 on the Specimen Creek petrified forest. Each level is multiple and complex; v:::: verticaLtrees;h.::;:horizontaLtrees. .... Volume 9, Number 4 47

TABLE I. Analysis of 120 Vertical Thin Sections of Organic Levels from Seven Yellowstone Petrified Forests .:: >-- v .::v c,s ~

Figure 8. A vertical thin section of an organic Figure 7. A vertical thin section of an organic level from Specimen Creek. Normal bedding of level from Mt. Hornaday. Note the sorting of sediments exists between the dark lines which are both organic and inorganic matter. The dark cross-sections of the horizontally bedded de- streaKS and spots afevegetableftiaUer;·· ...... ··ciduOilscleaves·; 48 Spectrum the size of the organic material - fine sedi­ However, the Yellowstone Petrified Forests ment, fine organic matter; coarse sediment, do not represent these two types of environ­ coarse organic matter. There is even size sort­ ments. Erosion channels are infrequent in the ing of the inorganic particles within the or­ Yellowstone exposures and no paleobotanist ganic matter. Figure 8 is characteristic of sev­ has suggested that this was an arid region. eral levels that show sorting of inorganic Could the upper streaks of these multiple matter between petrified leaves. To my levels represent the leaf fall zones associated knowledge, there is no way of achieving such with air drop ash in volcanic eruptions? My a sedimentary feature in a normal forest field observations and thin section studies floor. Only the simultaneous settling of ash have failed to distinguish any significant dif­ and leaves from a fluid suspension could ference between surfaces from which visible achieve this phenomenon. trees arise and adjacent organic levels con­ taining no visible upright trees. Ifleaf drop ross sections through zones are present, they are not readily appar­ C true growth surfaces ent and cannot be distinguished from the show a typical profile of organic density other levels. from top down. The profile is revealed by Taxonomic Characteristics. Taxonomic sort­ increased blackness or richness of humus to­ ing of the constituents in the organic bands ward the surface of the ground. Most of the was noticed early in my research. Broad Yellowstone organic levels have the organic leaves occur at the top of the organic zone, matter mixed into the sediments with no mixed broad leaves and needles below, and prevailing order of density or with the only needles at the bottom. Leaves, needles, greatest accumulation of organic matter at cones, limbs and bark fall as a well-mixed the bottom. litter onto the floor of living forests. But in The complexity of the organic levels is water, needles saturate and sink to the bot­ particularly outstanding in the Specimen tom before broad leaves. Thus, the Creek and Cache Creek areas. Figure 6 illus­ taxonomic sorting of the organic levels ap­ trates five surveyed levels from Specimen pears more readily explained by water trans­ Creek. Notice that the organic levels often port. are multiple, split and recombine, appear There is also a lack of taxonomic agree­ suddenly and end abruptly, and exhibit other ment between the fossils preserved in the odd characteristics. Modern multiple grow­ organic levels and the dominant trees arising ing surfaces could result from flash floods in from the levels. One would expect to find arid areas or from periodic burial by river many Sequoia needles and some cones since mud spilling over banks during high water. most of the upright trees are Sequoia. How-

Figure 9. Suc­ cessive beds of reversely grad­ ed breccia seen on Mt. Horna­ day. Volume 9, Number 4 49 ever, large numbers of broad leaves and only infrared analyses. Samples from other areas a few pine needles are seen in the organic have also been tested. No clay has been de­ levels and cones of any type are rare. tected except for relatively infrequent bands Fisk's (1976) palynological study found lit­ that show little relationship to the organic tle pollen of sycamore that is well repre­ levels. The tentative conclusions from this sented by fossil leaves. Wind-transported study appear to rule out the passage of time pollen such as sycamore should have left a that would result in mineral weathering and rich pollen record in the forest floor. In true soil formation. Spark source mass spec­ another palynological study, De Bord (1977) trometry research appears to corroborate the studied four levels intensively. He found no above data that suggest the rapid laying positive correlation between fossil pollen down of the breccia beds. abundance and the proximity of possible X-ray diffraction study has also shown source trees. Pine pollen, for example, was that the mineral content of the sediments underrepresented in three of the four levels through hundreds of vertical feet appears analyzed. Sufficient difference existed be­ identical. Would successive eruptions over a tween individual samples on the same level period of tens of thousands of years continue that single sample analysis could not be used to lay down ash with identical suites of min­ to adequately describe the level. erals? This question is being pursued by comparative studies with other volcanic Chemistry and Mineralogy. Minerals such as areas whose major volcanic episodes with feldspar weather into clay under attack of the many pulses within each episode better ex­ carbonic acid that percolates into the ground plain the Yellowstone breccia beds, espe­ as rain falls on a humus-mantled surface. cially those of Specimen Creek. Thus, the presence of clay would argue for Considered as a whole, the characteristics time and a normal soil development. Over of the organic levels constitute a strong denial 300 samples from the Specimen Creek area of the view that they are true soils or growth have been subjected to X-ray diffraction and surfaces (Table II).

TABLE II. Summary Comparison Between a Living Forest and the Yellowstone Petrified Forests

As Expected in a Living Forest As Actually Seen in Yellowstone 1. All roots intact 1. Some roots abruptly terminating or broken 2. Smaller trees tom out or pushed over by brec- 2. Small trees upright and unbroken cia slides 3. Upright trees showing no difference in decay 3. Buried upright snags in various stages of decay above or below ground level 4. Ring patterns of trees should cross-match 4. Ring pattems of trees do not cross-match 5. Upright and prone trees without similar orien­ 5. Upright and prone trees with similar orienta­ tation tion

As Expected in a Normal Forest Floor As Actually Seen in Yellowstone 1. A thick humus layer, especially if the trees are 1. Organic level usually thin and sometimes ab­ large . sent 2. Increased decay of humus from top down 2. Good preservation all through the level 3. A normal soil profile - organic matter increas- 3. No trend in the arrangement of organic matter ing toward top of profile reversed 4. Kinds of organic matter unsorted 4. Kinds of organic matter often sorted 5. One main layer ofhumus for each living forest 5. Multiple and complex layers that split and re­ 6. Some evidences and remains of animals ex­ combine pected on or in soil 6. Absolutely no evidences or remains of animals 7. Leaves and needles on forest floor will agree found in organic levels wi th the trees 7. Leaves and needles often do not agree with 8. Pollen will agree with the trees and be present dominant or adjacent trees in great abundance 8. Pollen may not agree with trees or represented 9. Clay produced as a result of weathering over disproportionately time 9. Clay absent 10. Cones of the dominant conifer present on the 10. Sequoia cones absent forest floor 50 Spectrum

The Sediments If these sediments were deposited under The volcanic breccias of the Yellowstone water, one would expect to find some evi­ area have been difficult to interpret. Most dences of water-dwelling animals. However, volcanologists who have studied the area be­ fossil remains of any animals are unknown. lieve that they are mud slides or lahars that The absence of animal remains is difficult to spread out along the bases of volcanoes (Par­ explain with either "ingrowth" or "trans­ sons, 1969). However, many problems are port" models. associated with this view. The material is extremely variable, rang­ The Vertical Flotation of Trees ing all the way from agglomerate (large, Under normal conditions, an upright tree rounded boulders) to breccia (angular rocks is located where it grew. Therefore, it is only of variable size). Some beds are extremely natural that the Petrified Forests of Yel­ coarse with little matrix, whereas others are lowstone have been interpreted as trees in mostly ash with a free-floating framework of position of growth. No challenge of this in­ pebbles. Green to light gray beds of ash may terpretation can succeed unless some other be interspersed between breccia beds. These satisfactory explanation for the vertical usually cannot be traced far horizontally. The stance can be found. beds of breccia range in thickness from 30 Could water have transported the Yel­ centimeters or less to ten meters thick. Most lows tone petrified stumps and deposited are from one to three meters thick. The dis­ some of them upright in their present loca­ continuous nature of the breccia beds and tions? Experiments I have conducted, evi­ the rapid changes of sediment type would dence cited in the literature and observations seem to require many local eruptive centers in nature, lead me to conclude that trees as or source areas but these eruptive centers are well as other plant parts such as horsetail hard to find. stems will float vertically if given sufficient The relatively low dip of the strata and the time and water. flow characteristics of breccia pose a prob­ To test the feasibility of upright flotation, I lem. Most of the beds are so flat (less than 50 placed 12 small white fir stumps with roots in dip), that it is difficult to see how they could fresh and salt water. The stumps were two to represent mud slides over dry land. Some seven centimeters in diameter and three to 15 lubricant such as water seems to be needed to centimeters long. After from three to more facilitate the movement of these slides over than 21 days, all of the trees assumed a verti­ slopes of such low gradient. cal position suspended from the surface ofthe water. Then, after a few hours to several ne feature of the Yel­ days, the vertically floating trees slowly set­ O lows tone volcanic tled onto the bottom of the tanks still breccias that has previously gone largely un­ erect. Because the density of the trees was so reported is the reverse bedding (Figure 9). near that of the water, they often would ap­ Upward grading from fine to coarse (instead pear to be suspended in the middle of the of from coarse to fine) is not common in the water, but closer observation revealed a root­ geological record (Fisk, 1974). Fisher (1971) let touching the bottom. This experiment gives both subaerial and submarine exam­ duplicates some of the results achieved by ples, but the latter are most like those of Henry Fayal's flotation experiments con­ Yellowstone. Walker (1975) would classify ducted in the late nineteenth century and pub­ deposits of this type as turbidites - under­ lished in an 1886 monograph. water slides of water-saturated sediments of At one Yellowstone location, short sec­ greater density than the surrounding water. tions of Equisetum (horsetail) not over four Although turbidites composed ofsuch coarse inches tall were found in the organic level. materials as volcanic breccia are difficult to Equisetum is rare in the Yellowstone fossil reproduce in laboratory experimentation, forests but near Clarno, Ore., great numbers the presence of reverse grading may indicate of vertical petrified horsetails, level above that the beds were emplaced. under water. level, can heseen:insedimentssimilar to Volume 9, Number 4 51 those in Yellowstone. Horsetails are like timbers. The sunken ends of the wood were large hollow straws and do not seem to be not weighted by an attached mass of soil or good candidates for vertical flotation. There­ other load of any kind; possibly the water fore, an experiment on the flotation of horse­ penetrates certain kinds of wood more easily tails in salt and fresh water was undertaken in one direction with regard to its growth (Coffin, 1971, p. 2019). Surprisingly, nearly than the other, hence one end becomes water two-thirds (63 percent of 140 sections of logged before the other" (Challenger, 1885, Equisetum) ultimately floated vertically or p. 459). stood erect on the tank bottom. In this exper­ In his classic monograph on the formation iment, vertical orientation occurred after of coal beds,John Stevenson (1911-1913) dis­ three to 20 days depending upon the length cussed the upright flotation of trees. Al­ and size of the horsetail stems and whether though it was his opinion that the majority of the stems were fresh or dead. coal beds were in situ J he hesitated to use the Reports of the vertical flotation of trees upright position of the petrified trees in these and plants can be found in the literature. In a beds as an argument in support of his view. reference work on coal, Francis (1961, p. 28) reports, ". . . it is natural for short stems "'{ Tertical flotation can attached to the heavy roots of trees to float Valso be observed upright, with the roots downward, when today in nature. I have observed stumps of transported by deep water, particularly if the trees sitting upright along beaches and shores roots enclose a ball of clay or gravel." The where high tides have left them. Along the volume on paleoecology by Ager (1963, p. shores of Lake Powell, Ariz., when spring 85) makes the following comment: "E. D. water was higher than usual, I have seen McKee (personal communication, 1963), has many twigs, rootlets and stems floating ver­ told of palm trees being swept from a Pacific tically. I have observed the same phenome­ atoll during hurricanes and coming to rest in non in quiet waters among the Florida Keys. considerable depths of water in an upright Actually, the chances that trees will float position because of their heavy, stone-laden upright in water are very good. The root roots, so that even trees in position of life system gathers water to maintain the life of may not be completely beyond question." the tree. It is only natural that in water the lower portion of the trunk with its roots will absorb moisture faster than the other parts. The result can be vertical flotation - given "In spite of many unanswered enough time and water. questions, I am convinced the If the Yellowstone Petrified Forests were transported by water to their present loca­ transport hypothesis merits serious tions these two requirements - sufficient consideration because it seems to time and water - must be considered. What account for more of the available kind of model can we develop that meets these requirements and fits better the facts facts than the in situ hypothesis." obtained from the study of the Yellowstone Petrified Forest than the in situ model?

An Alternative Hypothesis While sailing along the coast of New Guinea, At present, I propose the following model the famous Challenger expedition encoun­ as best accounting for all the data gathered. tered long lines of drift brought down by Volcanic activity in the Yellowstone region flooding rivers. "Much of the wood was occurred while the area was at least partly floating suspended vertically in the water, under water. Trees, some vertical, floated in and most curiously, logs and short branch the water along with organic debris. As trees pieces thus floating often occurred in sepa­ and vegetable matter became water satu­ rate groups apartfrom thehorizontaLfloating rated,~they.settled·downonto::.thebrecciaat 52 Spectrum

the bottom. Within a relatively short time the organic zones and the types of upright (days or weeks), another slide moved over trees becomes understandable. Obviously, and around the trees and organic debris. Be­ the evidences of water deposition, both the fore the appearance of each succeeding brec­ large-scale features such as the reversely cia flow, more trees and organic matter set­ graded beds and the small-scale features such tled to the bottom. Thus, layer upon layer of as the microgradation between leaves in the trees and organic zones were built up in a organic levels, would be expected. relatively short period of time (See Figures 10 The best explanation is the simplest one and 11). that accommodates the known data. The After the burial of the trees and organic growth position model is a simple explana­ debris, the water receded and/or the land was tion familiar to everyone, but the data re­ uplifted. Petrification occurred quickly be­ ported here raise serious doubts concerning fore decay became pronounced. As the water the adequacy of this model. In spite of many drained, erosion on a large scale sculptured unanswered questions, I am convinced the the landscape and exposed the petrified trees. transport hypothesis merits serious consid­ In the course of time, glaciation also left its eration because it seems to account for more mark on this mountainous region. of the available facts than the in situ hypothe­ Such an origin of the petrified forests not SIS. only accounts for the upright stance of many of the stumps, but also explains why they are without bark and limbs. It not only accounts I wish to acknowledge the research done by Ivan for the organic levels at the position of the Holmes (X-ray diffraction and infrared analyses of sediments), Lanny Fisk and Phil DeBord (palynology tree roots, but also explains the thinness and of organic levels) and Don Jones (complexity of or­ complexity of many levels and the occasional ganic levels-Figure 6) reported in this paper. A more occurrence of stumps lacking any organic quantitative and detailed report of this research on the horizon at root level. The lack of agreement Yellowstone Petrified Forests (from which this report has been condensed) is available from the author, of ring plots between adjacent stumps and Geoscience Research Inst., 600 College Ave., Berrien the disagreement between the components of Springs, Michigan 49103.

".. :.";;-

Water

F!gll.r~10. Proposed model for the incorporation oLverticaLtreesifito~moviiigbre€Ciaslide: Volume 9, Number 4 53 ,It Water ~ ..." I I------r'~-\------~------~~----~ / - ~ ~ L- II Volcanic source / ~~ .. /' --I _~.~:::;:. . , ./------.L ;- ~::::-i , . /--~ -~~

Breccia/con lomerate beds

Figure 11. Block diagram illustrating the accumulation of successive beds of breccia with trees and plant debris.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

Ager, Derek V. 1963. Principles of Paleoecology. _____ 1976b. "The Gallatin 'petrified forest', a McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., p. 85. review," Montana Bureau ofMines and Geology, Spe­ Challenger Expedition 1885. Report on the scientific cial Pub., 73. Tobacco Root Geol. Soc. 1976 results of the Voyage of the H. M. S. Challenger Guidebook, pp. 53-72. during the years 1873-76, under the command of Fiske, Richard S. 1963. "Subaqueous pyroclastic Captain Nares and Captain Thompson. Narrative flows in the Ohanapecosh Formation, Washing­ Vol. H. M. Stationary Office, London. ton," G.S.A. Bull., 74:391-406. Coffin, Harold G. 1971. "Vertical flotation of horse­ Francis, Wilfrid. 1961. Coal. Edward Arnold (Pub­ tails (Equisetum): Geological Implications," Geol. lishers) Ltd. p. 28. Soc. Am. Bull., 82:2019-2022. _____ 1976. "Orientation of trees in the Yel­ Knowlton, F. H. 1899. "The Tertiary floras of the lowstone Petrified Forests," Journ. Paleo., 50 Yellowstone National Park," U.S. Geol. Survey (3) :539-543. Mon., 32, pp. 651-691, PI. 77-121. De Bord, Phillip L. 1977. "Gallatin Mountain 'pet­ Parsons, Willard H. 1969. "Criteria for the recogni­ rified forest': A palynological investigation of the in tion of volcanic breccia," Review. Geological Soci­ situ model," Ph.D. Dissertation. Lorna Linda Uni­ ety of America: Memoirs, 115:263-304. versity. 86 pp. Read, C. B. 1933. "Fossil floras of Yellowstone Na­ Dorf, Erling. 1960 "Tertiary fossil forests of Yel­ tional Park, Part I, Coniferous woods of Lamar lows tone National Park, Wyoming," Billings Geol. River flora," Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub., 416, Soc., 11th. Ann. Fielq ConJ. Guidebook, pp. 253-259. pp.1-19. Fayal, Henry. 1886. "Etudes sur Ie terrain houiller de Ritland, Richard M. and Stephen L. Ritland. 1974. Commentry. Livre premier; lithologie et strati­ "The fossil forests of the Yellowstone region," 2" graphie,"Bull. de)a Soc. de l'industrie minerale, SPECTRUM, 6(1-2):19-66. serie, 153-4, Saint-Etienne. 543 pp. Fisher, Richard V. 1971. "Features of coarse-grained, Smedes, Harry W., and Prostka, Harold J. 1972. high-concentration fluids and their deposits,"Jour. "Stratigraphic framework of the Absaroka Vol­ Sed. Petrology, 41(4):916-927. canic Supergroup in the Yellowstone National Fisk, Lanny H. 1974. "Inverse grading as stratigraphic Park region." U.S. Geological Survey, professional evidence of large floods," Comment. Geology, paper 729-C, 33 pp. 2(12):613-615. Stevenson, John J. 1911-1913. "Formation of coal 1976a. "Palynology of the Amethyst beds," Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 50:63. Mountain 'Fossil Forest', Yellowstone National Walker, Roger G. 1975. "Generalized facies models Park," Ph.D. Dissertation. Lorna Linda Universi­ for resedimented conglomerates of turbidite asso­ ty. 340 pp. ciation," G.S.A. Bull. 86:737-748. Genesis, Chapter One: A 1heological Statement

by Herold Weiss

eventh-day Advent­ "world," the concept "cosmos," is not Sists have always seen found in the Old Testament. This is of su­ the conflict between science and religion as preme significance and must never be over­ especially involving them. Adventists have looked. The notion "cosmos" is a Greek no­ understood that they are responsible for a tion that entered Judaism in the second cen­ distinctive defense against evolution - the tury B.C., but which was unknown to the continual observing of the fourth com­ early historians and prophets of Israel. mandment. I have nothing against placing The "world," the "cosmos," is an abstract the Sabbath as a standard against evolution. term; it is a system held together by its own Indeed, I think that evolutionary faith must internal order. It is a totality bound together be combatted with all the means at our com­ by rationally comprehensible relationships of mand as a basic evil that stands in opposition law. As a result, there is a unified structure to our faith in God as the Creator. But I do holding together not only heaven and earth, think that if we are to perceive the signifi­ but also all the things in them including the cance of the Sabbath for understanding the gods in heaven. When the universe is con­ relation of God to His creation and of religion ceived as "cosmos," gods and men are also to science, we need to approach the Sabbath bound by law. "Cosmos" first of all implies within the context of a careful exploration of order. It also implies beauty. We still use the the general theology of Creation in the Old word in an English version: "cosmetics" are Testament, particularly the first chapter of the beautifying agents. But order and beauty Genesis. are abstract notions foreign to the Hebraic To start with, I need to point out what is ancient mind. Classical Hebrew is very poor already obvious, and that is that I am talking in its vocabulary for abstract notions. about God's creation and not God's world. I am using the word "world" and not the There is a reason for this. The word word "universe" because in the New Testa­ ment "cosmos" is translated "world." But in Herold Weiss, who formerly taught at the the Old Testament, the notion is unknown, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, is pro­ fessor of New Testament, St. Mary's College, South for it knows nothing about a world system Bend, Indiana. hdd tQgetherby its own internaL oLder out- Volume 9, Number 4 55 side of which there is no other consciousness. to explain how God could rest on the Sabbath For the Old Testament, what is out there is and at the same time continue to "create" the not seen as a self-contained whole. It does at world. times speak of "the all," but it is always To separate creation from providence is to thought to be composed of created parts, destroy the Old Testament view of the primarily "heaven and earth." God, how­ world. That is the first thing that must be ever, is definitely not included in this "all." . kept clearly in mind for an understanding of our topic. The second thing to be kept in t is most important mind is that the Old Testament knows of at I to keep this in mind least two ways of speaking about creation. and not to let the concept "cosmos" come in One is poetic, hymnic. The other is didactic. the back door when one talks about creation Of the two, the second is theologically more in the Old Testament. It is when one thinks precise, but the first is found more often in of creation as "cosmos" that it is possible to the Old Testament. think that the Old Testament reduces crea­ When Israel spoke poetically, the poetic tion to something that happened in some imagery was many times quite loose. Since distant past. Moreover, in terms of "cos­ poetry is a universal language, it travels easi­ mos," it becomes a problem to show what ly. Thus, in her poetic expression, Israel role God plays in the world now, for then many times uses imagery from other cultures creation and providence are considered two - or at least uses imagery known in other separate acts of God. By means of one, God cultures and contexts. It is quite obvious that organized the world long ago; by means of Israel knew of the way in which her the other, God still has something to say neighbors spoke of creation. about it even now. But to do this is to destroy one of the most Characteristic of this way of talking is the significant achievements of the Old Testa­ notion that at creation Yahweh had to im­ ment. I refer to the fact that the Old Testa­ pose His will over against the forces of chaos ment represents man's capacity to think which tried their best to prevent the ac­ about the world in a nonmythological way complishment of His will. Usually, this is by making clear that creation did not happen described in terms of the waves of the sea in a timeless past, and then it was done, but rising, or roaring, against God (Ps. 46:2, 3; that the heavens, the earth and the sea keep 89:9). But Yahweh rebuked chaos (Ps. their places and their limits not because that is 104:7), smote the monsters of chaos (Ps. the order of creation established by God in 74:13), and now keeps them under guard Gob the past, but because God is holding each 7:12). In one prophetic passage (Ezek. 32:2- created element where it belongs. He is in 8), the downfall of the king of Egypt is de­ control, and the moment he would let go, the scribed in language reminiscent of a Babylo­ different created parts could disappear or go nian creation story. In it, Marduk struggles away where they wished. against Tiamat and creates the world with This Old Testament view continued to in­ different parts of her body. The language of fluence Judaism even after the Jews learned the Babylonian story rings bells behind the from the Greeks about the cosmos and about description of Ezekiel. reasonable ways of constructing arguments. When we wish to understand the more pre­ At the time of Christ, the rabbis were en­ cise, didactic statements of the Old Testa­ gaged in lengthy discussions as to whether or ment on creation, we should see them in not God kept his own laws, particularly the context, so that we may clearly set forth their fourth commandment. How could He cease teaching over against what Israel's neighbors from creating on the Sabbath? As a matter of were saying. What were they saying about fact, He could not, because if He did creation creation? The best preserved story comes would cease to be. 1 Having to explain the from ancient Babylon about the time of Ab­ Genesis account to people now trained in raham - certainly older than the Mosaic Gr

God. But God remains in perfect isolation account of our own difficulties, it is difficult within Himself over against all of them. . for us to appreciate that here the scientific and As I said before, the story is told in order to the theological are interwoven without ten­ establish a doctrine and proclaim a law. But sions. The two things are interwoven in such before we analyze these two, I would like to a way that there is not one "purely scientific" point out two other things that are clear in the or "purely theological" statement. Here story. One is that the story is polemical; it theology and science can work together in carries on an argument against false gods. harmony. At least, we are unable to detect The other is that it represents the best scien­ any tensions. The point is not that the scien­ tific knowledge of the time and presents us tific knowledge of that time is the ultimate with a fully secular world. and true description of the natural world. It The polemic is quietly waged against the certainly is not. As a matter of fact, the cos­ sun, the moon and the stars. It would seem to mology of Genesis has to be judged "pre­ everyone that it is impossible to have light scientific" and primitive. But by means of without the sun, and even more so it would this pre-scientific knowledge, the men of seem impossible to have a day without the faith in the Old Testament were able to de­ solar system. But the story makes clear that a stroy the mythological world view with all day, the basic unit of time, is not the creation its false gods. And, ultimately, that is what it of the solar system. The sun, the moon and is all about: a struggle against idolatry. the stars do not create days and nights; they I call this world secular because it is a world in which God is not naturally present. I call this world scientific because it represents the best kind of logic based on observation of the "On account of our own dif­ reality in which man lives. It is based on the understanding of the firmament as a solid ficulties, it is difficult for vault that keeps the waters above stored. The us to appreciate that here vault has windows through which water or the scientific and the theo­ light may come through. The story has a logical are interwoven logic of its own. It has separated three spaces which three kinds of beings occupy. It has without tensions." separated fish and fowl from land animals. Thus, the logic of the story is that three kinds of things, in order to be, must have three homes. Thus, on the first three days, God only serve to count them. They are not the created three homes, and on the second three powers that create time; they are only the days, God created the inhabitants of those instruments for its measuring. Their func­ homes. If we were to write the story today in tion is not to rule over man's destiny, but terms of our scientific knowledge, we would only to serve man as he worships God at the use a different logic. Scientific logic would appropriate times weekly, monthly and prevent us from having days before the solar yearly. The polemical thrust is most apparent system and would prevent us from having in that their names are avoided. We only read vegetation before the sun. In fact, it would the rather derogatory designations, "that prevent us from having a solid firmament greater" and "that lesser" light. separating the waters above from the waters The secular world is apparent in that God below. Ours is a scientific logic based on leaves His imprint in the world by creating better instruments for observation. But ours the Sabbath, but He is essentially absent from is also a logic that refuses to allow theology to the world. The world is presented according inform it. In the creation story, man is made to the best cosmological knowledge of the in the image of God. In modern science, man time. But the amazing thing here is that it is is made in the image of the biological world. futile and counterproductive to try to sepa­ When man is presented in this way by a "sci- rate th~t_~eologicalffom the "scientific." On .efitificfaith,"thefi=thestl"ugglebetweefi:[aith 60 Spectrum and science is unavoidable. Unlike God, sci­ the one hand, man is very much part of the ence cannot legitimately claim to be the ob­ created world. Like the whole of creation, he ject of faith. owes his existence to the Creator. He is made the same day the other animals of the land are his brings us back to made. He receives with the animal world the T the two main points blessing of fertility. He eats the same food of the story: the doctrine of creation, and the that the other animals eat as God bountifully law of the Sabbath. The story makes clear provides. But on the other hand, man is set that God's presence in the world is to be apart from the other animals. Throughout found in the "image" of man and the "sanc­ the story, God acts forcefully and without tity" of the Sabbath. The "image" stands for second thoughts. His word forthrightly ac­ what it is an image of. Because of this charac­ complishes its mission. But for the creation of teristic, the "image" tends to attract unto man, God stands aside and reflects within itself that which should be given to that for . Himself. After some deliberation, He an­ which it stands. Thus, in the story of nounces: "Let us make man in our image." In Nebuchadnezzar's image (Dan. 3:1-30), the the whole process of bringing heaven and three Hebrew youths were required to wor­ earth into being, the decision to give man ship the image that stood for Nebuchadnez­ God's image was the hardest one to make. To zar. The point, for our purposes, is that the set man apart within creation and to give him image stands for what it represents. Thus, dominion over it involved a risk that needed man as the "image" of God stands for God to be carefully considered. As a result of within heaven and earth while God remains God's decision, however, man is bound to outside. Man within creation is a signal that the world in two ways: he is part of the points outside to the Creator. Genesis 1 :27 world, and he is ruler of the world. But he is ruler of the world for God. He is not the Creator: he is His "image," His rep­ resentative; he is the one standing in for the "The doctrine of creation in Creator. That is the doctrine of creation in the Genesis 1 is a carefully considered Old Testament. It establishes a clearly de­ fined relationship between God, the world didactic, theological statement, and man within the world. Man's life is part to be distinguished from poetic of the life of the world, but man stands in the imagery, or 'scientific' investiga­ world as the "image" of God. Nothing within heaven and earth has life or dominion tion also found in the Old in or by itself. There are no powers hidden in Testament. " nature controlling the world. Neither imper­ sonallaws nor personal divine intermediaries run the world. God creates the world and man in His "image." clearly interprets the role of man as God's We now find ourselves in a position from image: He has dominion over the fish of the which to see the relationship of the Sabbath sea, the fowl of the air, and over the cattle and to God's creation. There is no question that over all the earth. Here all things in nature the logic of the story of creation in Genesis 1 have been divested of domain or power. That is to bring out the role of the Sabbath rest. was the characteristic way of seeing the But in order to understand this role, we world for ancient man. Among Israel's needed to see that God's creation is not a neighbors everything in nature had a mys­ "cosmos." God's presence in creation was terious divine power - especially the sun, not a past event. The moment God would the moon and the stars. But here, they are all cease from creating, the world· would in­ servants of man. Man is presented free from stantly desintegrate. The mountains, the sea, the powers of nature. the stars would leave their appointed func­ Twothingsareparticularlysttiking . On· t1bhsandlimitsand go -theiimerryway. The Volume 9, Number 4 61 doctrine of creation in Genesis 1 is a carefully the past. This is to deny the Old Testament considered didactic, theological statement, triumph over mythology. To believe in crea­ to be distinguished from poetic imagery, or tion is to believe that God creates "the "scientific" investigation also found in the world" each moment, and that if He did not, Old Testament. Also to be kept in mind is the world would collapse any moment. The that the story of creation carries on a clear-cut world is not an organism running on its own polemic against a mythological understand­ ruled by natural law. To believe that the ing of the world where brooks, mountains, world is ruled by natural or psychological animals, stars or trees have "powers" of their laws is idolatry, and that is what Genesis 1 is own. Here we have a secular world. God is against! The world is created by God. His clearly outside of it , but He left His mark in it rule is what keeps the stars in their orbits, the when He trusted man with His image. sea within its limits and the waters above The story starts with the creation oftime , a divided from the waters below. Man, living day, and ends with the creation of holy time, in the space between the waters, may rest the Sabbath. On the Sabbath, God finishes secure; he need not worry about Creation's His work and rests. How is this to be under­ falling apart. Mankind may rest because God stood? Is not this a contradiction? As noticed is doing His work. The world is secular; no above, Greek logic already found it to be divine power within it keeps it running. God such. Did He finish His work in the morning does. Therefore, people who trust God may and rest in the afternoon? No, God's creation rest. was completed with the blessed day. In other The literature of antiquity has many ver­ words, by resting on the seventh day, God sions of the story of the flood. The flood placed within creation holy time for man to serves as a warning that chaos is an ever­ rest in. That is the logic of the story: first God present possibility. In the mythological creates places or homes, and then, in the cor­ world of antiquity, the flood is associated responding second set of three, He creates with some divine oversight. Here the set lim­ what inhabits those homes. As a capstone for its assigned to the waters are broken, and the the two series of three , He creates a home for waters above and the waters below break man to remember that he is the "image" of loose and destroy humanity. In the Old Tes­ the Creator (see figure p. 62). Or better yet, tament story, however, it is quite clear that in He creates the Sabbath in order to guarantee the flood God has in no way lost control of to man that God's creation stands on the basis His creation. It is not the case that things of God's blessing. went berserk because God got distracted from His job of keeping the world going. he Sabbath is the sign God was engaged in a work ofjudgment . It is T of God's effective not insignificant that the one used by God to creative power. Just as the rainbow was the save humanity through the waters of destruc­ sign of the covenant with Noah, and circum­ tion was called Noah. All Hebrew names had cision was the sign of the covenant with Ab­ significant things to say about their bearers. raham, the Sabbath is the sign of the cove­ Noah means "rest." The significance of the nant with creation. God's creation is not a name is obvious. At a time when the forces of self-sustaining system maintained by inner chaos seemed to be robbing the world away self-winding mechanisms, eternal laws or from God's effective control, Noah was at personal intermediaries. Nature, as such, is ease. He rested. Contrary to all circumstan­ an abstraction about which the Old Testa­ tial evidence, God was still upholding His ment knows nothing at all. Theologically creation, even in the midst of the invasion of speaking, there is nothing in the world that the waters of chaos. That is why Noah was guarantees that a minute from now what we called Noah. He was the personification of call "the universe" is to be organized the way God's covenant with His creation. He rested it is organized this minute. To believe in secure in a world that was still in God's con­ creation is not to believe that God created the trol. world some years ago in some golden age of The seas may try to:roar, the {orces~Qf 62 Spectrum chaos may wish to break the ordinances of still upholds His own creation. The Sabbath the Creator, but God rests, and men and is the sign that this secular world, where God women may rest, because the power of God is absent, still is ruled by God.

The Biblical Story of the Creation of the World: A Literary Analysis of Its Structure "Science" at the Service of Theology

1st Day Gen. 1:3-5 4th Day Gen. 1 :14-19 Light and darkness The inhabitants oflight and darkness God creates a day God creates the greater light, the les- ser light and the stars to count days, seasons and years 2nd Day Gen. 1:6-8 5th Day Gen. 1 :20-23 The firmament The inhabitants of the water and the God creates the air space between the aIr waters above and below God creates the fish and the fowl

3rd Day Gen. 1:9-13 6th Day Gen. 1 :24-31 The land to stand on The inhabitants ofthe land God creates that which stands on the God creates all land animals and man, ground:vegetation and gives to all animals vegetation for food

7th Day Gen. 2:2-3 Holy time - the Blessed Day God finishes his work and rests

Gen. 1:1 Headline: In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth Gen. 2:1 Summary: Thus the heavens and the earth were finished Gen.2:4a Colophon: These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created Gen. 1:2 A poetic digression

NOTES AND REFERENCES* 1. As is well known, the Old Testament has two creation, but to the Exodus experience under God's versions of the ten commandments. In the saving power. Deut. 5:12-15. Deuteronomic version, the Sabbath is not related to 2. Different rabbis worked out different solutions. See Philo, On the Cherubim, 86-90, and Allegorical Interpre­ tation ifthe Law, I. 5-6. Also Exodos Rabbah, 30.9. * This essay is based on a lecture delivered on April 3. James B. Prichard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts 15,1977, in Seattle, at the Green Lake church Spring (Princeton: Princeton U ni versity Press, 1955), pp. Retreat. I wish to thank the members of the church 60-72. who invited me to be the speaker for their Spring 4. The image is found in the original Hebrew. Retreat, who by their assignment and their stimulat­ 5. Gen. 2:2 is a very obscure text, most difficult to ing conversations forced me to think again on this translate with certainty. It is clear, however, that there 9:11~s_ti2n. _ arearrcientpoeticexpressious:iuformiiig-thetext-. Responses from Readers

On Black Unions o the Editors: About of faith. Yet LaRondelle and the others have T three years ago a been at great pains to find Adventism agree­ black female was elected Student Association ing with Luther and Calvin. All this is in­ President at SMC, which has a very small teresting but is not the answer to Paxton. Try percentage of blacks. On a recent anony­ this: mous survey taken at the Seminary, 110-112 "Paxton, you have posed a false dilemma. students said they "would be happy to share We reject it. A third alternative, adopted by my church facilities or even my pulpit with Adventism, is to be based on scripture only. an SDA minister of a different skin color than It is true that there has been dialogue within mine." Only two respondents - one white Adventism on the faith issues, but the final and one black - gave no positive response. word has not yet been written. Hopefully, it The point is this: I hope that the move soon will be, based on some precise defini­ toward black unions will not make perma­ tions. In the meantime, recall that the Ad­ nent a separation which, in time, would cor­ ventist diversions from an incomplete Ref­ rect itself with the arrival of a more en­ ormation, relating to the Sabbath, the lightened generation. sanctuary, the state of the dead and Tim Crosby creationism, are of long standing and great Berrien Springs, Michigan importance. Have you thought of ' the shak­ ing of Protestantism'?" The rule: discuss the issue on your grounds, not on your opponent's grounds. On Paxton Richard B. Lewis Loma Linda University o the Editors: Hav­ T ing read the Paxton book, having attended the Loma Linda dis­ cussion session with Paxton, and now having read the Paxton material in SPECTRUM o the Editors: In all of (Vol. 9, No.3), I wish to express the thought T the controversy be­ that has dominated my mind throughout - a tween Geoffrey Paxton and his critics, there logical point perhaps appropriate for a can be no more luminous demonstration of nontheologian, an English teacher. the truth of Paxton's charge of perfectionism As Dr. LaRondelle suggests in his review, among Adventist leaders than was given by Paxton poses a false dilemma. Adventism, he Herbert Douglass in his denial of that charge says, is moving away from Reformation doc­ in SPECTRUM (Vol. 9, No.3): "C. M. trine towards Catholic doctrine on the item Maxwell, .. MQrris.Vel1den,L::twrence.M