Nicholas Evan Sarantakes. Keystone: The American Occupation of Okinawa and U.S. Japanese Relations. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001. xxiii + 264 pp. $34.95, cloth, ISBN 978-0-89096-969-4.
Reviewed by Charles C. Kolb
Published on H-US-Japan (July, 2001)
[Disclaimer: The opinions expressed herein tions is a revision of Sarantakes's doctoral disser‐ are those of the reviewer and not of his employer tation. Structurally his book has ten chapters, 15 or any other federal agency.] illustrations, and three maps, and begins with a Okinawa Prefecture under American Occupa‐ lengthy introduction in which Sarantakes de‐ tion scribes the goal of his research--to trace the Amer‐ ican occupation and rule of Okinawa over a 27- Much has been written about the island of year period from the invasion on 1 April 1945 Okinawa, its strategic location, and the battle through 1972 when the United States returned the fought there from April to July 1945. This was the prefecture of Okinawa to Japanese administra‐ largest amphibious military campaign fought any‐ tion. This is a study of American foreign policy where in the Pacifc Theater during the Second and, as the author states (p. xx), is not a compre‐ World War, and the three-month campaign hensive examination of American-Okinawan so‐ claimed 12,000 American and 100,000 Japanese cial interaction during the period of occupation lives.[1] With the defeat of Japan, Okinawa came and it is not a comprehensive analysis of Japanese under American control and became critical in foreign policy in terms of U.S-Japanese relations U.S.-Japanese relations and remains so today even or Japanese-Ryukyuan relations. since its return to Japanese administration in 1972.[2] Okinawa has in many ways been and re‐ Perhaps surprisingly the history of the occu‐ mains a keystone in the foreign policies of both pation of Okinawa has not been well studied. For‐ the United States and Japan. tunately, Sarantakes makes use of materials from a variety of resources, some only recently declas‐ Nicholas Evan Sarantakes, presently an assis‐ sifed and made available to the public. He has tant professor of history at Texas A&M University, consulted a variety of primary sources from nine‐ received his doctorate in 1997 from the University teen archives, among them four presidential li‐ of Southern California. Keystone: The American braries (Eisenhower, Johnson, Kennedy, and Tru‐ Occupation of Okinawa and U.S. Japanese Rela‐ H-Net Reviews man), the National Security Archive at George on the Ryukyus were essential for initial strikes Washington University, papers of notable individ‐ and as staging areas for the rapid deployment of uals deposited at fve universities (Arkansas, U.S. Marines. A second theme is that the colony Georgia, Harvard, Princeton, Southern California, existed and continued to exist despite the eforts and Southwestern), the MacArthur Memorial, mil‐ of politicians in Japan, Okinawa, and the United itary archives such as the unit histories of the States. Partisan politics with sharp and subtle dis‐ Twentieth Air Force at the Air Force Historical Re‐ tinctions in Japan and Okinawa, and bureaucratic search Agency, the National Archives and Records confrontations, interservice rivalries, and civil‐ Administration, and the Hoover Institute. Saran‐ ian-military disputes in America shaped the of‐ takes has also made use of thirty-seven oral histo‐ cial position of the U.S. government. The third ries, in the main of military personnel and U.S. theme is that the United States needed and ob‐ government ofcials. In addition, 192 books (in‐ tained local consent (or acquiescence) to rule the cluding numerous ofcial records of the U.S. Civil colony and make it a base for military operations. Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, the U.S. Local labor and construction companies assisted Congress, and U.S. Department of State), 25 arti‐ in building the vast complex of military bases and cles and book chapters, unpublished materials, as a result the island's economy became one of the Haldeman Papers on CD-ROM, and a motion the most prosperous in East Asia due to construc‐ picture and a television program are cited as ref‐ tion and businesses that serviced the needs of the erences. The citations are through 1999 and in‐ American military. clude three very recent and related works--John Sarantakes begins his narrative (Chapter 1: Dower's Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of "The Battle,") with a review of the campaign for World War II (1999), Walter LaFeber's The Clash: Okinawa and a discussion of the American U.S.-Japanese Relations throughout History ground forces ofensive led by Lt. Gen. Simon Bo‐ (1997), and Michael Schaller's Altered States: The livar Buckner, Jr., and notes the serious interser‐ United States and Japan since Occupation (1997). vice rivalries between the U.S. Navy, Army, and [3] Watanabe Akio's The Okinawa Problem: A Marine Corps. This is in contrast with the defen‐ Chapter in Japan-U.S. Relations (1970) is also sive posture of the Japanese 32nd Army under Lt. mentioned (p. xvii, 200). Sarantakes points out Gen. Ushijima Mitsuru that had constructed elab‐ that the best known book about this era is actual‐ orate defensive fortifcations on the southern part ly a novel, The Teahouse of the August Moon of the island. Plans were underway for the devel‐ (1954) by John Patrick which has also been ren‐ opment of forward air bases on Okinawa for Op‐ dered into a motion picture and television pro‐ eration Olympic, the invasion of southern Japan, duction. and the use of the island as a staging area for There are three themes in Sarantakes dis‐ Tenth Army troops who would be a part of Opera‐ course (pp. xviii-xx): First, that Okinawa was a tion Coronet. colony--"Americans used the term freely, although The subsequent chapter, "Occupation in a policymakers did so mainly in private--because Vacuum: 1945-47", documents American uncer‐ U.S. military forces stationed on the island had a tainty whether to keep or return the island to dual mission in the double-containment system." Japan. The strategic position of Okinawa in the During the war, American forces on Okinawa western Pacifc and Southeast Asia caused indeci‐ could check any Japanese advance on the Chinese sion on the part of President Truman in spite of mainland and, later, the proximity of the island to Okinawans' desire to remain as a prefecture of the Asian mainland made it ideal as a force Japan. Overcrowding, food shortages and trans‐ against Communist China. In both cases air bases
2 H-Net Reviews portation problems, substandard housing, and the Barton Biggs, who argued that Americans were delicate questions about political, cultural, and alienating the Okinawans is examined, and the economic issues are reviewed. Other exacerbating fear that the Ryukyus would come under Japanese issues considered are prostitution, rape, venereal control became a signifcant issue, and we are in‐ disease, minorities (black and Filipino troops), formed how MacArthur manipulated negotiations malaria, and typhoons. so that the Ryukyus were excluded from the Japa‐ In Chapter 3: "Debate, Decision and Diploma‐ nese defensive zone. By the time of President cy: 1947-51", the policy debates in Washington be‐ Eisenhower's visit on June 19, 1960, the southern tween the Joint Chiefs of Staf and the State De‐ half of the island of Okinawa was a single U.S. partment about the fate of Okinawa are exam‐ base. ined, and Truman's continued indecision is docu‐ With Chapter 6: "Reischauer vs. Caraway, mented. The retention of Okinawan military 1961-64" we are informed about the troubles that bases was seen as paramount and there was a confronted the U.S. in terms of the administration need to both protect and monitor the Japanese be‐ of Okinawa and the efect this had on U.S.-Japa‐ cause of threats from the Japanese Communist nese relations. "The Road to Reversion, 1964-67" is Party. The Japanese feared that Okinawa might the title of Chapter 7. Sato Eisaku became the become another Puerto Rico but settled for Ameri‐ Prime Minister of Japan in 1964 and served until can forces being stationed in the Ryukyus to keep 1972. Okinawa was a paradox in Japan's foreign U.S. troops out of metropolitan Japan. Sarantakes policy, and Sato became the frst Prime Minister presents a useful discussion of "trusteeship" ver‐ since Tojo Hideki to visit Okinawa, becoming an sus "strategic trusteeship" and the concept of "re‐ ardent advocate for reversion. Sarantakes re‐ stricted sovereignty" (e.g., with an Okinawa simi‐ views the reversion eforts, political instabilities lar to the Panama Canal Zone where the United and riots, the Reischauer versus Lt. Gen. Albert States administered the territory and the inhabi‐ Watson II confict, and Sato's visits to Washington. tants retained their original citizenship). The island became a logistical center and supply Chapter 4: "The Making of An American base for the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War, Colony, 1950-56" focuses on events that led to the but the Air Force made minimal use of the air decision to keep Okinawa and the negotiations of bases due to local opposition on Okinawa. Subse‐ the Japanese peace treaty that gave the island le‐ quently, Albert Johnson became the new Ambas‐ gal sanction--"residual sovereignty"--which would sador and Sarantakes comments that he was more give Japan a basis for claims to the island in the professional and efcient in comparison to Reis‐ future. Sarantakes evaluates the development of chauer's tenure (p. 147). The issue of reversion is the island during the frst half of the 1950s in also discussed in detail, notably Okinawan news‐ Chapter 5: "The Difcult Years, 1956-60" and con‐ papers favored a step-by-step reversion, while siders the crisis over the proper form of rent pay‐ military opinions (particularly those of the Joint ments to Okinawan landlords, the replacement in Chiefs of Staf) and the State Department were 1957 of the military governorship with a high strained but coalesced around the views of Robert commissioner of the Ryukyu Islands, the appoint‐ S. McNamara. By the mid-1960s the process of re‐ ment of Douglas MacArthur as ambassador to unifcation of Okinawa with Japan was underway. Tokyo in 1957, and the election of socialist Chapter 8: "Reversion, 1967-69" is an assess‐ Kaneshi Sarchi in January 1958. A controversial ment of the developments in Tokyo and in Oki‐ article, "The Outraged Okinawans," in Harpers nawa that moved the United States and Japan magazine was written by a former Marine ofcer, closer to reversion. The background to the Nixon-
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Sato joint communiqu announcing the return of nawa-United States-Japan foreign policies during Okinawa to Japanese administration is reviewed. the 27 years of American occupation. He shows The development of the Nixon Doctrine (Japan how foreign policy disputes in the United States would rearm and develop nuclear capabilities in (the Pentagon. State Department, and Executive exchange for Okinawan reversion) is assessed Ofce) and in Japan ultimately coalesced to create and the major role of Alexis Johnson and the less‐ a conducive political atmosphere for reversion. er role of Henry Kissinger are detailed. In Chapter Although there were groups in the United States, 9: "Aftermath", the author documents anti-Ameri‐ in Japan, and in Okinawa opposed to the ratifca‐ can riots in Okinawa in December 1970, reviews tion of the reversion process, clever politicians American sources of opposition to U.S. policy and diplomacy prevailed, and anti-American op‐ (American veterans organization such as the position in Okinawa was thwarted. This is an in‐ VFW; the business community, particularly the teresting episode in American foreign relations Chamber of Commerce; and the U.S. Congress, no‐ and Sarantakes has told it well. Subsequent as‐ tably Senators Hollings and Fulbright). In the lat‐ sessments of American-Japanese foreign relations ter instance, the issue was the Congressional role after 1972 may be found in a number of publica‐ in foreign policy formation (advice and consent). tions.[4] Lastly, Sarantakes in Chapter 10: "Conclusion" A recent book, The American Occupation of considers the U.S. decision to retain bases on Oki‐ Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory by nawa against Communist (Soviet and Chinese) Michael S. Molasky (1999) considers the Japanese threats and a potential Japanese threat. However, occupation literature. Okinawan authors provide the Americans soon realized that there was no Ja‐ a perspective on the occupation that difers from panese military threat but that Japan was an ally mainland Japanese experiences, in that American of dubious dependability. Three themes are ap‐ occupiers put a new face on an old problem--one parent during the U.S. occupation of Okinawa: 1) that viewed American occupation as a continua‐ Okinawa was an American colony in all but name tion of prejudice and oppression. The current for military reasons. 2) Okinawa was a political is‐ stance of Okinawa's Governor Inamine Keiichi, sue in Japan but not in the United States except in asking the United States for a reduction in Ameri‐ the federal bureaucracy (the Pentagon and State can military presence on Okinawa, is contrary to Department). 3) Okinawans did a great deal to in‐ both American and Japanese policies. However, fuence the course of events and grew stronger Inamine is motivated by a series of crimes com‐ during the occupation--especially economically. mitted by American servicemen, but his plea ap‐ The author asks the question: Was American rule parently falls on deaf ears as the new United State good or bad? He notes that Okinawans have both administration has pledged to make Japan (and grievances and gratitude toward the United Okinawa) a center of a new United States global States. Nonetheless, the American presence on security strategy. Okinawa resulted in the United States realizing Notes that prewar and postwar Japan were quite difer‐ [1]. Among the more recent books on the Oki‐ ent, that the Japanese made more political conces‐ nawa campaign are those by Roy E. Appleman. sions than the United States during the Cold War, United States Army in World War II: War in the and the Communist threat molded U.S. interac‐ Pacifc, Okinawa, the Last Battle , Washington, tions with the Japanese during the postwar era. DC: United States Government Printing Ofce, Nicholas Evan Sarantakes has prepared a 2000; George Feifer, The Battle of Okinawa and very well documented assessment of the Oki‐ the Atomic Bomb , London Ticknor & Fields, 1994;
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Simon Foster, Okinawa, 1945: Final Assault on the web location, date of publication, originating list, Empire , London: Sterling, 1995; London: Cassell, and H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online. 1999; and Robert Leckie, Okinawa: The Last Bat‐ For any other proposed use, contact the Reviews tle of World War II . New York: Viking, 1995). Hi‐ editorial staf at [email protected]. romichi Yahara's , The Battle for Okinawa , New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1997, provides the Ja‐ panese perspective on the campaign. [2]. The Origins of the Bilateral Okinawa Problem: Okinawa in Postwar US-Japan Rela‐ tions, 1945-1952 by Robert D. Eldridge, New York: Garland Publishing, 2000; Chalmers Johnson's Ok‐ inawa: Cold War Island , Tokyo: Japan Policy Re‐ search Institute, 1999; United States General Ac‐ counting Ofce, Overseas Presence: Issues In‐ volved in Reducing the Impact of the U.S. Military Presence on Okinawa , Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Ofce, 1996; reprint‐ ed, Reginald L. Fun and Carol L. Schuster, editors New York: Diane Publishing Co., 1999. [3]. Dower's Embracing Defeat has been re‐ viewed for H-NET: http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/re‐ views.showrev.cgi?path=14641959882665 [4]. Michael H. Armacost, Friends or Rivals? The Insider's Account of U.S.-Japan Relations, New York: Columbia University Press, 1996, re‐ viewed for H-NET: http://www.2.h-net.msu.edu/re‐ views/showrev.cgi?path=10996868995747 Takeshi Matsuda, Konomama de Yoinoka Nichibei Kankei [Are They Okay?: The Current Japan-U.S. Rela‐ tions], Tokyo: Sogensha Press, 1997, reviewed for H-NET: http://www.2.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/ showrev.cgi?path=25975888870842 Michael J. Green and Patrick M. Cronin, editors, The U.S.- Japan Alliance: Past Present, and Future, New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1999, re‐ viewed for H-NET: http://www.2.h-net.msu.edu/re‐ views/showrev.cgi?path=25595979847625 and http://www.2.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi? path=7561939941717 Copyright 2001 by H-Net, all rights reserved. H-Net permits the redistribution and reprinting of this work for nonproft, educational purposes, with full and accurate attribution to the author,
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Citation: Charles C. Kolb. Review of Sarantakes, Nicholas Evan. Keystone: The American Occupation of Okinawa and U.S. Japanese Relations. H-US-Japan, H-Net Reviews. July, 2001.
URL: https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=5278
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