DOCSLIB.ORG

Olajutore Computer Science Textbook 3

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Olajutore Computer Science Textbook 3 CONCISE COMPUTER SCIENCE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS Performance objectives TEXTBOOK FOR CHILDREN Pupils should be able to: BOOK III i. Identify early counting devices ii. Identify early mechanical calculating devices iii. Identify the landmarks in the transition of early calculating devices to present day computers. EARLY COUNTING DEVICES , COUNTING WITH FINGERS, TOES, PEBBLES, STONES AND STICKS. In the olden days, before the introduction or invention of computers. Our forefathers were once using pebbles, stones, sticks and fingers to count their products and commodities. Also in the olden days, human being communicates only through words, both written and spoken. In the ancient times until about 150 years ago, messages and information were either verbal or written system. Getting a message to a distant recipient was often slow and sometimes the message (or the messenger) got lost in the process. As science and technology proceeded, scientists BY: developed devices as to help them calculate and communicate faster over greater distances. Traditional devices like Abacus and Calculator are traditional WOLE ADEDOYIN calculating devices used for solving simple calculations in the olden days. GENERATION OF COMPUTER (iii) Third generation computers (1965-1970) The growth of computer can be divided into five distinct generations. Each refers to the distinct technological break These are computer produced using the technology of the through in the development of computers. middle 1960’s. They were designed using Integrated Circuits (ICTs). With these ICs, hundreds of electrical components (i) First generation computer (1940-1958) were built into silicon Chip. The Magnetic Core and the Solid- This generation was characterized by the use of vacuum state remained the primary memory. They were faster, more tubes or thermionic valves. These tubes, though the best reliable, less expensive. and lighter in weight. IBM introduction material the technology could offer at this time, made the the IBM system/360 in 1964 and has ever remained in the computers unnecessarily big, dissipated a lot of heat, costly, fore-front. very slow and unreliable when compared with computers of The use of integrated Circuits was later followed by Medium later generations. They made use of Magnetic Drum as the Scale of Integration (MSI and large Scale of Integration of the primary storage medium. Examples are EDSAC, EDVAC, and electrical components. These led to a further reduction in size, UNIVAC 1 & II reliability and overall manufacturing costs. These gave birth to the microcomputers and minicomputers and the revolutionary (ii) Second generation computers (1959-1964) effect on the industry from the early 70s cannot be over- The computers of this generation were designed with emphasized. electronic transistors. They proved more reliable, cost less, faster and smaller in size. Similarly, the Magnetic Core (iv) Fourth generation computers (1971-1985) replaced the Magnetic Drum as the primary storage medium. Examples are Boroughs 200series. Honey-well 800, IBM This generation is characterized by the use of very large scale 7070, 7080, IBM 1600 series, UNIVAC III etc. integrated circuits (VLSICs) which mans many components in very small space, and the use of bubble memories. This was a thin line of demarcation between the third and the fourth generations. This further led to reduction in the physical fifth generation. This generation was characterized by the components of the computer. advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI), Speech Processing, Through VSLIC, it was possible to build over 20, 00 Parallel Architecture, Pattern Recognition, Expert System, and components onto a small piece or a single silicon chip (about Multimedia System. the size of a finger tip). This technique led to the invention of Microprocessors and hence the both of the pocket calculators and digital watches. Artificial Intelligence is the ability of the computer exhibit behaviors like an intelligent person. An Expert System, on the other hand, is an application program that has the capability of making judgments and decision like an expert in a particular field of application. It is an interactive system that pits users through question and answer sessions to clarify issues and make recommendations. An example is in the field of medicine, where a computer would prescribe like a doctor after performing the needed diagnoses. By the middle of (v) Fifth generation computer (1985-Date) 1998, the American celebrated the debut of the Voice Recognition System . Many schools of thought classified the advent of the Japanese industrial robots as a distinct generation. Hence the PHOTOGALLERY OF 2ND AN 3RD GENERATION OF COMPUTER Differential Analyzer Lord Kelvin’s Tide Predictor Harmonic Analyzer EARLY COUNTING DEVICES Hollerith tabulating machine Calculating Machine by Blaise Pascal Leibniz Wheel ENIAC Computer EARLY COMPUTING DEVICES Joseph Jacquard Loom Abacus The abacus is an instrument used to perform arithmetic calculations. Developed in ancient times, the abacus is still used in China, Japan, and Korea. Difference Engine complicated calculations were computed regularly by adept users until well into the 1960s. Slide Rule Prior to the invention of the hand-held calculator, the slide rule was a standard tool for engineers and scientists. Operating on the principle that all mathematical computations may be carried out on sets of sliding scales, the device looks much like a heavily calibrated ruler with a movable midsection. The ENIAC midsection, called the sliding center scales, is engraved with Philadelphia has long been a center of high technology. fine lines to allow the user to align different logarithmic scales ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer), the rapidly and efficiently. Multiplication, addition, subtraction, first fully electronic digital computer, was introduced at the division, squaring, cubing, extracting roots, and more University of Pennsylvania in 1946 and remained in service until 1955. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and required manual rewiring to be programmed. Early Vacuum Tube DIAGRAMATICAL ILLUSTRATION OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM Classes of Computer The followings are the 4 types of computers always found and use in different working places. 1. Micro-computer 2. Mini Computer 3. Mainframe computer 4. Super computer Micro- Computer: This is the smallest type of computer and is generally designed for a single user. Micro- computer gets name from the tiny electronic component called the micro- processor which does the processing, sorting, arranging and the An ancient microcomputer transformation of data into a useful information . Micro computers are most often found in the office, hospital, schools, home, banks, airports and supermarkets. An Electronic Data Recorder Mini Computer: Mini computers are very big in size. They process and solve complex tasks. They do not have the complex processing power and memory of the mainframe computers. They are bigger than micro- computers. They are mostly found in banks, airports, hospital and different organizations. Mainframe Computers: These computers are very fast, they have a complex (large) memory for storing and retrieving data and information. It allow many users (people working on the computer) at the same time. They are mostly used for performing complex calculations by the research organizations, industries etc. Computer Card Key Punch Supercomputer is the biggest of all. It processes multiple amount of data and also uses multiple processors for solving and carrying out its tasks. IBM System/360 Mainframe Computer Cm-5 Supercomputer Examples of output devices include : printer, plotter, monitor, speaker, modem, webcam etc. The two major popular output devices are: Monitors and Printers. The result gotten through the monitor is called Softcopy. The result gotten through the printer is called Hardcopy The result gotten through the speaker is called Voicecopy.0 USES / FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT DEVICES Monitor: Displays the result on the screen. Another name for monitor is VDU – Visual Display Unit. Cray Supercomputer OUTPUT DEVICES USES/FUNCTIONS OF MONITOR Performance Objectives I. VDU display information on television like screen. Pupils should be able to: II. VDUs can typically display up to 32 lines of writing i. State the meaning of output devices (text up to 80 characters across the screen). ii. Recognize a printer and monitor as III. Information can be displayed on the VDUs on a output devices screen that has been divided into Windows, to iii. State the uses of a monitor and select particular items. printer. IV. Characters can be coloured, italicize, double height and line spaced. OUTPUT DEVICES V. It is used for watching films. Output devices are machines through which the result of VI. It is used for correction and editing errors. processing is made available to the user. another computer or use any number of specialized output devices like speakers, digital cameras, projectors etc. PROCESSING This part transforms data into a useful information. Once the data is in a computer, it is processed by the processor and its associated integrated circuit chips. Processors perform calculations and manipulations necessary to transform data into meaningful information. Also with the processor is the memory, which is used for storing data and programs while they are being used by the processor. OUTPUT Getting processed information out of the computer is the job You have already seen that computers can receive data, of output devices.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Intel Technology Journal
    Intel® Technology Journal | Volume 14, Issue 1, 2010 Intel Technology Journal Publisher Managing Editor Content Architect Richard Bowles Andrew Binstock Herman D’Hooge Esther Baldwin Program Manager Technical Editor Technical Illustrators Stuart Douglas Marian Lacey InfoPros Technical and Strategic Reviewers Maria Bezaitis Ashley McCorkle Xing Su John Gustafson Milan Milenkovic Rahul Sukthankar Horst Haussecker David O‘Hallaron Allison Woodruff Badarinah Kommandur Trevor Pering Jianping Zhou Anthony LaMarca Matthai Philipose Scott Mainwaring Uttam Sengupta Intel® Technology Journal | 1 Intel® Technology Journal | Volume 14, Issue 1, 2010 Intel Technology Journal Copyright © 2010 Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 978-1-934053-28-7, ISSN 1535-864X Intel Technology Journal Volume 14, Issue 1 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Publisher, Intel Press, Intel Corporation, 2111 NE 25th Avenue, JF3-330, Hillsboro, OR 97124-5961. E mail: [email protected]. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.
    [Show full text]
  • Trends in Electrical Efficiency in Computer Performance
    ASSESSING TRENDS IN THE ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCY OF COMPUTATION OVER TIME Jonathan G. Koomey*, Stephen Berard†, Marla Sanchez††, Henry Wong** * Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Stanford University †Microsoft Corporation ††Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory **Intel Corporation Contact: [email protected], http://www.koomey.com Final report to Microsoft Corporation and Intel Corporation Submitted to IEEE Annals of the History of Computing: August 5, 2009 Released on the web: August 17, 2009 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Information technology (IT) has captured the popular imagination, in part because of the tangible benefits IT brings, but also because the underlying technological trends proceed at easily measurable, remarkably predictable, and unusually rapid rates. The number of transistors on a chip has doubled more or less every two years for decades, a trend that is popularly (but often imprecisely) encapsulated as “Moore’s law”. This article explores the relationship between the performance of computers and the electricity needed to deliver that performance. As shown in Figure ES-1, computations per kWh grew about as fast as performance for desktop computers starting in 1981, doubling every 1.5 years, a pace of change in computational efficiency comparable to that from 1946 to the present. Computations per kWh grew even more rapidly during the vacuum tube computing era and during the transition from tubes to transistors but more slowly during the era of discrete transistors. As expected, the transition from tubes to transistors shows a large jump in computations per kWh. In 1985, the physicist Richard Feynman identified a factor of one hundred billion (1011) possible theoretical improvement in the electricity used per computation.
    [Show full text]
  • Sperry Rand's Third-Generation Computers 1964–1980
    Sperry Rand’s Third-Generation Computers 1964–1980 George T. Gray and Ronald Q. Smith The change from transistors to integrated circuits in the mid-1960s marked the beginning of third-generation computers. A late entrant (1962) in the general-purpose, transistor computer market, Sperry Rand Corporation moved quickly to produce computers using ICs. The Univac 1108’s success (1965) reversed the company’s declining fortunes in the large-scale arena, while the 9000 series upheld its market share in smaller computers. Sperry Rand failed to develop a successful minicomputer and, faced with IBM’s dominant market position by the end of the 1970s, struggled to maintain its position in the computer industry. A latecomer to the general-purpose, transistor would be suitable for all types of processing. computer market, Sperry Rand first shipped its With its top management having accepted the large-scale Univac 1107 and Univac III comput- recommendation, IBM began work on the ers to customers in the second half of 1962, System/360, so named because of the intention more than two years later than such key com- to cover the full range of computing tasks. petitors as IBM and Control Data. While this The IBM 360 did not rely exclusively on lateness enabled Sperry Rand to produce rela- integrated circuitry but instead employed a tively sophisticated products in the 1107 and combination of separate transistors and chips, III, it also meant that they did not attain signif- called Solid Logic Technology (SLT). IBM made icant market shares. Fortunately, Sperry’s mili- a big event of the System/360 announcement tary computers and the smaller Univac 1004, on 7 April 1964, holding press conferences in 1005, and 1050 computers developed early in 62 US cities and 14 foreign countries.
    [Show full text]
  • Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division Photographs and Audiovisual Materials 1985.261
    Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division photographs and audiovisual materials 1985.261 This finding aid was produced using ArchivesSpace on September 14, 2021. Description is written in: English. Describing Archives: A Content Standard Audiovisual Collections PO Box 3630 Wilmington, Delaware 19807 [email protected] URL: http://www.hagley.org/library Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division photographs and audiovisual materials 1985.261 Table of Contents Summary Information .................................................................................................................................... 3 Historical Note ............................................................................................................................................... 4 Scope and Content ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Arrangement ................................................................................................................................................... 6 Administrative Information ............................................................................................................................ 6 Related Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Controlled Access Headings .......................................................................................................................... 8 Bibliography
    [Show full text]
  • Sperry Corporation, Univac Division Records 1825.I
    Sperry Corporation, Univac Division records 1825.I This finding aid was produced using ArchivesSpace on September 14, 2021. Description is written in: English. Describing Archives: A Content Standard Manuscripts and Archives PO Box 3630 Wilmington, Delaware 19807 [email protected] URL: http://www.hagley.org/library Sperry Corporation, Univac Division records 1825.I Table of Contents Summary Information .................................................................................................................................... 4 Historical Note ............................................................................................................................................... 4 Scope and Content ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Administrative Information ............................................................................................................................ 7 Related Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 8 Controlled Access Headings .......................................................................................................................... 9 Appendices ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Sperry Rand Third-Generation Computers
    UNISYS: HISTORY: • 1873 E. Remington & Sons introduces first commercially viable typewriter. • 1886 American Arithmometer Co. founded to manufacture and sell first commercially viable adding and listing machine, invented by William Seward Burroughs. • 1905 American Arithmometer renamed Burroughs Adding Machine Co. • 1909 Remington Typewriter Co. introduces first "noiseless" typewriter. • 1910 Sperry Gyroscope Co. founded to manufacture and sell navigational equipment. • 1911 Burroughs introduces first adding-subtracting machine. • 1923 Burroughs introduces direct multiplication billing machine. • 1925 Burroughs introduces first portable adding machine, weighing 20 pounds. Remington Typewriter introduces America's first electric typewriter. • 1927 Remington Typewriter and Rand Kardex merge to form Remington Rand. • 1928 Burroughs ships its one millionth adding machine. • 1930 Working closely with Lt. James Doolittle, Sperry Gyroscope engineers developed the artificial horizon and the aircraft directional gyro – which quickly found their way aboard airmail planes and the aircraft of the fledgling commercial airlines. TWA was the first commercial buyer of these two products. • 1933 Sperry Corp. formed. • 1946 ENIAC, the world's first large-scale, general-purpose digital computer, developed at the University of Pennsylvania by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. • 1949 Remington Rand produces 409, the worlds first business computer. The 409 was later sold as the Univac 60 and 120 and was the first computer used by the Internal Revenue Service and the first computer installed in Japan. • 1950 Remington Rand acquires Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp. 1951 Remington Rand delivers UNIVAC computer to the U.S. Census Bureau. • 1952 UNIVAC makes history by predicting the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as U.S. president before polls close.
    [Show full text]
  • R00456--FM Getting up to Speed
    GETTING UP TO SPEED THE FUTURE OF SUPERCOMPUTING Susan L. Graham, Marc Snir, and Cynthia A. Patterson, Editors Committee on the Future of Supercomputing Computer Science and Telecommunications Board Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS Washington, D.C. www.nap.edu THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Gov- erning Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engi- neering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for ap- propriate balance. Support for this project was provided by the Department of Energy under Spon- sor Award No. DE-AT01-03NA00106. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations that provided support for the project. International Standard Book Number 0-309-09502-6 (Book) International Standard Book Number 0-309-54679-6 (PDF) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2004118086 Cover designed by Jennifer Bishop. Cover images (clockwise from top right, front to back) 1. Exploding star. Scientific Discovery through Advanced Computing (SciDAC) Center for Supernova Research, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science. 2. Hurricane Frances, September 5, 2004, taken by GOES-12 satellite, 1 km visible imagery. U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. 3. Large-eddy simulation of a Rayleigh-Taylor instability run on the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory MCR Linux cluster in July 2003.
    [Show full text]
  • Annotations of First Generation Systems Development in Sweden
    Annotations of First Generation Systems Development in Sweden Janis Bubenko, Jr. Department of Computer and Systems Science, Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm University, Forum 100, SE-16440, Kista, Sweden, [email protected] Abstract: This work presents episodes of first generation information systems development in Sweden using two particular computers, ALWAC IIIE, during the period 1957–1961, and Univac III during 1963–1964. The ALWAC IIIE at ADB Institute, Gothenburg, was used for technical as well as for administrative applications. Another episode concerns re- engineering of an inventory management application; it used the ALWAC IIIE for the Swedish Defence Material Administration in 1960. The next episode concerns the computer Univac III. A sales contract between Götaverken AB and Univac included a guarantee by Univac to transfer one of Götaverken’s punched card routines to a magnetic tape oriented routine on Univac III. The development work was carried out on a Univac III at Kantonalbank in Bern, Switzerland. They did the work in night shifts during a period of five months. Only one Univac III was installed in Sweden. Keywords: First generation, information system development, Alwac IIIE, Univac III, Gothenburg 1. Introduction Information systems development is today a complex activity encompassing many types of activities and involving different kinds of stakeholders. It uses many different methods, techniques, and supporting tools. The development process deals with issues of many kinds such as organisational, economic, administrative, technical, social, as well as political. During the 1950-1960 decade, called the first generation of systems development, the development process was much simpler. In the 1950s, heavy emphasis was on primarily two types of activities: programming and testing.
    [Show full text]
  • DEPARTMENT of COMPUTER SCIENCE Carneg=E-Iellon Un=Vers=Ty
    CMU-CS-84-122 Error Detection with Memory Tags Richard H. Gumpertz Computer Science Department Carnegie-Mellon University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania December, 1981 DEPARTMENT of COMPUTER SCIENCE Carneg=e-iellon Un=vers=ty CMU-CS-84-122 Error Detection with Memory Tags Richard H. Gumpertz Computer Science Department Carnegie-Mellon University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania December, 1981 Submitted to Carnegie-Mellon University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Copyright © 1981 Richard H. Gumpertz This research was sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD), ARPA Order No. 3597, monitored by the Air Force Avionics Laboratory tinder Contract F33615-78-C-1551. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the author and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the United States Government, or Carnegie-Mellon University. Richard H. Gumpertz i Error I)ctection with Memory Tags Abstract The ability to achieve and maintain system reliability is an important problem that has become more critical as the use of computers has become more common. Fundamental to improved reliability is the ability to detect errors promptly, before their effects can be propagated. This dissertation proposes methods for using storage tags to detect a broad class of hardware and software errors that might otherwise go undetected. Moreover, the suggested schemes require minimal extensions to the hardware of typical computers. In fact, it is shown that in many situations tags can be added to words of storage without using any extra bits at all.
    [Show full text]
  • Ensemble Computing: Opportunities and Challenges
    Intel® Technology Journal | Volume 14, Issue 1, 2010 ENSEMBLE COMPUTING: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES Contributors Roy Want Abstract Intel Corporation SSinceince tthehe aadventdvent ooff tthehe fi rrstst ppracticalractical mmobileobile ccomputersomputers mmoreore tthanhan 2200 yyearsears aago,go, aadvancesdvances iinn tthehe uunderlyingnderlying ttechnologyechnology hhaveave mmovedoved ooutut ooff rresearchesearch aandnd EEveve SSchoolerchooler ddevelopmentevelopment aandnd iintonto bbothoth tthehe eenterprisenterprise aandnd tthehe aarearea ooff cconsumeronsumer eelectronics.lectronics. IIntelntel CCorporationorporation TToday,oday, mmobileobile nnetworkedetworked ccomputersomputers aarere uubiquitous.biquitous. TTrendsrends tthathat hhaveave eenablednabled Lenka Jelinek tthishis rrevolutionevolution iincludenclude iimprovedmproved pprocessorrocessor pperformance,erformance, eexponentiallyxponentially Intel Corporation iincreasingncreasing sstoragetorage ddensity,ensity, aandnd hhigh-bandwidthigh-bandwidth sstandardizedtandardized rradios:adios: aallll ooff tthesehese ccomputersomputers cconsumeonsume llessess ppowerower aandnd aarere ppackagedackaged iinn ssmallermaller fform-factorsorm-factors tthanhan JJaeyeonaeyeon JJungung ttheirheir ppredecessors.redecessors. HHowever,owever, tthehe fformationormation ooff mmobileobile ccollectionsollections ooff ddevices,evices, IIntelntel CCorporationorporation oorr eensembles,nsembles, ccanan ffurtherurther bbuilduild oonn tthehe nnetworketwork eeffff eectct ttoo aamplifymplify eensembles’nsembles’
    [Show full text]
  • Eighteen Bit Computers
    IT Legacy Article for the Month September 2015 Eighteen Bit Computers INTRODUCTION This article was inspired by communications from three 'outside-of-Minnesota' people who discovered our IT Legacy web site via their internet browsers: From George Keremedjiev; Director of the American Computer Museum in Bozeman, MT: "We have the last remaining mainframe computer used by NASA for the Apollo Moon Missions, a UNIVAC 418-II used at Mission Control in Houston. We will be opening a new comprehensive exhibit on computers and the Apollo Moon Missions on June 1, 2015." From Duane Craps: "The Mid Atlantic Retro Computer Hobbyists (MARCH) are looking for info on 1219’s, 1532’s, and 1540’s that they rescued from Johns Hopkins APL." From Anders Carlsson, Sweden: "Hello. I am an old service engineer from Univac to Unisys. I am trying to find out if there are any more physical units (418-II) in the world. Our simple website has some pictures from our collection, https://datamuseet.wordpress.com." The VIP Club, here in Minnesota, appreciates the efforts of these people and their organizations in preserving parts of our Information Technology (IT) Legacy. This paper includes communications clips from these people and retirees who have contributed to our web site anthology. LABenson This NASA installation1 has (left to right) a UNIVAC 1232 I/O Console, two UNIVAC 1218 computers, two UNIVAC dual transport 1240 magnetic tape units, and a UNIVAC 418 computer with operator keyboard/printer. The elapsed time mission clock above the 418 operator/maintenance console shows 14:42.83 hours/minutes.
    [Show full text]
  • ORGANISASI DAN ARSITEKTUR KOMPUTER Organisasi Komputer
    ORGANISASI DAN ARSITEKTUR KOMPUTER Organisasi komputer mempelajari bagian yang terkait dengan unit-unit operasional komputer dan hubungan antara komponen sistem komputer,contoh : sinyal kontrol, prosesor, interface komputer dan peripheral, teknologi memori yang digunakan. Arsitektur komputer mempelajari atribut-atribut sistem komputer yang terkait dengan seorang programmer dan memiliki dampak langsung pada eksekusi logis sebuah program, contoh : set instruksi, jumlah bit yang digunakan untuk merepresentasikan bermacam-macam jenis data (misal bilangan, karakter), aritmetika yang digunakan, teknik pengalamatan, mekanisme I/O. Arsitektur komputer dapat bertahan bertahun-tahun tapi organisasi komputer dapat berubah sesuai dengan perkembangan teknologi. Pabrik komputer memproduksi sekelompok model komputer, yang memiliki arsitektur sama tapi berbeda dari segi organisasinya yang mengakibatkan harga dan karakteristik unjuk kerja yang berbeda. KOMPUTER SEBAGAI MESIN MULTI LEVEL Level adalah suatu tingkatan bahasa dan mesin virtual yang mencerminkan tingkat kemudahan komunikasi antara manusia sebagai pemrogram dengan komponen sirkuit elektronik dalam sebuah komputer sebagai pelaksana instruksi sebuah pemrograman. Bahasa atau level yang terletak paling bawah adalah yang paling sederhana dan dapat diproses dengan cepat oleh mesin komputer, tetapi sulit untuk dipahami oleh manusia. Bahasa atau level yang paling atas adalah yang paling rumit dan mesin akan lebih lama melakukan proses instruksinya karena memerlukan interpreter, tetapi manusia lebih mudah memahami bahasa level tersebut. KOMPUTER SEBAGAI MESIN 6 LEVEL Pada level 1 – 3 merupakan bahasa mesin bersifat numerik. Program-program didalamnya terdiri dari deretan angka yang panjang, yang tidak menjadi masalah untuk mesin tapi merupakan persoalan untuk manusia. Mulai pada level 4 bahasa berisi kata/singkatan yang mempunyai arti bagi manusia. Komputer dirancang sebagai suatu rangkaian level, dimana setiap level dibangun diatas level sebelumnya.
    [Show full text]