Sciaenops ocellatus

Class:

Geographic Range

The , Sciaenops ocellatus, can be found along the Gulf Coast of the United States from Texas to . It is also found along the United States east coast from Florida northward into northern Maine. The red drum can also be found along the Gulf Coast of

Mexico, southward through Central America along the northern coast of Brazil southward to central Argentina.

advanced intermediate Center for Quantitive Fisheries Ecology, 2014; Scharf and Schlight, 2000; Stunz and Minello, 2001

Biogeographic Regions: Nearctic; Neotropical; Atlantic Ocean.

Other Geographic Terms:

Habitat

The red drum thrives in marine environments with various types of substrates. The red drum inhabits areas with oyster bottoms, unvegetated sand bottoms, and in marsh grasses along the coastline. The species will also inhabit deeper coastal waters, at a depth of up to 40 meters. On average, the red drum inhabits depths of 20 meters, but will be found in shallow waters along land in a depth of about 1 meter. Threat of predation and available food will influence the mean depth of the red drum. In the spawning seasons, the red drum will move into inlets and estuaries, primarily into the marsh grasses, depending on the tidal region, and can also survive in brackish water.

advanced intermediate Powers et al., 2012; Wenner, 1992

Elevation:

Depth: 1 to 40 m

These are found in the following types of habitat: Saltwater or marine.

Terrestrial Biomes: Aquatic Biomes: Coastal; Brackish Water.

Wetlands: Marsh.

Other: Estuarine.

Physical Description

The red drum is on average 100cm long and weighs 22kg, but individuals in the wild can be as long as 160cm and weigh 42.6kg. The red drum has an amber red and golden body which changes hue upon spawning season to a darker more intense shade, and white underbelly.

The exact shades of the colors are dependent on the habitat and geographic region. The red drum is known for the black dot on the rear portion towards the caudal fin, which will have dots on both sides above the lateral line from the dorsal fin back to the caudal fin. Some can be found with up to 12 dots, and it is not uncommon to find a different number of dots on each side. The caudal fin has a distinct bluish hue on the tip. The mouth is located inferior on the body, which is an adaptation to retrieve and other bottom-dwelling organisms. The red drum experiences sexual dimorphism, in which the female is typically larger than the male.

advanced intermediate Lio, Chen, and Shao, 2009; Matlock, 1987; Powers et al., 2012; Wenner, 1992

Mass: 1.7 to 42.6 kg

Length: 40 to 160 cm

Basal Metabolic Rate:

Some key physical features: Ectothermic; Bilateral symmetry.

Sexual dimorphism: Female larger.

Development

Once the egg is released by the female, it is fertilized externally by the male. Within 22-28 hours post-fertilization, the egg will have hatched, producing a larva that averages 0.18 cm in length. Until around day twenty, the larva feeds primarily on plankton. After two weeks, the red drum will average 0.64 cm long, and growth will occur rapidly. Growth averages about

1.18 kg a year, until around age five where the rate of gaining mass slows down.

Environmental conditions such as water temperature and currents play a major factor in the number of surviving larvae. However once the fish is around ten centimeters in length, its environmental vulnerability decreases significantly due to its increase in size and strength.

advanced intermediate Stunz and Minello, 2001; Wenner, 1992

Special features of growth: Indeterminate Growth.

Reproduction: Mating Systems

To attract a female, male red drum produce a croaking sound through the use of muscles along their swim bladder. Males also change color from a lighter hue of red to dark red above their underbelly, which stays white. The red drum is polygynandrous, likely having many partners throughout the mating season.

Drumming occurs primarily at dusk, which encourages spawning at night. The females are attracted to the drumming noises and swim towards the males. The male nudges the female with its head, causing eggs to be released by the female, then fertilized by the male.

advanced intermediate Matlock, 1987; Powers et al., 2012; Rooker, Holt, and Holt, 1998; Stunz and Minello, 2001; Wenner, 1992

Mating systems: Polygynandrous (promiscuous).

Reproduction: General Behavior

The red drum mates in coastal offshore waters, generally in the vicinity of inlets. However, the red drum has been known to reproduce in water up to twenty meters deep. Spawning occurs at night, in which the female releases eggs, and the male fertilizes the eggs with sperm. The red drum senses suitable environmental conditions for the young red drum, such as an average water temperature of 27 degrees Celsius. Spawning season occurs in the late summer into the early fall, generally beginning around September. Depending on the water temperatures and currents, the red drum can spawn for up to three months. A female is able to spawn every three to five days during the spawning season, and produce up to two million eggs at a time. The fertilized eggs travel from the deep coastal waters via currents and tidal flow, into shallower inland areas such as marsh grasses, where they will hatch generally within a day. On average the male red drum become mature by age three (range 1-5). Females are generally mature at age six. Female red drum have also been seen as mature as early as age three.

advanced intermediate Powers et al., 2012; Ross and Stevens, 1995; Stunz, Minello, and Levin, 2002; Wenner, 1992; Wilson and Nieland, 1994

Breeding interval: Red drum breed multiple times in the early fall

Breeding/spawning season: Early fall usually beginning in September

Number of offspring: Approximately 2,000,000 (average)

Time to hatching: 22 to 28 hours

Birth Mass:

Time to independence: Approximately 0 hours (average)

Age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 6 years (max)

Age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 to 3 years

Key reproductive features: Seasonal breeding; Sexual; Fertilization (

External); Oviparous.

Reproduction: Parental Investment

The mature red drum release eggs offshore and coastal waters, allowing tides and currents to transport the eggs into shallow waters and marshes. The parents have no interaction with their young beyond the release and fertilization of eggs.

advanced intermediate Powers et al., 2012; Stunz and Minello, 2001; Wenner, 1992

Parental investment: No parental involvement.

Lifespan/Longevity

The oldest known red drum caught in the wild was found to be 58 years old, but on average, the red drum lives for 35 years. The red drum is found in captivity, but no information reported the lifespan.

advanced intermediate Matlock, 1987; Patterson, McBride, and Julien, 2004; Smith and Fuiman, 2004

Longest known lifespan in wild: 58 years (max)

Longest known lifespan in captivity:

Expected lifespan in wild: Approximately 35 years (average)

Expected lifespan in captivity:

Behavior

Not much is known about the behavior of the red drum. The red drum is known to be active both day and night.

The drumming noises which occur during mating are advantageous, by attracting a female red drum, especially because mating occurs at dusk into the evening.

advanced intermediate Powers et al., 2012; Wenner, 1992 Home Range

The red drum generally does not defend a territory. Movement of the red drum occurs due to the water temperatures as well as the abundance of food.

advanced intermediate Stunz and Minello, 2001; Wenner, 1992

Territory Size:

Key behaviors: natatorial; diurnal; nocturnal; crepuscular; motile; migratory.

Communication and Perception

Not much is known about the communication between red drum. However, it is known that during the spawning period, the males make a croaking sound to try and attract nearby females. There are no publications specifying different frequencies related to different meanings. The croaking noise can also be heard when the fish is under extreme stress, such as being pulled out of the water by an angler. The red drum also communicates while spawning by physical contact with a female through a series of bumping and nudges. Vision is useful, as the dot patterns on other red drum assists with intraspecies recognition.

advanced intermediate Lio, Chen, and Shao, 2009; Matlock, 1987; Patterson, McBride, and Julien, 2004

Communicates with: tactile; acoustic.

Other communication keywords: vibrations.

Perception channels: visual; tactile; acoustic; chemical.

Food Habits

Although the diet of red drum varies by location, one pattern holds true: as the fish grows in size, the size of their food also increases. As a juvenile (around 5 months of age), the red drum will have a diet consisting of mainly small grass Palaemonetes, other small juvenile fish such as Leiostomus xanthurus and minnows. As they grow to around 15-20 centimeters, red drum will begin to eat small crustaceans such as the fiddler Uca. Finally, as the red drum continues to grow, their diet will consist mainly of fiddler crabs and small fish, with shrimp as well. However, the volume of shrimp will be much less than the volume eaten as a juvenile.

advanced intermediate Scharf and Schlight, 2000; Stunz and Minello, 2001; Wenner, 1992

...

Carnivore: Piscivore; Eats non-insect arthropods.

Other Diet Features:

Animal Foods: Fish; Aquatic Crustaceans.

Plant Foods:

Other Foods: Foraging Behaviors:

Predation

The most common natural predator to the red drum is the bottle-nose dolphin (Tursiops), which is known to attack the red drum of all sizes. The red drum has an adaptation of one or many black dots near the caudal tail. These dots are used to trick the predator into thinking the dots are eyes. If the red drum does encounter injury, it will likely be to the tail instead of vital organs. Finally, humans (Homo sapiens) are a common predator on the red drum. The red drum is a frequent target to both recreational and commercial fisheries.

advanced intermediate Powers et al., 2012; Wenner, 1992

Known predators:

• Bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops) • Humans (Homo sapiens)

Anti-predator adaptations::

Ecosystem Roles

The red drum is a host to parasites such as myxozoan (Phylum Cnidaria) worms like Parvicapsula renalis and Henneguya ocellata. These parasites were found within the gill regions, as well as in the kidneys. Henneguya ocelleta have been found within the kidney regions, but no negative effects on the red drum have been noted.

advanced intermediate Landsbrg, 1993; Lio, Chen, and Shao, 2009

Key ways these animals impact their ecosystem:

Species (or larger taxonomic groups) used as hosts by this species:

• ...

Species (or larger taxonomic groups) that are mutualists with this species: • ...

Commensal or parasitic species (or larger taxonomic groups) that use this species as a host:

• Myxozoan worms Parvicapsula renalis and Hennaguya ocellata

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

The red drum is a target among recreational anglers, being the second most commonly targeted species in the Gulf Coast. Fishermen travel to areas where the red drum is abundant.

The revenue brought in by the red drum alone is not reported, but influx of anglers adds to the region’s economy. The red drum is also regularly caught commercially and sold as a food product.

advanced intermediate Matlock, 1987; Stunz, Minello, and Levin, 2002; Wenner, 1992

Ways that people benefit from these animals: food; ecotourism.

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no studies that indicate the red drum poses a negative economic impact.

However, Henneguya ocelleta can cause health issues to humans when an infected red drum is eaten raw, usually resulting in a day of sickness similar to food poisoning. No hospitalization has been reported due to ingestion of these parasites by humans.

advanced intermediate Landsbrg, 1993; Lio, Chen, and Shao, 2009; Stunz, Minello, and Levin, 2002

Ways that these animals might be a problem for humans: Injures Humans ( causes disease in humans).

Conservation Status

The red drum is not evaluated on the IUCN Red List and is not protected by CITES. The species is regulated by marine fishery agencies which set statewide laws and regulations specific for species such as the red drum. These laws regulate the size and quantity of the fish an angler can keep per day to help limit over fishing. An example of these limits would be in

Virginia, fish must be within 46cm and 66cm, with a limit of three fish per angler per day.

advanced intermediate Hutton, 1964; Landsbrg, 1993; Lio, Chen, and Shao, 2009

IUCN Red List: http://www.redlist.org: Not Evaluated.

US Federal List: http://www.fws.gov/endangered/: No special status.

CITES: http://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.php: No special status.

State of Michigan List: http://web4.msue.msu.edu/mnfi/data/specialanimals.cfm:

No special status.

References

Web Page 2011. "Regional Summary " (On-line). Accessed April 02, 2015 at https://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/Assets/economics/documents/feus/2011/FEU S2011%20-%20Gulf%20of%20Mexico.pdf.

Abbrev: "Regional Summary Gulf of Mexico", 2011 Status: ok

Journal Article Bohnsack, J. 2011. Impacts of Florida coastal protected areas on recreational world records for spotted sea trout, red drum, , and common snook. Bulletin of Marine Science, 87: 939-970.

Abbrev: Bohnsack, 2011 Status: ok

Web Resource Center for Quantitive Fisheries Ecology, 2014. "Red Drum" (On-line). Accessed February 05, 2015 at http://ww2.odu.edu/sci/cqfe/red_drum.html.

Abbrev: Center for Quantitive Fisheries Ecology, 2014 Status: ok

Journal Article Daniels, W., E. Robinson. 1986. Protein and energy requirements of juvenile red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus). Aquaculture, 53/3-4: 243-252.

Abbrev: Daniels and Robinson, 1986 Status: ok

Journal Article Hutton, R. 1964. A second list of parasites from marine and coastal animals of Florida. Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 83/4: 439-447.

Abbrev: Hutton, 1964 Status: ok

Journal Article Landsbrg, J. 1993. Kidney myxosporean parasites in red drum Sciaenops ocellatus () from Florida, USA, with a description of Parvicapsula renalis n. sp. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 17: 9-16.

Abbrev: Landsbrg, 1993 Status: ok

Journal Article Lio, Y., L. Chen, K. Shao. 2009. The predatory Atlantic red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, has invaded the western Taiwanese coast in the Indo-West Pacific. Biological Invasions, 1/1: 1-6.

Abbrev: Lio, Chen and Shao, 2009 Status: ok

Edited Book Matlock, G. 1987. The life history of red drum. Pp. 1-236 in G. Chamberlin, R. Miget, M. Haby, eds. Red Drum Aquaculture, Vol. 90/603. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University.

Abbrev: Matlock, 1987 Status: ok

Journal Article McGoogan, B., D. Gatlin. 1998. Metabolic requirements of red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, for protein and energy based on weight gain and body composition. The Journal of Nutrition, 128/1: 123-129.

Abbrev: McGoogan and Gatlin, 1998 Status: ok

Journal Article Patterson, H., R. McBride, N. Julien. 2004. Population structure of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) as determined by otolith chemistry. Marine Biology, 144: 855-862.

Abbrev: Patterson, McBride and Julien, 2004 Status: ok

Journal Article Peters, K., R. McMichael. 1987. Early life history of the red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus (Pisces: Sciaenidae), in Tampa Bay, Florida. Estuaries, 10/2: 92-107.

Abbrev: Peters and McMichael, 1987 Status: ok

Journal Article Powers, S., C. Hightower, M. Drymon, M. Johnson. 2012. Age composition and distribution of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) in offshore waters of the north central Gulf of Mexico: an evaluation of a stock under a federal harvest moratorium. Fishery Bulletin, 110/3: 283-292.

Abbrev: Powers et al., 2012 Status: ok

Journal Article Rooker, J., G. Holt, S. Holt. 1998. Vulnerability of newly settled red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) to predatory fish: Is early-life survival enhanced by seagrass meadows?. Marine Biology, 131: 145-151.

Abbrev: Rooker, Holt and Holt, 1998 Status: ok

Journal Article Ross, J., T. Stevens. 1995. Age, growth, mortality, and reproductive biology of red drums in North Carolina waters. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 124/1: 37-54.

Abbrev: Ross and Stevens, 1995 Status: ok

Journal Article Scharf, F., K. Schlight. 2000. Feeding habits of red drum (Sciaenops ocelltus)in Galveston Bay, Texas: Seasonal diet variation and predator-prey size relationships. Estuaries, 23/1: 128-139.

Abbrev: Scharf and Schlight, 2000 Status: ok

Journal Article Smith, M., L. Fuiman. 2004. Behavioral performance of wild-caught and laboratory-reared red drum Sciaenops ocellatus (Linnaeus) larvae. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 302/2004: 17-33.

Abbrev: Smith and Fuiman, 2004 Status: ok

Journal Article Stunz, G., T. Minello. 2001. Habitat-related predation on juvenile wild-caught and hatchery- reared red drum Sciaenops ocellatus (Linnaeus). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 260/2001: 13-25.

Abbrev: Stunz and Minello, 2001 Status: ok

Journal Article Stunz, G., T. Minello, P. Levin. 2002. Growth of newly settled red drum Sciaenops ocellatus in different estuarine habitat types. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 238: 227-236.

Abbrev: Stunz, Minello and Levin, 2002 Status: ok

Journal Article Tomasso, T., C. Kempton. 2000. Effects of salinity on productions of characteristics of red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 10/2: 67-71.

Abbrev: Tomasso and Kempton, 2000 Status: ok

Journal Article Turner, T., J. Wares, J. Gold. 2002. Genetic effective size is three orders of magnitude smaller than adult census size in an abundant, estuarine-dependent marine fish (Sciaenops ocellatus). Genetics, 162/3: 1329-1339.

Abbrev: Turner, Wares and Gold, 2002 Status: ok

Journal Article Wenner, C. 1992. Red drum natural history and fishing techniques in South Carolina. Marine Resources Research Institute, 1/17: 1-45.

Abbrev: Wenner, 1992 Status: ok

Journal Article Wilson, C., D. Nieland. 1994. Reproductive biology of red drum, Sciaenopso ocellatus, from the neritic waters of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Fishery Bulletin, 92/4: 841-850.

Abbrev: Wilson and Nieland, 1994 Status: ok