Croatians: History, Language and Migration

Abstracts of the International Conference honouring 30 years of Croatian Studies at Macquarie University / Australia 5-7 February 2014

301984-2014 Croatians: History, Language and Migration

Abstracts of the International Conference honouring 30 years of Croatian Studies at Macquarie University / Sydney Australia 5-7 February 2014

Luka Budak editor

Croatian Studies Foundation Zaklada hrvatskih studija

PubLished by the Croatian Studies Foundation & Croatian Studies Centre, Macquarie University / Sydney, Australia 2014 Editor Luka L Budak

Advisory board d anijel Džino Nevenko Bartulin Walter F Lalic´ Natasha Levak sub-/Copy? Editing nevenko Bartulin

Design Ingrid Urh Graphic Design [email protected]

Print Macquarie Press, Sydney

Publishers Croatian Studies Centre Department of International Studies Faculty of Arts, Macquarie University Sydney NSW 2109, Australia Croatian Studies Foundation PO Box 1993 Macquarie Centre NSW 2113, Australia

For the Publishers Luka Budak, Director – Croatian Studies Centre John Gavljak, President – Croatian Studies Foundation

Circulation First edition: 100 copies

ISBN 978 0 646 91600 2

© 2014 Croatian Studies Centre / Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or translated in any form by print, photo-print, microfilm, microfiche or any other means without written permission from the publishers. Contents

Introduction 7 The social relevance of Croatian Studies at an Australian university BY L Budak & D DŽino

Conference Organisers 17

Croatian Studies Foundation / Zaklada hrvatskih studija 19

Croatian Studies Centre 21

Abstracts & Participants 23 6 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Introduction

The social relevance of Croatian Studies at an Australian university BY L Budak & D DŽino

7 8 Croatians: History, Language and Migration The social relevance of Croatian Studies at an Australian university Or: Why bother maintaining small humanistic disciplines in the age of financial cuts and rationalisation of academic departments and curricula?

Luka Budak Head of Croatian Studies Department of International Studies / Macquarie University Danijel DŽino ARC Postdoctoral Fellow Department of Ancient History / Macquarie University

The very idea of organising a conference on Croatians and in Australia may seem strange to an outsider. Yet, the strong cultural ties between Australia and Croatia, established and maintained by numerous Croatian migrants and generations of Australian-Croatians who incorporate the Croatian cultural heritage as an important part of their Australian identity, set the stage for such an event. The long existence of Croatian Studies at Macquarie University undoubtedly belongs to the very core of those cultural ties established between Australia and Croatia. Certainly, there would be no recognition of the and consequently no study of the Croatian language or Croatian Studies at the university level in Australia without the consistent implementation of Australian state policies of multiculturalism throughout the 1970s. The synergy between a strong and vibrant migrant community and benevolent state policies enabled Croatian language and culture to be studied at Macquarie University as an academic discipline, beginning in 1983. The very fact that today we mark three decades of Croatian Studies shows not only its resilience and endurance through robust community support, but also highlights the need for the continuing existence of this type of program within Australian academia. From its inception until the present day, Croatian Studies at Macquarie continues to demonstrate its social relevance. This social relevance is not limited to Croatian- but also extends to the wider

Introduction 9 Australian community and academic networks in and outside Australia. The social role of Croatian Studies is fulfilled through the research output of the Croatian Studies Centre; the organisation of conferences; the publication of the annual Croatian Studies Review; scholarly collaboration and exchanges with Croatian universities; and, from 2014, partnership with the Department of Ancient History in archaeological excavations in Croatia.

Croatian Studies – What are we talking about? Research into the history, language and and Croatians who live in neighbouring countries (mostly ), as well as the networks of Croatian diasporic communities in Western Europe and overseas countries such as Australia, New Zealand, USA or Canada is a large but insufficiently studied field. It is frequently missing from the macro-narratives of European or Mediterranean (but also American, Canadian, South American, Australian or New Zealand) history and culture, representing a ‘missing link’ in the understanding of their past and the present. Croatian culture, both national and trans-national, provides a unique example for any researcher in the field of humanities. As a whole, it presents a mosaic of different narratives of the past and present written from the perspective of subaltern, peripheral identities – which are often either fully disregarded, or perceived by the Western observers in a very particular way through the discourse on Balkanism.1 The history of the regions inhabited by the Croatians in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina becomes increasingly valuable for an understanding of the past and present, due to its continuing position as a fluid and interactive frontier-zone between different empires. This position of a ‘permanent frontier’ enables a unique insight into the functioning and dynamics of empires – political super-organisms which shaped the human past as well as the human present in its current globalised shape. The change of paradigm in recent decades shows that understanding of ancient and modern empires can be achieved through research of their peripheries, rather than focusing solely on their political metropoles as previously thought.2 Significant material and cultural heritage deriving from ancient Roman and post-Roman and Pannonia, followed by the medieval period of the Croatian kingdom and Archiregnum Hungaricum,3 provide plentiful material for research, even if there were no other periods to follow.

1. Balkanism, as a complex way of perceiving and imagining the inhabitants of the former Ottoman European possessions by western travellers and scholars (comparable to Said’s better known Orientalism) was perhaps best defined by M. Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (New York, 1997). 2. See M. Hardt & A. Negri, Empire (Cambridge, 2000) or H. Münkler, Empires: The Logic of World Domination from Ancient Rome to United States (Cambridge & Malden, 2007). 3. ‘High kingdom of ’, the term describing the medieval political commonwealth united in the person of Hungarian king, to which most of Central Europe and the western Balkans belonged until 1526, including Croatia from 1102.

10 Croatians: History, Language and Migration However, the demise of medieval civilisation in Southeastern and Central Europe led to the establishment of a frontier zone between the three empires (Triplex confinium4) – the Habsburgs, Ottomans and Venetian Republic – over the areas of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Those imperial powers fought each other in a life and death struggle but also interacted through complex social networks precisely through this frontier zone, thus directly affecting the construction of modern Croatian culture and identity. In one way, we could say that Croatians are one of the most multicultural nations in Europe, displaying a fascinating cultural diversity, which is deeply embedded in the construction of narratives of a common Croatian identity. Different regions selectively incorporate and manipulate cultural templates of the Mediterranean, Central Europe and Ottoman Europe together with the shared inheritance of the Croatian language as one of the Slav(on)ic languages. The 19th and 20th centuries established the Croatian nation as a member of the European family of nations, but also brought about an internal political split between the supporters of Yugoslavism (i.e. political inclusion in a broader South Slav(on)ic state) and Croatian political independence. Simmering in the era of the unitary and Serb-dominated South Slav kingdom in the 1920s and 1930s, this internal strife culminated in the Second World War with internecine and bloody warfare between Croatians belonging to the different totalitarian ideologies of fascism and communism. This inter-Croatian conflict illustrated in the best way Hobsbawm’s phrase about this era as ‘the age of the extremes’.5 The victorious communists exacted revenge on their opponents after 1945, continuing the vicious circle of violence started in 1941 for a few more years. The communists established Croatia as one of the federal units within the Yugoslav federation, which provided much more autonomy than Croatia ever had after the establishment of a common South Slav state, apart from the short period between 1939 and 1941, when Croatia was established as a special administrative unit within the Yugoslav kingdom.6 At the same time, however, the communists prevented any attempt to allow debate on the self-determination of Croatians in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The fall of communism and the wars of Yugoslav succession ended with Croatia’s full independence. This outcome also brought constitutional equality (which is not necessarily seen in political practice) to the Croatians in independent Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatian accession to the EU in 2013 opened an

4. See e.g. D. Roksandić & N. Štefanec (eds.), Constructing Border Societies on the Triplex Confinium. International Project Conference Papers (Graz, 9-12. prosinca 1998.). CEU History Department Working Paper Series 4 (Budapest, 2000). See more about the project Triplex Confinium (in Croatian) on http://www.ffzg.unizg.hr/pov/zavod/ triplex/homepagetch.htm (last access 31/12/2013). 5. E. Hobsbawm, The Age of the Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914-1991 (New York, 1994). 6. The borders of the Croatian banovina (1939-1941) included majority Croatian ethnic regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Srijem (Syrmia), but not Istria, which was under Italian rule until 1945.

Introduction 11 entirely new chapter in Croatian history, with consequences still to be seen. An understanding of Croatia and Croatians is inseparable from looking into the shifting narratives of diversity and the unity of the Croatian identity. The simultaneous existence of Croatian sameness and difference is shown, for example, in language as one of the most important identity- markers. The struggle for the recognition and separateness of the Croatian language from Serbian, Serbo-Croatian,7 or Bosnian (in contemporary Bosnia and Herzegovina) is closely related to the construction and social reproduction of Croatian nationhood. Yet, at the same time, the Croatian language displays a stunning diversity and richness of local dialects which are also used to construct and maintain local and regional identities. Language becomes an even more important social tool when used for the reconstruction of Croatness and identity-construction of trans-national identities amongst Croatian migrants and their descendants in overseas countries. Almost as important as language are Croatian perceptions and imagination of their own past – especially the early medieval period. The past is an essential building block used in the construction of Croatian identity, which (with expected additional distortions and manipulations) translates into identity-narratives of Croatian diasporic communities, including the identity of Croatians in Australia.

The Papers Croatian Studies encompass a wide range of disciplines and sub-disciplines in the field of humanities. The diversity and multidisciplinarity of Croatian Studies is best revealed in the profile of researchers and presenters attending this very conference, ranging from ancient history, archaeology, through philosophy, medieval/early modern/modern history, anthropology, sociology, linguistics, politics, diaspora studies, migration studies, identity, nationalism, politics and international relationships, literature, etc. Antiquity and the Middle Ages played important roles in the construction of Croatian national identity in the 19th and 20th centuries, and I was right in my expectations that several papers in the conference discuss these periods. The ancient Delmatae were staunch opponents of the Roman conquest, so it is not surprising that the Romans named Dalmatia after this indigenous group. Their drinking habits might have indeed been connected with their resistance to the Roman expansion, as shown by Barnett – and, if he is right, then we might even say that it was thanks to beer-drinking that Dalmatia got its name. The site of Bribirska glavica in Dalmatia is one of the best hidden archaeological secrets of Croatia with uninterrupted habitation from the Neolithic to the Venetian capture of the Dalmatian hinterland from

7. The official term for the artificial linguistic construction embracing the languages of the , Croatians, Bosnian Muslims, and Montenegrins in Socialist Federal .

12 Croatians: History, Language and Migration the Ottomans in the late 17th century. Macquarie University is privileged to be the first Australian university ever to start archaeological excavations on this enormously important archaeological site in Croatia, which is discussed in the paper by Ghica and Džino. As previously mentioned, the medieval period is very important for the identity-construction of the Croatian (but also many other European) nation(s) and such relevance of the past to the present can be seen in the destruction of medieval architecture in Croatia during the war in the 1990s, as shown by Vedriš. Humanism and the early modern era provide real intellectual foundations for the forging of modern Croatian identity. During the humanist era, intellectual communities in Dalmatia and the continental Croatian cities were participants in the wider intellectual networks which caused the process of the dissolution of European medieval civilisation and the formation of the modern West. To these intellectual networks also belonged Nicolaus of Modrussa (or Nikola Modruški), who is discussed by Baltussen. Engaging with a slightly later period Premerl provides insight into the narratives of 17th century ecclesiastical/political elites – their perceptions and constructions of history, state and national identity, self- representation and politics. Simončič on the other hand reveals inseparable links between clothing and the perceptions and indication of identity of the ‘Other’ at the end of the 16th century. She analyses the persistence of specific clothing identity-characteristics of Croatian inhabitants as perceived in the works of Cesare Vecellio. The Romantic era of the 19th century was the period when the Croatian nation was constructed, as one of Anderson’s ‘imagined communities’.8 The papers on the Croatian national anthem by Pavković, and the Croatian poet and politician Ivan Mažuranić by Zlatar only scratch the surface of this fascinating period when Croatian intellectual and political elites started to articulate the discourse on Croatian identity and nationhood. Similar in tune to these is the paper of Stolac, which reveals the use of Croatian maritime terminology as a tool for expression and construction of Croatian identity in the 19th century. Juxtaposed to this era is the literary genius of Miroslav Krleža, who dominated the Croatian literary scene for a large part of the 20th century, discussed by Vladiv-Glover. Krleža used his witty cynicism towards the Croatian imperial Habsburg past to engage in the discourse on Croatian Yugoslavism, (i.e. the construction of Croatian identity within the wider political framework of South Slav state-construction) which he wholeheartedly supported.

8. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (London & New York, 1991); E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1992). However, the ideas of Anderson and Hobsbawm have recently come under attack by a new generation of scholars who trace the origins of European nations to earlier periods, cf. A. Gat, Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism (Cambridge, 2013) or C. Hirschi, The Origins of Nationalism: An Alternative History from Ancient Rome to Early Modern Germany (Cambridge, 2012).

Introduction 13 Croatian politics in the later 20th and early 21st century were, and are, strongly affected by the perceptions and interpretations of the ideological conflict and bloodshed that occurred between Croatians in the Second World War and immediately after it. Bartulin presents conclusions of his recent book about the intellectual and ideological origins of racial theory in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), 1941-1945. Drapač goes to the other side, by looking at Croatian women in the resistance movement in the Second World War. More recent history is also touched on – in particular Croatian émigré organisations discussed by Sopta, and the chronology of events leading to the establishment of independent Croatia, traced by Nazor. International involvement in the conflict in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina 1991-1995 is analysed by Vranić, while the Croatian democratic parliamentary system is discussed by Tolić. The Croatian future seems to be firmly bound with the future of the European Union after the 2013 accession to this supra-national political union, so that the insights from EU parliamentarian Tomašić represent the first hand insight of an eye-witness to this new period of Croatian history. The conference also explores the field of migration-studies, focusing in particular on the Croatians in Australia. Lalić revisits the Croatian participation in the forgotten Kalgoorlie racial riots of 1934; Kosovich discusses demographic aspects of Croatian migration and settlement in Australia before 1900; and Šutalo listens to personal narratives of the Croatian migrants in Australia by dissecting their autobiographies. In addition to these papers, Mesarić-Žabčić discusses the phenomenon of chain migration of Croatian immigrants from Dalmatia to Australia during the period from the late 19th and 20th century. Her paper focuses in particular on the regional identities of Croatian migrants, their translation and reconstruction in a new environment and their impact on construction of Croatian diasporic identities in Australia. Budak analyses communal narratives of the . He discussess the formation and maintenance of focused political discourse behind diasporic re-constructions of Croatian identity on a communal level in Australia before Croatian independence in 1991. Linguistics is also present in the conference. Hill includes in his paper a survey of sex and gender in European languages with an emphasis on the Croatian language. The social role of the Croatian language as a means and strategical positioning in identity-construction amongst Australian- Croatians is a topic of several papers such as those of Hlavač, Novak and Cvikić. On the other hand, Levak concentrates more on approaches to learning Croatian as a second language, through coupling Australian students with native speakers of Croatian from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. To return to the question from the title of this short introduction: Why bother maintaining small humanistic disciplines in this age of financial

14 Croatians: History, Language and Migration cuts and rationalization of academic departments and curricula? Croatia is a small nation, with some 4.5 million living in Croatia, 500,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina and ca. 3 million in numerous diasporic communities throughout the world, including 125,000 in Australia. Croatians have neither the population of China, nor the power and influence of the United States; they possess neither the economic potentials of India or Brazil, nor the cultural traditions of Japan, Germany, Italy or France. So, why then have Croatian Studies at an Australian university in the era of utilitarian academia, which carefully measures the commercial and practical value of the subjects which will be taught at universities? Perhaps the answer is in the diversity of Croatian Studies, which touch on many relevant subjects within the field of humanities, such as the European and Mediterranean past, contemporary politics, Slav(on)ic languages and literatures, migration or identity. Small countries and small nations cannot be self-sufficient – they need to interact and engage with their neighbours. In conclusion, it is not difficult to see why small disciplines, such as Croatian Studies, are a necessary connecting tissue of different scholarly disciplines and sub-disciplines. The Department of International Studies at Macquarie University is a perfect host for Croatian Studies providing necessary connections and synergy with studies of other languages and cultures. Continuing interest on the part of students and plans for the future, such as collaboration with the Department of Ancient History in the project of archaeological excavations in Croatia, justify the existence of Croatian Studies at a modern Australian university such as Macquarie, and bear witness to its continuing social relevance in the past 30 years. Hopefully, only the first 30 years.

Introduction 15 16 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Conference Organisers

Croatian Studies Foundation / Zaklada hrvatskih studija

Croatian Studies Centre, Macquarie University Sydney

Croatian Studies Foundation Zaklada hrvatskih studija

17 18 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Croatian Studies Foundation

Croatian Studies at Macquarie University in Sydney are the oldest studies of the Croatian language, Croatian culture and outside Croatia. They were established in 1983. On the recommendation of the lecturers in Croatian Studies at that time, the Croatian Studies Foundation of Australia and New Zealand, CSF (Croatian: Hrvatska znanstvena zaklada Australije i Novog Zelanda, HZZ) was founded in August 1984. The CSF is comprised of numerous Croatian organisations, clubs, institutions and individuals Australia-wide. Croatian is one of the top twelve European languages spoken in Australia and therefore the popularity of the study of the Croatian language is not surprising. Since the establishment of Croatian Studies, more than 2,000 Australians of different backgrounds and of different ages have studied Croatian, and the number of enrolments in the last three years has been in modest increase. In 2011 CSF shortened its name to Croatian Studies Foundation, modifying the Croatian title to Zaklada hrvatskih studija. The main aims of the Foundation are to provide financial support to maintain the operational continuity of the Croatian Studies Centre at Macquarie University for present and future generations of Croatian Australians. The Foundation also promotes the study of Croatian language, literature and culture among Australians in order to enable future generations to participate in the program and develop teachers, lecturers, translators and other Croatian language specialists. Further aims of the Foundation are to enable the continuation of research and publication activities of the Croatian Studies Centre, and to organise conferences, seminars, workshops and lectures which contribute to a better understanding of Croatians, their language and Croatian history and culture.

Conference Organisers 19 CSF motto

The poem Hrvatska (Croatia) by Drago Ivaniševic´, on the bond between Croatian language and identity, was adopted as the motto of the Croatian Studies Foundation in 1984.

Hrvatska Croatia Ni brda nisu Neither are the hills ni doline, ni rijeke, ni more, nor valleys, nor rivers, nor the sea, ni oblaci nisu, neither the clouds, ni kiša, ni snijeg nije nor the rain, nor the snow moja Hrvatska. my Croatia. Jer Hrvatska nije zemlja, For Croatia is not land, kamen, voda, rock or water, Hrvatska je riječ koju naučih Croatia is the words I learnt od majke from my mother i ono u riječi mnogo dublje and that much deeper od riječi; than words can express; i ono dublje s Hrvatskom and that deeper binds me me veže, to Croatia, s Hrvatskom Hrvata Croatian with Croatia s patnjama njinim with her suffering, sa smijehom i nadom with laughter and hope, s ljudima me veže binds me with people te ja kao Hrvat so as a Croatian I am a brother brat sam sviju ljudi. to all peoples. I kud god idem sa mnom And wherever I go Croatia je Hrvatska! is with me!

Drago IvaniŠeviĆ Trieste 1907-Zagreb 1981

20 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Croatian Studies Centre

In 1994 the Croatian Studies Centre was established within the School of Modern Languages at Macquarie University. Following several reorganisations within the university, the Centre now resides within the Department of International Studies. The Centre provides learning programs for Croatian language, culture and history at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The Centre also has a comprehensive library of Croatian publications and books, and provides an archive facility for the CSF. The Centre is engaged in academic research and publication activities, and supports and organises conferences and symposia.

Enrolment In the last two years, the average number of student enrolments per year has exceeded 100, which demonstrates the growing level of interest in learning the Croatian language.

Publications The Centre’s periodical publication is the peer-refereed multidisciplinary journal Croatian Studies Review (CSR) which was founded in 1997 and is published once a year in collaboration with the University of Split, Croatia. The journal focuses on issues dealing with Croatian culture, language, linguistics, history, art, literature, migration, identity, transnational and postcolonial studies, Croatians in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatian minorities in European countries (Hungary, Slovenia, , , Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Italy) and Croatian communities in European and other countries. The journal has an international editorial board and is listed in the Ulrich periodicals index and listed on Hrčak (Portal of scientific journals of Croatia) and CEEOL (Central and Eastern European Online Library) databases of scholarly journals, where the articles are available for free download. CSR is published in English in order to enable the Centre’s research to be available to Croatian- and non-Croatian-speaking readers. The Centre has, independently and in conjunction with institutions in Croatia, published over 20 books, as part of university projects with the co-operation of the Croatian community in Australia and New Zealand.

Conference Organisers 21 Conferences The Centre has organised six international conferences – in 1988, 1993, 1997, 2003, 2009 and the present one in 2014 as part of the 30th Anniversary of Croatian Studies at Macquarie University.

Research The Centre’s researchers have participated in a number of projects together with the Foundation and the wider Croatian community. Highlights include the presentation of Croatian Studies at Language Expos in (1992), (1994) and Sydney (1996), together with participation in a number of conferences, summer schools and other seminars in Croatia.

22 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Abstracts & Participants

Abstracts appear in alphabetical order by author and represent Papers accepted by the Editor and Advisory Board during its review process in October/November 2013.

23 24 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Nicolas of Modrus’ De Consolatione (1465-66): A new ‘science’ of grief management?

Han Baltussen Hughes Professor in Classics School of Humanities / University of Adelaide [email protected]

In this paper I will discuss a recently rediscovered work on grief and consolation, written by Nicolas de Korta, bishop of Modrus (Dalmatia/Croatia). It was first brought to light by McClure,9 but only published recently.10 Nicholas’ work deserves our attention, because it concerns an important stepping stone in the story of how we can trace attitudes to grief between antiquity and today. It also forms an important stage in the reception story of ancient consolations. McClure highlights especially its approach, the information it provides and its focus.11 As a handbook it attempts to give a comprehensive set of tools for offering solace. It concentrates on bereavement alone, and shows which works on consolation were known, at least by name, by the mid-fifteenth century.12 The overall perspective is framed in the manner of a ‘clinical’ context and shows quite subtle psychological insights, emphasising the importance of relatives and friends in the process of bereavement. According to McClure, ‘Nicolaus truly creates a science’.13 I will examine this claim and the work’s place in the consolation tradition.

9. G.W. McClure, ‘A little known Renaissance Manual of Consolation. Nicolaus Modrussiense’s De Consolatione 1465-1466’, in J. Hankins, J. Monfasani & F. Purnell Jr. (eds) Supplementum Festivum. Studies in Honor of Paul Oskar Kristeller (Binghamton & New York, 1987), 247-77. 10. N. Jovanović, ‘Nicolai Modrussiensis De Consolatione Liber’, Hrvatska književna baština 1 (2002), 55-251. 11. McClure, ‘A little known Renaissance’, 250-70. 12. McClure, ‘A little known Renaissance’, 251. 13. McClure, ‘A little known Renaissance’, 263.

Abstracts & Participants 25 Alcoholic beverages and resistance to Roman imperialism in Dalmatia

Charles Barnett Postgraduate Student Department of Ancient History / Macquarie University [email protected]

Two distinct habits relating to alcohol consumption in ancient Europe can be identified in the ancient sources; one relating to Mediterranean wine consumption, synonymous with Greco-Roman civilization, and the other to the use of primarily beer, cider and mead, prevalent amongst Continental European groups. As Greco-Roman culture spread across Europe, being reshaped and adjusted to Roman imperial discourse, wine was adopted by many indigenous small-scale societies. Certain groups rejected wine as a cultural marker, including the Delmatae, who inhabited the hinterland of Dalmatia, modern day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Archaeological evidence relating to vessels associated with the trade and consumption of wine indicates that the Delmatae rejected the Greco-Roman habit, and kept their own, while their neighbours readily adopted wine consumption. The aim of this paper is to investigate the cultural significance of alcoholic beverages in ancient Europe, and their role in establishing identity and otherness among certain indigenous Iron Age societies. Groups such as the Delmatae resisted Roman imperialism by holding onto certain cultural markers of their own, and rejecting particular foreign ones. This paper will investigate why certain groups were willing to adopt wine while others, such as the Delmatae, appear to have resisted it as a cultural marker. The hypothesis being that alcoholic beverages played an important role in the construction of group identity among certain Iron Age societies, and can be identified as symbols of resistance to imperialism.

26 Croatians: History, Language and Migration The racial idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and theory

Nevenko Bartulin Independent Researcher [email protected]

This paper presents the main conclusions of my book.14 This book examines the intellectual and ideological origins of racial theory in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), 1941-1945. In contrast to the prevailing historiographical view, which has reduced the subject of race theory in the NDH to the question of a pragmatic Ustasha accommodation to the dominant political and ideological influence of National Socialism, this book highlights the domestic roots of the NDH’s racial idea (a term encompassing, in the context of this book, race theory, ethnogenesis, racial anthropology and racialism/racism). Croatian national identity in the NDH was constructed upon the foundations of race, language, culture and history; all four criteria were considered equally important and complementary. The NDH’s racial idea was, in many respects, a by-product of the supranational ideology of Yugoslavism. In order to disprove the idea of South Slavic ethnolinguistic-racial homogeneity, anti-Yugoslavist nationalist intellectuals (both before and during the NDH) sought to prove the existence of a distinct Croatian nation, separate from other according to its unique ethnolinguistic origins and dominant racial types. Accordingly, in the NDH the were presented as a cultured, Indo-European warrior nation, which consisted of the main European racial types – Nordic, Dinaric, Alpine, Mediterranean and East Baltic. The Dinaric, Nordic and, to a lesser extent, Alpine races were considered the dominant and most important Croatian racial types.

14. N. Bartulin, The Racial Idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and Theory (Brill Academic Publishers, 2014).

Abstracts & Participants 27 Croatian Australians’ struggle for recognition and identity

Luka Budak Head of Croatian Studies Department of International Studies / Macquarie University [email protected]

Like many other Croatian migrants throughout the western world, Croatians arriving in Australia after 1945 directed their political, social, cultural and intellectual efforts to the struggle for Croatian national independence. They took up the challenge to engender a Croatian identity in Australia. These migrants set the nationalist direction of the community and founded a plethora of Croatian associations, community clubs, sporting and cultural organisations, welfare associations, churches and language schools. These communal institutions established and perpetuated the Croatian identity in an urban environment, which encouraged multiculturalism and cultural pluralism and social ideals. The efforts and achievements of post-WW2 migrants were immensely boosted by the new waves of Croatian migrants, who arrived in Australia in the 1960s and 1970s. Besides being important meeting places, Croatian community clubs were home to many social, cultural and sporting groups and events. The activities in these clubs helped to maintain the rich cultural traditions of Croatian migrants as well as to reproduce and promote the Croatian identity in Australia. For Croatians in Australia, football (soccer) has been more than just a sport. Through football clubs named ‘Croatia’, they expressed their aspirations for affirmation of the and contributed to the struggle for independence and sovereignty in their home country, achieved in the early 1990s. Croatian Catholic congregations and priests in Australia were also involved in promoting Croatian ethnicity, language and cultural heritage. The Croatian language has a special role in Croatian culture and in preserving Croatian identity. Croatian folk dance, music and song, have been a large part of Croatian migrants’ lives, and folklore has been a very important medium for promoting Croatian identity. Thanks to numerous well-conceived and constructive projects and efforts, the Croatian community had developed its ethnic identity by the late 1970s, and in the early 1980s fully identified itself as a distinct group.

28 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Croatian women’s resistance in the Second World War

Vesna Drapacˇ Associate Professor School of History and Politics / University of Adelaide [email protected]

Iconic images of the woman resister, or partizanka, helped to shape the representation of the anti-fascist struggle in post-war Yugoslavia. This paper will argue that resistance historiography has not taken full account of the wider significance of women’s numerically strong presence in the movement. Resistance history dealt primarily with its military and political successes and the near exclusive focus on the masculine, heroic ideal resulted in women’s roles being treated in a parallel historiography. Women were marginal in the official Yugoslav historiography of the war when the Partisan generation wielded its greatest power and they became even more invisible when the process of the demythologisation of resistance began to unfold. This marginalisation has distorted our understanding of both Croatian resistance and collaboration. Elsewhere detailed studies of women and the history of everyday life during the war led to a greater emphasis on the necessary preconditions and wider social context of successful resistance. Elaborate taxonomies of opposition and dissent – as well as complicity and conformism – emerged in Germany, for example. Similarly, in France, discussion of the ‘ambiguities’ of life under occupation led to a recognition that resistance could and did take many forms. Drawing on collections of interviews and memoirs, this paper revisits an important element of wartime history which has been manipulated and made to serve political ends since 1945. It will demonstrate that from the 1980s revisionists have been more interested in their own equally ideologised reading of the war than in the nature and meaning of action in the war itself. This paper approaches the history of Croatian women’s resistance within a comparative framework of analysis, and applies terms that are common currency in Western European historiography to Croatia. It argues that the absence of a strong social history of Yugoslav resistance that acknowledges the gendered underpinning of the established historiography has made it vulnerable to revisionism and has distorted our understanding of what it meant to resist in wartime Croatia.

Abstracts & Participants 29 Archaeological excavations at Bribirska glavica: An overview

Victor Ghica Lecturer Department of Ancient History / Macquarie University [email protected] Danijel DŽino ARC Postdoctoral Fellow Department of Ancient History / Macquarie University [email protected]

The occupation of the locality of Bribirska glavica, a hill near Skradin in Dalmatia, is well documented from Neolithic times. In the Iron Age, the hillfort site was inhabited by the community of the Varvarini positioned on a fringe of the Liburnian Iron Age cultural group. From the 2nd century BC the Varvarini came under indirect Roman influence, probably as their allies (socii). After the establishment of the Roman province (first called Illyricum, later Dalmatia) in later 1st century BC/1st century AD Varvaria becomes peregrine civitas in the Scardonitan conventus, and later Roman municipium. The site was inhabited interruptedly under Ostrogothic and Byzantine rule in late antiquity and during the Dalmatian ‘dark ages’ in the 7th-9th century. In the High Middle Ages the hillfort of Bribirska glavica becomes an important regional centre of the medieval Croatian kingdom: the centre of županija Breberi. In the interregnum between the Árpád and Anjou royal dynasties, the town is the capital of the Croatian ban (viceroy) Pavao I Šubić (1273-1312). Pavao I ruled, as de facto independent prince, over Croatia and Bosnia, to be succeeded by his son Mladen II (1312-1322). The present paper traces the history of the archaeological excavations carried out at Bribir, from the first digs of Fr. Lujo Marun (1910- 1913) to the campaigns organised by the Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments (Muzej Hrvatskih arheoloških spomenika) in Split (1959-1980). The newly launched Macquarie University-based ‘Bribir Excavation Project’ starting in April 2014 is also briefly delineated in the presentation.

30 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Sex and gender in European languages

Peter M Hill Professor (retired) Institut für Slavistik / Universität Hamburg Visiting Fellow College of Arts and Social Sciences / Australian National University [email protected]

Gender is a feature of most European languages. The exceptions are the non- Indo-European languages like Hungarian, Turkish and Finnish, and English, which has lost gender as a category in nouns. Like other grammatical categories, gender requires that other parts of an utterance ‘agree’ with the noun. Gender and sex normally coincide in nouns that designate animate beings, but there are exceptions, such as epicene nouns like pas, which is masculine but can designate a dog of either sex, or mačka, which is feminine, but can designate a cat of either sex. Problems have arisen in recent times when women have entered professions previously reserved for men. Some languages – such as Croatian – have little difficulty in forming feminine agentive nouns (ministrica, premijerka) and they are in general use, with certain reservations, while in some other languages, such as Russian or Italian, either there are difficulties forming feminine forms or there is much hesitation in using them. In Russian, profesorka is possible but would never be used, in Italian it is possible to say la ministra but in fact normally the masculine form, il ministro, is used even when referring to a woman.

Abstracts & Participants 31 Attitudes and practices of Croatian-language interpreters and translators

Jim Hlavacˇ Lecturer Translation and Interpeting Studies / Monash University [email protected]

This paper focuses on the practices of Croatian-language interpreters and translators, most of whom work outside Croatia, in Australia. This paper firstly describes attributes pertaining to interpreting and translation in mainly Anglophone countries, as well as the norms that interpreters and translators typically follow for professional and ethical reasons. Of particular interest is the status of Croatian in the provision of interpreting/translation services in overseas countries and how Croatian- language interpreters and translators position themselves vis-a-vis the interpreting/translation sector, now that this language is widely-accepted as a distinct language. Thirty-one informants were questioned of whom 16 held interpreter or translator accreditation for Croatian only, while 15 held accreditation for Croatian in addition to Bosnian and/or Serbian language. Research results show that there are differences between the two groups in regard to verbal accommodation and readiness to consider interpreting or translation assignments with outdated or unofficial language designations. Almost all informants followed common norms in relation to checking the languge of interlocutors’ speech or that of a text as well as refusing assignments in a language for which they do not have accreditation. Further, data is presented on informants’ experiences with clients who enquire about their ethnic background and proficiency as native-speakers of Croatian. Interpreters and translators for the Croatian language represent an interesting sample group who are language experts and practitioners dealing with marketplace needs and everyday clients’ attitudes. This research is timely with Croatia’s recent accession to the European Union and the elevation of Croatian as the EU’s newest official language.

32 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Language maintenance of Croatian in Australia and language-use amongst second generation Croatian-Australians

Jim Hlavacˇ Lecturer Translation and Interpeting Studies / Monash University [email protected]

This presentation discusses the concept of language maintenance – the continuing use of a minority language in an immigrant, transposed setting. In Australia, Croatian is such a language, and it records a mid-high rate of language maintenance (85%) according to census statistics. Discussion then focuses on data from 100 second-generation Croatian-speakers (those born in Australia to overseas-born parents) who make up 35% of the number of Croatian-speakers in Australia. Language maintenance (use of Croatian) or shift (use of English) is framed within an examination of language use in the following sociolinguistic domains: home/family; personal/intimate; leisure/social life/religion; media; workplace/ shopping/neighbourhood; education; spouse/partner; (future) children and a value cluster of overt language attitudes. Second-generation informants are, by self-declaration, English- dominant in terms of proficiency. Use of Croatian is generally functionally restricted and reserved for communication with members of the first generation. Thus, in the home/family domain, Croatian is the dominant code used. Informants also frequently report that they use not one, but two languages in many situations. Therefore, the language combination Croatian and English is used in a number of situations such as leisure, religious activities and sometimes even the workplace. Both languages are also frequently used in the personal and media domains. Few informants have children and therefore projections about language use with the succeeding, ‘third’ generation remain hypothetical. Language shift to English without complete abandonment of Croatian as a language with some symbolic value and limited functional use reflects second generation members’ movement across various spheres of activity and their multiple identities.

Abstracts & Participants 33 A statistical survey of Croatian settlers in colonial Australia

Steven Kosovich Independent Researcher

This paper summarises some of the author’s research on demographic aspects of Croatian migration and settlement in Australia before 1900. The research collates basic population data, in the absence of specific census data on Croatian settlers in the colonial period when they were classified as Austrians or Austro- in official Australian statistics. The data is crucial for a demographic profile of Croatian settlers and the overall social history of earlier Croatian immigrants in Australia. Approximately one thousand permanent or long-term settlers came to Australia between 1850 and 1900 and about half became naturalised. The research concentrates on the latter portion as the more detailed and accessible primary source is naturalisation records, supplemented by birth, death and marriage indexes, electoral rolls, ship passenger lists and directories. The data collated includes: place of origin, arrival date, age, abode and movement, occupation, marital status, marriage details, offspring, literacy, naturalisation date. Two features of Croatian migration to Australia in the 19th century stand out. Firstly, Croatian settlers came, almost exclusively, from a narrow band along the coastline and the nearby islands of the eastern Adriatic Sea from Trieste to Kotor, mainly peasant farmers or seafarers with a lower socio-economic background. Secondly, there were very few female settlers, resulting with low level of marriages between Croats, and a significantly, small number of marriages between the offspring of Croatian male settlers. These two characteristics, in the context of time and space, i.e. when they migrated and where they settled, were important factors in the playing out of the twin issues of their identity and assimilation.

34 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Kalgoorlie racial riots 1934: Destruction and death at the Goldfields

Walter F LaliC´ Visiting Research Fellow Croatian Studies Centre, Department of International Studies / Macquarie University [email protected]

The celebration of Australia Day in the major gold mining centres of Kalgoorlie and Boulder in 1934 ended with the largest racial riots on the continent during the last century. The mob attacked Southern European settlers destroying their commercial and private property. Three persons were killed, including a young Croatian miner from Dalmatia, Josip Katich; while over ninety were arrested, and gold mines were closed for a week. The damage was estimated at around £100,000. As a consequence, a significant number of migrants left the Goldfields for the more secure coastal area. The riots were international news and were reported by the Croatian regional press as well. The event left a deep scar that took decades to heal and was a major cause of insecurity that undermined the social fabric of this important mining area made up of diverse communities. ‘Foreigners’ were marginalised and discriminated against in this settlement, established only several decades earlier. They did not have equal access to work as their ‘British’ neighbours did. However with the maturing of the society and corresponding social and economic changes, the public image of the Eastern Goldfields is significantly different now. This presentation aims to tell the story of this tragic event with the intent to draw it out of obscurity and to re-position it on the historical map. It will indicate social and economic factors that over several decades germinated this dark moment in Australian history, including immigration policy and prevalent attitudes to the marginalised Southern European migrants.

Abstracts & Participants 35 Building cultural understanding and personal identity through tandem learning utilising virtual and online learning spaces

Natasha Levak PhD Graduate School of Linguistics, Adult and Specialist Education / University of Southern Queensland [email protected]

Learning a second language while living in a country where the target language is not spoken natively by the majority of its residents presents many issues for students. Cross-cultural interaction has been identified as providing many benefits to second language learners, such as providing learners with an opportunity to familiarise themselves with the target culture and establish relationships with members of the target culture. This process may also help in reducing culture shock in learners who visit the country for the first time, as they have had an opportunity to gain current knowledge of the target culture and have also begun to develop and adjust their personal identity and their perspectives of the target culture. This paper reports on findings relating to the benefits of cross- cultural interaction using virtual and online learning spaces for cross- cultural exchange and identity formation. Initially the scope of the study and its methodology are outlined. The study involved learners of Croatian from two Australian universities: Macquarie University and the University of Queensland, and learners of English from Split University in Croatia and the University of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The experiences of students specifically relating to the benefits of cross-cultural communication for cultural learning and identity building are then discussed. Implications are made in relation to the processes that need to be put in place to enable students of Croatian to gain access to authentic learning experiences and native speakers of their target language.

15. M. D. Brown, Teaching by principles: Interactive language learning methodology (4th ed.) (New York, 2000); K. Wehner, A. W. Gump & S. Downey, ‘The effects of Second Life on the motivation of undergraduate students learning a foreign language’, Computer Assisted Language Learning 24(3) (2011), 277-289.

36 Croatians: History, Language and Migration The phenomenon of overseas chain migration to Australia

Rebeka MesariĆ ŽabčiĆ Senior Research Associate Institute for Migration and Ethnic Studies / Zagreb [email protected]

Chain migration means the bulk migration of people from the same (A) areas (places, regions) and their collective resettlement (B) area. The first group, usually evicted, expands its group in a particular area (B) recruiting new members from the same area of emigration (A). This paper discusses the phenomenon of chain migration of Croatian immigrants from Dalmatia to Australia during the period from the late 19th and 20th century in the context of its impact on the conservation of local/regional identity. The paper consists of two conceptually related parts that combine historical and contemporary components. The first part aims to show how the elements (language, culture, customs), specific to the region (Dalmatian islands, Dalmatia) were transferred by Croatian emigrants from one social environment to another, and how these elements are lived, survived and modified in the community influenced by elements of the new social environment. The second part discusses the role and importance of the traditions (among local/regional) in a contemporary context in shaping the identity of the descendants of immigrants.

Abstracts & Participants 37 Chronology of the establishment of the modern Croatian State 1990-1991: The key dates

Ante Nazor Head of the Centre Croatian Homeland War Memorial Documentation Centre / Zagreb [email protected]

The goal of this study is to present a chronology of the key dates in the process of the establishment of the modern Croatian State – from the 1986 memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts to the Croatian proclamation of independence on 25 June, 1991 and the final break with the former Yugoslavia on 8 October, 1991. The development of a multi-party scene and multi-party elections, the constitution of a multi-party Croatian Parliament and the proclamation of the first President, Franjo Tuđman, on 30 May, the amendments to the Constitution in July, the beginning of the armed uprising of part of the Serbs in Croatia in August and the so-called ‘Christmas’ Constitution on 22 December, marked 1990 and made it the fundamental year in the establishment of the independent Croatian State. Prominent in 1991 is the referendum (19 May) at which Croatian citizens were decisive in their support of an independent Croatia, the formation of the National Guards Corps – the core of the Croatian Army – at the NK Zagreb football stadium (28 May), and the sessions of the Croatian Parliament of 25 June and 8 October, 1991 at which decisions were adopted to declare Croatia independent and sovereign, imposing the dissolution of all constitutional ties with federal Yugoslavia.

38 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Exploring Croatian as a heritage language

Jasna Novak Lecturer Scandinavian Studies, Department of English / [email protected] Lidija CvikiĆ Lecturer Department for Croatian language and literature, performing arts and media culture Faculty for Education / University of Zagreb [email protected]

Since the autumn of 2013 the University of Zagreb has been supporting the Croatian as a heritage language – the current situation and developing perspectives project. The goal of this project is to collect data among different groups of Croatian speakers abroad and conduct a more comprehensive survey of their language proficiency, the circumstances under which their learning/acquiring occurs (home, school, church etc.), their motivation for learning and speaking Croatian etc. As a result of the research, we expect to understand the current needs of adult speakers of Croatian when it comes to their language improvement and the needs of the communities in preserving the Croatian language. We expect to get an insight into teachers’ attitudes towards the teaching process, curricula and textbooks available and their possible needs for vocational training. The aim of the project is to cover various countries with a large number of Croats or a Croatian minority (including Australia) and learners of different ages and profiles. We are also hoping to reach as many teachers as possible, as well as parents, especially those who choose not to send their children to Croatian schools/classes. In this paper the authors will present data relevant to Australia: the methodology, survey and testing material used for data collection, participants’ profiles and, hopefully, some preliminary results.

Abstracts & Participants 39 40 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Keynote address Harnessing new technologies to tackle big research questions in history, language and migration

Mary O’Kane NSW Chief Scientist & Engineer [email protected]

Through this conference we are honouring 30 years of Croatian Studies at Macquarie University. This talk explores how, as we look forward to research and education in Croatian Studies over the next 30 years, we can harness an unprecedented range of new and emerging technologies, to resolve research questions in the areas of history, language and migration on a scale never before possible. More generally, these technologies, used creatively, will revolutionise the way we approach research and education in the humanities and social sciences.

Accumulating massive data We are now able to acquire and store at low cost vast amounts of high-quality data and store it digitally in well-structured databases with appropriate metadata. Such data might include: • Audio data e.g. from interviews with people old enough to remember the broad sweep and historical and migratory upheavals within Croatia in the 20th and early 21st centuries. Audio data can also come from song and instrumental music. Today it can be collected at very low cost, for example, with an iPhone. • Video and photographic data e.g. from all the same sources as audio data but also capturing pictures of places, people and events. This is also data which can be acquired cheaply. • Geospatial and geocoded data – spatial data can include everything from remote sensing data such as from satellites, to adding geo-location tags to other data, or by adding tags such as RFID tags to objects that might move, such as people and animals. Other large amounts of data can be sourced from archives with the increasing digitisation and online access of state archives. Open data access policies have particularly enabled scholars to access major archives around the world remotely and for free.

Abstracts & Participants 41 Data interpretation and transformation (using big data techniques) A wide array of data interpretation, transformation and fusion tools has been developed to apply to the massive data sets acquired in this way. Big data sets can be data mined for information including trends and patterns in space and over time. Data fusion technologies can be employed to do even more sophisticated data mining across multiple databases comprised of disparate forms of data. High-quality machine translation is now available for free with apps such as Google Translate. Automatic speech recognition allows transcription of speech data from a single individual to tolerable levels of correctness for many research purposes. Speech analysis software allows us to consider evolution in prosody and phonological effects which can be useful in gaining an understanding of developments in dialects over time. Semantic processing enables researchers to automatically derive meaning from large bodies of text. Geocoding can allow for cluster analysis which is particularly useful in migration studies. Automatic picture processing allows us to derive meaning in the visual world.

Communication In research organisations we are now used to freely-available high-quality video-conferencing over the major research and education networks – AARNet in Australia; CARNet in Croatia. This allows for multi-site research groups to meet frequently and effectively and to share research materials. Widespread availability of the internet and the rise of social media allow for unprecedented levels of participation in research projects by individuals not associated normally with research organisation such as universities.

The genomic revolution We are now very familiar with the rapid development of information and communications technologies and increasingly expect higher quality at lower cost or free services in these areas. Emerging now is a parallel development in the area of genomic analysis which will make an individual’s DNA data inexpensive to obtain and, subject to appropriate privacy provisions, available for research purposes. Already we see big DNA data collections from genetic processing companies such as 23andme. Such data will provide a rich source of information about migration as well as the more obvious applications in personal medicine.

42 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Asking big questions In many ways the major challenge now in research in history, language and migration is thinking big in formulating research proposals and taking advantage of capabilities that have often not been deployed in traditional research in these areas. It is not only a matter of taking advantage of technologies but also, realising that these technologies are available to people who are not primarily interested in research but belong to communities such as the Croatian community in Australia, co-opting community volunteers to be co-researchers in projects. They too can record, store and mark up data and through social media be part of groups that are willing to provide large amounts of voluntary time and effort to enable researchers to tackle problems of a scale not done to date.

Abstracts & Participants 43 ‘Lijepa naša …’: The song of love and of national borders16

Aleksandar PavkoviĆ Associate Professor in Politics and International Relations Department of Modern History, Politics & International Relations / Macquarie University [email protected]

The paper offers an interpretation of the current version of the anthem and an analysis of the narrative and imagery of the 19th century poem from which the anthem originates. Three out of four stanzas of the anthem speak about the Croats’ love for their homeland and their people and of steadfastness and immortality of their love; the remaining stanza extols the beauty of the homeland. By directly addressing the homeland’s rivers and the sea, its singers appropriate this geography and so demarcate the borders of their much-loved homeland. The anthem thus asserts Croatia’s unity (against potential pretenders) and its unbreakable ties with its people. In contrast, the original fourteen-stanza poem The Croatian Homeland, written in 1835, is a paean to the Croats’ ties to nature, their simple life and bravery – the Romantic virtues of pure national souls. On their path to anthemhood, the four stanzas drawn from this poem have undergone significant modifications and additions, the result being a song doubly reassuring – it reassures the singers first, of the people’s love for themselves as a people, second, that this love is the means by which the ‘natural’ territory of the homeland is maintained.

16. This paper originates in a published essay written jointly with Christopher Kelen of the University of Macau entitled: ‘Of love and national borders: the Croatian anthem “Our Beautiful Homeland”’, Nations and Nationalism 18(2) (2012), 247-266.

44 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Iconology of frescoes in the Illyrian-Hungarian College in Bologna

Daniel Premerl Research Associate Institute of Art History / Zagreb [email protected]

From 1553 to 1781 the Zagreb Cathedral Chapter owned the Collegio Illirico- Ungarico in Bologna, with the purpose of providing doctoral courses to students from the Zagreb diocese and Slavonia at the University of Bologna. The majority of the early modern elite from inland Croatia – bishops, bans, canons, lawyers, physicians, officers, diplomats, men of letters – were alumni of the Illyrian-Hungarian College in Bologna. In 1700 a unique frescoe-cycle depicting scenes and personages from Croatian history was painted in the College refectory. The frescoes were made by the Bolognese painter Gioacchino Pizzoli who was entrusted with the commission by the rector of the College (and the Zagreb canon) Petar Črnković, thanks to a donation by the Zagreb bishop Stjepan Seliščević. This paper will discuss the frescoes’ iconographic program and its sources, as well as the agenda of the patron who envisaged it. The researched topic gives us an insight into the 17th century Zagreb ecclesiastical/political elite’s perceptions and constructions of history, state and national identity, self-representation and politics. The presentation will include a slideshow of all frescoes.

Abstracts & Participants 45 Clothing identity of Croats in engravings by Cesare Vecellio from the end of the 16th century

Katarina Nina Simončič Lecturer Faculty of Textile Technology / University of Zagreb [email protected]

Clothing is a form of communication and of visual language. In the history of clothing, this dress code held different connotations. It was an aesthetic pastime but it was also a means to emphasise social status and power as well as national identity. Clothing styles, clothing forms, fashion accessories as well as techniques of weaving and decoration were named according to their country of origin or production. This helped to strengthen the role of clothing as a means for emphasising national identity. By the end of the 16th century a significant number of publications started to explore thematically the diversity of fashion expressions in the world. Among them, Cesare Vecellio’s most comprehensive work (1590) De gli habiti antichi et moderni di diverse parti del mondo libri due… (Of Ancient and Modern Dress of Diverse Parts of the World in Two Books…) stands out. Among others, this compendium includes images of seven individuals from the territory of present-day Croatia. Specifically, these are Schiavone, overo Dalmatino, Dalmatina, O’Schiavona, Giovanetta Ragusea, Crovatto, Dalmatina da Cherso, Vngaro, O’Crovatto Nobile, Capo di Evscocchi. The garb shown in these seven engravings will be compared to rarely preserved clothing artefacts as well as to fashion guidelines that dominated in that period. This study will analyse the presented clothing forms with the objective to point out the persistence of a specific clothing identity characteristic of Croatian inhabitants of that time. On the other hand, an overview of fashion terminology that had originated from the Croatian territory, which is mentioned by Cesare Vecellio in his work, will reveal a small but a significant contribution to the Western culture of clothing at the end of the 16th century.

46 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Work and political activities of the Croatian Liberation Movement (Hrvatski oslobodilački pokret), the Croatian Peasant Party (Hrvatska seljačka stranka) and the Croatian National Council (Hrvatsko narodno vijeće) in immigration after 1945

Marin Sopta Adviser Centre for Culture and Information / Zagreb [email protected]

This paper will show the short historical process of functioning of these three most numerous and most influential political organisations in the ranks of Croatian political emigration between the Second World War and Croatian independence in 1991. By analysing the political activities between their members and supporters, but also amongst non-Croatians, it is possible to conclude that their activities were in many ways dependent of internal political relations within the Socialist Federal Yugoslavia on the one hand and international relationships in certain periods on the other. Also, by providing a historical analysis of the political activities of those three groups it is possible to recognise significant changes in their approaches towards the external world. The fact that they had common points in their programs, such as respect for the laws and constitutions of the host countries, struggle against communistm and Yugoslavia as a political construct, provided a platform for common actions internationally. Unfortunately it did not happen, or happened rarely, mostly due to the party partisanship of their leaderships which considered only their respective groups to have the legitimate right to represent Croatian national interests internationally. When the democratic ‘winds of change’ from the West came to Southeastern Europe, all three political groups provided significant and unlimited support to the Croatians in Croatia.

Abstracts & Participants 47 Croatian marine terminology as a sign of the Croatian identity of the Eastern Adriatic Coast

Diana Stolac Professor Department of Croatian Studies / University of Rijeka [email protected]

Official languages in maritime communications in the 19th century on the Eastern Adriatic Coast were Italian, German and even Hungarian but not Croatian, although the majority of the inhabitants were speakers of Croatian. Work on Croatian maritime terminology was one of the ways in which to present Croat identity in that region, as well as the Croatian maritime heritage. Authors of marine dictionaries at the end of the 19th century used the puristic normative concept of the terminologist, the Croatian Slovakian Bogoslav Šulek. To prove this we can choose the works of two Croats, who were at the same time maritime topic-writers and, what is even more important, maritime lexicographers – a teacher of the Merchant Marine College in Rijeka, Jakov Antun Mikoč (born at Bakar in 1797, died at Rijeka in 1854), and a teacher of the Nautical College in Bakar, Božo Babić (born at Sv. Juraj near Senj in 1840, died at Senj in 1912). Their dictionaries in manuscript and printed form have pointed to the possibilities that the Croatian language had in creating a professional maritime terminology. Today we can see a discrepancy between Croatian Marine terminology which followed that tradition (in dictionaries, handbooks, high school and university textbooks, manuals, machinery maintenance, and instruction books), and usage on the ships. Nowadays, English is the official language of maritime communication in the world, so that the Croatian language is faced with the influence of the English language on maritime terminology. This paper wants to sensitise experts to the need of creating a Croatian specialized terminology based on established terminological principles: ‘Tko od našijeh pomoraca nije već po moru jedrio i mislio se: zašto se nebi moglo obršavljenje razne obave na brodu u našemu jeziku voditi, zašto se nebi i mi Slaveni putem mora u naše ruho odienuli i tako prostomu mornaru učinili jezika njegovoj struci pripomogli i u kev mu pretvorili i našim se zvanjem i na ovomu polju dirlovanja materi zemlji odazvali.’17

48 Croatians: History, Language and Migration ‘Anyone of our seamen who was sailing the sea, must have thought: Why can’t we make all the work around the ship in our language, why can’t we Slavs get dressed in our clothes while travelling the sea and so tailor the language of a simple sailor to his job and answer to our mother country in this field of work.’18

17. B. Babić, Morski riečnik hrvacko-srbski usporedjen s italijanskijem jezikom od jednoga pomorca (Trieste, 1870), 3. 18. English translation of the passage: D. Džino & N. Bartulin.

Abstracts & Participants 49 Immigrant experiences through life stories of Croatians in Australia

Ilija D Šutalo Research Scientist/Team Leader Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Adjunct Associate Professor / Curtin University [email protected]

Immigrant experiences of Croatians in Australia are largely undocumented. This is due to lack of recognition and support of Croatians before Croatian independence and due to most of the Croatian immigrants in Australia not being highly educated. The life stories of Croatians in Australia are often hidden, as many are self-published with small print runs, and some are published in Croatian. The Croatian-born are not always referred to as Croatian or born in Croatia, they are also referred to as Yugoslav or Italian. This paper documents the life stories of Croatians in Australia to increase their awareness to a wider audience. Most of the life stories on Croatian-born in Australia are autobiographies. These immigrants arrived in Australia during different periods of Croatian migration history and have a range of occupations. The number of life stories on Croatian women is under-represented. Interestingly, a disproportionally high number of publications are on Croatians who settled in and on Croatians in Australia from the island of Korčula. The descendants of Croatians in Australia who typically have biographies are famous or infamous. By investigating who has written and published these life stories, strategies are formed to encourage Croatians in Australia to write life stories and document their history in Australia. An analysis of the immigrant experiences of Croatians in Australia is made through these publications under the following themes: departure, overcoming hardships, discrimination, community, politics and assimilation. This analysis shows the range of experiences these Croatian immigrants encountered in Australia and the importance of these life stories in documenting history.

50 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Transition of the Republic of Croatia from totalitarian political system to parliamentary democracy

Ivica ToliĆ General of the Croatian Army (retired) [email protected]

With the collapse of most of the communist systems in Eastern Europe there began a political crisis in Yugoslavia. The federal republics, primarily Croatia and Slovenia, demanded reorganisation of the State into a confederation. At the same time, Serbia, which was dominant in Yugoslavia, wanted to retain a dominant role and the centralised management system from Belgrade without any political flexibility, and with the support of the federal armed forces mainly commanded by Serbian communists officers. The communist leaders in Croatia and Slovenia were much more liberal than the Serbian leadership, and they permitted the democratic elections in which democratically oriented parties won and parliamentarism has been reconstructed in Croatia. During the war from 1991-1995, the Croatian Parliament (Sabor) was effective and fulfilled its role in accordance with applicable standards of democracy. In the year 2000, with the victory of the remaining political option at elections for the Parliament, the Croatian political system has been changed. Until that moment, the Republic of Croatia had a semi-presidential system with clearly defined roles for the President, Parliament and Government. The Croatian parliament had two Houses, the House of Representatives and the House of Counties (Županijski dom). The reforms abandoned one of the Houses, the House of Counties, in which regional governments (counties) had their representatives. The reforms have left many unanswered questions regarding the Croatian political system. The new political system was no longer semi-presidential, yet still left considerable power to the president. Also, the new mechanism for co-signature between the president and prime minister was introduced. The great challenge today is to define the Croatian political system and answer the question as to whether it is a system of parliamentary democracy, presidential, semi-presidential or of the chancellor. What is indubitable and evident is that the Croatian Parliament today does not have the role in political life that it should have in a country with a parliamentary democracy. In many ways, Croatia became (remains) a partitocratic country in which the main role is played by leaders of political parties regardless of

Abstracts & Participants 51 which political option has the majority in the parliament. Real political power is in the hands of the Prime Minister, but the President has a significant role too. Those relations have created the impression there is a parallelism of decision making and responsibilities, while their institutional actions are creating the perception of two administrations, even when the Prime Minister and President are members of the same political party. The Croatian parliament, regardless of the declared political system, has no real power as it should have and it mostly acts as a formal confirmation of the decisions from the executive power. Political responsibility to the voters, consensus, political debate, and democratic procedures are still concepts needed to be worked on in order to bring them to the required level.

52 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Croatia in the European Union

Ruža TomašiĆ Croatian Member of EU Parliament [email protected]

With the entry of Croatia to the European Union (EU) on 1 July 2013, great possibilities were opened to entrepreneurs who are oriented toward European markets with enough innovative skills and knowledge to adapt to change. At the same time, entry into the EU became a great threat to citizens who are either unwilling or incapable of coping with the challenges of competition. Unfortunately, this portion of Croatian citizens represents a majority. Full membership of the EU eased entrance and movements inside the ‘Schengen space’; all import taxes were abolished, and administrative requirements diminished. It became cheaper to buy goods or services in any member-state as no Goods-and-Services tax is payable. As a new member, Croatia has had bad luck in joining the Union at the time of the greatest crisis of the Eurozone, so that initial effects of entry are still marked by losses. The greatest danger to the Croatian economy is the departure from CEFTA (Central European Free Trade Association), the common market of central and south-eastern Europe with a population of 25 million citizens of the States outside of the EU. This has resulted in the imposition of import taxes on Croatian goods and restriction of their competitiveness because of higher prices. CEFTA countries represent around 30 percent of Croatian exports, in particular Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. Croatia is the only member-state which did not capitalise its entry to the EU with lowering interest rates from the level which represents a long-term danger for the stability of public finances. The state budget has suffered significantly as it loses income from import taxes, the income from the Goods-and-Services tax is delayed, and there is also a compulsory membership-fee as a member of the EU. With the changes of tax rules, the state budget lost hundreds of millions of euros of tax income. Croatia has signed a treaty with the EU, which regulates the relationship between the Union and Croatia, including a 5-year fee for membership in the EU. In 2013 Croatia must pay membership fees of 1.7 billion HRK (ca. 223 million Euro), which will double in 2014. However, from 1 January 2014 until the end of 2020, the EU budget has reserved 11.7 billion euros for Croatia. From that sum, 8 billion is reserved for cohesive policies, 3.5 billion for agriculture and 203 million for projects relating to security or EU borders.

Abstracts & Participants 53 These sums represent maximum amounts which Croatia can withdraw from the EU budget, but the final amount depends on the quality and number of projects which are conceived, proposed and administered. Experiences from other countries show that poorly prepared countries withdraw only around 50% of the total amount. Unfortunately, the Croatian government missed the opportunity to allocate more funds for preparation of projects to be funded from EU funds for the period 2014-2020.

54 Croatians: History, Language and Migration The destruction of medieval architecture and the role of medieval heritage in the formation of Croatian national identity

Trpimir Vedriš Lecturer Department of History / University of Zagreb [email protected]

Building on R. Bevan’s observations on: ‘the destruction of the cultural artefacts of an enemy people or nation as a means of dominating, terrorising, dividing or eradicating it altogether’,19 this paper aims to show how the symbolic meaning of medieval architectural heritage led to both its destruction and reconstruction. A large number of (particularly) sacral buildings – part of which were medieval – was destroyed in an attempt to ‘rewrite history’ during the recent Croatian Homeland war (1991-1995) by Serbian paramilitary forces. Althought the vandals did not aim exclusively at medieval architectural heritage, the scope of the paper is narrowed to chosen medieval structures. The analysis will therefore focus primarily on the fate of the churches of St Martin in Lepuri, Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Gora and Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Voćin. Besides these three case studies, particular attention will be paid to different patterns of war- and postwar-time treatment of the churches of St Saviour at the source of the river Cetina and St Jacob in Udbina. Obvious signs of the ‘banality of evil’ aside, the acts of destruction reflect obvious patterns. Namely, the objects in question were torn down, or devastated in an attempt to erase ‘memories, history and identity attached to architecture and place’ reminding one of the symbolic importance of the buildings as places of memory and thus, markers of identity. The proposed analysis of the perception of the objects by both those who destroyed them and those who ‘maintained’ them is meant to highlight the role of architectural heritage in shaping/preserving a particular type of ‘collective memory’. Namely, as the medieval period (especially the early medieval one) is often perceived as the golden age of Croatian history, the artifacts from the period were often ‘sacralised’ in the national context and

19. R. Bevan, The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War (Chicago, 2006), 8.

Abstracts & Participants 55 thus perceived as important symbols of national identity. Finally, the paper will explore the Nachleben (meant as ‘survival’ or ‘afterlife’) of the particular ruins in the post-war period in an attempt to detect new meanings that are being attached to them in the process of reconstruction.

56 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Krleža’s poetics of ‘qualitative, psychological action’ and Strindberg’s intimate theatre

Slobodanka Vladiv-Glover Adjunct Associate Professor (Research) / Monash University [email protected]

In his Postscript from the Year 1928, accompanying his drama Agony (U agoniji), published in the same year, Miroslav Krleža, the father of the Croatian Moderna, gives a history of his own involvement with the dramatic genre, from his juvenalia to his mature plays. Dramatic action, according to him, should not be sought in the quantitavive element (lots of furious activity, lots of dramatic events, such as deaths, suicides and a ‘furious tempo’), but in the qualitative: ‘… Osetivši tako svu suvišnu napravu vanjske, dekorativne, dakle kvantitativne strane suvremenog dramskog stvaranja, ja sam se odlučio da napišem dijaloge po uzoru nordijske škole devedesetih godina s namjerom da unutarnji raspon psihološke napetosti raspnem do većeg sudara, a te sudare da što bliže primaknem odrazu naše stvarnosti. Tako je došlo do mojih poslednjih drama koje nisu i neće da budu drugo nego psihološki dijalozi, što se prvi put javljaju u našoj dramskoj književnosti s četrdesetogodišnjim zakašnjenjem.’ 20 [‘After I felt all unnecessary tools of the outside, decorative, therefore quantitative side of contemporary drama-production, I decided to write dialogues inspired by the Nordic school from the 1890s with the intention to stretch the internal diameter of psychological tension to increased conflict and to relate those conflicts as close as possible to the reflection of our reality. So, I created my last plays which are not and would not want to be anything else but psychological dialogues that appear for the first time in our drama literature, with 40 years of delay.’ 21] This paper will examine the poetics of Krleža’s dramas: Agony (1928)22 and Saloma (1963) in the context of Strindberg’s manifesto on ‘intimate theatre’ and in the broader framework of European Modernism’s themes and motifs of the lyrical drama genre. It will also briefly address the question of the historical inferences about Croatian society (‘the representation of our reality’) as these are encoded in the symbolism of the dramatic conflicts.

20. Miroslav Krleža, ‘Pogovor iz god. 1928’, in: Miroslav Krleža, Drame. Jubilarno izdanje povodom 80-godišnjice rođenja Miroslava Krleže (Sarajevo, 1973).[‘Govorili su mi da nema Radnje u mojim dramama’], 458. 21. English translation of the passage: D. Dzino & N. Bartulin. 22. ‘U Agoniji’ in: ‘Glembajevi. Drame’, Sabrana djela 4 (Zagreb, 1962).

Abstracts & Participants 57 International policy towards war in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina

Igor VraniĆ Postgraduate Student Department of History / Central European University, Budapest [email protected]

The calling of the first democratic elections in Yugoslavia with the encouragement of the international community, especially of its European part, with the purpose of democratisation and transformation to a market economy, led from the stand point of the international community, to the unexpected collapse of Yugoslavia. International mediation during the war in the area of former Yugoslavia, observed with detail through peace plans, presented a lack of consensus between the main members in key issues of preventing as well of ending the war. In addition, it highlighted the weaknesses of the European part of the international community in offering its own solutions due to lack of military capacity. The USA as a global superpower had the potency to control the flow of the war, refusing to send combat troops which were requested by Europe and the UN to implement peace. By establishing the Vance Plan in Croatia, the infirmity of international peace mediations via the UNPA zones (United Nations Protected Areas) was revealed, being unable to complete its primary mission – demilitarisation, establishment of civil living and the return of refugees. The war ended relatively shortly after the active involvement of the USA in early 1994. American diplomacy was led by the simple principle of forcing peace under physical threats of military force, in which the conflicted sides were left merely with the details during negotiations. In conclusion it will be shown why war in Croatia ended with peaceful reintegration, and in Bosnia and Herzegovina with a total cessation of actions on the field.

58 Croatians: History, Language and Migration Ivan Mažuranic´: Language, poetry and a quest for Croatian national identity On the occasion of the 200th anniversary of his birth

Zdenko Zlatar Reader in History Department of History / University of Sydney [email protected]

Ivan Mažuranić is the greatest Croatian epic poet, and his poem, The Death of Smail-aga Čengić (Smrt Smail-age Čengića) is rightly regarded as a master- piece. Mažuranić was also one of the foremost figures in the Illyrian Movement (Ilirski pokret) which is the formative phase of the long quest for Croatian national identity. Mažuranić was the right-hand man of Ljudevit Gaj, the acknowledged leader of this movement, and he shared many of its views of his own people as well as its relationship to other Slavs, in particular the South Slavs. But from the very beginning Mažuranić was less willing than Gaj to compromise where Croatian interests were concerned, and while he was quite willing to embrace other South Slavs as his brethren (which explains his decision to write his epic about Montenegro), he was absolutely opposed to any identification of the Croatian language with that of the Serbs and other South Slavs. His defense of the Croatian language involved him in a friendly but fateful confrontation with Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and the latter’s view of štokavski (the dialect) as exclusively Serbian and thus of all its speakers as Serbs (Srbi svi i svuda). In particular Mažuranić opposed Vuk’s claiming of Dubrovnik and its shtokavian speakers as Serbs, and thus of regarding all of Dubrovnik’s literature in shtokavian as Serbian. On this point Mažuranić was quite uncompromising and openly opposed Vuk during their visit to Dubrovnik and Montenegro in 1841. Unlike others, Mažuranić identified the term Illyrian with Croatian as, for instance, when he reworked his famous poem, Ilir (1835), and renamed it Hrvat (1858). In this paper I will explore the mutual relationship between his views on language, poetry, and his quest for Croatian national identity.

Abstracts & Participants 59 NOTES

60 Croatians: History, Language and Migration