Notes

Chapter 1

1. The term “ethno-tribal monarchism” indicates the ethno-linguistic and tribal origin of the state’s rule in Iran. The Safavids (1501–1722) ruled Iran as the first independent state after the Arabo-Islamic invasion of the seventh century. Turkish-speaking tribes ruled Iran from the end of the Safavid period to the end of the Qajar period, except for the short period of the Zand dynasty (1750–1789). The Zands headed a federation of tribes led by Luri-speaking tribes. The Persian-speaking Pahlavi dynasty was the first nontribal state in Iran. 2. The akhbaris, the dominant religious school until the middle of the nineteenth century, advocated the use of inductive techniques to arrive at new legal or religious precepts. They are considered textualists (or literalists) because of their emphasis on potential sources for formulating new laws. The usuli (later sometimes called ejtehadi)advo- cated the use of deductive techniques to formulate new legal or religious precepts (ahkam). They are called usuli because they produced usul al-feq, or the Principle of Jurisprudence.

Chapter 2

1. Agha Mohammad Khan, the dynasty’s founder, achieved to a large extent the restora- tion of the Safavid Empire’s territory. The Qajar frontier was later reduced when Iran lost territory to the Russians in the Treaties of Golestan (1813) and Turkmenchai (1828), as well as control of Harat in Afghanistan to Britain (the Treaty of Paris, 1857). The actual Iranian frontier today is the same as that of the later Qajar period. For a dis- cussion of changes to the Iranian frontiers during the Qajar rule, see Sykes ([1915]1958, 1: 339–353, and 2: 334–366). 2. The population of Iran at the beginning of the Qajar period (1800) is estimated to have been five to six million. It increased to ten million by 1914 (Issawi 1971: 20). Issawi estimates that throughout the same period (1800–1914), the portion of nomads fell from “perhaps a half to quarter of the total population.” Curzon estimates the pop- ulation to have been around nine million in 1891, when almost 67.5 percent were living in settled communities (22.5 percent in towns and 55 percent in villages) and one-fourth of the population was nomadic tribes (Curzon 1892, 2: 493). Abrahamian estimates the tribal population to be around 30 percent. However, since a number of tribal people settled in agricultural units and in cities (they were semi-nomadic), the actual percentage of the total population with tribal background, identity, and loyalty was higher than 25 percent or 30 percent. There were no censuses in the period under review. 164 NOTES

3. The social structure of the period was also fragmented. Each segment of society had its own regulation, operating mechanism, and hierarchy. This fragmentation could be seen even in cities where interactions of different groups were intense. This led groups to resist integration. The local authorities and the centralized state often regulated and facilitated the interactions of these different social units. Fragmentation of social and political structure has had a lasting impact on Iranian political culture and history. 4. Lambton addresses this particular aspect of the development of the Qajar bureaucracy through changes in “the traditional dichotomy of ‘the men of the sword’ and ‘the men of the pen,’ ” and concludes: “As the century progressed, the relative importance of the ‘men of the sword’ and the ‘men of the pen’ is changed. ...But whereas the ‘men ofthesword’hadapowerbase,‘themenofthepen’wereservantsofwhateverruler was in power” ([1966]1988: 215). This conclusion at best could be applied only to the evolution of the Qajars’ tribal bureaucracy and not to the city notables and divani powerholders, who had their own power base, resources, and network, and whose knowhow had been an essential part of the ruling coalition for centuries. 5. Mehdi Bamdad (1968, 1: 27) reports differently. According to him, Haji Ibrahim was arrested, blinded, and exiled to Ghazvin, where his tongue was cut, before being exiled again to Tallaghan, where he was executed. A third version, from Mahmoud Mahmoud (1949, 1: 88), is that “the merciless hands of foreign policy” killed Haji Ibrahim because he opposed the proposal of the emissary of the British governor of India to attack Afghanistan and kill the Afghan Sunnis to avenge the Shi’i massacre on the grounds that “politics should be separated from religion” (quoted by Haqiqat [Rafie]1989, 2: 1066). 6. The family’s descendants played an important role in Iranian history and culture. An abridged English version of the family tree, Qaemmaqam’s published writings, and a digital reproduction of his biography written in Persian by one of his direct descendants can be found at http://ghaemmagham.net/Homepage.html 7. Most students of Iranian history have identified Amir Kabir as the state-builder and reformer par excellence of the Qajar dynasty. However, it was through his violent sup- pression of the Babi messianic movement that Qajar rule was saved and a certain school of the ulama (usulis) became the official religious partner of the Qajars. This cooper- ation led to the evolution of religious orthodoxy alongside the centralized state (see Chapter 4 for more details). 8. The role of foreign missions in the events leading to the death of Amir Kabir has been discussed in detail from several perspectives. See Amanat (1997: 150–168) and Adamiyat (1969: 202–711). 9. There is a recent trend in studying the non-elite politics of Iran’s Qajar period. One of the latest is Martin (2005). 10. Abrahamian reviewed biographies of 1,283 elites of the Qajar period compiled by Mehdi Bamdad (1968) and concluded that “771 (60 percent) were state functionaries— courtiers, mostowfis and monshis (scribes); 286 (23 percent) were literary and scholarly figures—almost all linked to the court; 98 (8 percent) were princes; another 98 were ulama; and 19 (1 percent) were merchants” (Abrahamian 2008: 15). 11. Lambton’s descriptive account of the Qajar period is full of observations supporting the notion of fragmented authority. Yet when in a short passage she addresses the ques- tion of the Qajars’ central authority and the reasons why it did not develop a national state, she formulates it in the language of the persistence of absolutist political the- ory: “The power of the ruler in medieval Persia was reinforced, if not legitimized, by the curious fiction that he was the Shadow of God upon earth, a fiction which had a long tradition behind it going back to early Islamic times” (1988: xiii). Or, more NOTES 165

precisely, “[t]he tribal heritage of the Qajars was not their only legacy from the past. They also revived much of the administrative machinery of the Safavids; and they took over the theory of the ruler as the Shadow of the God upon earth, and the pomp and circumstance of the royal court” ([1961]1988: 92). Lambton’s argument should be read along with the arguments of Curzon (1892, 1: 436–437) and Sykes ([1915]1958: 381–393). 12. The king was considered defender of the faith as well. The 1907 constitution clearly expressed that “the Shah of Persia must profess and promote” the faith. However, the duties of the shah and the ulama toward religion were not quite clear. I will discuss this in detail in Chapter 5.

Chapter 3

1. The term “buffer state” in its nineteenth-century usage implied a sort of stable political, military, and financial relation between the important but weak states of the periphery and a strong colonial metropolis. For a rich monograph examining the British policy in Persia from 1918 to 1925, see Sabahi (1990: 157–200). Sabahi sees Reza Khan’s ascen- dancy to the throne as a natural consequence of the British policy and concludes that “Persia remained a buffer state under Reza Shah until 1941” (p. 200). 2. The first majles had already voted on the foundation of Bank Melli Iran, or the National Bank of Iran (Nazzem al-Islam Kermani [1967]1983, 2: 17–21), though the project was realized only in 1928 during Reza Shah’s reign. 3. Raein (1966) and Lambton ([1957]1988: 301–318) have provided a general history of the political organizations present in the Constitutional Revolution (particularly dur- ing its earlier phase). Abrahamian studies the social and ethnic origin of the involved parties and groups along class lines, and follows their development through two rev- olutions (1982: 281–415), and Etehadieh examines their political behavior in the first and second majles (1982a) as well as their program in the second majles (1982b). Bahar (1944) surveys the parties’ political acts during the constitutional period by focusing on their impact in the last period of Qajar rule (1911–1926). 4. In this inventory of national military organizations I have excluded the Central Brigade formed by Ahmad Shah through the traditional bunichah system of recruitment. Its maximum number, including officers, was 2,250. Their mission was to safeguard the court and Tehran after the episode of the government in exile and the breakdown of the gendarmerie in 1915. The Central Brigade did not have any military importance and was annexed to the Cossack Division only five days after the 1921 coup (Aqeli 1998: 96–97). I have also excluded the military forces formed around Mirza Kuchak Khan’s rebellion in the north and his short-lived Soviet Socialist Republic of Gilan (June 1920– October 1921). Finally, I have excluded the Russian, Ottoman, German, and British forces occupying Iran from 1911 to 1922. After the dismantlement of the British-led forces in 1922, most of its Iranian members joined the unified army and the remaining British and Indian members left the country. 5. Mozaffari (1988: 15–18) and Sabahi (1990: 11–31) discuss discord among different sections of the British government in Tehran, India, and London. For an authoritative account of British financial interests and institutions and their role in this period, see Jones (1986, 1: 185–208). For an equally authoritative account of British Petroleum’s role in this period, see Ferrier (1982, 1: 295–347). 6. Foreign Office telegram No. 125, Norman to Curzon, February 25, 1921 (four days after the coup) as quoted by Mozaffari (1988: 26). 166 NOTES

7. Taxation and the construction of the army were intertwined. As Reza Khan’s power grew, he tried but failed several times to take over the ministry of finance (Mostofi [1945]1992). Yet when he became king he opposed Millspaugh, forcing him to leave the country in 1927. Millspaugh’s explanation of the incident is to the point: “The New Shah was reported to have expressed his attitude toward me in these words: ‘There can’t be two shahs in this country, and I am going to be the Shah’ ” (1946: 7; 26n). 8. The figure for 1941 was rounded by mutual agreement of the Anglo-Persian Petroleum Company and the Iranian government. These figures are compiled from Ferrier (1982: 370) and Bamberg (1994: 233–235). 9. For a full account of Reza Shah’s suppression in 1929 of tribal revolts in southern Iran, see Kaveh Bayat (1986). 10. Ibrahim Khadjeh-nouri, a biographer and journalist of a later period, captured the life and career of this group in the pamphlet “The Players of the Golden Age” ([1944]1979). 11. According to his daughter, Princess Shams, Reza Shah believed that his attempt to keep Iran independent and out of war was the cause of his exile. Mohammad Reza Shah also provided this reason for his father’s abdication and exile (Pahlavi 1980). 12. Abbas Qoli Golshayan, then the acting minster of finance, wrote a unique and lengthy account of the day-to-day events of the invasion and Reza Shah’s abdication in his memoir (1998, 1: 474–656, 2: 557–694). Golshayan, a middle-rank divani of Qajar ori- gin, who climbed the ladder of power, was considered an Anglophile. The memoir of Motassam al-Saltaneh Farrokh (1968: 433–494), a divani insider and a career diplomat, also sheds light on these events. 13. For the British attempts to bring back the Qajar dynasty, see the interview of the Harvard Iranian Oral History Project with the prince in question (Ladjavardi 1996: 107–109). Wright (1985: 213–214) also addresses this incident. 14. Farrokh (1968: 474) and Khadjeh-nouri ([1944]1979) have also confirmed the essence of this meeting. 15. According to the memoir of General Yazdanpanah, the army’s chief of staff, Reza Shah had ordered reductions in the army by dismissing some conscripts, but the ministry of war did not execute the order properly. The decision to change the army’s character was made after the dismissal of conscripts (Makki [1945]1985, 1: 391–402). According to General Hassan Arfa, then in charge of Tehran’s defense, it was the war ministry that dismissed the conscripts (1964: 299–300). 16. According to James A. Bill, “the underlying goal” of American-Iranian relations in the 1940s “was to strengthen the monarchy against internal challenges.” He quotes the report of John C. Willy, the US ambassador to Iran from 1948 to 1950, to the American state department: “Iran needs an army capable primarily of maintaining order within the country, an army capable of putting down any insurrection—no matter where or by whom inspired or abetted” (1988: 41). 17. For Mosaddeq’s views on these issues, see his memoir (1986: 177–180). For an informative account of this rather unexpected appointment, see Safari (1992: 436, 453).

Chapter 4

1. The Shi’i religious teaching and research establishment is called howzeh elmie. This Arabic term is composed of howzeh and elm. The former may be translated as “region,” “complex,” “center,” or “circle,” and the latter as “knowledge.” Nour al-Din Shahourdi defines it as a space that “implies much more than what is called university or scientific faculty (al-mahed), or any other educational or scientific institutions.” Accordingly, it NOTES 167

includes “a combination of schools and teaching curriculums, discussion and debate circles that are being held and organized in the universities, the mosques, and saint places, and the religious corner, and the scientific schools, or in the house of the ulama and the teachers” (1990: 73). Recent definitions or translations tend to present it as a university composed of different seminaries. 2. Cole (1983: 34), Keddie (1995: 39) and Vol. ([1982]1992: 416) all lament that the eighteenth-century revivalist movements have not been properly studied. This is more valid for the Shi’i movements than the Sunni. 3. This school is still active in Iran, and its website offers some of the major writings of Kermani, though not those of Ahsaie: http://www.alabrar.info. 4. Ahsaie was a seminal thinker and a prolific writer. As Juan Cole puts it, his “speculative writings constitute one of the last great flowerings of Muslim theosophy before the impact of modern European thought in the nineteenth century.” http://www.h-net. org/∼ bahai/areprint/ahsai/ahsai.htm. For an overview of his life and the evolution of his work, see Dennis Martin MacEoin, The Messiah of Shiraz—Studies in Early and Middle Babism (Brill 2009: 59–106). For a collection of some of the works of Ahsaie, see http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/∼ bahai/areprint/ahsai/ahsai.htm. For a discussion on theosophic origins of Shaykhism see Henri Corbin, L’École Shaykhie en Théologie Shi’ite (Tehran: Taban 1967). For other related sources, see Cole’s personal website: http:// www-personal.umich.edu/∼ jrcole/shaykhi.htm. 5. Henri Corbin (1964). Mundus Imaginalis, or the Imaginary and the Imaginal. http:// hermetic.com/moorish/mundus-imaginalis.html. 6. Sharah, al-fawaid (1818) as quoted and translated by MacEoin (2009: 68–69). 7. The incidents leading to the excommunication of Ahsaie are described by his for- mer student Mohammad ibn Sulayman Tonkaboni in his now-classic account of the life of the ulama of the period. Tonkaboni also provided his own refuta- tion of Ahsaie’s views ([1887]2004–2005: 40–67). MacEoin (2009), using Tonkaboni and other sources, discusses the excommunication and its impact in detail (pp. 95–105). 8. The exact nature of the Bab’s original claim is not clear. He claimed to be the suc- cessor of Rashti and perhaps a new gate to hidden Imam. The timing of the claim, May 22, 1844, coincides with a succession crisis in the Sheikhie’s network after the death of Rashti in 1843 and the thousand-lunar-year anniversary of the supposed Mehdi’s occultation. There were other claimants to Mehdihood in Iran at this moment as well. 9. The Bab’s collected works (in Persian and Arabic) are at http://www.h-net.org/∼ bahai/index/albab.htm. The works of the Bab and other Babis are at the official Babi website: http://www.bayanic.com/. 10. The openly anti-ulama stand of Manucher Khan reveals a lot about the period’s polit- ical and social climate. Mohammad Shah sent him to Isfahan in 1839 to end a chaotic situation resulting from the alliance of a powerful provincial alim, Sayyed Mohammad Baqer Shafti, and the lutis, who were acting as a brigandage group. Manucher Khan attacked them ferociously. According to Algar, “More than 150 of the lutis were exe- cuted, and a similar number banished to Ardabil. Others who had taken refuge in Qum [sic] were promised safety if they surrendered; but on emerging from the sanctuary, they were slaughtered” (1969: 112). 11. Malcolm states explicitly that the Sufis were concentrated in urban centers. Some mem- oirs and documents from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such as those by Zahir al Dowleh (Afshar 1988), also testify to the urban roots of Sufism in Iran, as do current scholars (Amanat 1989; Cole 1988). The population of Iran in 1800 was at the most about six million, and almost one million of them are thought to have 168 NOTES

lived in cities by 1812 (Arjomand 1988c; Appendix 3: 212). Thus, if Malcolm’s estimate is correct, perhaps one in five persons living in the cities was a Sufi. 12. The office of Source of Emulation developed in the nineteenth century as an informal but efficient hierarchy. The sources gradually became recipients of religious taxes and managers of endowments and the seminaries’ internal affairs. 13. Cole (1985) writes: “Usulism emerged as the favored ideology of the shrine cities at a time when the central Ottoman empire had declined and even the Mamluk vassal state grew extremely weak. ... These developments appear also to be related to state for- mation in Qajar Iran and in Nawabi Audeh: the ruling classes in both regimes favored Usulism” (p. 27). 14. Morteza Mottahari (1920–1979), who studied under Khomeini after finishing his reli- gious studies at Qom, was a member of the theology faculty of Tehran University. He became the head of the Revolutionary Council when it was formed in late 1978. A radi- cal Islamic fringe group assassinated him on May 1, 1979. For a short official biography of Mottahari and his writings in Persian, see http://www.motahari.org/. English trans- lation of some of his writing can be found on the following site: http://onlinebooks. library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Mutahhari%2C%20Murtaza. 15. Modarressi is a highly esteemed theologian-mojtahed, studied in Qom and Najaf (with Khomeini among others), as well as at Oxford, where he graduated with a degree in Islamic law. He currently teaches at Princeton, Qom, and Oxford. 16. Part of the difficulty in explaining this controversy is that the formation and devel- opment of Shi’i law is understudied to the point of frequent confusion in even the most careful scholarship. The other difficulty is perhaps the paradoxical nature of Occultation, the foundation of the theory of the Imamate, in which the controversy of “tradition” and “rationalism” is repeated. It is only through akhbar, and not through any rational argument, that Shi’i scholars and believers accept the myth of Occultation, and it is only through reasoning that the Manifestation of the Expected Imam or the prolongation of the Occultation could be argued or rejected. The muttazelle of the tenth and eleventh centuries, the strongest of all rationalists among Islamic schools, rejected Occultation on the basis of rational argument. The compilation of akhbar could be looked upon as the rational attempt to uphold the tradition. 17. Helli, according to Halm (1997: 102), “was also the first scholar to bear the title Ayatollah (sign of God).” 18. According to al-Allameh al-Helli: “In ordinary language ejtehad means ‘execrating one- self to the outmost of one’s ability in order to accomplish a difficult action,’ and in the technical language, ‘the jurist’s exerting himself to the outmost of his ability to attain a probable opinion (zann) about a ruling in the sacred law’ ” (Cooper 1988a: 243). This legalistic notion had far-reaching consequences in Islamic law. 19. The foundation of akhbari as a separate school in Shi’i thought is usually attributed to Sheikh Mohammad Amin Astarabadi at the beginning of the seventeenth century. (Hairi [1977] and Modarressi [1993] date akhbari’s origins as far back as the twelfth century.) Astarabadi systematically attacked Helli’s understanding of rationality and the notion of ejtehad which had been shaped by the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. Indeed, at the time of the formation of the Helli school, there was open dialogue between Sunni and Shi’i scholars, and Mughols had already accepted the ejtehad of Hanafi’s school as the basis for their religious laws. 20. Even in the later Safavid period when the kings stopped having direct religious claims, they saw their power as being sanctioned by religious authorities. For example, power- ful state-appointed religious authorities crowned the last two Safavid kings. In contrast, the first Qajar king crowned himself using a Safavid sword, declaring that it would NOTES 169

defend Shi’ism. This change in symbolism expresses a change in the religious claims of the state. 21. Kashef al-Ghita (1809), vol 2: 394. http://lib.ahlolbait.com/parvan/resource/39076/ /. 22. Ibid., vol 2: 359–364. 23. The application and calculation of “the fifth,” a self-imposed income tax, was a matter of controversy among the Sunni and Shi’i ulama, as well as among different branches of Shi’ism. For an informative discussion about this form of taxation and the views held by four schools of Sunni and Shi’i scholars, see Abulaziz Sachedina (1980: 275–289). 24. Al-Ansari, born in southern Iran to an Arabic-speaking ulama family, was fluent in Persian and Arabic and was the author of some 30 books and treatises written in an accessible style. The most influential of these are al-Makaseb in feg,andFaad al-usul, known as al-Rasael. For a short biography and an overview of his contributions to Shi’i legal scholarship, see http://www.iranica.com/articles/ansari-shaikh-mortaza-b. 25. Sirat al-Nejat (Road to Salvation) is a collection of al-Ansari’s writings on daily reli- gious practices and on Islamic solutions to 1,403 problems that believers might face in life. Written in Persian and later translated into Arabic, it is one of the first books in the genre of “Explanation of Problems” written for emulators. (On the importance of this genre, see also Chapter 7.) The most reliable copy, republished in 1994, indicates that it was compiled after al-Ansari’s death. It is the first of three books with similar subjects attributed to him. http://lib.ahlolbait.com/parvan/resource/39362/ /& from=search&&query= &field=authorMain&collectionPID=17&lang=&count =100&execute=true. 26. At the height of Mirza Shirazi’s power, another influential mojtahed, Abdollah Behbahani, protested Shirazi’s fatwa by smoking in public. He based his refutation on the principle that a mojtahed should not follow the ruling of another mojtahed (Kermani [1967]1983: 22).

Chapter 5

1. For the sake of accuracy, it should be noted that Lambton ([1970]1988: 277–300, [1972]1988: 319–330) tends to refer to the overall undertaking as a movement against tyranny rather than a revolution and uses the term “high echelon of bureaucracy” rather than the intelligentsia. 2. Abrahamian defines “the traditional middle class” as the “propertied middle class” of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This class, in the face of Western penetration, “coalesces into one cross-regional middle class that was conscious for the first time of its own economic grievances. This propertied middle class, because of its ties to the traditional Shi’i ideology, became known in later years as the traditional middle class” (1982: 50). 3. Many high-ranking ulama were themselves influential landowners or merchants, or were directly related to them. Lower-ranking ulama were often small cultivators or shop owners, and their income from informal religious or social functions, such as seasonal preaching, teaching, and judging, was not considered institutional income. 4. Except where noted, I am using the texts of the Constitutional Revolution as translated by Browne ([1910]1995: Appendix A; 351–400). 5. In my schema of the Qajar power structure (see figure 2.1), the nobles and notables (ayan va ashraf ) are referred to as the provincial elite of the agricultural settled com- munities and divani powerholders. The members of this heterogeneous group are 170 NOTES

usually referred to as the hezar famil (1,000 families) in vernacular Persian. The polit- ical authority of this group predates that of the ruling dynasties. The Electoral Law acknowledged their status in each of the provinces except Tehran. They were, in fact, treated as a provincial “class.” 6. These laws, modeled closely on Belgian and French constitutional and electoral law, were not a direct result of grassroots movements (Afary’s argument [1996]) or the tedious work of Azalies (Bayat’s argument [1991]). They were products of an assembly of high-ranking divanis, pro-court forces, some of the ulama of Tehran, and diverse groups of constitutionalists. The main text was drafted by three high divanis; two of them, Mokhber al-Saltana Hedayat and Ehtesham al-Saltaneh, were later close collab- orators of Reza Shah. Their democratic and secular character can be attributed to the tenacity of the constitutionalist divanis, the ulama’s ignorance of the constitutional processes, the antipathy of the court’s despotic circles toward the ulama, and the eager- ness of merchants to have a say in the political process. Diverse and contradictory interests allied with each other for a short period against what they assumed would be a common threat. The same pattern emerged, but in reverse, when Mohammad Ali Shah ascended to power and formed an alliance against the constitutionalists with the despotic court’s high officials and Sheikh Fazzolah Nouri. There is evidence that he was already building these anti-constitutionalist alliances when he was the crown prince, despite the lip service he paid to constitutional ideas in order to secure his throne against rivals. 7. Discussing this clause, Bayat correctly suggests that “a compromise was attempted by the secularists; they suggested that the five mojtaheds who were to form the coun- cil be elected by popular vote, and not appointed by the ulama, as Nuri demanded” (1991: 176). However, she later paraphrases it the way it was classically understood and remarks that “the inclusion of this clause, which nominally grants veto power to a clerical council ...marked a victory over the champions of sharia” (182). 8. Hairi, discussing the ulama’s campaign against the Russians, observes: “In this cam- paign they did not engage themselves in the problem of constitutionalism in Iran. They even repeatedly mentioned that their concern was not constitutionalism and despotism (ishtrat va istabdad)” (1977: 121). He attributes this trend mainly to “the ulama’s disil- lusionment with the Constitutional Revolution generally” (123) and to their efforts to gain the support of advocates of the old regime.

Chapter 6

1. Three sources of emulation died in the early 1920s; two others—Mirza Mohammed Hossein Naini (d.1936) and Haj Sayyed Abol-Hassan Mussavi Isfahani (1860–1946)— were among the group exiled to Iran in August 1923. They were permitted to return to the attabat in 1924. The other most important marja, Abdol-Karim Haeri Yazdi (1859–1937), had been living in Iran since 1914, and moved from Arak to Qom in 1922. Haeri never expressed public political positions. He is usually referred to as the moasses (founder) of the Qom religious establishment. The 83 ulama exiled to Iran also included mujtahids such as Sayyed Abolqasem Kashani (1882–1962), who would play an important role in the political struggles of 1941–1953. 2. The opposition to Reza Shah in the army continued well after the change of dynasty (see Cronin 1997: 167–181). For more on the formation of the unified army under Reza Shah, see Chapter 3. NOTES 171

3. There are contradictory reports about the perception of republicanism among the most prominent divanis. In his memoir, Mottasam al-Saltana Farrokh reproduced an undated letter in support of republicanism signed by several divanis and some constitu- tionalists on February 8, 1921 (Farrokh 1968: 188). Mokhber al-Saltana Hedayat in his memoir admits that a meeting with the same group occurred at the height of the crisis (no date is given), although he registers his own dismay at republicanism. The meeting took place, he claims, to convince the crown prince to abandon the Qajar court—that is to say, sometime around the end of March (Hedayat [1944]1996: 364–366). 4. The divanis were not on good terms with the ulama. Most were the same divanis who had drafted the electoral laws for the election of the second majles in 1909, modifying the previous law that had recognized the ulama as a class. 5. Naini thanked Reza Khan for the hospitality the ulama had been offered in Iran by sending him a rare portrait of Imam Ali, the most revered Shi’i Imam, in 1924. The let- ter accompanying the gift had a strong message of support for Reza Khan: “One of the most important prayers that can be offered in the holy shrine [Najaf] is to wish the con- tinuation of Your Highness’s strength for the exaltation of Religion and State” (Makki [1944]1985: 46). The portrait was carried to Iran in a ceremonial manner, giving Reza Khan ample opportunity to show his faith in Islam (Mostofi [1945]1992: 613–616). The ulama’s support for Reza Khan continued until he became king. For the text of let- ters exchanged between the leading marjas, then residing in Qom, and Reza Khan, see Makki, [1944]1985: 37–38. For a report on this relationship, with particular emphasis on Naini’s role, see Hairi 1977: 131–149. 6. The proceedings of the Constitutional Assembly are reproduced in Makki 3: 551–655. Although Modarres worked closely with Reza Khan after the collapse of republicanism, he did not participate in the Constitutional Assembly. After Reza Shah’s corona- tion, several of the most important marjas in Najaf, including Isfahani, sent him congratulatory telegrams (Makki [1944]1985: 20–21). 7. Not all of Reza Shah’s top bureaucrats held similar views. The ministers of justice, finance, and the court supported a modernization project with Western connotations and secular, anti-ulama rhetoric. 8. We do not know exactly how and when these new demands were formulated. Two ver- sions of this platform are available: Makki [1944]1985: 399; and Najafi 1999: 242–243. Neither version is dated, and they differ in wording and in the number of demands. I extrapolated the ulama’s main demands and the approximate date of their formula- tion by comparing the contents and the dates of other correspondence on the subject, such as letters of Reza Shah, Hedayat-Timortaush, and Isfahani (see further, Hedayat [1944]1996; Makki [1944]1985: 4; Najafi 1999). 9. Ruhani (plural ruhaniun, collective noun ruhaniat) literally means the “spiritual,” how- ever, it is being used here as a substitute for the ulama and their students. The ulama use the term to identify themselves. Many translate ruhani as “clergy” despite the lack of such an establishment in Islam. Yet, the Shi’i ulama, the most advanced institutional entity of the Islamic hierarchy, can hardly be referred to as a clerical order. Thus, for the sake of clarity, I use the term in the original Persian. 10. From the rest of his letter, it is clear that his personal emissary to Reza Shah was Sayyed Hossein Tabatabai Burujerdi, who shortly after Isfahani’s death in 1946 became the most eminent and powerful religious personality in Iran and remained so until his death in 1961. 11. Issa Khan Sadiq was born into a religious family and was educated in Iran, France, England, and the United States. He served six times as minister of education between 1941 and 1960, and also served as the dean of Teachers College and the president 172 NOTES

of the University of Tehran in the 1940s. He was responsible more than anyone for incorporating religion into the national educational program during the Pahlavi era. Sadiq ended his Columbia University Teacher’s College dissertation (1931) suggest- ing that the future educational program of Iran should strive “to teach by percept and by example that God extends his blessing to those who have good thoughts, good words, and good deeds, which are the bases of righteousness and tolerance” (Sadiq: 85). He pursued this goal when he later took charge of the Iranian educational system. 12. Among these was the formation of the Council of Religious Science in 1943. “The most important tasks of this Council,” according to Sadiq, were “to organize the affairs of the country’s schools of religious sciences” and “to determine their educational pro- gram by paying attention to subjects and courses that are appropriate to [our] age, the conditions of choosing the instructors, the school’s examinations and deliverance of [graduate] diplomas and certificates” (Sadiq 1966, 1974, 3: 94). 13. Hossein Ali Rashed’s radio program started in 1941 and aired for more than a quarter of a century. Morteza Mottahari, later the chair of the Revolutionary Council in Iran, replaced Rashed whenever he was traveling (of course, Mottahari’s official biography does not mention this). 14. Mottahari had a direct intellectual lineage to Tabatabai and was a regular participant in his teaching circle. This group’s philosophical manifesto was compiled in The Principle of Philosophy and the Method of Realism (1953), for which Tabatabai and Motahari pro- vided the footnotes and introduction. The book now is online at http://www.hawzah. net/Per/K/Ossol/Index.htm. The book was written as a refutation of materialism, and, not surprisingly, it won the state’s official book prize in the year of the CIA military coup. 15. For a short biography of Razi and a list of his publication, see http://www.tebyan.net/ Hawzah/Scholars_Clerics/Hawzah_BigThinkers/2010/4/12/119978.html.

Chapter 7

1. Many of the leading ulama were already dismayed by the regime’s plan for land reform that was first presented in December 1959, ratified in a watered-down version in May 1960, and implemented in November 1961. 2. Khomeini’s innovative thesis was developed in a series of 12 lessons he gave in Najaf in 1969. These were published immediately from the notes of trusted students in the form of six pamphlets. The organization and argumentation in these original pamphlets dif- fer from the 1978 edition that is widely available. The 1969 version calls the author “His Excellency the Grand Ayatollah Imam Khomeini,” attaching “Imam” to his name for the first time (the title was not used again until the eve of the Revolution). I possessed three of these original pamphlets. 3. Khomeini literally asks for velayat motlaqeh faqih, or the absolute rule of faqih. In the original pamphlet version he expresses himself this way: “And as I have said, the topic of velayat faqih is not an innovation that we have brought. This issue has been sub- jected to discussion and debate, the topic of velayat motlaqeh foqaha [plural of faqih] since the beginning, yet these ...[ulama] were reluctant in naming it” (1969: 64). The same passage in the edited version read as follows: “As mentioned before, the topic of velayat faqih is not an innovation that we have brought, this issue had been sub- jected to discussion since the beginning” (Khomeini 1978: 172). Many, unaware of the original version, have treated Khomeini’s advocacy of the absolute rule of faqih as a NOTES 173

postrevolutionary innovation, but as I have shown elsewhere, Khomeini’s 1969 lessons on the subject show otherwise (Moazami and Pourmand 1989: 266–319). 4. Awliya literally means “friend,” yet it is used usually as awliya allah meaning “friends of God,” a status given to a mystical leader and/or a Sufi master, which suggests the attainment of some sort of specific relation with God. 5. See Chapter 4. 6. The documents (numbers 19 and 21–25 in the third section of the unpaginated collec- tion of SAVAK documents reprinted by Javad Mansouri, History of Emergence of the June 5 Uprising as Revealed by Documents) [Tarikh-e Qiam-e Panzdah-e Khordad ba Revayat-e Asnad, Tehran: Markaz-e Asnad-e Enqelab-e Islami, 1998]) are indicative of the extent of the movement to promote Khomeini as a source. Document 20, dated ten days after the Feyzieh incident, reports Khomeini giving stipends to students for the first time. Document number 26, filed and reported by the same agent a month later, reports an increase in Khomeini’s monthly income from less than 30,000 tomansto 400,000 tomans. 7. A very important tool for Khomeini had been the “Voice of the Ruhaniat”—a separate daily program in the Persian section of the Radio Baghdad. One of Khomeini’s closest students and associates, Sayyed Mohammad Do’ai, hosted this program from 1970 to 1975. Do’ai became the first Iranian ambassador to Iraq after the revolution, and was later Khomeini’s representative at one of the oldest dailies of Tehran, Etela’at.Hestillis in charge of that daily. 8. See Abedi and Fisher’s introduction to their translation of Khomeini (1984: xxix; n 8.) 9. Montazeri’s memoir comprises 1,600 pages and has 255 documents attached to it as appendices. Despite its obvious importance, the book fails to include the communiqué of the four sources claiming that Khomeini was a Source of Emulation. 10. The Party of the Toilers of Iran was influential from 1960 to 1963, in large part because of the extensive political connections of its maverick leader, Mozaffar Bagaie. The party was formed in May 1951 from the fusion of two secular groups, one socialist, and acted as the Iranian National Front main organizational apparatus and a counter balance to the Tudeh party, during the first Mosaddeq premiership in 1951–1952. The Toilers party leadership was involved in the 1953 coup. 11. These include, for example, Asadallah Badamchiyan, Hay’ath’a-yi mu’talifah-‘i Islami (Tehran, Intesharat-i Awj, 1983), and Masoud Razavi, Hashemi va inqilab: tarikh-i siyasi-i Iran az inqilab ta jang (Tehran, Hamshahri, 1997) 12. Sahifeh Imam Khomeini (Khomeini’s Collected Works), Volume 6. The Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works. Qom. http://www.jamaran. ir/fa/BooksahifeBody.aspx?id=1238.

Chapter 8

1. Edareh koll-e omur-e farhangi va ravabet-e omumi majles shora-ye eslami, the General Office of Cultural and Public Relation of the National Consultative Majles has pub- lished surat-i mashruh mozakarat majles barrrasi nahai qanun asasi jomhuri islami iran (The complete proceedings of “the Assembly of the Final Review of the Constitu- tion”): 1364–1368 [1985–1989] in four volumes. All four volumes can now be found as scanned copies in the Princeton University Iran Date Portal, http://www.princeton. edu/irandataportal/constitution. 2. For texts that have translated “maktabi” as “ideology,” see The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran translated and printed by the Islamic Propagation 174 NOTES

Organization (Tehran, Iran 1990) and the text on the International Constitutional Law Project website, http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ir00000_.html, or Foundation for Iranian Studies website, http://fis-iran.org/en/resources/legaldoc/constitutionislamic. For a text that has translated “maktabi” as “religion,” see the site of the Iran Chamber Society, http://www.iranchamber.com/government/laws/constitution.php. 3. Sahifeh Imam Khomeini (Khomeini’s Collected Works), Volume 6. The Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works. Qom. http://www.jamaran. ir/fa/BooksahifeBody.aspx?id=1238. 4. surat-i mashruh mozakarat majles barrrasi nahai qanun asasi jomhuri islami iran (Volume 4: 3–22). 5. SeeFootnote3. 6. Asghar Schirazi has written the most comprehensive works on the formation of the Islamic Republic’s Constitution. First in English The Constitution of Iran: Politics and the State in the Islamic Republic (1998) and later an updated and extended version in Persian nezame hokumati jomhuri eslami iran—din, qanun va motlaqiat qodrat (The Governing Structure of the Islamic Republic of Iran—Religion, Law and Abso- lutism of Power, 2008). Schirazi, in his Persian version, provides a detailed account of how “direct, and extensive open propaganda [in favor] of velayat faqih and critical of the [constitutional] draft” was carried out, which makes it seem that there was a prearrangedplantodoso(34). 7. For the opening of the assembly and Khomeini’s and Bazargan’s messages, see pages 3–8 in the first volume of surat-e mashruh mozakarat majles barrasi nahai qanun asasi jomhuri islami iran. Khomeini’s quotations are on page 6. 8. Volume 4 of surat-i mashruh mozakarat majles barrrasi nahai qanun asasi jomhuri islami iran has a section with short biographies of the assembly members entitled moarefi aza-ye kheberegan, “Introduction of the Members [Assembly] of Experts” (356–429). At the end of that section, the editor provided a quantitative analysis of these representatives (430–435). 9. Asghar Schirazi documents in detail how different types of sharia legal tricks were used to present and ratify non-Islamic laws as Islamic ones. “nezame hokumati jomhuri eslami iran—din, qanoun va motlaqiat qodrat” (165–230). 10. The founding members were Khomeini’s students, representing the ruhaniat; a group of pro-Khomeini Islamic merchants; and a group of Islamic intellectuals. Hojat Eleslam Massieh Mohajeri, who was managing chief of the party journal, Islamic Republic, referred to the formation of the party as a coalition of different forces and interests, in an interview on July 15, 2012. http://www.jamaran.ir/fa/NewsContent-id_22025.aspx. 11. See http://hvm.ir/print.asp?id=32079. 12. Pezhuheskadeh Tahqiqat Islami (Islamic Research Center). jame’ye ruhaniat mobarez (The Society of Militant Clergy). http://www.tooba.net/Books/Show/95/4-1-1. 13. See the Society Charter. http://rohanyat.ir/html/Page/3. 14. Ibid. 15. Their self-identification as ruhaniun, often translated as “cleric,” as opposed to the name of the original group, ruhaniat, often translated as “clergy” but literally denoting a guild, has an important and subtle distinction in Persian: in Shi’ism, religious officials cannot be considered a professional guild. 16. NYT. “Iraq Said to Gain Upper Hand,” July 2, 1987. http://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/ 07/world/iraq-said-to-gain-upper-hand-at-basra.html. 17. US Operation Earnest Will lasted for two years. For details of operations, including the first use of floating mobile bases in marine warfare, see the Special Operations NOTES 175

Command’s Website: http://www.specialoperations.com/Operations/Prime_Chance/ Operation_Profile.htm. 18. NYT. “European Policy in the Gulf, a Striking Reverse,” 9/16/1987. http://www.nytimes. com/1987/09/16/world/european-policy-in-the-gulf-a-striking-reversal.html. 19. In his classified letter, published posthumously in 2006, Khomeini defended his posi- tion as the most appropriate one “in the interest of the revolution and order.” The letter is published with additional information in a special report, “qesse por ghosse jame zahar” (the tale of the sad story of the poisoned chalice), in the website of the Basij, the paramilitary organization of the IRGC. http://basij.ir/main/definitioncontent.php? UID=181677&vn=181608. In the letter, Khomeini subtly quotes the reports of oth- ers, and the related discussions and documents are important in decoding the reasons for the change of policy, including serious losses in military personal and equipment, loss of morale among the troops, lack of coordination between the army and IRGC, economic hardship, and mismanagement. 20. http://www.jamaran.ir/fa/BooksahifeBody.aspx?id=3778. 21. Article 176 of the Iranian Constitution, http://www.imj.ir/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=583:1388-11-17-15-39-46&catid=84:1388-11-03-08-40-10& Itemid=222 (my translation). 22. Rasoul Nafissi, “peydayesh va payamadhaye din bureaucratic dar iran” (The Process of Bureaucratization of Religion in Iran and Its Consequences). Iran Name, AJournalof Iranian Studies, Vol. 24(1), 2008. http://fis-iran.org/fa/irannameh/volxxiv/bureaucrat- religion. The quotation is from the English abstract, emphasis added. 23. Mehdi Khalaji, “jomhuri Islami va nazme novine ruhaniat” (The New Order of Cler- ical Establishment in Iran), Iran Name, A Journal of Iranian Studies, Vol. 24(4), 2008. http://fis-iran.org/fa/irannameh/volxxiv/orderofclericalestablishment. The quotations are from the English abstract and the emphasis is added. 24. Mehdi Khalaji, “Inside the Authoritarian State: Iran’s Regime of Religion,” Journal of International Affairs, Fall/Winter 2011, Vol. 65(1), (131–147), 144 (emphasis added). 25. Mehdi Khalaji, “The Last Marja. Sistani and the End of Traditional Religious Authority in Shi’ism.” Policy Focus Vol. 59, September 2006. 26. This group now is under the influence of Khamenei. After Khatemi was elected president in 1997, some of its founding members split off and formed the majmae modaressin va mohaqeqin howzeh elmie Qom (Assembly of Lecturers and Researchers of Qom Seminary). Bibliography

Archives

Center for Iranian Documentation and Research (CIDR), Paris, France. Moved in December 2005 to International Institute of Social History (IISH), Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Dr. Sayyed Ali Shayegan’s personal papers and documents (in possession of his family, New Jersey), USA. Documents and Archives of the Iranian National Front-Abroad (in author’s possession).

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Online Encyclopedia, Research Portals, and Persian Books and Journals

Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI Online). http://www.brill.com/publications/online-resources/ encyclopaedia-islam-online Ketabe Farsi. Persian Books. http://www.ketabfarsi.org Moavanat Hughughi va Uumur Majles [The Vice-Presidency for Legal and Parliamentary Affairs]. http://hvm.ir Portal Jame Ulum Ensani. [The Comprehensive Portal of Human Sciences). Pezhuhkah Ulum Ensani va Muttalat Farhangi. http://ensani.ir The Imam Khomeini Portal (1989–). Mo’assese-ye Tanzim va Nashre Assar Imam Khomeini. http://www.imam-khomeini.ir The Iran Social Science Data Portal. New Jersey: Princeton University. http://www. princeton.edu/irandataportal/index.xml Yarshater, Ehsan. (ed.) (1982–). The Iranian Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University. http://www.iranicaonline.org Index

Note: Locators in italics refer to figures and charts.

Abbas Mirza, crown prince, 19 Arab Awakening, 88 Abrahamian, Ervand, 12, 13, 24, 26, 42, Arabic language, 62, 104 47, 79 ArabKingdomofSyria,89 Administrative Law of the Ministry of Arab nationalism, 88, 89 Education, Arts and Endowments Arab Revolt (1916), 89 (1910), 103 Arab Spring, 159 Afary, Janet, 79 Ardebili, Ahmad bin Mohammad Afsharieh tribes, 58 (al-Muqaddas), 72 Agha Mohammad Khan, 16–18, 68, 158, Arfa, Hassan, 48, 166 n15 163 n1 Arjomand, Amir, 65, 142 Aghasi, Haj Mirza, 20, 61–2 Armenians, 28, 36, 37 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 154 army, 165 n4, 166 n7 Ahmad Shah, 26, 29, 38, 88, 96–8, 165 n4 Constitutional Revolution and, 31, 33–8, Ahsaie, Sheikh Ahmad Ben Zayn al Din, 47–8 58–60, 167 n4, 167 n7 Islamic Republic and, 145–6 Ajlali, Farzam, 13 Mohammad Reza Shah and, 47–9, 130–1 Akhavi, Shahrokh, 74 Qajars and, 12–13, 17, 19–23, 158 akhbari school, 5, 64–7, 75, 78, 83, 162 n2, Reza Shah and, 4, 31, 33, 38–9, 41–6, 48, 168 n19 96–7, 99–101, 170 n2 usuli controversy, 56–8, 64–6, 69, 74 Asad, Sardar, 35 akhbar (reports on deeds of Prophets and Ashraf Pahlavi, Princess, 18, 47 Imams), 57, 67 Assar, Mohammad Kazem, 106 Algar, Hamid, 58, 65, 73, 79 Assembly of Experts, 133, 137, 140–1, 147 Al-Makasseb (On Trade) (al-Ansari), 68 Association of Militant Clerics (MRM), 145 Al-Sharhe al-Rejal (stories of men), 7 Astarabadi, Sheikh Mohammad Amin, 168 Amanat, Abbas, 13, 15, 65, 72–3, 74 n19 Amir Kabir, see Farahani, Mirza Taqi Khan Atabat, 56, 60, 62, 64, 67, 68, 71, 73, 86–8, Anderson, Benedict, 25 93, 97–8, 101, 103, 108, 110, 152, 155 Anglo-Persian Agreement, 39, 41, 43 Ataturk, Kemal, 95–6, 104 Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 39–41, 166 n8 Azerbaijan, 19, 22, 49–50, 59, 140 Anglo-Russian Convention, 83, 86 Azhari, Gholam Reza, 131 anjomans (revolutionary associations), 27–8, 34 Bab, see Shiriazi, Sayyed Mohammad Ali Ansari, Morteza (grand-nephew), 74 (Bab) Ansari, Sheikh Morteza al-, 66, 68, 72, Babi Azali, 79, 86, 98, 164 n7 73–4, 169 n24, 169 n25 Babi movement, 55–7, 59–64, 66, 68, 79, Aqeli, Baqer, 42 86, 118, 122, 161, 167 n8 198 INDEX

Bafghi, deputy of Naini, 101 Burujerdi, Haj Mirza Hossein, 74, 108–12, Bagaie, Mozaffar, 173 n10 120–1, 124–6, 171 n10 Baghdad Buyid dynasty, 13, 67 Shi’i doctrine and, 67, 73 Bahaie, 61, 62 Caliphate system, 89, 96, 141 Bahrain, 57 Carter, Jimmy, 128 Bakhtiar, Shapur, 132–3 Catholic Church, 60 Bakhtiari, Ali-Qoli Khan (Sardar Assad), 43 Caucasus, 36, 37 Bakhtiari, Jaffar Qoli (Sardar Assad), 43 center-periphery relations, 32, 158 Bakhtiaris, 27–9, 34–5 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 32, 51, Banisadr, Abulhassan, 133 141 Baqer Khan, 28 centralization, 2–3, 13–15, 20–1, 23, 41–2 Basij paramilitary forces, 145 Christianity, 103, 151 Bayan (Babi holy book), 56, 62 Cinema Rex fire, 129–30 Bayat, Mangol, 61, 79 citizenship rights, 159 Bazargan, Mehdi, 132–3, 138–40 civil war of 1907–9, 34–5, 37 BBC, 132 clientelism, see patron-client system Persian radio service, 105, 131 coalitions and alliances Behasti, Mohammad Hossein, 143 Islamic Republic and, 142–3, 151, 154 Behbahani, Agha Mohammad Bagher 156 (Vahid), 67–9, 108 Pahlavi state and, 43–4, 47–8 Behbahani, Sayyed Abdollah, 86–7, 169 n26 Qajar state and, 17, 23 Behbodi, Soleiman, 97 coercion, 12, 15, 20, 34 Belgium, 146 Cold War, 42, 49–50, 158 Black Friday killings, 130–1 Cole, Juan R.I., 65, 67, 74, 167 n4, 168 n13 Bolsheviks, 118 colonialism, 18, 32 Britain, 4, 18, 20, 29, 31–3, 35, 37–42, 45, Committee of Union and Progress, 87 97, 163 n1, 165 n4, 165 n5, 165 n6, 166 conscription, 22, 36–7, 39, 41–2, 46, 157 n13 conscription law (1925), 44, 94, 99–102 coup of 1921 and, 38–41 protests vs., 99–101 Iran-Iraq war and, 146 revision of 1938, 103 Iraq and, 87–9, 93 Constitution, Fundamental Laws of oil and, 42, 49–50 (1906–7), 2, 26–7, 47, 49, 51, 78, 81–6, partition by, 31, 77, 86 89, 107, 113, 119, 132 tobacco concession and, 5, 55, 74 amendments of 1949, 49 WW II and, 44 Islamic state and, 139 British East India Company, 68 Supplementary Fundamental Laws British Foreign Office, 35, 39 (1907) and, 34, 78, 83–5, 90, 98 British India office, 39 ulama and, 77, 78, 81–6, 113, 119, 170 British War Office, 39 n7, 170 n8 Browne, Edward G., 74 Constitution (1979), 122, 133, 136–42, 147, Brumberg, Daniel, 122 159, 174 n6 buffer state, 32, 41–2, 44, 165 n1 amendments post-1989, 145–8, 151 utilitarian, 4, 32, 39–43, 47, 155 Assembly of Experts and, 133, 136, 141–2 bunichah system, 21–2, 39, 157 initial draft of, 138–41 bureaucracy, 150 referendum on, 141 Islamic Revolution and, 124–6, 128 Constitutional Assembly Pahlavi state and, 4, 43–5, 47, 158 of 1906, 81, 83, 98, 138, 171 n6 Qajar state and, 11–13, 15, 17, 23 of 1979, 133 INDEX 199 constitutionalists, 27–8, 42–4, 46–7, 50, 61, education, 34, 104–5 83, 90, 98 religious, 104–12, 149, 150–1, 155 constitutional monarchy, 33–4, 46–7, 50–1 see also madresse system; Qom; Constitutional Reform Council, 146–7 seminaries Constitutional Revolution (1906–11), 4–5, ejtehad (interpretation of laws through 11, 16, 21, 25–9, 31, 33–8, 43–4, 50, 57, deduction), 5, 65, 67, 70–2, 85, 124, 71, 84, 97–8, 104–5, 159, 161–2, 165 143, 168 n19 n3, 170 n6 elections ulama and, 5, 57, 61, 76, 77–91 of 1909, 34 Corbin, Henry, 25, 59 of 1979, 140–1 Cossack Brigades, 27–9, 31, 38–9, 42, 86, of 1981, 144 95, 158 of 2009, 6, 143, 154 Council of Guardians, see Guardian of 2013, 6, 143, 154, 159 Council Electoral Law (1906), 34, 81–2, 89 Council of National Defense, 147 embattled state, 47–8 Council of Revolution, 139 etedalie (socialist moderate group), 36 coup of 1921, 5, 27–9, 38–9, 41, 47, 51, Etehadieh (Nezam-Mafi), Mansureh, 36 77–8, 87, 90, 95, 102, 157–8 Etela’at (newspaper), 129 coup of 1953, 13, 28, 33, 47–52, 129, 141 ethno-tribal monarchism, 3, 14, 163 n1 Cronin, Stephanie, 96 Eurasian state system, 13, 157–8 culture, politics and, 117–18, 133–4, 162 Europe, 12–13 customs regulation, 34–5 state formation in Iran vs., 15–16, 156, 159–60, 162 Dar al-Shafa madresse, 109 European languages, 111 Dashnaks, 36–7 Expediency Council, 144, 147, 154 Davani, Ali, 111–12, 126 Ezzat-al-Dowla Princess, 20 Davar, Ali Akbar, 43 democratic ideals, 44, 47, 49–50, 83, 86, 90, Faisal bin Hossein bin Ali al-Hashemi, King 106, 139–41, 159 of Iraq, 89 Democrat party (Ferqeh Democrat), 36, 38 Department for Publications and Farahani, Mirza Abolqasem Khan, 19–20, Information, 105 25, 69 Department of Public Enlightenment, 105 Farahani, Mirza Taqi Khan (Amir Kabir), Devotees of Islam (fedayan islam), 48 19–22, 57, 63, 164 n7, 164 n8 divanis, 169 n5, 170 n6, 171 n4 Fardoust, Hossein, 42, 47 Constitutional Revolution and, 36, 87, Farrokh, Mottasam al-Saltana, 101, 171 n3 170 n6, 171 n3 Fath Ali Shah, 17–20, 69 Mosaddeq and, 50 Fatima (daughter of the Prophet), 60, 84 Pahlavi state and, 31, 33, 41, 43–8, 51, Fazlollah, Sheikh, 27 96–7, 99, 106 Ferdowsi, 25 Persian culture and, 25, 156–7 Feyzieh seminary, 109, 125 Qajar state and, 18–20, 25, 33, 156–7 financial resources secular courts and, 70 Constitutional Revolution and, 35–7 Do’ai, Sayyed Mohammad, 173 n7 Khomeini and, 125 Dowlatabadi, Yahya Mehdi, 96, 98 Reza Khan and, 41–2 Durkheim, Émile, 75 statization of religion and, 149–50 ulama and, 53, 57, 67–9, 71, 76, 79, 93, earthquake of 1978, 131 110–11, 113, 155 Ecclesiastical Committee, 78, 84–5, 90, 95, see also taxation 102 Firouz, Prince, 43 200 INDEX

Foroughi, Mohammad Ali (Zoka al-Molk), Higher Council of Education Law (1922), 45–7 103–4 Fortieth Day protests, 129 Hitler, Adolf, 45 Four Books, 67 Hobsbawm, Eric, 160 Fourth Pillar, 60, 122–3 Hukumat Islami ya Velayat Faqih fragmented authorities, 3, 13–15, 20–3, 26, (Khomeini), 140 164 n11 see also velayat faqih Islamic Republic and, 143–6 human rights, 128 France, 23, 146 hydraulic society, 12 Fundamental Law of Education (1911), 104, 107 Ibn-Arabi, 121 Fundamental Law of the Ministry of Ibn Qiba’a, 66 Education (1911), 103 identity formation, 32, 118, 128, 134, 157 Fundamental Laws of the Constitution, see ideology, 137–8, 144 Constitution, Fundamental Laws of ilbeigui, Ferydoun, 154 (1906–7) Imam, 49–60 of the Age, 86 gendarmerie, 37–9, 95 Ali, 171 n5 general strike of October, 1978, 132 fourth (Zeyn al-Abedin), 19 Georgians, 28, 37 Khomeini as, 120, 122, 140 Germany, 32–3, 38, 44–5, 90, 105 Twelfth or hidden (Mehdi), 59–61, 69, Ghita, Jafar Kashef al-, 69 94, 150 Gilan rebellions, 50 Imamate, 59, 68, 84, 139 Imam’s share (sahme Imam), 69, 150 Golestan, Treaty of (1813), 163 n1 Imperial Bank of Persia, 35, 39–41 Golshayan, Abbas Qoli, 46, 166 n12 India, 41, 63, 73 Gramsci, Antonio, 118 Inquiry into the Principle of Marja’iyat, An Green Movement, 143–5 (Mottahari), 74 Guardian Council, 139, 147, 154 institutionalization of religion guilds, 21, 82 Constitutional Revolution and, 77–8, 87 early, 64–5, 71–2 hadith, 67, 109 Islamic Republic and, 135–6, 154, 159–61 Haeri Yazdi, Abdol-Karim, 97, 100, 101, Pahlavi state and, 90–1, 94, 108–13, 155 108–11, 170 n1 state formation interdependent with, Hairi, Abdul-Hadi, 74 1–2, 53, 61, 112–13, 159–60 Hajir, Abdol Hossein, 48–9 see also Shi’i ulama; usuli school; and Hakim, Sayyed Mohammad Baqer, 125 specific doctrines; leaders; and Halabja attacks, 146 religious centers Halliday, Fred, 48 intellectuals, 75, 79, 86, 97–9, 128 halqeh hagani (hagani network), 110 international forces, 31–3, 35–7, 39, 47, 78, Hamedan, battle of, 37 87–90, 106, 131, 136, 142, 145, 157, Hanafi school of law, 70, 168 n19 158 Haqani madresse, 110 see also colonialism; and specific countries Hedayat, Mehdi Qoli (Mokhber and wars al-Saltana), 27, 44, 99, 100, 102, 111, Iran 171 n3 cultural and national identity and, 24–5, Helli, al-Allameh al-, 67, 168 n17, 168 n18, 99, 107, 117, 156–7 168 n19 partition of, 29, 31, 36, 77, 83, 86 heterodoxy, 56, 58, 60–1, 64, 76, 159 Persia renamed, 45 hierarchy, 12, 53, 71–6, 80, 93 Shi’ism and, 1, 25, 112–13 INDEX 201

state formation in, vs. Europe, 156–8 Khomeini’s death and, 145–6 see also Islamic Republic; Revolution of party failure in, 143–5 1979; and specific regimes and rulers sacred/secular dilemma and, 135–6, 162 Iran-Air Airbus attack, 146 statization of religion and, 148–51 Iranian Freedom Movement (IFM), 128, as theological security state, 136, 142–3, 132 145–6 Iranian majles-e ali (High Parliament), 35 see also Constitution (1979); Iranian majles (parliament), 26–7, 29, Islamization; Revolution of 1979; 31–8, 42–4, 47–50, 81–4, 95–6, 98, 100, and specific leaders and political 138, 145, 165 n3 parties bombed by Mohammad Ali Shah, 26 Islamic Republican Party (IRP), 140–1, Ecclesiastical Committee and, 78, 85, 102 143–5 Iranian ministry of defense (formerly war), Islamic Revolutionary Council, 132, 144 34, 50–1, 96, 102 Islamists, 49 Iranian ministry of education, 100, 102–3, Islamization 107, 108 of Constitution, 141, 154 Iranian ministry of information, 105 of political and social movements of Iranian ministry of the interior, 37, 107 1963–79, 6–7, 113, 118, 120, 123–7, Iranian National Front (INF), 49–50, 128, 117–34, 155, 161–2 132 of Revolution of 1979, 2–3, 6, 94, 127–39, Iranian National News Agency, 105 141–3, 154, 161–2 Iranian National Radio, 105, 112 Italy, 146 Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), 2, 136, 142, 145, 175 n19 jihad, 69, 101 Iranian Senate, 49, 83 June 5, 1963 uprising, 4, 118–19, 123 Iraq, 159 June 22, 1979 protests, 133 ceasefire of 1988, 146–7 Revolt of 1920–22, 87–9, 93, 97 Kalantar, Haji Ibrahim, 17–20, 164 n5 Shi’i ulama and, 57–8, 67, 93, 97 Karbala, 58, 63, 73 tensions of 1969, 125 Karbala IV offensive, 146 US invasion of 2003, 148 Karoubi, Mehdi, 145 war of 1980–88, 6, 133, 135–7, 144, Kashani, Sayyed Abolqasem, 98, 120, 145–7, 149, 154 170 n1 Isfahan, 16, 28, 62, 93, 99, 100, 109 Kashfe al-Ghita an Mubahamat Shriata capital moved to, 38 al-Ghara (Revealing the Cover of sacking of, 58 Ambiguities of the Honorable Sharia) Isfahani, Haj Sayyed Abol-Hassan Mussavi, (al-Ghita), 69 101–2, 106, 110, 170 n1 Kasravi, Ahmad, 74 Isfahani, Sheikh al-Shari’a al-, 87 Katouzian, Homa, 12–13 Islam, see Shi’ism; Shi’i ulama; Sufism; Keddie, Nikki R., 13, 58, 63, 65, 79 Sunnism; and specific religious doctrines Kermani, Karim Khan, 59–60 and figures Kermani, Mirza Reza, 61 Islamic Consultative Assembly, 147 Kermani, Nazem al-Islam, 74 Islamic law, see sharia Keshavarz Sadr, Houshang, 13 Islamic reformation, 159 Khalaji, Mehdi, 148 Islamic Republic, 75, 122, 133–51, 161–2 Khalili Tehrani, Mirza Hossein, 87 coalitions and factions in, 141–3, 151–4, Khamenei, Ali, 143–4, 147–9, 154, 175 n26 156 Khayam, 25 instability of, 3, 133–5, 151–4, 156 Khoeiniah, Sayyed Mohammad, 145 invention of, 141–2 Khomeini, Ahmad, 125 202 INDEX

Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 2–6, 57, 60, Lebanon, 57 74, 94, 173 n6, 173 n7, 175 n19 legal system Assembly of Experts and, 140–1 Qajar state and, 21, 70–1 Constitution and, 138–41, 146–7, 159 Reza Khan and, 42–3, 100, 103 death of, 3, 6, 135, 145, 147, 150 Shi’ism and, 5, 65–8, 70–1, 75, 142, education of, 109 150–1, 154 Expediency Council and, 154 see also sharia; sharia courts Imam title and, 131, 135 legislation, ulama veto and, 90, 95, 100, imprisonment and exile of, 119, 125–7 102, 139 Iran-Iraq war and, 133, 137, 146–7 Lenin, V.I., 140 IRP and, 144 Lesser Autocracy (estebdad-e saqir), 26, 28 Islamic Republic ruling elite and, 142–4 Liakhov, Vladimir, 27 Islamization and, 127–33, 135–8, 140, local council election bill (1962), 118–19, 161–2 125–6 legacyof,6,135 local powerholders, 18, 20, 22–3, 32–3, maktabi and, 137–8 70–1 media and, 131–2 political radicalism and early leadership MacEoin, Denis Martin, 61, 167 n7 of, 4–6, 110, 117–23, 125–6, 139, madresse system, 100, 104–5, 109–11 155–6 Mahalati, Sayyed Hashem Rasouli, 126 Qom network and, 108–9, 111–12, 149, Mahde Olia, 20 158 Maier, Charles, 42 religious ideas and mysticism of, 6, 57, Makki, Hossein, 38, 95, 98, 171 n6, 171 n8 60, 118, 120–3, 140, 161, 172 n2, 172 maktabi (scholastic), 137–8, 151 n3; see also Perfect Shi’i; velayat faqih Maktab Islam (journal), 112 returns from exile, 130–3 Malakzadeh, Mehdi, 34–5 Revolution of 1979 and, 154–6 Malcolm, Sir John, 63, 167–8 n11 source of emulation position and, 123–7, Mamalek, Mostofi al-, 41, 50 161 Maragahei, Mohammad Saaed, 45, 47 statization of religion and, 150 marja-taqlid, see sources of emulation White Revolution and, 119–20 Khomeini, Mustafa marjayat, 80, 74, 147, 150 death of, 128, 144 Martin,Vanessa,58 Khonsari, Sayyed Mohammad Taqi, 110 Marx, Karl, 75, 137 Khorasani, Akhund Mohammad Kazem, 87 Mashad protests, 50, 103 Khorasani, Mulla Kazem, 97 mashrue-mashrute (constitutional sharia), Khorasan provinces, 50 84, 88, 90 Khumus, al- (Qu’ranic tax), 69–70 mass politics and protests, 4, 155–7 Kohlberg, Etan, 65 Babism and, 56 Kovanlou clan, 16 conscription, of 1927, 99–102 Kurdistan, 49, 133, 140 insurrection of 1952, 33, 51 Kuwait, 146 Iran vs. Europe and, 162 local council election bill of 1962, 119 Lahuti, Abolqasem, 38 Mosaddeq and, 50–1 Lambton, Ann K.S., 63, 65, 79, 164 n4, 164 Revolution of 1979 and, 128–33, 156, 162 n11 Tehran, of 1980, 140 landowning class, 3, 15, 79, 158 tobacco, 5, 23, 55–6, 72, 74, 76–80, 108 reforms and, 3, 33, 44, 51, 172 n1 unveiling, of 1935, 103 LaterFourBooks,67 women’s voting, of 1962, 139 League of Nations, 88 Mazandarani, Sheikh Abdollah, 87 INDEX 203

Mecca, 63, 70, 89 Molk, Qavam al-, 18 riot of 1987, 146 Molk, Shokoh al-, 45 media, 80, 111–12, 131 Mongols, 16 Medina, 63, 70 Monsha’at Qaemmaqam Farahani Mehdi, see under Imam (Farahani), 19 Mehmed VI Vahid ed-din, Sultan of Montazeri, Hossein Ali, 110, 125–6, 145, Ottoman Empire, 96 173 n9 Meraj (Prophet’s ascension), 60 Mosaddeq, Mohammad, 33, 46–52, 132, merchants, 57, 68, 75, 79, 88, 131 166 n17 Mernard, customs chief, 35 Moshir-al-Dowla, Mirza Mohammad messianism, 56–7, 59, 61, 80, 154, 159, 161 Hossein Khan (Sepahsalar), 20–1 militias, 44, 61 Moshir-al-Dowla (Hassan Pirnia), 41, 50, Millspaugh, Arthur, 42, 166 n7 96 Moaddel, Mansour, 79 mostazafan (oppressed), 140 Modarres, Sayyed Hassan, 38, 93, 95–8, Mostofi, Abdollah, 17–18, 34, 96 101, 171 n6 Mostofi, Ismail, 17 Modarressi Tabataba’i, Hossein, 64–6, 68, Mostofi al-Mamalek (General Treasury) 168 n15 office, 22 Modern Iran Party (formerly Progressive Motamed-al-Dowla, Manucher Khan -, 62, group), 51 167 n10 modernization, 2, 7, 80, 103, 110, 113, Mottahari, Sayyed Morteza, 65, 74, 110, 148–9, 159–61 139, 140, 168 n14, 171 n13, 171 n14 see also tradition, modernization and Mottahedeh, Roy, 65 Mohajeri, Hojat Eleslam Massieh, 174 n10 Moussavi, Ahmad Kazemi, 74 Mohammad, Prophet, 60, 62, 84, 160 Mozaffar al-Din Shah, 23, 26–7, 29, 83, 86 Mohammad Ali Shah (1907–9), 26–9, 34, MRM (majma-e ruhaniun-e mobarez), 145 37, 83, 86, 87, 90, 170 n7 Mughols, 67 Mohammad Reza Shah, 46–52, 99 Mussavi, Mir Hossein, 144 army and, 47–9 mysticism, 56–7, 59, 63, 118, 120–3, 140, assassination attempt on, 49 161 Constitutional Assembly and, 46–7, 138 coup of 1953 and, 33, 50, 111 Nader Shah, 58 departs Iran, 132 Nafissi, Rasoul, 148 education and, 105–6 Naini Gharavi, Mirza Mohammad Hossein, Mosaddeq and, 46, 50–1 80–1, 87, 88, 97, 101, 170 n1, 171 n5 protests of 1977–79 and, 128–32 Najaf, 38, 59, 63, 73, 101, 106, 125, 140, 153 ulama and, 90, 94, 105–8, 111, 113, 119 Najafi, Hai Agha Nourallah, 100, 101 US and, 32–3 Najafi, Sheikh Mohammad Hassan al-, 74 White Revolution and, 3, 31, 33, 119, Naser al-Din Shah, 5, 13, 19–20, 23, 25, 34, 138–9, 125 39, 50, 158 Mohammad Shah (1834–48), 19–20, 61, assassination of, 61 62, 167 n10 tobacco protests and, 79 mojtaheds, 60, 62, 69–71, 74–5, 80, 85–6, ulama and, 56–7, 62, 64, 68, 75 88, 93, 95, 99–100, 103–4, 106, 109, National Assembly (1949), 49 122, 124, 139–42, 145, 151–2, 156, 158, National Committee of Khorasan, 38 169 n26 National Consultative Assembly, 147 Molk, Mansour al-, 48 nationalism, 16, 42, 45, 50, 89, 106, 107 Molk, Mirza Abolqawem Khan Naser al-, national security state, 2, 136 29, 88 NATO, 146 Molk, Naser al-, 37 Netherlands, 146 204 INDEX

Norman, British minister, 42 protests, see mass politics and protests; and Nouri, Sheikh Fazzolah, 78–9, 83–4, 86–8, specific events 90, 170 n6 Provisional Directorate, 29 Nouri, Mirza Agha Khan, 20 Qaemmaqamie, 42 Occultation, 59–60, 69, 94, 168 n16 Qajar, Azad al-Doleh, 29 Lesser, 60 Qajar state, 1, 3, 5, 11–29, 33, 35, 55, 163 Office of Registration and Documentation, n1, 168 n20 103 army and, 20–3 oil, 6, 35, 41–2, 49–50, 146 Babi movement and, 55–6, 61–3 opium, 15 Britain and, 45 “Oriental despotism,” 12 coalitions and, 3, 11, 13, 15–21, 23 orthodoxy, 5, 55–7, 59, 64, 66, 155, 156, 160 bureaucracy and, 16–18, 23 Ottoman Empire, 22, 33, 38, 57, 63, 69–70, Constitutional Revolution and, 12, 16, 73, 86–7, 89–90, 96, 99, 157 33, 35, 78, 86 Ovissi, Gholam Ali, 131 courts and law in, 70–1 disintegration of, 11, 26–9, 87, 89–90, 98 Pahlavi state, 1–4, 20, 29, 31–53, 87 Ecclesiastical Committee and, 78 centralized bureaucratic rule and, 31, 40 fragmented authority and, 14, 15, 21–6, coalitions and, 16, 18 33, 155, 164 n11 Constitution and, 159 Persian culture and, 24–5 dynasty installed, 95, 98 Reza Khan and, 43, 96–8 international forces and, 33 state formation in, 12–15, 29, 156–8 Qajar state and, 11, 29 taxation and, 21–3, 35 Revolution of 1979 and, 136, 138 tribes and, 11–12, 16, 22–3, 78, 157 state formation and, 158 ulama and, 5, 55–64, 67–71, 75, 78, 82, ulama and, 2, 5, 53, 87, 93, 113 84, 86–7, 89–90, 96, 113 as utilitarian buffer state, 4, 32, 155 see also specific rulers see also Mohammad Reza Shah; Reza Qashqai, Sot-al-Dowla, 43 Shah Qashqai tribes, 43, 49 Pakdaman, Nasser, 13, 103 Qavam al-Saltana, 47–51 Paris, Treaty of (1857), 163 n1 Qoddussi, Ali, 110 Party of Toilers of Iran, 126, 173 n10 Qom patrimonial rule, 13, 23 conscription protest and, 99–102 patron-client system, 15, 23, 26, 32, 44, Khomeini and, 120, 139–40, 158 47, 53 as religious center, 58, 67, 87, 93–4, 96–7, Perfect Shi’i, 59–60, 122–3 101, 108–12, 125, 129, 149, 158 Persia, name changed to Iran, 45 Qomi, Haj Hossein Agha, 103, 110 Persian Gulf, 146 Qom martyrs (1978), 129 Persian language and literature, 3, 15–16, Qur’an, 57, 62–4, 83, 104–5, 109 18, 24–5, 37, 45, 62, 69, 104, 156–7 Qur’anic commentary, 110 Pesyan, Mohammad Taqi Khan, 38 Peyk-Iran radio, 131 radicalism, 4, 86–7, 113, 118, 120–3, 127, police (nazmia), 34, 37, 39, 97 161 political prisoner massacre (1988), 145 Radio Mihan parastan, 131 political repression, 42–3, 99, 110, 136, 151 Radio Moscow, 131 politics, culture and, 117–18, 133–4 Rafsanjani, Hashemi, 143–6, 154 Progressive group (later Modern Iran Rajai, Mohammad Ali, 144 Party), 51 Rashed, Hossein Ali, 106, 172 n13 Protestant reformation, 61 Rashti, Sayyed Kazem, 58–60 INDEX 205

Razi, Mohammad Sharif, 112 buffer state and, 42, 165 n1 Razmara, Haj Ali, 47–9 Constitutional Revolution and, 31, 34, reforms of 1963, 17, 51 138 see also White Revolution (reforms of coup of 1921 and, 27–8, 31, 90, 95, 158 1963) education and, 104–7, 109–10 Régie of Tobacco crisis, 5, 23, 55–6, 72, 74, installed as shah, 18, 98, 101 76–80, 108 Mosaddeq and, 50 regional forces, 1, 3, 6, 32, 33, 44, 142, 145, republicanism and, 94–8 154 Revolution of 1979 and, 158 future state systems and, 158–9 rise to power of, 42–4, 95 ulama and, 86–90 state formation and, 4, 31–2, 42–4, 158 religion ulama and, 87, 90, 93–107, 109–10, politics and, 1–2, 89, 117–18 112–13, 171 n5–n10 statization of, 2–3, 136, 148 WW II and, 32, 44–6 see also Islamic Republic; Islamization; Richard, Yann, 65 religious morality; religious Rightly Guided Caliphs, 160 revivalism; sharia; Shi’ism; Shi’i RisalehTowzihal-Masai’l(Treatisesonthe ulama; and specific religious branches, Clarification of Problems) (Burujerdi), doctrines, and leaders 124, 125 religious morality, 5, 94, 98–9, 102–5, 107, Royal Army, 42 106–8, 112–13, 119–20, 155 Ruhani, Hassan, 154 religious revivalism, 55–8, 76, 155–6, Russia, 15, 18, 20, 27–9, 31, 33–5, 37–9, 41, 158–9, 161, 167 n2 77–8, 83–4, 86–90, 157, 163 n1, 170 n8 Renovation Party (Tajadod), 95 invasions by, 29, 31, 37–8, 88 Ressale Amalie (Practical Treatises) partition by, 77, 86 tradition, 124 Revolution of 1917, 39, 89, 118 Revolutionary Provisional Government wars of 19th century vs., 68–70 (1979), 133, 138–9 see also Soviet Union Revolution of 1979 (Islamic Revolution), 1–3, 5–7, 18, 53, 135–54, 161–2 Sadiq, Issa Khan, 104–7, 171 n11 early seeds of, 65, 110, 112–13 Sadjadi, Dr., 46 elites and, 18, 51–2 Sadr, Sayyed Sadre al-Din, 110 ideology and, 137 Safavid dynasty, 4, 16, 19, 25, 53, 93, 157, international and regional forces and, 163 n1, 168 n20 158 ulama and, 4, 57–8, 67–8, 141 Islamization of, 2–3, 6, 94, 127–33, Sanjabi, Karim, 132, 133 135–8, 154, 161–2 Satar Khan, 28 Pahlavi state and, 5, 113, 158 SAVAK (security and intelligence agency), state formation and, 53 125–6, 128–9 theological security state and, 158 Sayyed Zia, see Tabatabai, Sayyed Zia al-Din as unfinished, 1, 3, 6, 154, 156 Schirazi, Asghar, 174 n6, 174 n9 see also Islamic Republic; Khomeini, School of Baghdad, 67 Ayatollah Ruhollah; and specific School of Helli, 67 events and actors secularism and secularists, 7, 61, 151 Reza Shah (formerly Reza Khan), 4, 26–8, Constitution of 1906–7 and, 83, 86, 85–6 31–4, 38, 41–8, 50–1, 166 n7 courts and, 70–1 abdication of, 33, 44–8, 103, 166 n11, Persian culture and, 25 166 n12 Revolution of 1979 and, 120, 128–33, army and, 22, 31, 38, 41, 99–101, 166 139–40 n15, 170 n1 Reza Khan and, 95–7, 99 206 INDEX

See Tir insurrection (1952), 51 ulama; usuli school; and specific seminaries (howzeh elmie), 53, 73, 109–12, branches; centers; doctrines; leaders; 120, 149–51, 166 n1, 175 n26 and practices Senate, 49, 83 Shi’i ulama, 1–5, 7 Sepah Salar madresse, 104–5 Babi movement and, 60–3 Shah or king, role of, 15, 21, 24–7, 84–5, Constitutional Revolution and, 5, 36, 38, 90, 168 n20 76, 78, 80–91, 170 n8 as “shadow of God on earth,” 16, 24, 113, Constitution of 1979 and, 139 164–5 n11 education and, 104–5 Shahsavan tribe, 27 ejtehad and, 70–1 Shamim, Ali Asghar, 19 finances and, 53, 57, 68–9, 110 Sharh-e do’a al-sahar (The Explanation of hierarchy and, 55, 57, 67, 71–3, the Supplication of Dawn) (Khomeini), 75–6, 160, 169, n1–5, 171 n9, 174 121 n15 sharia (Islamic law) Islamic Republic and, 141–2, 155–6, Constitutional Revolution and, 83, 86–7, 160–1 90 Khomeini’s rise and, 120–7 courts, 70–1, 100 maktabi and, 137–8 Islamic Republic and, 141 Pahlavi state and, 2, 5, 33, 52, Khomeini and, 121–3, 161 87, 90, 93–113, 118–19, 129, 171 Pahlavi state and, 98, 102–3, 112 n5–7 Qajar state and, 86 political participation and, 80 Revolution of 1979 and, 132–3 pre-Qajar, 57–61 ulama and defense of, 57, 113 Qajar state and, 55, 61–4, 67–8, 75 usuli/akhbari controversy and, 56, Qom and, 109–12 64–6 regional and international conflicts and, see also legal system 86–90 Shariati, Ali, 128 secularization and, 85–6 Shariatmadari, Sayyed Mohammad-Kazem, 125–6, 129–31 statization of religion and, 149–50 Sharif-Imami, Jafar, 129, 131 tobacco protests and, 5, 56, 76–80 Sheikhi movement, 58–61, 63, 122, 161, see also usuli school; and specific 167 n8 doctrines; leaders; and practices Sheikholeslami, Reza A., 13, 23 Shirazi, Ali Qavam al-Molk, 18 Shi’i doctrine, 65, 67, 112, 121–3, 168 n16 Shirazi, Mirza Mohammad Taqi (d. 1920), Shi’ism, 1, 4–6 87–9 Constitution of 1906–7 and, 84–5 Shirazi, Mirza Sayyed Mohammed Hassan Constitution of 1979 and, 139 (Mirza Reza, 1814–96), 73–5, education and, 53, 55, 93–4, 108, 166 n1 169 n26 Iran identified with, 1, 25, 112–13 Shirazi, Sayyed Mohammad, Ali (Bab), Iraq and, 88–9, 125 61–3, 167 n9 Islamic Republic and, 6, 118, 135, 137, Shuster, William Morgan, 37 141–2, 150, 160–1 Silk Routes, 16 laymen and, 75–6, 87 Social Democrats, 28, 37 Qajar state and, 4–5, 55–6 socialism, 37, 106 religious leadership and, 6, 75 Socialist Party, 95 republicanism and, 96 Society of Militant Clergy, 144–5 see also heterodoxy; institutionalization Society of the Lecturers of Qom Seminary, of religion; orthodoxy; religious 149 morality; religious revivalism; Shi’i Soheili, Ali, 46, 47 INDEX 207 sources of emulation, 5, 6, 57, 65, 71–6, 78, Tanbih al-Amme va Tanzih al-Malle (The 87, 93, 103, 106, 108–11, 129, 131, 149, Awakening of the Community and 152, 153, 168 n12, 170 n1 Refinedment of Nation), (Naini), Constitution of 1979 and, 139, 147 80–1 Khomeini as, 118, 120–1, 123–7, 139–40, Tanzimat reforms, 157 161, 172 n9 Tapper, Richard, 12 Sour Esrafeel (journal), 86 taqlid (emulation), 65, 71–2 Soviet Union, 31, 33, 41–2, 44–5, 49 Tatar tribes, 16 see also Russia taxation, 19 Special Clerical Court, 150 army and, 21–3 state theory, non-European settings and, Constitutional Revolution and, 34–5 12–13, 157–8, 162 Qajar state and, 13–15, 17, 21–3, 35, statization of religion, 142, 148–51 69–70 Steel Committee, 41 religious, 53, 69–71, 79, 110, 124–5, 150, Story of My Life (Abdollah Mostofi), 17 169 n23 strikes of 1978–79, 131–2 revolts vs., 22 Sufism, 52, 59, 62, 63, 76, 167 n11 Reza Khan and, 42, 44 Sultan, Amin al-, 27 Teachers College, 106–7 Sultan,Zellal-,28 Tehran, 28, 33, 38, 44, 51 Sunni Kurdish tribes, 89 assassinations of 1980, 140 Sunnism, 57–9, 66, 70–1, 88, 96, 99, 103, British and Soviet threat to, 44 142, 154 as capital, 16, 38, 81, 82 Shi’i feud with, 73 demonstrations of 1980, 140 Supplementary Fundamental Laws, see insurrection of July 16, 1952, 33 under Constitution, Fundamental liberation of 1909, 28, 35, 37, 51 Laws of (1906–7) martial law of 1907, 27 Supreme Council for National Security, protests of 1977–78, 128, 130 147–8, 154 Russian threat of 1911 and, 86–7 Supreme Leader, 147, 154 Tehran University, 104–5, 132 SupremeSourceofEmulation,73–5 student protests of 1977, 128 Khomeini and, 126 Teymourytash, Abdolhossein, 43 Sweden, 37 theocratic state, 2–3, 6, 53, 133–5, 141–51, Sykes, Percy, 17 154–6, 161 Syria, 159 see also Islamic Republic theological security state, 2, 136, 142–6, Tabatabai, Mirza Sayyed Mohammad, 80, 148–51, 154 87 Tilly, Charles, 78, 156 Tabatabai, Sayyed Mohammad Hossein, Timourtash, Abdol-Hossein, 102 110 Tonkaboni, Vali Khan (Sepahdar), 28, 35 Tabatabai, Sayyed Zia al-Din, 41–2, 51 Tonkaboni, Suleyman, 166 n7 Tabatabai Yazdi, Sayyed Mohammad Towzih al-Masai’l (Explantion of Problems, Kazem, 87, 88 ulama manuals), 71–2, 169 n25 Tabriz, 19, 28, 38, 50, 59, 62, 86 tradition, modernization and, 103, 151 insurrection of 1922, 38, 50 modernization of traditionalism, 94, mutiny of 1979, 133 148–9, 160–1 Tabrizi, Sayyed Mohammad Hojjat traditionalization of modernity, 148–9, Kohkamerie, 110 161 Tahmasp, Shah (1533–76), 57 traditionalist school, 65–6 Tamerlane, 16 Treasury, 22, 34 208 INDEX tribes, 11–14, 16–17, 22–3, 27, 33, 39, 41, Voice of America, 131 43, 44, 46, 158 Voll, John R., 63 Constitution and, 37, 81–2 courts and, 71 Wahabite tribes, 89 states and, 12–16 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 32 Tripp, Charles, 89 War Council Headquarters, 46 Trotsky, Leon, 118 warlords, 13, 28, 35 Truman Doctrine, 33 Weberian models, 13, 75, 148, 150–1, 156–7 Tudeh Party, 131, 173 n10 White Revolution (reforms of 1963), 3, 4, Turkish Republic, 95–6, 89, 104, 159 17, 31, 33, 51, 119, 138 see also Ottoman Empire Wittfogel, Karl A., 12 Turkish-speaking tribes, 3, 16, 37, 39 women Turkmenchai, Treaty of (1828), 157, 163 n1 education of, 104, 111, 149 Twelver Shi’i, 94, 96, 123 rights of, 113 unveiling of, 103 ulama, see Shi’i ulama; usuli school voting rights of, 139 Unified Resurgence Party, 129 world systems theory, 32 United Nations, 146 World War I, 31, 32, 38–9, 41–2, 77–8, 87, United States, 32–3, 42, 51, 158, 166 n16 95, 157, 158 embassy and hostage crisis of 1979–81, 133, 136 World War I, 32 Iran-Iraq war and, 146 World War II, 32, 44–7, 105, 158 Iraq invasion of 2003 and, 148 Wright, Sir Denis, 41 usul al-feq (Principle of Jurisprudence), 57, 64 Yaprom Khan (Yeprom Davidian usuli school, 5, 56–60, 64–70, 72–6, 80, 93, Kantestaksi)), 28, 34, 37 108, 150, 168 n13 Yazdi, Mohammed Kazem, 87 akhbari controversy and, 56–8, 64–6, 74 Yazdi, Sayyed Mohammad Kazem, see Tabatabai Yazdi, Sayyed Mohammad vali faqih (Jurist Guardian), 135, 140, Kazem 142, 147 Young Turks, 88 valis, 22–3 velayat faqih (government or guardianship Zahedi, Fazlollah, 28 of jurisprudence), 2, 121–2, 125, 131, Zand, Karim Khan, 16 133, 135–6, 139–41, 143, 147, 150, 154, Zands dynasty, 16–17, 19, 58, 163 n1 156, 172 n3 Zolberg, Aristide R., 12 Vincennes, USS (ship), 146 Zoroastrians, 103