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Reformers Revealed: American Indian Progressives at Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kansas, 1884-1909

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Reformers Revealed: American Indian Progressives at Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kansas, 1884-1909 REFORMERS REVEALED: AMERICAN INDIAN PROGRESSIVES AT HASKELL INSTITUTE, LAWRENCE, KANSAS, 1884-1909 BY Copyright 2009 Eric P. Anderson Submitted to the graduate program in History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy _________________________________ Chairperson Committee Members: __________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ Date Defended_____________________ The Dissertation Committee for Eric P. Anderson certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: REFORMERS REVEALED: AMERICAN INDIAN PROGRESSIVES AT HASKELL INSTITUTE, LAWRENCE, KANSAS, 1884-1909 Committee: _________________________________ Chairperson _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ Date approved___________________ ii For Masha, wfa, and DLM, Sr., Spirit Doctors all iii ABSTRACT Haskell Institute opened in1884, an early example of federal off-reservation boarding schools for American Indian youth. The goal was assimilation: strip away traditional languages, spiritual beliefs, tribal customs, even family ties, and replace them with inculcation into the values of Western civilization upheld by white society. In reality, students, whose ages covered a wide range, often clung tenaciously to older, more familiar ideals. This study looks broadly at the effects of this conflict in the mindsets and behaviors of both students and administrators at the school (and similar institutions). Because Haskell’s first quarter-century overlaps with much of the period scholars call “The Progressive Era” in U.S. history, the time frame investigated yields rich data regarding new thinking about educational and social reform. While recent literature on the boarding school system has blossomed, the link between its activities and the larger picture of American Progressivism has not been firmly established within the context of a specific school. By the dawn of the nineteenth century, Haskell Institute was becoming the largest of these federal education outlets, making its success of especial consequence, both because it affected great numbers of students (and their support networks) and served as a model for promoting policy goals. Understanding how Haskell grew and became an increasingly accepted part of the American Indian experience requires the realization that native peoples played an active role in shaping the contours of their own education. While their “partnership” with government functionaries was often limited, the input they provided, through a variety of means, had measurable consequences for the direction and overall influence of the school. In this way, Haskell students (as well as their families, tribal leadership, and a growing vanguard of American Indian elites, themselves often the product of similar educational experiences) may be viewed through the lens of Progressive reform. Precisely defining Progressivism is difficult, but Indians’ active participation at Haskell did affect visible change in their education, and comprised another, overlooked example of Progressives in action. Through attendance records, administrative and curricular changes, personal letters and reminiscences, development of a more native- centered school newspaper, elimination (or tempering) of the most egregious aspects of boarding-school life, or other means, a tangible American Indian Progressivism emerges, with its ultimate aim retention of core elements of native cultures and traditions. Thus they were not simply victims of government or outside social engineering, but active participants in the education process. The intertwining of both federal directives and native hopes in the development of Haskell makes a fascinating case study of Progressive activism and reform, the ability to affect quiet change within an oppressive institutional atmosphere, the recognition of a strong native voice in this period, and the interdependence of the boarding-school system and American Indian peoples in establishing (often quite different) measures of “success” in this education. The survival of Native American peoples, customs, and Haskell itself, as a place today celebrating that persistence, is strong testimony to this Indian Progressivism and the works and lives of those who came before. iv NOTE TO THE READER I have used the following terms, essentially interchangeably, to refer to the aboriginal peoples of the Americas, especially those in areas that eventually came to be the United States: Indian, American Indian, Native American, native, indigenous, and traditional. This range of lexicon seemed, to me, more or less reflective of the wide standard among both scholars and tribal nations, and it allowed for some variety in the narrative. Hopefully it is not a source of confusion or consternation to my readers. In a similar vein, I have, perhaps to the chagrin of some, chosen to somewhat loosely transpose the designations Office of Indian Affairs (OIA), Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), Indian Department, and Indian Service throughout the chapters. This was mostly a stylistic choice, made to assign substitute nomenclature so as to avoid repetition and monotony when referencing that arm of the U.S. government (usually falling under the Interior Department for our purposes here) dealing with Native American issues and policies. I recognize it could be argued that the different names are best left linked to certain periods or specific duties, but it is also amply clear many of these have often been bandied about, both by Indians and bureaucrats, with a basic understanding of their inter-twining nature and relationship (and monolithic status) long before I began writing. Finally, the use of the word “Progressive” should also be addressed. This upper-case version is used, almost exclusively, to denote the time frame historians (and others) have now long employed to describe that era spanning the period from about 1890 to 1920 when a host of reform elements sought change in American politics, society, labor, race relations, and other areas. The lower-case “progressive,” by contrast, I have tried to attach only to the people, and their thinking, which were behind such efforts. On occasion, there are examples when this rule does not hold fast and true; in those instances I have endeavored to explain that deviation in the text. This essay is, in many ways, a work still in progress and does not claim to offer complete synthesis of the history of Indian-white relations, the federal boarding-school system, or the Progressive Era. It means instead to propose some novel ways of examining or viewing these aspects of American history and to shed light on the activities or behavior of a group that has been overlooked in terms of both their agency and proper place in the past’s pageant. Any insights I am able to provide are, of course, encouraging, both personally and in terms of a continued debate over these topics. By the same token, I must take full responsibility for any oversights, errors, or glaring omissions found in the following pages. --EPA v ACKNOWLEDMENTS A friend of mine whose father had written a doctoral dissertation and several books during his academic career once compared such literary undertakings to the process of giving birth. While not a completely original metaphor, it is an apt one. In my case, the gestation and labor pains of this project have encompassed a period of many years, and the developing “child” has certainly been raised by a village. All authors necessarily incur a number of debts along the way that make their work possible and mine is no exception. The many midwives and surrogates who took a deep interest in this study deserve special mention and thanks for their assistance, suggestions, and invaluable insights. Historians, of course, do not work in a vacuum. They must rely on the work of others who came before in the reviewing and parsing of both primary and secondary data. On this first front, the staffs of a variety of institutions I visited (and sometimes haunted) merit high praise for their ability to locate materials, provide alternate leads (and photocopies of key sources!), and for a general knowledge and thoroughness without which I would have been lost in a sea of paper and possible citations or directions. These include, but are not strictly limited to, employees at the Kansas City branch of the National Archives; the Kansas Collection in the Spencer Research Library and the Watson Library on the campus of the University of Kansas; the Kansas State Historical Society in Topeka; the Haskell Indian Nations University Cultural Center and Tommaney Library; and the Douglas County Historical Society in the Watkins Community Museum, located in beautiful downtown Lawrence. Several individual scholars also need to be singled out for their efforts. My advisor, mentor, and Committee Chair Rita G. Napier set a standard for professionalism and intellectual acumen I hope to echo and honor in this and future works. Her unflagging faith in my skills and the importance of this study, and her patience with my plodding pace, reflects a rare attribute in the world of academe, valuing the ends as well as the means of achieving results and furthering historical knowledge. Peter C. Mancall, of the University of Southern California, helped with suggesting sources and
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