Educational Considerations
Volume 8 Number 1 Article 3
9-1-1980
Tracing the historical growth of gerontology
David B. Oliver
Jocelyn M. Eckerman
Richard S. Machalek
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Recommended Citation Oliver, David B.; Eckerman, Jocelyn M.; and Machalek, Richard S. (1980) "Tracing the historical growth of gerontology," Educational Considerations: Vol. 8: No. 1. https://doi.org/10.4148/0146-9282.1832
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by New Prairie Press. It has been accepted for inclusion in Educational Considerations by an authorized administrator of New Prairie Press. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Oliver et al.: Tracing the historical growthcannot of gerontologybe questioned. Researchers and service providers, The question of whether regard less of their academic backgrounds and experience have special significant and mutual concerns which tend gerontology is an emerging to suggest that gerontology may indeed qualify as a new branch of knowledge. Some of these underlying thema new discipline or a variation include an examination of variables which contribute to or hinder the quality of an individual's life in old age, a concern for the social environment and its impact on per of older ones sons who are increasingly being separated from it, the psychological consequences of retirement as one o f the is being debated. last major rites of passage, the social world of widows and widowers who after a lifetime of sharing now face life as singles in a cou ple-oriented culture, changes in health (physical and mental) which may not diminish one's ability to function normally in old age, and so on. Yet as these developing interests and concerns parallel the demo graphic explosion of more and more older persons in our population, there are those who would argue that, in spite o f the exponential growth of professional societies, research studies, gerontology centers, and publications, a new discipline is not destined to emerge. They suggest that each discipline-be it sociology, psychology, bi Tracing ology, social work, economics or political science-will continue to explore the dimensions of aging from its own perspective and approaches, and that a well defined field cutting across disciplines is theoretically and organiza the historical tionally unlikely. This debate over gerontology's current and future development provides the basis for this paper. By examin ing some of the historical events which have influenced growth of the growth of gerontology within the framework of certain sociology of knowledge considerations, perhaps we can understand more clearly the circumstances under which gerontology gerontology's luture will be decided. Sociology of Knowledge Considerations The sociology o f knowledge may be useful in aiding our understanding of the growth of gerontology. The production, distribution, and consumption ol knowledge about aging are processes that are influenced by the social and historical conditions under which they occur. Therefore, we would expect social factors, in general, and political and economic conditions, in particular, to shape the course of the development of gerontolpgy. i:;0r exa·m By David B. Oliver, ple, changes in the demographic compositio,o ofa society will bring into play new political and economic interests. Jocelyn M. Eckerman As the aged gain greater demographic representation they and Richard S. Machalek can be expected to gain political and economic signifi cance. In part, this involves a demand for new knowledge about the place o f the older person in contemporary society. Comparable demands by blacks and women in the last two decades have led to the growth of a con siderable amount of new knowledge about race and sex role stratification . In all likelihood the political and eco This paper traces the development of gerontology as nomic enfranchisement of the aged will stimulate de a field of study. AlthOugh increasing evidence of the con mands for greater knowledge about aging in all its as vergence of writing and thought into a collective body of pects. knowledge currently exists, the question of whether The demand for new gerontological knowledge gerontology Is an emerging new discipline or a variation of having been established, social forces continue to con older ones is sllll being debated. However, lhe prolifera dition the kinds of scientific and scholarly questions that tion of research and training efforts under the banner of are raised and the kinds of research that are sponsored. "gerontology," the formation of a number and variety of The representation of various disciplines within geron "Centers for Aging" and "Gerontology Ins titutes," the es tology clearly illustrates this principle. Scientific labor in tablishment of national, reg ional and state professional gerontology is divided among biologists, physicians, societies, and the publication of a significant number of sociologists, psychologists, econ om ists , and political journals related directly or indirectly to the field of aging scientists among others. As Karl Mannheim (1936) in-
2 Educational Considerations, Vol. 8, No. 1, Fall, 1980
Published by New Prairie Press, 2017 1 Educational Considerations, Vol. 8, No. 1 [1980], Art. 3 FIG. 1
PIONEER EFFORTS
Pre-1940
EVENTS CONTRIBUTORS PUBLICA flONS B. Franklin E. t..tetchnikoff International Health Exhibitioll A. Ouetelet Pavlov 16•5-Hlstory of Life anrJ Death/Bacon In London ...... 188<1 Sir Francis Gallon G.S. Hall 1835- 0n the Nature of Man and the D•· Nasher coins "getiatrics" . . . . 1909 velopment of His Faculties! c. Minot R. Pearl Ouo101e1 Pavlov's S1udies in classic l.L. Nasher E.V.Cowdry conditioning ...... 1920s 1869-Heredlrery Genius1Ga1ton Lillian Matlin established first 1908 - The Profongo//on of LilelMetchni old age counseling center koff in San Francisco . . Late 20s 1908- The Problems of Age, Growth and Rybnlkov coins "gerontology" .. 1929 De•th/Mlnot Townsend Movement . . 1 ~0 1922- Sencsconce/Hall The Depression ...... • . . . . • Early 30s 1922-Biology of Death/Pearl StantordJLatet M atutity Research 1929- The Problem of the Psychology Project (Mites of Age/Rybnikov and Associates) ...... Early 30s 1933-Arrttioscleros/$: A Survey of the Socia! Security Act ...... • . 1935 ProblemlCO'Ndry Club fe< Research in Aging 1939-Probloms of AginglCowdry (Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation) . . 1939
structed, each discipline represents a particu lar " per· with a vigorous grandparent, or the anticipation of one's spective," a point of view on the problem at hand. Each own old age in a youth-oriented society often help inspire discipline brings to gerontology its chosen assumptions, career commitments to the study of aging. Perhaps less vocabularies, and methods- in short, its traditions. As poignantly but equally ellective, one's mentor, one's physicians may ponder the vu lnerabilities of the aged to graduate or professional institution. or even one's areas of certain diseases, sociologists may note the privileged early research may establish the palh along which a career exemptions that upper class aged enjoy from such moves. Gerontologists, as any o ther scientists, are nol im diseases, while the psychologist focuses on problems o f mune to such biographical inlluences on their work. In personal adjustment that these diseases may bring. In this summary, the growth and development of gerontological case, the same Issue (disease) is conceived very dif· knowledge does not take place in a social vacuum. Rather, ferently depending on where one stands in the division of the questions gerontology laces, the methods and re· scientific labor. In principle, gerontologists could 1ake search strategies geronlologisls employ, and 1he research heart lrom this diversity, wha1ever communication and conclusions gerontologists draw wlll alv1ays be con· " territorial" problems it may introduce. Mannheim himself strained by the social context within which the research is championed the epistemological advantages of converg· conducted. The growth and nature ol gerontological Ing on a phenomenon lrom a number ol vantage points or knowledge, like the rest of culture, stands in dialectical perspectives. In tact, Mannheim argued lhat only by ad· relation to the society ltom which it emerges. Thus, in or ducing evidence from several perspectives (in this case der to obtain an understanding of lhe "state of the art" in disciplines) can we hope to gain a more comprehensive gerontology, ii is necessary to examine !he various as view of any "object" (phenomenon). This is because the pects of its growth to the presen t time. mental horizons of any one perspective are always delimited by social and histotical boundaries. In a more Tracing the Growth recent statemen t Rober! Wu thnow (1976) suggests lhat A number of gerontologists (Birren, 1959; Streib and cultural and Intellectual creativity are directly dependent Orbach, 1967; Birren and Clayton, 1975; Hendricks and on discourse among thinkers who represent different per· Hendricks, 1977; Maddox and Wiley, 1976; Schwartz and spectives. If this Is true, the very diversity of the disci Peterson, 1979; Reigel, 1977) have examined various plines that comprise gerontology should serve this new facets of hlslorical development in the field of aging. In science ol aging well. this paper the contributions of these authors are com If general societal conditions of a politlcal and bined into: 1) Pre-1940, Pioneer Efforts; 2) 1940-1954, Early economic nature and disciplinary traditions shape the Development; 3) 1955·1964, Research and Organization; quest for gerontological knowledge, the biographical 4} 1965-1974, Education; and 5) 1975 to the Present, an idiosyncrasies of any given tesearcher will also impri nt Emerging Discipline. From ils inception as a field of themselves on his or her work. The experiences thal ac· study, gerontology has assumed a distinctly multidisci company the responsibility of caring for an aging and plinary nature. The disciplines of biology, psychology, and dependent parent, lhe recollection of a rich childhood sociology have been, and remain, major sources of geron-
Fall, 1900 3 https://newprairiepress.org/edconsiderations/vol8/iss1/3 DOI: 10.4148/0146-9282.1832 2 Oliver et al.: Tracing the historical growth of gerontology FIG. 2
EARLY DEVELOPMENT
1940·1954
EVENTS CONTRIBUTORS PUBLICA TIONS
Unit on gerontology established in N IH E. Steiglitz o. Pollack 1945-""Size, Shape and Age""/Medawar (later became the NIA). . . t940 L.K. Frank R.S. Cavan 1945-The Role of the Aged in Primitive Conferences on Aging held by: L.S. Cottrel A.I. Lansing Societies/Simmons American Osteopsychlatric Assoc. P.8. Meda\var R. Havighurst 1948-Sociat Adjustment in Old Medical Clinics of North America AgetPollack L. Simmons R. Albrecht American Chemic-at Society 1948-Personat Adjustment in Old NIH . . . . . Early 40S Age/Cavan Social Science Research Council 1952-""General Physio1ogy"tLansing established the "Committee on Social Adjustment in Old Age"" 1943 1953- 0/der People/Havighurst Gerontological Society 1954-Gerlatric MedicinelSteiglitz established ...... 19.45 Journal of Gerontology published . 1945 Establishment of the International ASSO<;iation of Gerontology in Liege, Belgium ...... 1946 Oiv~slon of Psychological and Social Sciences established in the Gerontological Society . . 1952
tological research, and knowledge. As will be seen, the century. lgnatz L. Nascher coined the term " geriatrics" in disciplinary and educational interests and needs of geron· 1909 and thus pioneered the development of this new tology have expanded to include other d isciplines as well. field. Nascher was also interested in the social conditions An examination of historical events and contributions pro· of the aged and was one of the first physicians to become vide evidence for the emergence of gerontology as a re· actively involved in social medicine. Cowdry"s "'Ar· spected and needed field of study. Figures 1 through 5 de· teriosclerosis: A Survey of the Problem" (1933), and pict, within each growth period, major examples o f con· " Problems of Ageing" (1939) followed this tradition and tributors, publications and important social and historical became classics. events which converged into a growing body of knowl· Although a number of important historical events are edge. identified in Figure 1, The Townsend Movement and the Pioneer Efforts Social Security Act of 1935 are perhaps the most notable. In partial response to the Great Depression, Jhe Social Francis Bacon's " History of Life and Death," pub· Security legislation both acknowledged a major problem llshed In 1645, Is often cited as one of the first scientific of aging individuals and community survival in America attempts to explore processes o f aging (Streib and Or· and later served to place older persons into a cohort of bach, 1967). Some scholars have cited evidence from " retired" citizens who began to assume an identity which, Greek literature and epitaphs as indicative of the first for the first time, was not linked Jo occupation or systematic concerns with aging as a phenomenon (Hen· "calling." Subsequently, this cohort and the many sub· dricks and Hendricks, 1977), and given the early develop· groups within it became the object of intense study from a ment of the major sciences it is not surprising that number of disciplinary perspectives. physics and biology were among the first disciplines to consider issues of aging. Biologists in particular con· Early Development tributed much of the early research in gerontology. Early into the twentieth century, psycholog ists While the pioneers influenced the early growth of I became active in aging research and writing. Jn 1922 the gerontology as a field of study, extensions of their efforts "'Biology of Death" and "Senescence" became the basis and the emergence of new directions occurred in the I for future work, and a Russian psychologist, Rybnikov, 1940s with the establishment of a number of important coined the term "'gerontology" in his 1927 book "The committees, research groups and associations. Edward J. Il Problem of the Psychology of Age" (Streib and Orbach, Steiglitz, a physician, became the head of the newly 1967). In 1928, Miles and Associates initiated psycholog· established "Unit in Gerontology" in the National Institute ical studies of aging in connection with the Stanford Later of Health in 1940. The year prior, the Club for Research in Maturity Research Project (Reigel, 1977). Ageing was formed which was supported by the Josiah The medical community, too, was instrumental in ad· Macy Jr. Foundation. Lawerence K. Frank provided leader· dressing gerontological issues in th·e early part of th is ship and direction to research programs emphasizing the
4 Educational Considerations
Published by New Prairie Press, 2017 3 area of social medicine and which laterEducational encouraged Considerations, the Vol. 8,Research No. 1 [1980], and Art. Organization3 development of "social gerontology. " Stieglitz used the Research in the field of aging gained increasing term "social gerontology" in a 1948 paper which later be momentum in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Efforts were came a major part of his 1954 book "Geriatric Medicine." made to consolidate the findings of researchers into By the 1950s "gerontology" was a term appearing with single publications in order to achieve greater use and regularity and frequency in scientific and popular journals. visibility. Additionally, a number of major universities and institutes initiated inter-university training programs in or In 1943 the Social Science Research Council estab· der to systematically address Issues of aging, to increase fished the "Committee on Social Adjustment In Old Age" the number of scientists In the lfeld, to encourage course which In 1948 published a " Research and Planning Re· offerings in aging, to attract students to pursue careers in port" (Blrren, 1959). In 1945, the Gerontological Society aging, ana to publish systematic summaries of existing was established and the first issue of the "Journal of studies on various dimensions of aging. Gerontology," the official journal of the society, was The Michigan Inter-University Training Institute in published. A year later the Gerontological Unit o f lhe Social Gerontology, the Langely Porter Neuropsychiatric National Institute of Health and the Nuffield Unit for Institute, the University of California Medical School, the Research Into the Problems of Ag ing at the University o f University of Chicago, Duke University, University of Cambridge each attracted a number of scientists who Southern California, the Institute for Community Studies later Influenced the field of aging (Birren and Clay ton, (Midwest Council for Social Research in Aging), Cornell 1975). In 1948 the International Association of Garon· University, and Penn State University were among the in tology was founded in Liege, Belgium. And finally, In the stitutions developing early research projects and training early 1950s President Truman expressed great concern programs in gerontology. These institutions, with a about the problems of older persons in America. His con growing number of additional ones, continue to influence cerns led to a series of issue meetings which were precur the growth of gerontological studies in the United States. sors to the later 1961 and 1971 White House Conferences Five major edited works emerged around 1960 which on Aging. became baseline books In the field: "Handbook of Aging Adding to the work and interests in aging manifested and the Individual" (1959), "Handbook of Social Geron in the fields of biology, physiology and medicine, psychol tology" (1960), " Aging In Western Society" (1960}, and ogists, sociologists and anthropologists began to show a "Processes ol Aging" (two volumes, 1963}. These volumes keen interest In aging studies as reflected by such classic consolidated research papers and findings into single works as "The Role of the Aged in Primitive Societies" collections which Identified the state of the art, became (1945), "Personal Adjustment to Old Age" (1948). and fundamental training resources and served as catalysts "Older People" (1953). for future research in the field. In 1961 "The Geron-
FIG. 3
RESEARCH AND ORGANIZATION
1955-1964
EVENTS CONTRIBUTORS PUBLICATIONS
Kansas City Study of Adult Life 1956 Z. Blau A. Habensteln 1956-The Blology of Senescence/ Midwest Council 10< Social A. Comton J. Krebs COmtori Research In Agingnnstitute for J .E. Anderson M.F. Lowenthal 1956-Psychological Aspects of Aging/ Community Studies ...... B. Kutner H. Orbach Anderson 1956-500 Ovt,, SixrylKutner University of Chicago ...... L.Cain G.S1reib 1959-"TheSoclologyof Aging"ICaln University of California Medical. .. C. Tibbits W.Oonahue Langloy Porter Neuropsychiatric 1959- Handbook of Aging anonn Slate ...... A. Rose G. Maddox Burgess w. Peterson C. Eisdorter The Gerontologist published.... 1961 1961-Growlng Old/Cumming and Henry White House Conference 1962-Aglng Around the WorltJ/Procee Fall, 1980 5 https://newprairiepress.org/edconsiderations/vol8/iss1/3 DOI: 10.4148/0146-9282.1832 4 Oliver et al.: Tracing the historicalFIG . 4 growth of gerontology EDUCATION 1965·1974 EVENTS CONTRIBUTORS PUBLICATIONS Older Ame~cans Aet ...... 1965 M.Clark M.Johnson 1965- 0/dllf People and Their Social Medicare/Medicaid legislation 1966 B.G. Anderson A. Foner World/Rose and Peterson Proliferation of M.A. and B.A. J. Rosow E.Palmore 1967- Culrura and Aging/Clark programs ...... Late 60s 0. Kent R. Binstock 1967- Soclal lnrogro//on ol tl>a Aged!Rosow Maggie Kuhn organizes the B. Nou9ar1en D. Cowgill Gray Panthers ...... 1969 1967-0ldflr Rural ArnericansNoumans T. Plhlblad J. Britton White HousoConfcrence 1968-Aglng ond Sociery/Riley on Aging ...... 1971 E.W. Busse M.W. Riley E. Shanas 1968- 0/dar Paoplo in Three Industrial National Institute on Aging R.C. Atchley Sociarlas/Shanas, et. al. G. Youmans lormed ...... 1974 V.L. Bengston 1969- Aging and tho Professions/R iley J . Botwinick M.Kuhn 1970- A Sociology of Age Srratillcatlon!Rlley 1970-Normal Aging/Palmore 1972-Tho Social Forces in Later Wei Atchley 1912-AgingandSociery VOi. 3/Riley 1972- Aglng and McxJernization/Cowglll andHotmes 1973- Aglng and Bohavlot18otwinick 1974-Normal Aging II/Palmore tologist" became the second journal to be published by Education the Gerontolog ical Society providing an additional In the late 1960s most training funds from the Ad· training and research resource for social and behavioral ministration on Aging, the National Institute of Health, scientists. National Institute of Mental Health, and others, were In 1962, the proceedings of the 5th Congress of the awarded primarily to university and to inter-un iversity International Association of Gerontology (held in San training pfograms in aging. A few early professional mas· Francisco in 1960) were published in a series entitled ter's degree programs with an emphasis in aging surfaced "Aging Around the World." These four edited volumes during this time (University of South Florida, North Texas demonstrated the growing diversity of the field and the State University, etc.), but training was primarily oriented collective interest of scientists from a range of disciplines to Ph.D. programs with an emphasis upon multidiscipli· around the world. The diverse disciplinary contributions nary training. Sociologists, psychologists, biologists, so are reflected in the titles: "Social and Psychological cial workers, anthropologists, public administrators, po Aspects of Aging," "Social Welfare of the Aging," litical scientists, economists, and others sought the avail "Biological Aspects of Aging," and " Medical and Clinical able funds which would allow them to specialize their stu Aspects of Aging." These volumes also became training dies and areas of interest in aging. materials tor the students and faculty participating In the With the establishment of Area Agencies on Aging growing number o f gerontological training programs (AAA) in the early '70s, and a large number of other agen· around the country. cies oriented to service delivery, problems in fund Ing and The public sector formally and politically eKpressed training became manifest. Available training in geron· increasing concern around issues o f ag ing through the tology was largely oriented to academic and research in· 1961 White House Conference on Aging. This conference terests in ag ing and not yet developed in terms o f focus produced a number o f recommendations to Congress and programs to supply the growing demand for the new which ultimately Influenced the passing of the Older occupational niches created by the AAA and similar aging Americans Act of 1965. With the formation of the Ad· networks. Consequently, positions were filled by persons ministration of Aging within the Department of Health, with limited experience in working with or understanding Education and Welfare, the mandating of state units on older persons. To meet this problem the Administration aging and the subsequent (1973) establishment of a net· on Aging divided training dollars between short and long· work o f regional Area Agencies on Aging in every state, term training (primarily for Ph.D. programs training the need for applied training in aging as well as academic professional gerontologists). However, during this time a conoorns grew to be a major issue of the '70s. Most Im· number of undergraduate and master's degree programs portantly, the provision of training funds became available emerged and the number of course offerings in aging in large and fairly dependable amounts. grew rapidly across the country. 6 Educational Considerations Published by New Prairie Press, 2017 5 As the short-term training conceptEducational evo Considerations,lved, Area Vol. 8, caNo.l 1sc [1980],hoo lArt.s, univ 3 ersities and publfc Institutions receiving Agencies on Aging and other service delivery agencies funds to further unravel the questions created by the large turned to local universities and colleges for training re numbers o f older persons In our population. sources in gerontology-often with disappointing results. Unfortunately, the demand was too great. Many local edu· An Emerging Field of Study cational institutions which tried to assist agencies were The academic and public sectors concerned with themselves lacking the knowledge required. The image of aging individuals in modem society were equally Im· educational institutions suffered and a reluctance to em· pressed with Robert Butler's (1975) award winning ploy academics for training purposes became prevalent. publication "Why Survive?"' Indeed, as we began to un· Some of this hostility toward academic gerontologists derstand the problems and dilemmas of the aging person still exists. The gap is slowly being bridged as trainers and and the issues of aging as portrayed In this book, ad· recipients of iraining experience successes, but some vocacy for the aged gained great momentum. Within the agencies remain apprehensive about hiring university· academic community, the Association for Gerontology in trained persons in aging-especially if key positions are Higher Education was formed (1975) to provide leadership already filled by persons who acquired their training and direction for training programs In aging as well as a through experience rather than through traditional aca sounding board for funding priorities in Washington. demic channels. Within the public community the Gray Panthers, the NRTA· Resource materials for research an<.I training in aging AARP (National Retired Teachers Association/Ameri continued to emphasize multidisciplinary approaches. can Association of Retired Persons). the National Senior "Old People In Three Industrial Societies" and " Older Citizens Organizalion, the National Council on Aging, the Rural Americans" locused gerontological interest at the Black Caucus on Aging and other groups have served as international and rural levels respectively while cross· strong, effective, and frequently vocal advocates on be· cultural perspectives were revitalized in " Culture and half of the older population. The formation and activities Aging." Results from the Duke Longitudinal Studies of a variety of other groups of older persons began to ap began to be published, and the Russell Sage Foundation pear in the form of groups organized in a variety ol con· lunde FIG. 5 AN EMERGING FIELD OF STUDY 1975 to present EVENTS CONTRIBUTORS PUBLICATIONS Association for Gerontology v . c 1ay1on E. Pfeiffer 1975- "History of Gerontology"/Birren In Educalion es1a1>tished • . . . . 1975 o. w oodruff J. Peterson and Clayton Older Americans Act Revisions. . . 1978 C. Flnch J. Hendricks 1975- Aging: SclMtillc Perspectives and Social Issues/Woodruff L. Haylllck C.D. Hendricks and Blrron K.W.Schalo A. Butler 1975- Why Survive/Buller 1976- Handbook of Aging and tile Social Sciences/Binstock and Shanas 1977 - Hondbook of the Psychology of Aglng/Birren and Schaie 1977 - Hondbook of the Biology of Aglng/Fl r>eh and Hayttick 1977- Aglng In Mass SocierylHendrlci Fall, 1980 7 https://newprairiepress.org/edconsiderations/vol8/iss1/3 DOI: 10.4148/0146-9282.1832 6 Aging and the Social Sciences" (1976)Oliver, " H eta ndal.: bookTracing o thef th historicale growthcontr ofib ugerontologyted to the growth o f gerontology. If one res tricted Psychology of Ag ing" (1977), and " Handbook o f the the analysis to age·related frameworks only, he or she Biology of Aging" (1977). Perhaps more than any other would discover the task to be much simpler. A more dif· single development, these three volumes again reaffirmed ficult bridge to cross, however, Is that from the natural that the aging phenomenon must be addressed from sciences to the social sciences and vice versa. In several perspectives- biological, psychological and creasingly, collegial interchange and team approaches to social. Moreover, as the interaction effects of variables research problems of community development plans are across disciplines are examined, the need to understand showing the value of cross-lertllization in attacking issues theories and methodologies in a variety of toelds becomes of aging. apparent. Bureaucratic structures. physical plant limitations, Introductory textbooks published in the 1970s clearly and traditional beliefs about academic organization and reflected the need for a multidisciplinary approach to work continue to hinder more fruitful collaborations be· aging. Exemplary of such works were: " The Social Forces tween disciplines. Nevertheless, government funding or in Later Life" (1972). "Aging in Mass Society" (1977), and cooperative programs, centers, and departments has " Introduction to Gerontology" (1979). These contrl· played a major role and will continue to influence the butions, given thei r multidisciplinary approach, assure growth of gerontology. As more colleges and universities that students are exposed to the concep ts and procedures adopt curricula in ag ing and commit their own funds of several perspectives. Through these works teac hers toward the establishment o f gerontological studies, con· and researchers were encouraged at least to consider, if tinued growth and progress will be realized. The debate of not incorporate into their approach to aging, variables whether gerontology is in fact a separate, well-defined from fields outside their chosen discipline. discipline or rather a number of perspectives, approaches, and points of view, drawn from a variety o f disciplines will ultimately be decided by students-the recipients of Conclusion current gerontological training and education- and by all the historical, societal and biographical factors involved What has happened during the past twenty years has in the development of any field o f study. been the gradual integration of a variety of perspectives into a common core of training for persons in the aging field, particularly at the undergraduate and master's REFERENCES degree levels and to a lesser degree at the Ph.D. level. The An<'.lerson. (ed.). Psychological Aspects of Aging. Washington, undergraduate and master's training typically involves a O.C.: American Psychological Association, 1956. generalist approach, while the doctoral level focuses upon Atchley. Robert. The Social Forces In later Lite: An Jntroduction specialized disciplinary training with research emphases. to Social Gerontology. Calilornla: Wadsworth f>ublishing Co., Ordinarily the Ph.D. candidate is selective in the kinds o f Inc., 1972. aging courses which are incorporated into his or her Binstock, Robert and Shanas, Elhol (ods.). Handbook or Aging and course ol study. Increasingly, however, students at more the Social Sciences. N ew York: 0 . Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., advanced levels find that a broader base of knowledge Is 1976. necessary to seriously examine the processes o f aging. Birren, James (ed.). Handbook of Aging and lhe Individual. 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Theology, Kansas City, M issouri. Fall, 1980 9 https://newprairiepress.org/edconsiderations/vol8/iss1/3 DOI: 10.4148/0146-9282.1832 8