Maqama As a Courtroom Play -Disguised Hero, Duped Judge1

MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY -DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE1

Keiji OKAZAKI*

In this paper, theatricality of Maqiimiit of al-ijariri is investigated. For a long time, Arabic culture had unreasonably been considered to be devoid of drama in the European sense clarified by Badawi, namely, the imitation on a stage by human actors of a story or situation through action and dialogue in prose or verse. But Moreh definitely refuted the claim, providing ample evidence of live theatre. The validity of another presumption concerning Arabic culture, however, remains to be verified. Maqamiits of ai-Hamadhani and al-l:fariri have been referred to as something close to drama by prestigious scholars such as Th. Chenery, R.A. Nicholson, H.A.R. Gibb, l)ayf, and Shak'a. None of them make any definition of the term, drama, therefore their opinions are no more than impressionistic criticism, not academic one. What is required is to define the key terms, drama, play, theatre. They are blanket terms with a double meaning signifying totally different but closely combined elements of theatre: written text on a page and performance on a stage. Drama is mainly used in this paper to designate a text written by a playwright. In view of the fact that the Maqamiit is a written text, the first step to examine its theatricality is to analyze it utilizing literary theories like Aristotle's. We are to consider the Maqiimat something similar to a closet drama, or Lesedrama: a play intended to be read but not acted. The maqamas of al-l:fariri containing judicial scene wilt be interpreted in terms of form, structure, characterization and other kinds of art of composition related to dramatic elements: deixis and kinesics. Our working hypothesis will be verified by the dramatic theory of Aristotle's Poetics. Keywords: Maqamiit, al-ijariri, theatricality, deixis, Aristotle

1. Introduction

One of the long held assumptions about Arabic culture was the one

* Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Studies, Shitennoji International Buddhist University

Vol. XLll 2007 125 concerned with the absence of drama in the European sense, namely, "the imitation on a stage by human actors of a story or situation through action and dialogue in verse or prose."2 But Moreh definitely refuted it, providing ample evidence of live theatre, other than the familiar ta 'ziyeh and khayii/ a/-~i/1, which designates shi 'a passion play and shadow play respectively, performed in the Middle East from the days ofjiihi/iya down to the Middle Ages.3 But the validity of another hypothesis connected with drama, the theatricality of the Maqiimiit of al-Hamadhani and al-I:Iariri, remains to be examined. Do they contain dramatic elements or not? The Maqiimiit is often referred to as dramatic, something close to drama without any definition of the term, drama. Th. Chenery, the translator and commentator of the Maqiimiit of al Ijariri, writes, "[the Hamazani's work] was an advance to the dramatic style which had always been wanting to Arab literature. "4 This opinion was quoted literally by the leading Arabist, H. A. R. Gibb. 5 In the authoritative study on the history of Arabic literature, R. A. Nicholson insists that "in the maqiima we find some approach to the dramatic style, which has never been cultivated by the Semites.n6 Mu~tafii Shak'a cited this passage in his monograph on al Hamadhani. 7 In the article on malfiima in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Pellat writes that "there should no doubt be added that of mimesis, since the ma/fiima contains an undeniable theatrical element, at least in the make-up of the hero and the posture of the narrator." He makes no further explanation and in the closing statement insists that "the theatrical element contained in classical ma/fiimiit has not been satisfactorily exploited, for we do not see many playwrights drawing from their inspiration and staging some of them." R. Allen, in his latest study of the Arabic literary heritage, maintains that "if it is the function of comedy to convey to its audience a sense of satisfaction through watching others behaving in variously inappropriate ways, then al-Hamadhani's Maqiimiit may be regarded as an interesting set of counter-narratives."8 Except for Allen's insufficient remarks, none of the scholars cited above give a concrete definition of drama. Their opinions, therefore, should be regarded as hnpressionistic criticism, not academic one. Chenou 's paper appears to be a unique study concerned with the theatricality of the Maqiimiit, but she does not define what drama is, rior utilizes technical terms of theatrical studies other than suspense to analyze the texts. A greater part of the pages of her study are allotted to the introduction of the synopses of each maqiima.9 Thus the theatricality of the Maqiimiit is yet to be studied. What they fail to notice is that the key terms, "drama," "theatre,n and

126 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY -DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE "play," are used and misused in the context of daily usage. The terms need to be given due attention and a scholarly definition. Nearly all studies dealing with theatre, begin with the definition and distinction of the ambiguous and misleading terms: theatre, drama, play. 10 They are blanket terms with a double meaning referring to totally different but closely combined elements of theatre: the written text on a page and the performance on a stage. The three terms can be used interchangeably, but theatre is generally regarded as a place where performance is exercised rather than written texts because of its derivation from the Greek theatron, "a place to see"; theatre is not essentially a literary art. 11 Students of theatre, therefore, are compelled to declare their own preference for one of the three technical terms mentioned above. In this paper, the term drama as well as play is mainly used to designate a written text intended to be read rather than staged. A drama written by a playwright is a form of literature, so that it is easily analyzed utilizing literary theory; "it is understandable in the same general terms as fiction, poetry, or any other form of letters," 12 as attempted in Poetics by Aristotle. For a long time, the history of theatrical studies was principally concerned with the study of a written text as literature rather than the performance on the stage owing to the peculiarity of this genre: impossibility of repetition. The performance on a given stage at a given time can never be retrieved as exactly as it was. Therefore, the first step towards a full realization of the theatricality of the Maqlimiit is to investigate its affinity with a drama as a written text; to scrutinize wherein lie dramatic elements. We are to consider the Maqiimiit something similar to a closet play, or Lesedrama, a play intended to be read but not acted. 13 The Maqiimiit of al-I:Iariri will be analyzed in terms of form, structure, characterization, and other kinds of art of composition related to dramatic elements: deixis and kinesics. Our working hypothesis will be verified by the dramatic theory of Aristotle's Poetics.

2. Form, Structure, and Characterization

The novelty of the Maqamat of al-Hamadhani, the originator of the genre, lies in the frank admission of its propensity for fiction, which is the most essential requirement for a text to be regarded as a dramatic writing. 14 Arabic culture in medieval times did not admit fiction, or to be precise, did prohibit the fictional writing in prose, which provided a marked contrast to verse. 15 Under such an unfavourable situation to prose writing, al-Hamadhani boldly published a fiction consisting of anecdotes with a fictitious narrator and characters. He drew his inspiration broadly from "the common stock of Arabic anecdotage

Vol. XLII 2007 127 current at the time." 16 In composing the maqiimas, al-Hamadhani utilized those anecdotes collected in the ninth century by Arabic prose writers such as al-Jal].i~ and al-Taniikhi and made an imaginary narrator relate them. The gist of anecdotes, of all ages and countries, is verisimilitude. The narrator makes the utmost efforts to provide as concrete information as possible about a story he is telling to lend verisimilitude to it. 17 This way of narration is what al-Hamadhani employed in composition. al-J:Iariri, who followed him and established the genre, faithfully inherited the predecessor's way of writing. Every maqiima of al-J:Iariri opens with quasi-identical phrases: al-J:Iarith tells us the following story. He related, "One day when I was in ... " In form, the Maqiimiit is a travelogue, reminiscences of riiwi, the narrator. He relates his experiences concerning Abii Zayd, the protagonist of the Maqiimiit. His story is a narrator's report, vivid, true to life, and full of verisimilitude, focussing on the protagonist's evil acts. 18 As for narrative structure, each maqama contains a mirror image: arrival of the narrator in a town~ encounter with the protagonist ~ speech (poetry) ~ reward ~ recognition ~ reproach ~justification (poetry) ~ parting. 19 The symmetrical structure of the maqama helps to create a gradual suspense of a story with a climax laid at the recitation scene. In the speech and justification scenes, the protagonist recites highly ornate poetry, and the excitement of a reader culminates there. As explained below, Aristotle holds the opinion that tragedy should have a good plot for a recognition to happen naturally, where the leading character experiences the downfall of fate from fortune to misfortune. 20 In the Maqamat, the protagonist is almost always disguised, and in the recognition scene, his identity is revealed. After the recognition scene, the weaker party (disguised rogue) displays himself as a virtuoso on a recitation of poetry to justify the offence and has a hold over the formerly superior person (judge). The fate of an assailant and a victim overturns. The reader feels pleasure as well as pity for the once strong person. The recognition (anagnorisis) is the keynote for a drama. The art of composition adopted by al-Hamadhani and al-J:Iariri has a close affinity with that of playwrights because of their propensity for fictionalization, the unprecedented way of writing, basic structure of mirror-image, and the concern for verisimilitude with emphasis laid on depicting actions rather than character. Impersonation of the protagonist is another dramatic element. 21 Abii Zayd, the rogue, is almost always disguised, and each anecdote revolves around the trick he contrives to manipulate victims. The protagonist is able to masquerade

128 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE as any persona in appearance besides in profession. The reader, therefore, proceeds to read in anticipation of an appearance of a novel character with a strange device. In this way, impersonation of a protagonist is the essential dramatic element and serves to enhance the suspense of a story. Now we would like to examine the text of the Maqiimiit to see how those dramatic elements are embedded in it. The twenty-third maqiima entitled poetry begins as follows: 22

Al-l:Jarith, son of Hammam, related: My wonted home was irksome to me in the prime of my time, through a dreaded calamity, through a fear that came upon me; And I poured out the cup of drowsiness, and put to their pace the camels of the night march ... Now I went forth one day to the Precinct to exercise my good steed, and to circle my eye among its beauties.- And behold! horsemen who followed each other, and men on foot who swarmed: - And eke an old man long of tongue but short of cloak, who held by the collar a lad fresh in youth but worn of tunic. - So I spurred on the track of the spectators until we arrived at the gate of the Prefecture. - And there was the Master of Protection sitting squarely on his cushion, awing by his deportment. - Then said the old man to him: "God magnify the Governor, and set his foot on high! - Know that I bred this youth from a weanling, and brought him up from an orphan; and then failed not in instructing him ... " Said the lad to him: "On what offence of mine hast thou hit, that thou publishest this foul thing on me?- For by Allah, I have not covered the face of my kindness ... "

The quotation from the maqiima shows how closely the art of composition resembles that of playwrights. al-l:Jariri introduces, through these short passages, the indispensable elements of a dramatic writing: place, situations (scene), and characters. Place: at the gate of the prefecture, situation (scene): hearing of a case, characters: governor (judge), old man (offender), lad (defender), and spectators. ·Moreover, something like stage directions is written: there enter men on horse and those on foot, and an old man drags a lad by the neck to the governor. The governor sits squarely and begins a hearing. al-l:Jariri describes nothing but the action of people and their words. No psychological analysis of characters is given, nor background explanation of the affair. This kind of composition is typical of a dramatic writing. The text by al-l:Jariri can be rendered into a dramatic text for staging with the smallest correction imaginable

Vol. XLTI 2007 129 as did Jum'a.23 In Poetics, Aristotle defines tragedy as follows: 24

Tragedy, then is mimesis of an action which is elevated, complete, and of magnitude; in language embellished by distinct forms in its sections; employing the mode of enactment, not narrative; and through pity and fear accomplishing the catharsis of such emotions.

Aristotle insists that drama should be concerned with the manner rather than the matter, which leads playwrights to focus on the depiction of characters' actions. By this criterion, the given text of al-I;Iariri can safely be categorized as a play because the passages quoted contain only actions and speech of the characters without referring to their psychological analysis or explaining the background of the affair. What we have before us, except for a brief account of his, is merely the description of characters' movements and a dialogue between a governor and a father, and a debate between a father and his son. The reader (listener), therefore, proceeds to read expecting how the judicial case will develop, how the offender will accuse the other party, how the defender will excuse himself, and how the judge will arbitrate between them, all of which converge into a judicial drama. al-I:Iariri succeeds in prolonging the suspense of a drama into the denouement where the final judgement is passed and fates of those concerned are decided. The text involves the beginning (encounter), the middle (trial), and the ending (envoi), of the affair. The description of the three phases of the incident satisfies the aforementioned requirements for a play legitimated in Poetics. 25 In sum, the art of composition of the twenty-third maqllma bears a close similarity to the way of writing a play. And the theme of the maqiima is related to a legal matter, a divorce suit, so this maqiima can be regarded as a courtroom play. In the maqiima of poetry, as the judge, the governor, keeps on hearing, he comes to find that the charge brought against the lad is theft. But, to his surprise, the stolen article proves poetry instead ofproperty. The old man pleads that his adopted son, the lad, plagiarized his work. The judge, therefore, orders the two of them to recite the poetry concerned only to find it containing two rhymes in every line throughout, a highly contrived and polished one, then he gives a second order to improvise another piece of poetry to examine which one should be punished. Thus the main plot of the maqllma, reciting poetry, is introduced smoothly· into the scene. 26 A recitation of poetry in the maqiimas plays the role of soliloquy in a play or aria in opera. 27 The protagonist addresses to the reader

130 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE (audience) directly, and the acoustic element of a recitation takes effect just as sound effects in theatrical performance. In the reciting scene, emotion of readers, or listeners in particular, is stimulated, and its ornate style arouses their excitement. al-I:Iariri's ingenuity as a playwright is displayed in making the main theme of theft (poetry) and the indispensable plot of the maqiima (recitation of poetry) converge into a trial scene. This is why this maqama is highly evaluated among the Arab connoisseurs as well as westerners.28 As quoted elsewhere, Aristotle counts embellishment of the text among one of the basic requisites for a dramatic writing, along with the plot, the characterization, and the thought. Language, or more accurately, dialogue, is the essence of a drama, presenting situation, moulding character, developing thought. In sum, words in a play give it form. 29 The world of drama is a world of emotions and the function of speech on the stage is different from that of real life. Diction in a drama, therefore, should be different from that of daily conversation, even in the most realistic play imaginable, in that it is elevated and arranged into a pattern. A playwright should be an artist in words. 30 In terms of an embellishment of the text, the Maqamat fully satisfies the condition legitimated by Aristotle who argues, "I use 'embellished' for language with rhythm and melody, and 'distinct forms' for the fact that some parts are conveyed through metrical speech alone, others again through song. " 31 The Maqamat of al-Hamadhani is rhymed prose interspersed with poetry, which fulfils the Aristotle's essential requirement. The prose is not merely rhymed but endowed with different types of formal elements: parallelism, length of the symmetric phrases, and the frequency of their occurrence, forming a rhythm in the text which underlies the artistic effects of the Maqamat. 32 The term saj' (rhymed prose), therefore, proves to be an insufficient and misleading label on it.33 The literary style of the Maqiimat is highly ornate, balanced, acoustic compared with other prose writings, especially the risii/a (epistle). al-ijariri followed al-Hamadhani's style, composing longer texts couched in a more elaborated style. In his Maqamat, poetry occupies far larger space, and rhyming is much more regular than in al-Hamadhani's. He prefers pairs (AABBCC ... ) with few triad (AAA) or longer series. 34 Accordingly al-l:lariri's Maqiimat is more elegant, meticulous, pleasant to listen to than al-Hamadhani's. al-l:lariri's style was highly evaluated and authorized as a model of Arabic prose, and exerted a far-reaching influence on it until the nineteenth century. 35 According to Beeston, the novelty of the Maqamat of al-Hamadhani, together with its propensity for fiction, lies in its style. 36 And it is for the very style rather than the content, the narrative, that the Maqiimat acquired a reputation in the Arabian

Vol. XLIT 2007 131 literary world, which, unfortunately, leads to the paucity of fiction and drama in Arabic literature. 37 The close reading of the texts has proved that al-!Jariri deploys different kinds of techniques in composing the Maqii.miit to satisfy the requirements for a dramatic text: propensity for fiction, the form of reminiscences, characterization, highly ornate style, all of which contribute to make his work similar to a dramatic writing.

3. Judicial Play

Al-I;Iariri's Maqiimiit involves various kinds of themes; preaching, riddle, literal discussion, and trial. In every maqiima (anecdote), the protagonist displays his eloquence based on a wide range of knowledge. Abu Zayd, the rascal, is a perfect man, insiin kiimi/; he is well versed in every field of learning from legislation to genecology based on adab. 38 Considering the close relationship between a theatre and a trial, the theatricality of a written text will most prominently appear in the maqiima whose theme is a trial and whose scenes revolve around a courtroom. The theme of a trial enhances the dramatic suspense and the tension arising from a legal play between a defender and an offender. A lawsuit is a verbal game conducted according to logic, and a contest between lawyers to obtain a favourable verdict from judges or juries. In a courtroom, therefore, eloquence wields a lot of influence on a person accused. The judgement passed will sometimes decide a person's fate or deprive of his life. In this way, the real court shares much in common with a th~atre in that there are characters, spectators, and a verbal game concerning human life. The diction of a courtroom is different from that of daily conversation, logical, controlled, emotional, emphasized, effective, and highly formalized. In short, speech in court is a dramatic one. Moreover, judges and attorneys sometimes wear robes or wigs as actors do. Thus a courtroom will be easily turned into a theatre: they have much in common. 39 When we come to think of the origin of the term theatre, a place for seeing, the natural conclusion drawn from this is that both the theatre and the courtroom play the same role, namely, the function of a place to see what a person's fate will be. And the difference between them lies in the simple fact that a play is an illusion of reality, not reality itself. The maqiima dealing with a trial will, hereafter, be called a judicial maqiima and an analysis of the theatricality of the Maqii.miit will focus on it.40 In terms of plot, the judicial maqii.ma is different from other kinds of

132 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE maqlimas in that it contains two principal characters: the one is Abu Zayd, the eloquent regular rogue, and the other a victimized judge. The plot: the rogue is accompanied with an accomplice, a lad or a wife, is another difference, which serves to complicate the story and develop it into an unexpected denouement. In judicial maqlimas, the courtroom consists of the triad: a rogue, his accomplice, and a judge. In ordinary maqlimas, whose themes are other than a trial, dramatic tension comes to a climax at the anagnorisis (recognition) scene where the rogue's identity is revealed by the narrator-cum-witness, and a curtain falls with the envoi of the protagonist, written, in many cases, in verse lamenting the fate of his reduced circumstances and excusing himself for committing evil acts. 41 But in the judicial maqamas, the story develops after the exposure and the figure of a duped judge is vividly shown to the reader (listener), which turns out to be a second anagnorisis where the judge plays the leading role, revealing his identity. His wrath, agony, repentance, that is, all humanistic feelings hidden under the judge's gown and airs of majesty, are disclosed to the reader. As in the first anagnorisis scene, here the identity of the second protagonist, the judge, is exposed and the mixed emotions of contempt, pleasure, and pity for the victim will be aroused among the reader. This effect can be compared with catharsis, referred to by Aristotle as the essential element oftragedy.42 "What [Aristotle] meant in claiming that tragedy produces a katharsis," Lear states, "is a question which has dominated Western philosophy and literary criticism since the Renaissance. "43 We will not, therefore, touch upon the perennial problem of its definition, and take notice of the more important fact about the term: comedy, like tragedy, produces catharsis. 44 Comedy represents ignoble acts of a laughable person, which arouses catharsis of pleasure and laughter as well as pity. Comedy and tragedy stand in the exact opposite in terms of the inferiority or the superiority of the protagonist, but in mimesis they are identical. Mimesis (representation) is an instinct of human beings, and it is equally natural that everyone enjoys mimetic objects. 45 Spectators, therefore, feel catharsis watching a person no better than themselves having fallen into misfortunes. al-~ariri utilized this dramatic element in composing the maqlima. In the maqama of poetry, the governor, the judge, finds himself deceived by the old man and fears that "what he has done should be spread abroad in the City of Peace; so should I be dishonoured among men, and my dignity come to nought before the Imam, and I be made a laughing-stock to gentle and mean. - Then he stipulated with me that I should not speak of what Abii Zayd had done as long as I remained a sojourner in this city. - Said al-~arith, son of Hammam. "46 The once dignified governor is now afraid of losing his face and

Vol. XLII 2007 133 asks the narrator not to confide his awful blunder. What a coward he is, meticulous, unworthy of a judge. There are obvious discrepancies between what he practices and what he preaches. He feigns a judge. Through the double plot and the double climax, both the rogue and the judge prove to be the same kind of people: impersonated adibs. An adib signifies one who has acquired adab and conducts well according to adab. Originally, adab was related to refined manners, and with time the meanings of learning and scholarship were attached to the term. 47 Abii Zayd is an disguised adib, living on deploying adab for swindling money. His weapon is adab: eloquence and the wide range of knowledge. The governor is another impersonated adib, a fact which his speech and action show in the last scene. His learning and scholarship do not work, for he cannot recognize the true intentions of Abii Zayd, nor behave politely befitting an adib. In spite of himself, he discloses his hidden nature, base, mean, and vulgar. al-I:Iariri's Maqlimlit contains sharp criticism against the decline of culture ( adab) and a biting satire on the feigned adib.48 Aristotle explains that the difference between tragedy and comedy lies in the difference of the objects, for in the former the target is people better than ourselves, while in the latter those worse than ourselves.49 al-l:lariri depreciates adib and makes the tone of a story nearer to that of tragedy. In another judicial maqlima, the tenth maqlima called Ral.tba, a mean and wicked governor, the judge, baser than ourselves because of his lust, is victimized and made fun of. In it the charge against a youth is a felony: murdering an old man's son. The accused stands trial before a local governor, the judge. al-I:Iariri 's talents as a writer is fully deployed in the characterization of the judge: a man of lust "fascinated by the graces .of his bright brow. "50 The judge is enthralled by his motions and coveted that he should keep him under control. His desire is stimulated all the more by the depiction of the handsome youth, "who hath adorned foreheads with forelocks, and eyes with their black and white, and eyebrows with separation, and smiling teeth with regularity, and eyelids with languor ... "51 The old man thus enumerates all the beauties contained in every part of the youth's body. And the judge's pity for his humble state as the accused grows larger, so does his desire to liberate him and get possession of him. He proposes a compromise to the old man with a ransom, but his lust can't be satisfied on the spot, because he obtains only half of the money, and the old man sticks to their agreement and insists on detaining the young man for another night. The governor, therefore, has to spend a tormented night. The author succeeds in keeping the suspense to the end of the story, teasing the judge playing with his sexual desire. On that night, his identity having been revealed

134 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE by the narrator, AbU Zayd entrusts him an envoi to the governor, but after reading it, al-I:Hirith, the narrator, tears it down for fear of arousing the governor's anger. It begins by stating "that the old man has stolen his money and the young one his heart; and he is scorched in the flame of a double regret. "52 The swindler warns against the judge not to believe what he sees and hears, telling him the importance of prudence worthy of an adib. The lascivious governor, the letter betrays, is like one who goes for wool and come home shorn. Every word in the letter will sting his heart and make him regret what he did. The recitation of the envoi will invite laughter among the readers, specifically the audience. Along with the linear development of a story to the denouement, the psychological mutation of the judge makes this maqama similar to a two-act play, each of which revolves around a courtroom and his private residence respectively, where he is told the envoi by the narrator. The victim's reaction to the words in it will satisfy readers, especially spectators. al-I:Iariri utilizes the trial scene as an effective dramatic device to enhance the suspense and make the story take an unexpected turn. Because of the similarity between a theatre and a courtroom, judicial maqamas betray a high degree of theatricality with emphasis laid on the double recognition scene.

4. Duped Judge

In the fortieth maqama entitled Tabriz, the most striking feature of a duped judge and a biting satire against him are depicted. This maqama opens as follows: 53

Al-I:Iarith, son of Hammam, related: I intended leaving Tabriz at a time when it was unwholesome for high and low, and empty of patrons and men of largess; and while I was making ready my travelling-gear and foraging for some company on the journey, I encountered there Abu Zayd, the Sariiji, wrapped up in a cloak and surrounded by females. I asked him about his business, and whither he was bound with his bevy. Said he, pointing to a woman amongst them, fair of face, apparently in high dudgeon: "I had married this one, that she might make me forgetful of exile, and cleanse me from the squalor of celibacy, but I met from her with the sweat of [the carrier ot] the water-bag, in that she now kept me out of my right, and now plied me beyond my strength, wherefore I am through her jaded with foot-soreness, and an ally to cark and choking care, and

Vol. XLII 2007 135 here we are on our way to the judge, that he may strike on the hand of the oppressor. So, if he arrange matters between us, let there be concord, but if not, a divorce!" Then I inclined to ascertain to whom the victory would accrue, and what the upshot would be. So I put my present affair behind my back, and accompanied the twain, though I should not be of any use. Now, when he was in the presence of the Kadi, who belonged to the number of those who appreciate parsimony, and stint even tooth-pickings ...

As in the maqama of poetry, in this maqama, except for short introductory remarks, the whole passages are allocated to the description of the speech and action of the protagonist, which smoothly leads the reader to realize in what condition Abu Zayd, the rascal, is situated and where his intention lies. Along with the first person narration, the subject of a quarrel between husband and wife intensifies the sense of unity between the narrator and the reader, for nearly every one in the world should be attracted to the lovers' quarrel, though it is often said unwise to interfere in a couple's marital affair. Moreover, the story reported by an eyewitness helps the suspense of drama to grow livelier. There is a gradual build-up of suspense peculiar to a legal case throughout the maqama, so the reader expects how the divorce suit will develop, wondering which side will win the case. A reader of this maqama is put in the same position as those observing a trial in the courtroom. It is appropriate to conclude that al-I:Iariri's narrative art in the maqama is identical with that of a playwright composing a courtroom play. The irregularity of the fortieth maqama as a judicial one lies in the disclosure of a rogue's identity in the beginning of the story. As explained before, in a judicial maqama, the second anagnorisis takes place at the closing scene of the drama, the scene of revealing the rogue's identity. In this maqama, however, the narrator betrays the protagonist's real identity at the beginning and unmasks the impostor, which appears to reduce the dramatic tension greatly. The disclosure, on the contrary, contributes to the clarity of the story by focussing on the cunning art of a swindler. After the recognition of the rogue's identity, the reader's attention will be concentrated on the development of the legal procedure with his greatest concern laid on how the rogue will abuse his cunning art to cajole some money out of the judge. So, how does the trial proceed?54

Abu Zayd crouched on his knees before him, and said to him: "Behold, this my palfrey refuses the bridle, and is much given to

136 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE bolting, although I am more obedient to her than her finger-tips, and fonder of her than her own heart." Then the Kadi said to her: "Woe betide thee, knowest thou not that stubbornness angers thy lord and master, and requires the lash?" Said she: "But, lo, he is of those who use to prowl behind the house, and to take the neighbour along with the neighbour." Then the Kadi said to him: "Out upon thee, so west thou in the salt-marshes, and lookest out for chicks, where no chicks are to be got? May it never go well with thee, nor be thou safe from terror." Said Abu Zayd: "Lo by Him, who sends down the winds, she is more of a liar than Saja}J.i." Said she: "Nay! By Him, who has adorned the neck of the dove with a ring, and given wings to the ostrich, he is a worse liar than Abu Samamah, when he forged falsehoods in [Y]amamah." Thereupon Abii Zayd hissed with the hiss of the flaring fire ...

The husband, notorious for eloquence, crosses swords with his wife, but his eloquence does not work well, for she retorts him demonstrating the same, or a higher, degree of eloquence. The husband and wife have an impressive command of the Arabic language. Their words are rhymed, adorned with parallelism, quoted from rich sources of Arabic literature. Who are Sajal)i and Abu Samamah? Who is the man that has adorned the neck of dove with a ring and given wings to ostrich? Few readers may realize that both Saja}J.i and Abii Samamah were the false prophets at the time of Mu}J.ammad, the last prophet, without referring to the annotations. The witty, ironic and allusive expressions require an enormous amount of knowledge to decipher, which only the adib can do. A variety of rhetorical embellishments of the text are attempted in this maqama, highly valued by the translator. 55 The Maqamat belongs to polite, if not popular, literature, limited to men of learning, i.e. adibs. What makes the Maqamat more popular among the scholars and philologists, insists Abu-Haidar, is the very qualities of difficulty and obscurity. They find pleasure in deciphering the enigmas enmeshed in it and writing commentaries on them. 56 As the story unfolds, the judge's admiration for the speech of the married couple grows greater; they are weavers of words and performers of miracles. But, alas, he finally comes to find himself entrapped in a blind alley; he has no alternative but to assign some money to both of them, a severe blow to him. Here the introductory remarks about the judge's character, that he appreciates parsimony and is stingy even with a toothpick, works well as a plot. Whether he passes a judgement in favour of a party or against it, in either case, he will be

Vol. XLII 2007 137 retorted by the other party. He is no match for them in eloquence. The judge recognizes himself not an arbitrator, but a defendant, accused by both of them. The married couple are in cahoots. The recognition of their identity, truth, says Aristotle, arouses pleasure and fear, which is the main target of'a drama. 57 Along with the eloquent wife, the characterization of the judge as a miser, which stands in a sharp contrast with the benevolent judge of the twenty-third maqlima, takes effect, and the story reaches its climax. The figure of the victimized judge, deprived of dignity revealing his inner nature, will arouse in the reader Schadenfreude, the malicious enjoyment of others' misfortunes. 58 The reader will enjoy laughter as well as pity for a person of high ranks, feeling him "like ourselves."59 As explained elsewhere, what al-~ariri tries to address to readers through judicial maqlimas, or the leitmotif underlying them, is the decline of a moral code and the satire against adibs.60 His criticism against the judge is sharp and his satire stinging. The judge should not have been deceived by the appearances of the couple, nor should he have been attracted by the flowery language they use. The married couple are ruses, exploiting their knowledge and eloquence for their private satisfaction and money, a strong evidence of the decline of ethics. The judge as an adib (a man of learning) should have recognized their identity, but he lacks the requisite adab (learning and experience) befitting a judge. Satirists are those who exploit the discrepancy between appearance and reality, and expose hypocrisy to the public eyes. The married couple are disguised adibs, so is the judge. Through representing different types of judges - one is benevolent, another dignified, and still other lusty - al-~ariri demonstrates that without due discretion even those who occupy a high position of authority and responsibility, including governors and judges, will become easy preys to swindlers as do their unenlightened subjects. A governor and a judge are no better than ordinary folk; their base nature and lack of discretion invite misfortune. They are no exception in view of human nature. This simple truth of life is what al-I:Iariri intends to preach in judicial maqlimas. In the maqli:ma of Tabriz, its reader is set in the same position of a spectator of the Greek tragedy by Sophocles, Oedipus Rex. The gist of the play is that the secret, the fatal fact of having murdered his father and married his own mother, is hidden to the protagonist, but revealed to the spectators. They would feel they should not have known the fact, but with this knowledge, they can easily anticipate the ending of the play and the fearful fate of the king. They watch the development of a tragedy with fear and pity, feeling their superiority to Oedipus

138 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE with the knowledge of his secret. This is why Aristotle considers Oedipus Rex typical of a tragedy. In this respect, al-I:Iariri should be regarded as the faithful follower of Aristotle's dramatic theory. He sets the judge and the reader in a similar position to Oedipus and the spectator respectively. The reader knows what the protagonist doesn't, which gives the former a sense of superiority to the latter. Without doubt, the difference in the characterization of protagonists between the Greek and the Arabic dramas - in Oedipus a supreme king, in the maqama a stingy judge - makes the tone of the two stories totally different: the former a tragedy, the latter a comedy, as explained by Aristotle.61 To make a base man play the leading role is to render the play into a comedy, but the protagonist of the maqama is a governor, a person of high rank. This maqama, therefore, is regarded as a mixture of tragedy and comedy, or more accurately, a tragic-comedy or dark comedy, because "comedy. . . at its profoundest level, extends beyond laughter.. . At the deepest level the impact [of comedy and tragedy] is indistinguishable. "62 Readers feel pity as well as pleasure, afraid that the misfortune the governor met should take place to themselves. Al-I:Iariri is a satirist, who is always acutely conscious of the difference between what things are and what things ought to be. He is not only able to exploit more fully the difference between appearance and reality but also able to disclose hypocrisy. 63 The judge falls victim to his own flaw, stinginess, which is unworthy of the profession. The wretched figure of the judge silenced by the rogues is compared to Shylock by the translator. 64 Another art of composition which makes this text similar to a dramatic writing is an ample use of deixis. Herman insists that "dramatic speech can't simply be regarded as an extension of everyday speech into drama. There is interdependence but not identity between them." There are crucial points of difference between dramatic speech and everyday speech. He argues that "the dramatic text, as a written text, addresses a context of performance which requires a change in mode of discourse - the transformation and transmutation of the written lines into the dynamics of spoken speech, which involve more than the recitation of the lines of the text by actors.. . Dialogue creates situations, as those jointly achieved by the participants themselves. "65 Dramatic speech, therefore, is highly context-centred, and the contents of a dialogue will become the clearer as it is contextualized with the help of the signifiers of contexts, the deictic references. Playwrights are compelled to write in as many deictic elements as possible. A text with more deixes in it, therefore, comes closer to a dramatic text. Basic deictic elements are usually regarded as those concerning "person," "place," and "time": I and you, here and there, this and

Vol. XLII 2007 139 that, now, then, soon, and so on. We will examine the beginning of the maqiima quoted before and its final scene to see how the agony of the judge is depicted with paying special attention to its use of deixes along with another code of theatre - kinetic elements. In the beginning of the fortieth maqiima, al-I:Iariri makes clear the relationship between the main characters utilizing deictic expressions. Abu Zayd points to a woman saying, "I have married this one (hiidhihi), and she may make me (ni) forgetful of exile, . . . but I met from her with ... "66 In the following passage, he says, "And here we (nal]nu) are on our (nii) way to the judge."67 The author begins the story by the term of gesticulation of the protagonist (Abu Zayd): point(s) to. After the introductory remarks, he addresses to the narrator (al-I:Iarith) in the first person, explaining the situation with his fellow traveller (his wife), using the third person female pronoun suffix (hii) with verbal conjugations designating the third person female singular ("ta" in the imperfect form and "at" in the perfect form). By way of deictic expressions made by the protagonist such as "I," "we," "she," and "this," readers are able to interpret the relationship between the characters on the stage, realizing that the third person female singular refers to his troubled wife. In the final recognition scene where the judge realizes that he was duped by the couple, he gives vent to his feelings with different kinds of deictic expressions: 68

Said the narrator: Now when the Kadi saw stoutness of their hearts and the glibness of their tongues, he perceived that he was visited through them with an incurable disease and a crushing calamity, and that if he gave to one of the spouses and turned off the other empty handed, he would be like one who pays a debt with borrowed money and prays the sunset-prayer with two genuflexions. So he frowned and knitted his brows, and raged and fumed, and hemmed and hawed; then he turned to the right and left, and twisted about in distress and regret, and began to abuse the office of a judge and its troubles, and counted up its bothers and vicissitudes, reviling one who seeks it and applies for it.

He frowns and knits his eyebrows, rages and fumes, hemmes and haws, turns to the right and left, twists, abuses, counts, and reviles. Nearly every word is related to gesticulation and deixis. al-I:Iariri succeeds in making readers imagine every motion of the judge with a flood of kinetic expressions. What

140 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE differentiates the language of drama from that of narrative is the necessity for gesticulation, for it presupposes the presence of a human body so as to reveal its full meanings. In this respect, the quoted passage is typical of the art of dramatic writing. Together with visual signs, the acoustic effects are utilized to depict the mixed feelings he betrays: agony, wrath, and repentance. No other parts of the Maqamat, probably no Arabic writings, describe a person's distress and anger more vividly than this passage. al-Ijariri is tenacious in depicting the figure of the duped judge mainly because parsimony is regarded as a vice in Arab Islamic culture where generosity as well as honour is all that matters. Meanness is unsuitable for a judge, an adib. At the final scene, the judge explodes with anger and expresses himself in deixis. His lines are laden with emphatic deixes, which indicate his emotions metaphorically: indignation against the disgusting fellows and the day. Then he turns towards his Usher, the carrier out of his behests, and says, "This is not a day of judgement and delivery of sentences, and of decision and execution: this is a day of sorrow, this is a day that involves one in debt, this is a day of crisis, this is a day of loss, this is a day ... "69 His lines refer to a pronoun, this (hadha), ten times consecutively, which betrays his feeling markedly that what a nasty day it is today! Note the different use of the pronoun "this" in this passage. In general, place deixes such as this (way), here, and time deixes such as now, today, indicate spatial and temporal references respectively, but in his line "this (today) is a day of... " "this" as an intensifier connotes emphasis, and plays the role of emphatic deixis. 70 An examination of the judicial maqamas has shown that their irregularity of plots, that is to say, the double anagnorisis (tenth and twenty-third maqamas) and the disclosure of the protagonist's identity (fortieth maqiima), contributes to heighten such emotions of readers as pleasure, excitement and pity, arising from the judge's own recognition of his identity and folly. The plot or mythos, insists Aristotle, is the soul of a drama, the cause of its being what it is. 71 Al-Ijariri contrives the plots in the judicial maqllmas so as to enhance catharsis from pity that a reader feels. To intensify the dramatic effect, deictic and kinetic expressions are amply used. Given these characteristics peculiar to the judicial maqamas, they are the ones in which dramatic elements are contained more than in any other maqllmas. If those passages related to descriptive parts are deleted from a judicial maqama and rewritten in dialogue form, the result will be a courtroom play comparable to ancient Greek dramas or Shakespeare's plays.

Vol. XLII 2007 141 5. Between Page and Age.

As chapters three and four indicate, a close reading of the Maqiimat of al I:;Iariri has proved its theatricality involving different kinds of dramatic elements required for a dramatic writing by Aristotle: propensity for fiction, impersonation, embellishment of texts, plot, khatarsis, anagnorisis, deixis, and kinex. Those elements merge to lend verisimilitude to them, especially in the judicial maqamas, which prove to be no other than dramatic texts for staging. In them the fate of the two parties, the judging and the judged, reverses, and the figure of a victimized judge is depicted vividly and sarcastically. In a dramatic writing, Aristotle says, manner rather than matter counts.72 al-l:;lariri observes faithfully Aristotle's dramatic theory in the judicial maqamas. As explained in chapter two, the courtroom has a number of theatrical elements, and therein lies the reason why many of Shakespeare's plays hold courtroom scenes, Hamlet, King Lear, Julius Caesar, The Merchant of Venice, and the list covers nearly all of his works. According to a dictionary on Shakespeare, "Of the thirty-seven of Shakespeare's plays ... thirty-five contain the word 'judge', and thirty-five the word 'justice'. The Tempest is one of the plays lacking the word 'judge', but it twice contains a metaphor of a 'trial', and indeed has judgement and pardon at its core. "73 "Shakespeare shows a quite precise and mainly serious interest in the capacity of legal language to convey matters of social, moral, and intellectual substance. "74 He makes use of the tension and suspense of a lawsuit to the full in writing plays, so does al-l:;lariri. His ingenuity to fabricate a story about imaginary characters leads him to deal with legal affairs as a theme, utilizing the peculiar nature of a trial concerning a fate of a person. But there is another reason why he wrote those maqamas with judicial themes. The reason is concerned with the history of live theatre in the Arabic culture. It is a well-attested fact that al-Hamadhani, the originator of the maqiimat genre, generally derived his inspiration and materials from adab literature, particularly anecdotage, and popular culture, specifically performing arts. 75 From the former, he borrowed refined style, saj ·, and subject matters transformed into narratives about an imaginary rogue; from the latter, al Hamadhani adopted the figure of an eloquent beggar wandering in the Islamic countries. His eloquent hero reminds us of the itinerant protagonist of Bam1 Sasan. 76 The title, maqiimiit (gathering place, speech session), itself suggests its linkage with popular performing arts. 77 Moreover, that he is well versed with popular culture is shown in the fact that the original title of the Maqamat was the

142 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE maqama kudya (beggar), whose trickeries are introduced in al-Hamadhani's.78 Among the stock characters of beggar literature is an animal trainer like an ape trainer which is depicted in his Maqamat. 19 Imitation (mimesis), says Aristotle, is human nature and we fmd pleasure in imitating, which is regarded by him as the essence of a drama. 80 Arabs are no exception in this respect. There were imitators of animals and a pretender of a judge in imaginary trials, in which the achievements of previous califs were criticized and sentences were imposed upon them. 81 Given ample evidence, it is appropriate to infer that al-Hamadhani had some knowledge of popular entertainments including imaginary trials. al-l:lariri faithfully followed the concept and the art of composition of al-Hamadhani with the same interest in popular culture. He wrote a maqama on Banii Sasan as did al-HamadhanL 82 Moreover, al-l:lariri deployed the judicial theme, utilized by the predecessor, to satirize those who occupied a dominant position in the society: judges or governors, who are responsible for maintaining law and order and whose wretched state arouses pleasure and pity, the essences of drama, among the reader. He succeeded in heightening the theatricality of the judicial maqamas because of a close affmity between drama and litigation. The dividing line between a real legal drama and a courtroom play is so thin and blurred that both observers in the court and readers of the courtroom play will share the same mixed feelings of excitement: horror, freight, pity, and pleasure. al-l:lariri's ingenuity as a dramatist demonstrated in writing a judicial drama may have been stimulated by the Arab theatrical tradition, but we cannot side with Moreh who argues that "the terms khayal, maqama, risala, l]iklzya... were applied to dramatic literature intended for either recitation or live actors, " 83 because "Maqamat is so highly rhetorical and high-brow that no ordinary folk can appreciate it. "84 Maqamat is a new genre originated by al-Hamadhani and established as a genre by al-l:lariri, a hybrid of different kinds of materials and techniques of composition from the rich sources of Arabic literature and merging them into narratives. 85 But its narrative side was neglected by the contemporary literati and only its polished style was highly evaluated or overestimated, and the appreciation of the Maqamat went in this vein for a long time until the nineteenth century. Consequently, the dramatic elements in the Maqamat were totally disregarded and the possibility of creating an indigenous Arabic drama in the western sense was ruled out. It is hoped that this paper has shown that al l:lariri was a budding dramatist, who was to develop a fully-fledged drama, which will refute the classical Orientalists' view that Arabs were void of

Vol. XLII 2007 143 theatrical tradition because of their mental traits. 86

Notes I This study is a revised version of a paper presented at the 45th meeting of the Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan, Kanazawa, October 26, 2003, and included in Review of Shitennoji International Buddhist University 39 (2005), entitled "Theatricality of the Maqamat - Metamorphosis, Catharsis, Deixis.'' (In Japanese). 2 Badawi 1988, 3. Moreh gives a list of those who are for or against the hypothesis ( 1992, ix, fn. 1). 3 Moreh 1992. His contribution to the study of the history of live theatre (compared with shadow play) is, without doubt, outstanding, but Hameen-Anttila criticizes him arguing that "he overestimates the evidential value of his material when it comes to any continuous tradition of formal theatre!' Hameen-Anttila 2002, 86, fn. 65. 4 Chenery 1867, vol. 1, 19. Cf. Beeston 1971,9. s Gibb 1963, 101. 6 Nicholson 1969, 328. Shak'a 1983,390. 8 Allen 1998a, 271. Other optmons concerning theatrical and dramatic elements of Maqamat are introduced in Moreh 1992, 105-107. 9 Chenou 1995. Neuwirth analyses the structure of the maqamah of al-J:Iariri in terms of "one of the most important traits of its structure: the alternating of text and meta text - of drama and 'metadrama'," whose objective is different from ours. Neuwirth 1999, 208. Though minute and thought-provoking, her study is limited to one maqama, al-Ramliyah, without defining drama or metadrama. 10 E. Bentley, a leading scholar of the modem stage as well as a playwright, attempts making definitions of stage, theatre, and drama in an introductory book, and admits the difficulty of the task saying that "it is always easier to lead off with a denial." Bentley 1990, 9-10. Another introductory text to theatrical study writes that "those who study theatre make a commonplace distinction between drama and theatre. Drama is most often written language, the words ascribed to the characters which in the theatre are spoken by actors ... Unlike drama, theatre is not words on a page. Theatre is performance." Fortier 1997, 4. In discussions on dramatic forms and themes between scholars, their opinions of the terms differ. One critic says that "the play must consist essentially of that which is to be 'played', consist, that is, of the words on the page." Nichol 1969, 2. While another insists that "for me, 'drama' embraces a wider field of creative activity than 'play'. Opera and mime could be included as an aspect of drama ... Punch and Judy shows and the long tradition of puppetry are forms of drama but I'm not sure that they are plays." Ibid., 5. The discussion in the same vein, which turned into a life-or-death debate, is made in compiling an encyclopedia of Arabic theatre. Rubin 1999,6-7. 11 Fortier 1997,4-7. 12 Ibid., 4. He goes on to say that "the reader will note that dramatic elements play a large part in my discussion. This is in part because drama as fixed and recordable, is the part of theatre most accessible to examination and analysis. Moreover, the drama text remains, especially in the western tradition, a seminal aspect of theatre." Ibid., 13. 13 Chenou refers to the similarity between the Maqamat and Brazilian invisible theatre. Chenou 1995, 94. Cf. Neuwirth 1999, 209, fn. 13. A piece of literature meant to be read rather than staged is called "closet drama," because it is appreciated in a "closet": private or small room esp. for private interviews (C.O.D.). 14 Beeston 1971, 9. In Poetics, whose main theme and objective are to show the way of composing good and effective tragedy and comedy, Aristotle distinguishes between history and fiction, and between epic and lyric in terms of mimesis (representation). History may be written in verse or prose, but different from poetry in that history is written on what has happened

144 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY -DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE (actual events), while poetry (drama) is on what may happen or what is possible. Aristotle 1995, 59. Thus, fictionality is the most basic requisite for a drama. 15 Drory in the Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature, s.v. maqiima. Scholars of Arabic literature are nearly unanimous in this respect. Cf. Leder 1998, 35. 16 Beeston 1971, 8. Cf. Richards 1991, 90. 17 Beeston 1990, 125. 18 Hameen-Anttila 2002, 53-55; Kilito 1978, 19-22. 19 Kilito suggested the mirror-image and Monroe added another element: departure of the transmitter from the city. Thus the same structure repeats itself in each maqiima, which is called a ring composition by Monroe (1983, 21-23). 20 Aristotle 1995, 57. 21 The ever-lasting popularity of Merchant of Venice lies in the trial scene where Portia disguises as a lawyer. In Shakespeare's time, a female role was played by a boy, so that the double impersonation intensifies the suspense of the story and enhances the excitement of spectators perverted by the plot. The same is true of the Maqiimiit, in which an impersonated protagonist heightens the suspense of a story and the anticipation of readers. 22 Al-f:lariri 1980, 190-202; Chenery 1867, 234-243. 23 Jum'a 1949, 6. 24 Aristotle 1995, 47-49. 25 Ibid., 55. 26 Drory 2000, 61-62. 27 Neuwirth 1999, 208. 28 Al-Shak'a 1983, 418; Qayfn.d., 61-62; Chenery 1867,234. 29 Aristotle 1995, 49; Nicol1969, 7. 30 Herman 1995,4. 31 Aristotle 1995, 49. 32 Ivanyi 1996, 224. 33 Beeston corrected the misconception about saj' by examining the difference of styles called saj · and concluded that not rhyme but parallelism is the key to the understanding of prose style named saj '. Beeston 1971; Drory 2000, 104-121; Young 2004, 28-30. 34 Hameen-Anttila 2002, 157. 35 AI-Zamakhshari composed a poem praising the Maqiimat saying that .. f:lariri 's Assemblies are worthy to be written in gold each line," which is quoted by Nicholson. Nicholson 1969, 336. Cf. Ebied and Young 1974, 81. Allen studied the influence of the Maqiimiit down to modem times and indicated the long tradition of "maqiima spirit" until today. Allen 1998b, 12. Cf. Hameen-Antilla 2002, 173-177. 36 Beeston 1971, 8. 37 Ibid., 8-9. When faced with western literature, Arabic literati tried to imitate it and create works comparable to it utilizing the maqiima genre. Allen 1998a, 70-73. 38 Kilito 1978, 36, fn. I. Abu Zayd is likened to a superhuman hero by Hameen-Anttila 2002, 167-176. 39 Nicol 1969, 3. 40 Maqiimas with a trial scene are as follows:

No. (title} The Accuser The Accused Charge

8 (Ma'arriya} old man young man property damage 9 (lskandariya) young wife old husband fraudulence 10 (Ral_lbiya) old man young man murderer 23 (Shi'riya) old man young man theft 34 (Zabidiya} young man the narrator infringement on right 37 (Sa'diya) old man young son untractability

Vol. XLII 2007 145 40 (Tabriziya) (husband) (young wife) (contumacy) 11 45 (Ramliya) young wife old husband neglecting marital duties

11 In this maqilma, the husband and wife are in cahoots, pretending to condemn the other party; the husband for her contumacy, and the wife for his misuse of the conjugal rights. They alternate the roles of an accuser and the accused. The gist of the plot is that they are accomplices, partners in crime, so it is nearly impossible to discern which one is the accuser. Cf. Neuwirth 1999, 212. 41 Hameen-Anttila first showed the importance of ruq 'a (envoi) of the Maqamat ofal-J:Iariri. Hameen-Anttila 2002, 152-153. 42 Aristotle 1995, 47-49. 43 Lear 1992, 315. 44 Janko 1992, 351. 45 Aristotle 1995, 37. 46 Al-J:Iariri 1980,201-202, Chenery 1867,243. 47 Bonebakker 1990, 18. 48 An innovative view on the maqilmilt genre is presented in relation to the decline of culture by Drory. Drory 2000, 126fT. The opinion in the same vein concerned with the maqama and the shadow play is offered by Monroe and Pettigrew 2003. 49 Aristotle 1995, 35 and 45. so Al-l:fariri 1980, 87; Chenery 1867, 159. Sl Al-l:fariri 1980, 87; Chenery 1867, 159. S2 Al-I:Iariri 1980, 91; Chenery 1867, 162. 53 Al-l:fariri 1980, 345-352; Steingass 1898, I 01-108. 54 Al-l:fariri 1980, 346; Steingass 1898, I 03. 55 Steingass 1898, I 02. He says that "the unprejudiced reader cannot fail to admire this Assembly as one of the most original, amusing, and spirited pieces of the whole collection." In the texts compiled by Saba and al-Sharishi, the word translated by Steingass as Tamamah is revised as Yamamah, which seems correct. Al-J:Iariri 1980, 246; ai-Sharishi 1976, vol. 4, 321. 56 Abu-Haidar 1974, 2. 57 Aristotle 1995, 65-67. 58 Goodman says that "Hamadhani's audience enjoys the same thrill that the simple man feels when he witnesses the outwitting ofthe Devil in folktales." Goodman 1988,33. 59 Golden 1992, 382-384. 6° Cf. note 48. 61 Aristotle 1995, 35. 62 Nocol 1969,3. Cf. Esslin 1980, 145, 191, and 411; Goldenl992, 384-385. 63 Pollard 1970, 3. 64 Steingass 1898, I 02. 65 Herman 1995, 7-13; Roman 1998, 233-238. 66 Al-J:Iariri 1980, 345; Steingass 1898, I 02. 67 Al-l:fariri 1980, 345; Steingass 1898, 102. 68 AI-J:Iariri 1980, 351; Steingass 1898, 106-107. 69 Al-J:Iariri 1980, 351-352; Steingass 1898, 107. 70 Herman 1995, 58-59. 71 Aristotle 1995, 53. 72 Ibid., 51. 73 Sokol and Sokol 2004, I. 74 Ibid., 3. 75 Hameen-Anttila 2002, 75-88; Sulayman 1983, 342-345; Qayfn.d., 42-43. 76 The nineteenth maqama of al-Hamadhiini is titled "Sasan," where the chief of the son of Sasan recites a poem begging for foods. al-Hamadhani 1982, 92-95; 'Abd al-J:Iamid 1978, 106- 112; Prendergast 1973, 81-83.

146 ORIENT MAQAMA AS A COURTROOM PLAY-DISGUISED HERO, DUPED JUDGE 77 Moreh 1992, 104-1 08; Richards 1991, 92. 78 Hameen-Anttila 2002, 82-84. 79 Ibid., 83. The twentieth maqizma ofal-Hamadhani is entitled "ape." Al-Hamadhani 1982, 96-97; 'Abd al-l;lamid 1978, 111-112; Prendergast 1973,84-85. 80 Aristotle 1995, 37. 81 Moreh 1992, 91-94. 82 In the forty-ninth maqizma of al-l;lariri named "Sasan", Abu Zayd appears as a sheikh of Banu Sasan and makes his will to his son and retires from the profession. Opinions differ whether his conversion is genuine or not. Kilito 1983, 205 and 226-227; Zakharia 1994, 21 0; Hiimeen-Anttila 2002, 158-159. 83 Moreh 1992, 118. 84 Hameen-Anttila 2002, 86. 85 Young 2003, 192. 86 Badawi enumerates four reasons why the Arabs were considered to be devoid of the art of drama. One of which, he speculates, was related to the view of the Arabs. "The Arab mind was held to be atomistic and excessively individualistic ... The Arabs ... were incapable of the sort of organization and large-scale structure essential to literary forms of some magnitude such as drama and the epic." Badawi 1988, 4; Beeston 1971, 11.

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