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Intel Technology Journal
Intel® Technology Journal | Volume 14, Issue 1, 2010 Intel Technology Journal Publisher Managing Editor Content Architect Richard Bowles Andrew Binstock Herman D’Hooge Esther Baldwin Program Manager Technical Editor Technical Illustrators Stuart Douglas Marian Lacey InfoPros Technical and Strategic Reviewers Maria Bezaitis Ashley McCorkle Xing Su John Gustafson Milan Milenkovic Rahul Sukthankar Horst Haussecker David O‘Hallaron Allison Woodruff Badarinah Kommandur Trevor Pering Jianping Zhou Anthony LaMarca Matthai Philipose Scott Mainwaring Uttam Sengupta Intel® Technology Journal | 1 Intel® Technology Journal | Volume 14, Issue 1, 2010 Intel Technology Journal Copyright © 2010 Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 978-1-934053-28-7, ISSN 1535-864X Intel Technology Journal Volume 14, Issue 1 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Publisher, Intel Press, Intel Corporation, 2111 NE 25th Avenue, JF3-330, Hillsboro, OR 97124-5961. E mail: [email protected]. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. -
Early Stored Program Computers
Stored Program Computers Thomas J. Bergin Computing History Museum American University 7/9/2012 1 Early Thoughts about Stored Programming • January 1944 Moore School team thinks of better ways to do things; leverages delay line memories from War research • September 1944 John von Neumann visits project – Goldstine’s meeting at Aberdeen Train Station • October 1944 Army extends the ENIAC contract research on EDVAC stored-program concept • Spring 1945 ENIAC working well • June 1945 First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 7/9/2012 2 First Draft Report (June 1945) • John von Neumann prepares (?) a report on the EDVAC which identifies how the machine could be programmed (unfinished very rough draft) – academic: publish for the good of science – engineers: patents, patents, patents • von Neumann never repudiates the myth that he wrote it; most members of the ENIAC team contribute ideas; Goldstine note about “bashing” summer7/9/2012 letters together 3 • 1.0 Definitions – The considerations which follow deal with the structure of a very high speed automatic digital computing system, and in particular with its logical control…. – The instructions which govern this operation must be given to the device in absolutely exhaustive detail. They include all numerical information which is required to solve the problem…. – Once these instructions are given to the device, it must be be able to carry them out completely and without any need for further intelligent human intervention…. • 2.0 Main Subdivision of the System – First: since the device is a computor, it will have to perform the elementary operations of arithmetics…. – Second: the logical control of the device is the proper sequencing of its operations (by…a control organ. -
Trends in Electrical Efficiency in Computer Performance
ASSESSING TRENDS IN THE ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCY OF COMPUTATION OVER TIME Jonathan G. Koomey*, Stephen Berard†, Marla Sanchez††, Henry Wong** * Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Stanford University †Microsoft Corporation ††Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory **Intel Corporation Contact: [email protected], http://www.koomey.com Final report to Microsoft Corporation and Intel Corporation Submitted to IEEE Annals of the History of Computing: August 5, 2009 Released on the web: August 17, 2009 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Information technology (IT) has captured the popular imagination, in part because of the tangible benefits IT brings, but also because the underlying technological trends proceed at easily measurable, remarkably predictable, and unusually rapid rates. The number of transistors on a chip has doubled more or less every two years for decades, a trend that is popularly (but often imprecisely) encapsulated as “Moore’s law”. This article explores the relationship between the performance of computers and the electricity needed to deliver that performance. As shown in Figure ES-1, computations per kWh grew about as fast as performance for desktop computers starting in 1981, doubling every 1.5 years, a pace of change in computational efficiency comparable to that from 1946 to the present. Computations per kWh grew even more rapidly during the vacuum tube computing era and during the transition from tubes to transistors but more slowly during the era of discrete transistors. As expected, the transition from tubes to transistors shows a large jump in computations per kWh. In 1985, the physicist Richard Feynman identified a factor of one hundred billion (1011) possible theoretical improvement in the electricity used per computation. -
Computer Development at the National Bureau of Standards
Computer Development at the National Bureau of Standards The first fully operational stored-program electronic individual computations could be performed at elec- computer in the United States was built at the National tronic speed, but the instructions (the program) that Bureau of Standards. The Standards Electronic drove these computations could not be modified and Automatic Computer (SEAC) [1] (Fig. 1.) began useful sequenced at the same electronic speed as the computa- computation in May 1950. The stored program was held tions. Other early computers in academia, government, in the machine’s internal memory where the machine and industry, such as Edvac, Ordvac, Illiac I, the Von itself could modify it for successive stages of a compu- Neumann IAS computer, and the IBM 701, would not tation. This made a dramatic increase in the power of begin productive operation until 1952. programming. In 1947, the U.S. Bureau of the Census, in coopera- Although originally intended as an “interim” com- tion with the Departments of the Army and Air Force, puter, SEAC had a productive life of 14 years, with a decided to contract with Eckert and Mauchly, who had profound effect on all U.S. Government computing, the developed the ENIAC, to create a computer that extension of the use of computers into previously would have an internally stored program which unknown applications, and the further development of could be run at electronic speeds. Because of a demon- computing machines in industry and academia. strated competence in designing electronic components, In earlier developments, the possibility of doing the National Bureau of Standards was asked to be electronic computation had been demonstrated by technical monitor of the contract that was issued, Atanasoff at Iowa State University in 1937. -
Sperry Rand's Third-Generation Computers 1964–1980
Sperry Rand’s Third-Generation Computers 1964–1980 George T. Gray and Ronald Q. Smith The change from transistors to integrated circuits in the mid-1960s marked the beginning of third-generation computers. A late entrant (1962) in the general-purpose, transistor computer market, Sperry Rand Corporation moved quickly to produce computers using ICs. The Univac 1108’s success (1965) reversed the company’s declining fortunes in the large-scale arena, while the 9000 series upheld its market share in smaller computers. Sperry Rand failed to develop a successful minicomputer and, faced with IBM’s dominant market position by the end of the 1970s, struggled to maintain its position in the computer industry. A latecomer to the general-purpose, transistor would be suitable for all types of processing. computer market, Sperry Rand first shipped its With its top management having accepted the large-scale Univac 1107 and Univac III comput- recommendation, IBM began work on the ers to customers in the second half of 1962, System/360, so named because of the intention more than two years later than such key com- to cover the full range of computing tasks. petitors as IBM and Control Data. While this The IBM 360 did not rely exclusively on lateness enabled Sperry Rand to produce rela- integrated circuitry but instead employed a tively sophisticated products in the 1107 and combination of separate transistors and chips, III, it also meant that they did not attain signif- called Solid Logic Technology (SLT). IBM made icant market shares. Fortunately, Sperry’s mili- a big event of the System/360 announcement tary computers and the smaller Univac 1004, on 7 April 1964, holding press conferences in 1005, and 1050 computers developed early in 62 US cities and 14 foreign countries. -
Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division Photographs and Audiovisual Materials 1985.261
Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division photographs and audiovisual materials 1985.261 This finding aid was produced using ArchivesSpace on September 14, 2021. Description is written in: English. Describing Archives: A Content Standard Audiovisual Collections PO Box 3630 Wilmington, Delaware 19807 [email protected] URL: http://www.hagley.org/library Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division photographs and audiovisual materials 1985.261 Table of Contents Summary Information .................................................................................................................................... 3 Historical Note ............................................................................................................................................... 4 Scope and Content ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Arrangement ................................................................................................................................................... 6 Administrative Information ............................................................................................................................ 6 Related Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Controlled Access Headings .......................................................................................................................... 8 Bibliography -
P the Pioneers and Their Computers
The Videotape Sources: The Pioneers and their Computers • Lectures at The Compp,uter Museum, Marlboro, MA, September 1979-1983 • Goal: Capture data at the source • The first 4: Atanasoff (ABC), Zuse, Hopper (IBM/Harvard), Grosch (IBM), Stibitz (BTL) • Flowers (Colossus) • ENIAC: Eckert, Mauchley, Burks • Wilkes (EDSAC … LEO), Edwards (Manchester), Wilkinson (NPL ACE), Huskey (SWAC), Rajchman (IAS), Forrester (MIT) What did it feel like then? • What were th e comput ers? • Why did their inventors build them? • What materials (technology) did they build from? • What were their speed and memory size specs? • How did they work? • How were they used or programmed? • What were they used for? • What did each contribute to future computing? • What were the by-products? and alumni/ae? The “classic” five boxes of a stored ppgrogram dig ital comp uter Memory M Central Input Output Control I O CC Central Arithmetic CA How was programming done before programming languages and O/Ss? • ENIAC was programmed by routing control pulse cables f ormi ng th e “ program count er” • Clippinger and von Neumann made “function codes” for the tables of ENIAC • Kilburn at Manchester ran the first 17 word program • Wilkes, Wheeler, and Gill wrote the first book on programmiidbBbbIiSiing, reprinted by Babbage Institute Series • Parallel versus Serial • Pre-programming languages and operating systems • Big idea: compatibility for program investment – EDSAC was transferred to Leo – The IAS Computers built at Universities Time Line of First Computers Year 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 ••••• BTL ---------o o o o Zuse ----------------o Atanasoff ------------------o IBM ASCC,SSEC ------------o-----------o >CPC ENIAC ?--------------o EDVAC s------------------o UNIVAC I IAS --?s------------o Colossus -------?---?----o Manchester ?--------o ?>Ferranti EDSAC ?-----------o ?>Leo ACE ?--------------o ?>DEUCE Whirl wi nd SEAC & SWAC ENIAC Project Time Line & Descendants IBM 701, Philco S2000, ERA.. -
Sperry Corporation, Univac Division Records 1825.I
Sperry Corporation, Univac Division records 1825.I This finding aid was produced using ArchivesSpace on September 14, 2021. Description is written in: English. Describing Archives: A Content Standard Manuscripts and Archives PO Box 3630 Wilmington, Delaware 19807 [email protected] URL: http://www.hagley.org/library Sperry Corporation, Univac Division records 1825.I Table of Contents Summary Information .................................................................................................................................... 4 Historical Note ............................................................................................................................................... 4 Scope and Content ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Administrative Information ............................................................................................................................ 7 Related Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 8 Controlled Access Headings .......................................................................................................................... 9 Appendices ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ -
Sperry Rand Third-Generation Computers
UNISYS: HISTORY: • 1873 E. Remington & Sons introduces first commercially viable typewriter. • 1886 American Arithmometer Co. founded to manufacture and sell first commercially viable adding and listing machine, invented by William Seward Burroughs. • 1905 American Arithmometer renamed Burroughs Adding Machine Co. • 1909 Remington Typewriter Co. introduces first "noiseless" typewriter. • 1910 Sperry Gyroscope Co. founded to manufacture and sell navigational equipment. • 1911 Burroughs introduces first adding-subtracting machine. • 1923 Burroughs introduces direct multiplication billing machine. • 1925 Burroughs introduces first portable adding machine, weighing 20 pounds. Remington Typewriter introduces America's first electric typewriter. • 1927 Remington Typewriter and Rand Kardex merge to form Remington Rand. • 1928 Burroughs ships its one millionth adding machine. • 1930 Working closely with Lt. James Doolittle, Sperry Gyroscope engineers developed the artificial horizon and the aircraft directional gyro – which quickly found their way aboard airmail planes and the aircraft of the fledgling commercial airlines. TWA was the first commercial buyer of these two products. • 1933 Sperry Corp. formed. • 1946 ENIAC, the world's first large-scale, general-purpose digital computer, developed at the University of Pennsylvania by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. • 1949 Remington Rand produces 409, the worlds first business computer. The 409 was later sold as the Univac 60 and 120 and was the first computer used by the Internal Revenue Service and the first computer installed in Japan. • 1950 Remington Rand acquires Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp. 1951 Remington Rand delivers UNIVAC computer to the U.S. Census Bureau. • 1952 UNIVAC makes history by predicting the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as U.S. president before polls close. -
R00456--FM Getting up to Speed
GETTING UP TO SPEED THE FUTURE OF SUPERCOMPUTING Susan L. Graham, Marc Snir, and Cynthia A. Patterson, Editors Committee on the Future of Supercomputing Computer Science and Telecommunications Board Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS Washington, D.C. www.nap.edu THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Gov- erning Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engi- neering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for ap- propriate balance. Support for this project was provided by the Department of Energy under Spon- sor Award No. DE-AT01-03NA00106. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations that provided support for the project. International Standard Book Number 0-309-09502-6 (Book) International Standard Book Number 0-309-54679-6 (PDF) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2004118086 Cover designed by Jennifer Bishop. Cover images (clockwise from top right, front to back) 1. Exploding star. Scientific Discovery through Advanced Computing (SciDAC) Center for Supernova Research, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science. 2. Hurricane Frances, September 5, 2004, taken by GOES-12 satellite, 1 km visible imagery. U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. 3. Large-eddy simulation of a Rayleigh-Taylor instability run on the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory MCR Linux cluster in July 2003. -
A Large Routine
A large routine Freek Wiedijk It is not widely known, but already in June 1949∗ Alan Turing had the main concepts that still are the basis for the best approach to program verification known today (and for which Tony Hoare developed a logic in 1969). In his three page paper Checking a large routine, Turing describes how to verify the correctness of a program that calculates the factorial function by repeated additions. He both shows how to use invariants to establish the correctness of this program, as well as how to use a variant to establish termination. In the paper the program is only presented as a flow chart. A modern C rendering is: int fac (int n) { int s, r, u, v; for (u = r = 1; v = u, r < n; r++) for (s = 1; u += v, s++ < r; ) ; return u; } Turing's paper seems not to have been properly appreciated at the time. At the EDSAC conference where Turing presented the paper, Douglas Hartree criticized that the correctness proof sketched by Turing should not be called inductive. From a modern point of view this is clearly absurd. Marc Schoolderman first told me about this paper (and in his master's thesis used the modern Why3 tool of Jean-Christophe Filli^atreto make Turing's paper fully precise; he also wrote the above C version of Turing's program). He then challenged me to speculate what specific computer Turing had in mind in the paper, and what the actual program for that computer might have been. My answer is that the `EPICAC'y of this paper probably was the Manchester Mark 1. -
Pioneercomputertimeline2.Pdf
Memory Size versus Computation Speed for various calculators and computers , IBM,ZQ90 . 11J A~len · W •• EDVAC lAS• ,---.. SEAC • Whirlwind ~ , • ENIAC SWAC /# / Harvard.' ~\ EDSAC Pilot• •• • ; Mc;rk I " • ACE I • •, ABC Manchester MKI • • ! • Z3 (fl. pt.) 1.000 , , .ENIAC •, Ier.n I i • • \ I •, BTL I (complexV • 100 ~ . # '-------" Comptometer • Ir.ne l ' with constants 10 0.1 1.0 10 100 lK 10K lOOK 1M GENERATIONS: II] = electronic-vacuum tube [!!!] = manual [1] = transistor Ime I = mechanical [1] = integrated circuit Iem I = electromechanical [I] = large scale integrated circuit CONTENTS THE COMPUTER MUSEUM BOARD OF DIRECTORS The Computer Museum is a non-profit. Kenneth H. Olsen. Chairman public. charitable foundation dedicated to Digital Equipment Corporation preserving and exhibiting an industry-wide. broad-based collection of the history of in Charles W Bachman formation processing. Computer history is Cullinane Database Systems A Compcmion to the Pioneer interpreted through exhibits. publications. Computer Timeline videotapes. lectures. educational programs. C. Gordon Bell and other programs. The Museum archives Digital Equipment Corporation I Introduction both artifacts and documentation and Gwen Bell makes the materials available for The Computer Museum 2 Bell Telephone Laboratories scholarly use. Harvey D. Cragon Modell Complex Calculator The Computer Museum is open to the public Texas Instruments Sunday through Friday from 1:00 to 6:00 pm. 3 Zuse Zl, Z3 There is no charge for admission. The Robert Everett 4 ABC. Atanasoff Berry Computer Museum's lecture hall and rece ption The Mitre Corporation facilities are available for rent on a mM ASCC (Harvard Mark I) prearranged basis. For information call C.