De Sondy, Amanullah (2009) Constructions of masculinities in Islamic traditions, societies and cultures, with a specific focus on India and Pakistan between the 18th-21st Century. PhD thesis. https://theses.gla.ac.uk/834/ Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Enlighten: Theses https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Constructions of Masculinities in Islamic Traditions, Societies and Cultures, with a specific focus on India and Pakistan between the 18th-21st Century Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Amanullah De Sondy Department of Theology and Religious Studies University of Glasgow Amanullah De Sondy (March 2009) Abstract This thesis presents constructions of masculinities in Islamic traditions, societies and cultures with a specific focus on India and Pakistan between the 18th – 21st century. The basic premise of this thesis is through an understanding that masculinity, femininity, gender and sexuality are socially constructed yet interlinked and often shaped through biology. The focus of this thesis is exploring the many colourful and diverse images of masculinities in India and Pakistan. A key finding is that their appreciation or rejection within Islam is dependent upon idealized notions of masculinity, femininity, morality and ethics that are essentially derived from patriarchal structures, such as the ‘family’ and ‘procreation’. Through an elaboration of the Qur’ānic concept of Islamic spirituality, piety and submission to none other except God, using the prophet’s lives as examples, it becomes apparent that varieties of masculinities and femininities – including flawed and imperfect forms – need not be seen as a weakness but a strength, as multiplicity in all matters is presented as a means to strengthening individual relationship with God. At a time when there is much debate about the necessity of a reformation in Islam, it may just be the case that one finds the buried treasures that reformers seek through unveiling and appreciating the rich diversity of Islamic traditions, societies and cultures. 1 Dedicated to the memory of Miss F. E. Mc Glade (b. 1915- d. 1993) Her vision of my academic abilities bear fruit… 2 Acknowledgements My utmost gratitude goes to my supervisor Dr. Lloyd Ridgeon who led me to academic ecstasy in producing this thesis by reigniting my passion for the study of Islamic masculinities. I remain indebted to his support and commitment as I struggled through my thoughts and writing. I have been inspired greatly by Dr. Scott Siraj-al-Haq Kugle, (Hyderabad, India), Professor Alexander Broadie (Glasgow University), Professor Abdullahi An-Na’im (Emory University) and Professor Emeritus Qasim al-Samarrai (Leiden University) in my academic and spiritual thoughts, thank you. I am grateful to my family for being my first school to study gender and sexuality. My parents, Mr. Inayat Ullah, who taught me so much of my life through his, and Mrs. Nasim Akhtar, who taught me Islam without the details. My brothers and sisters must all be acknowledged and thanked, Hadayat (the medicine of the family), Asmat (the computer of the family), Rafaqat (the wild stud of the family), Asma (the second mother of the family whose early encouragement tempted me in taking the first few steps to exploring Islam), Asfa (the smiles of the family who was always a pillar of support and forever willing to host her own makeshift Mughal ‘mehfils’) and Asea (the fair and compassionate one of the family who always provided abundant encouragement). And their partners, Shakeel, Akram, Mehmood, Samia, Serwat and Samina. And their children, Ameerah, Hafsa, Nafeesah, Hira, Nabeeha, Fariha, Safa, Mohsin, Shoaib, Ehsan, Hassan, Hisham, Haider, Umber, Aneesa, Uthman, and Ayaan. Good friends have been necessary companions on this journey too. For that I am blessed with Zaheer Sadiq who has not only been a friend since primary school but a confidant and critic when I most needed one, at times receiving the brunt of my anxieties and tensions. It is also important to mention the Reverend Christopher R. D. Foxon of the Methodist Church who has guided me on theological issues as a friend and mentor since the beginning of my academic career. I am indebted to Margot Rhead who began as my student and then continued to teach and shower me with Christian love and smiles. Thanks also to her family. Thanks to all the Religious Education teachers who have kept my passion for teaching alive and everyone involved in making tennis my passion in spare time, especially Frank Wilson. And thanks to all my friends including, Shoket Aksi, Imran Hussain, Shabana Naz, Noorah al-Gailani, Gordon Campbell, Father John Bollan, Cath Sinclair, Christian Lange, Mazuin Abdul Mutalib, Shaniza Shafie, Iain and Kathleen Morrow, Natalie and Emma, Shazia and Salma! I thank the staff (who taught me so much without even knowing it), fellow students (especially Alana Vincent) and my students of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies who have been extremely supportive of my studies and teaching since I joined the University of Glasgow in 2003. It was here that I refined my firm belief in the interconnectedness of world faiths, especially Islam, Christianity and Judaism. I am indebted to Mona Siddiqui for giving me the opportunities that many graduate students do not have and providing me with the added impetus to pursue my studies with renewed vigour. I am grateful to Julie Clague, my second supervisor, for keeping my spirits high when the skies turned dark and helpful advice throughout. And finally I thank God for every capital letter and full stop and for blessing us all with the voice of Noor Jehan, God rest her soul. ‘My beloved…don’t ask me for that past ignorant love…’ 3 Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3 Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………… 4-5 Chapter One: Introduction Part One 1.0 Aim, Objective and Methodology of Research………………………………………………………. 6 1.1 Islamic Masculinities Studies: Challenging the Parameters of Understanding Islam and Muslims…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10 Part Two 1.0 Constructions of Masculinities in Sociological and Anthropological Studies………. 1 Part Three 1.0 Chapter Outlines……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 30 Chapter Two: A Qur’ānic Masculinity or Masculinities? 1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33 1.1 Prophets and Gender in the Qur’ān………………………………………………………………………. 34 2.0 Prophets in the World of ‘Family’…………………………………………………………………………. 38 2.1 Adam………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40 2.1.1 Eve………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 48 2.2 Joseph…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 54 2.3 Muhammad………………………………………………………………………………………........................ 60 2.4 Jesus……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69 3.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 74 Chapter Three: Hedonistic Islamic Masculinity: Mirzā Asadullāh Khān Ghālib 1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77 1.1 The Context: Mughal India……………………………………………………………………………………. 78 1.2 Ghālib, Family and Early Life…………………………………………………………………………………. 81 1.3 Ghālib the Teacher………………………………………………………………………………………………… 84 1.4 Ghālib and his Wife………………………………………………………………………………………………… 86 1.5 Ghālib and his Adopted Sons…………………………………………………………………………………. 91 2.0 Ghālib and other Male Poets…………………………………………………………………………………..92 2.1.1 Ghālib, Zauq and Momin…………………………………………………………………………………………93 2.1.2 Ghālib and Altāf Hussain Hali………………………………………………………………………………… 96 2.2 Ghālib and Sir Syed Aḥmed Khān………………………………………………………………………….. 98 2.3 Ghālib and Mirzā Hatim Ali Mihr………………………………………………………………………….. 102 2.4 Ghālib and Ilahi Bakhsh Maruf……………………………………………………………………………… 104 2.5 Ghālib and Mustafa Khān Shefta…………………………………………………………………………….105 3.0 Same-Sex Love in Ghalib’s Mughal India………………………………………………………………. 107 3.1 Ghālib and the Female Courtesans………………………………………………………………………… 113 4.0 Ghālib and God………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 120 5.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 126 4 Chapter Four: Ṣūfīsm, Qalandars and Islamic Masculinities 1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 128 1.1 Ṣūfīsm, Creation and the Human Condition…………………………………………………………. 129 1.2 Ṣūfīsm and Marriage……………………………………………………………………………………………… 134 1.3 Ṣūfīsm and Homosexuality……………………………………………………………………………………. 141 2.0 The Murshid (Master) and Murid (Disciple)……………………………………………………………. 150 3.0 Ṣūfīsm in India and Pakistan – A Brief Overview………………………………………………….. 154 4.0 The Case of Shah Hussayn (b.1539 – d.1599)…………………………………………………………. 158 5.0 The Malangs…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 163 6.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 175 Chapter Five: Islamic Feminism and Islamic Masculinity 1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 178 1.1