Tourism Development in Okinawa: Spatial and Temporal Patterns

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN OKINAWA: SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL PATTERNS

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAIʻI AT M ĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY MAY 2012

BY DAVID NGUYEN

Thesis Committee: Mary McDonald, Chairperson Juanita Liu Joyce Chinen Lonnie Carlile

Keywords: Okinawa, tourism, geography, development, resorts

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my parents and aunts, who have been patient and supportive during my undergraduate and graduate studies. I greatly valued their help as a source of motivation to succeed in my academic and professional endeavors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ippee Nifee Deebiru to the members of the Okinawan community who have helped direct me to the resources utilized in my research. I would also like to thank many of my colleagues from Japan for double-checking my English translations of Japanese texts, allowing me peace of mind over the accuracy of the translated texts. In particular I‟d like to thank the Center for

Japanese Studies, the Center for Okinawan Studies, the East-West Center, and the Akisamiyo-! student club, which have allowed me to present my research to a wider audience and gain important feedback on my academic interests.

I would also like to thank Dr. Guilherme Lohmann of the Southern Cross University in

Australia, for introducing me to many important tourism and transportation resources throughout my graduate program. Working with “Gui” has been very enjoyable and I look forward to the time when we can work together again on another research project. I would also like to thank Dr.

Matthew McGranaghan of our Department of Geography at the University of Hawaiʻi, Mānoa, for assisting me with my many questions related to ArcGIS as well as helping me progress through the graduate program. I also would like to thank the late Dr. Vincent Pollard who gave me many ideas on what to consider for a thesis topic, and who assisted me in research and writing techniques during the time I was an undergraduate student. I would also like to thank Dr.

John Purves who was my teacher at the University of the Ryukyus. His dedication to the history of the Ryukyus and compilation of resources has helped me tremendously throughout my various researches relating to Okinawa. I also would like to thank Ms. Wakako Nagata for helping me assemble materials used in my research, proof-reading my translations, and for continuously providing me support during my graduate studies

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Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank my committee members, Lonny Carlile,

Joyce Chinen, Juanita Liu, and my advisor, Mary McDonald for the time they have given me in guiding my thesis to completion. While the graduate division guide instructs students that they need not thank committee members, I nevertheless feel that they deserve mention for being patient with how long it took me to complete this thesis, and the advice, articles, and time they have given me. I hope that in the near future as I continue my scholarly endeavors we will remain in contact and I will be able to continue to learn and exchange ideas and perhaps even work together on a project of common interest.

ABSTRACT

Okinawa Prefecture maintains the distinction of being Japan‟s southernmost prefectural division. It is also the only prefecture that consists entirely of islands. Okinawa‟s multi-island geography presents problems for the promotion and analysis of tourism that this thesis seeks to address. The thesis first surveys Okinawa‟s economic and political changes within the last century, under different regimes, from Imperial Japanese to United States civilian administration, reverting to Japanese control in 1972. It then traces the prefecture‟s four ten-year development plans, and the fifth development plan to begin in 2012. These development plans emphasized the use of tourism development as a method to decrease the economic disparity between mainland Japan and Okinawa.

This thesis presents a new evolutionary model of spatial and temporal changes in

Okinawa Prefecture‟s tourism across its many islands since 1972. Specifically, the study examines the development of tourism infrastructure such as highways, bridges, airports, flight routes, and resorts across the islands of the prefecture. The thesis maps the spread of flights and resorts to more islands over time and space. This research considers the applicability of existing literature on tourism development, tourism life-cycle models, and tourism geography to a multi- island destination, and attempts to conceptualize a new approach in mapping tourism development across an archipelago.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... v

TABLES ...... ix

FIGURES ...... x

ABBREVIATIONS ...... xii

CHAPTER 1 OKINAWA: A MULTI-ISLAND GEOGRAPHY AS A TOURISM

DESTINATION ...... 1

1.1 Introduction ...... 1

1.1.1 Geography of a Multi Island Prefecture ...... 1

1.1.2 Climate...... 7

1.1.3 Okinawa‟s Historical Geography ...... 8

1.1.4 Reversion to Japan, Economic Development Plans, and Tourism ...... 10

1.2 Examining Tourism in the Multi-Island Economic Geography of Okinawa ...... 13

CHAPTER 2 SPATIAL THEORIES OF TOURISM GROWTH AND A PROPOSED MODEL

OF TOURISM EXPANSION IN A MULTI-ISLAND DESTINATION ...... 15

2.1 Literature Review ...... 15

2.1.1 Tourism Development in Peripheral Regions ...... 15

2.1.2 Tourism Development in Japan and Okinawa ...... 16

2.1.3 Economic Geography of Tourism Development ...... 18

2.1.4 Theories on Tourism Production ...... 25

2.2 A New Model of Archipelago Tourism Growth Based on Okinawa ...... 27

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ...... 33

3.1 Measuring Tourism Growth in a Multi-Island Destination ...... 33

3.1.1 Defining and Measuring Tourism Growth ...... 33

3.1.2 Development Plans ...... 34

3.2 Timeline of Development Plans ...... 36

3.2.1 Tourism Statistics ...... 36

3.2.2 Airline Flight Data ...... 36

3.2.3 Land Infrastructure ...... 37

3.2.4 Listings of Okinawa Resorts ...... 38

3.2.5 Mapping and Analysis ...... 39

3.2.6 Data Limitations ...... 39

3.2.7 Significance of This Research and its Contributions...... 39

CHAPTER 4 TOURISM EXPANSION ACROSS A MULTI-ISLAND DESTINATION: AN

ANALYSIS OF FOUR INDICATORS ...... 41

4.1 Okinawa Promotion and Development Plans...... 41

4.1.1 Development Plan Analysis...... 45

4.2 Resort Law ...... 51

4.3 Flight Routes ...... 58

4.4 Road Infrastructure ...... 75

4.5 Resorts ...... 78

4.5.1 Distribution of Resorts...... 79

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4.5.2 Temporal Trends of Resorts ...... 80

4.5.3 Sizes and Locations of the Resorts ...... 82

4.5.4 Combining the Temporal and Size Changes in Resorts ...... 83

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION...... 89

5.1 Re-Examining the Thesis Questions ...... 89

5.2 Conformity of the Okinawa Case with the Proposed Model of Tourism Growth in a Multi-

Island Destination ...... 98

5.3 Limitations of the Study ...... 100

5.4 Further Research and Recommendations ...... 101

APPENDIX I Flight routes from and to islands in Okinawa Prefecture at selected time periods

...... 104

APPENDIX II Compilation of Resorts in Islands of Okinawa Prefecture ...... 112

Bibliography ...... 115

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TABLES

Table 1. Area and population of Okinawa Prefecture and the State of Hawaiʻi ...... 3

Table 2. Area and population of major islands in Okinawa Prefecture by region ...... 3

Table 3.Weather characteristics of selected Japanese cities ...... 8

Table 4. A spatial and temporal model of tourism growth in an archipelagic destination ...... 28

Table 5. Data sources used to answer the four questions and to test the validity of the model .... 33

Table 6. Okinawa Development and Promotion Plans ...... 42

Table 7. Compilation of the history of Okinawa's major roads ...... 76

Table 8. Applying research data on Okinawa‟s tourism development to the model ...... 99

FIGURES

Figure 1. Okinawa Prefecture in relation to the Asia-Pacific ...... 2

Figure 2. Major islands in Okinawa Prefecture ...... 4

Figure 3. Three geographical categorizations: Ryukyus, Okinawa Prefecture, and Sakishima

Islands ...... 5

Figure 4. Okinawa‟s gross irefectural income and revenues generated by the military ...... 11

Figure 5. Number of tourists entering Okinawa Prefecture from 1972 to 2010 ...... 12

Figure 6. Sicily's tourist regions based on Christaller's research ...... 19

Figure 7. Christaller's Central Place Theory ...... 21

Figure 8. Miossec's model of tourism development ...... 22

Figure 9. Butler's Resort Life Cycle Model ...... 23

Figure 10. Prideaux's Resort Development Spectrum ...... 24

Figure 11. The distribution of designated resort areas ...... 53

Figure 12. Effects of resort development on regional society ...... 54

Figure 13. Regional classification based on climatic and accessibility characteristics ...... 55

Figure 14. Tourism growth in the outer islands of Okinawa Prefecture ...... 57

Figure 15. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 1973 ...... 65

Figure 16. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 1981 ...... 66

Figure 17. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 1991 ...... 67

Figure 18. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 2001 ...... 68

Figure 19. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 2009 ...... 69

Figure 20. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 1973 ...... 70

Figure 21. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 1981 ...... 71

Figure 22. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 1991 ...... 72

Figure 23. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 2001 ...... 73

Figure 24. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 2009 ...... 74

Figure 25. Distribution of resorts on Okinawa Island and nearby islands, sorted by year ...... 85

Figure 26. Distribution of resorts in the Yaeyama region, sorted by year ...... 86

Figure 27. Distribution of resorts on Okinawa Island and nearby islands, sorted by area ...... 87

Figure 28. Distribution of resorts in the Yaeyama region, sorted by area ...... 88

ABBREVIATIONS

ANA All Nippon Airways

GIS Geographic Information System

JAL Japan Airlines

JAS Japan Air System

JTA Japan Transocean Air

MLIT Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism

PRC People‟s Republic of China

RAC Ryukyu Air Commuter

USCAR United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands

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CHAPTER 1 OKINAWA: A MULTI-ISLAND GEOGRAPHY AS A TOURISM DESTINATION

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Geography of a Multi Island Prefecture

Okinawa Prefecture maintains two distinctions of being Japan‟s southernmost prefecture as well as being the only prefecture consisting entirely of small islands. The prefecture consists of 160 islands of which 49 are inhabited and 111 are uninhabited. Within the prefecture,

Okinawa Island is the largest and most populous island, containing over 90% of the prefecture‟s total population of 1.4 million (Table 1). The prefectural capital, Naha, is located in Okinawa

Island. A flight from Tokyo to Naha is approximately three hours, traversing over 1,600km

(1000 miles), making Naha Japan‟s most distant prefectural capital. Due to this distance, the prefecture is geographically closer to cities elsewhere in Asia, such as Hong Kong, Manila, and

Shanghai. Other islands that contain significant population centers include Miyako Island,

Ishigaki Island, and Yonaguni Island. The last of these is Japan‟s western most extremity, within visual distance from the northeastern coast of Taiwan (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Okinawa Prefecture in relation to the Asia-Pacific

Table 1. Area and population of Okinawa Prefecture and the State of Hawaiʻi (Sources: Bureau of the Census 2010 and Okinawa Prefecture 2010)

Okinawa State of Okinawa Oʻahu Island Prefecture Hawaiʻi Island Total Area 2,271.30 km² 28,311 km2 1,201.03 km2 1,545.4 km2 (877 sq. mi) (10,930 sq. mi) (463 sq. mi) (596 sq. mi) Population 1.4 million 1.36 million 1.28 million 953,207

Okinawa Prefecture‟s total land area is significantly smaller than that of the state of

Hawai„i due to the large size of the largest island, Hawai„i Island. However the largest island of

Okinawa Prefecture, Okinawa Island, is close in size to O„ahu Island in both its population and physical land mass, while both islands also serve as the centers of economic and political activity in Okinawa and Hawaiʻi respectively (Table 1).

Table 2. Area and population of major islands in Okinawa Prefecture by region (Source: Okinawa Statistical Yearbook 2011)

Region Island Area (in square kilometers) Population Okinawa Islands Okinawa Island 1207.99 1,231,765 (Including Hokubu and Aguni (Hokubu) 7.64 858 Chunanbu regions) Ie (Hokubu) 22.77 5,102 Iheya (Hokubu) 20.59 1,430 Izena (Hokubu) 14.16 1,788 Aguni 7.64 936 Tokashiki (Chunanbu) 15.31 723 Zamami (Chunanbu) 6.66 661 Akajima (Chunanbu) 3.82 305 Guruma (Chunanbu) 2.84 186 Kumejima (Chunanbu) 59.11 9,062 Daito Islands Kita Daito 11.94 521 Minami Daito 30.57 1,334 Miyako Region Miyakojima 159.25 48,161 Irabu 29.08 6,208 Tarama 19.75 1,359 Yaeyama Region Ishigaki 222.63 47,475 Kohama 7.84 635

Taketomi 5.42 342 Hateruma 12.77 589 Aragusuku 3.34 11 Kuro 10.02 214 Iriomote 289.27 2,274 Yonaguni 28.91 1,660

Figure 2. Major islands in Okinawa Prefecture (Drawn by David Nguyen)

Figure 3. Three geographical categorizations: Ryukyus, Okinawa Prefecture, and Sakishima Islands. Ryukyus north of Okinawa Prefecture are in Kagoshima Prefecture. (Drawn by David Nguyen) Much of Okinawa Prefecture is classified as part of the Ryukyu Islands at the southern end of Japan‟s Nansei or Southwest Islands. In most geographic categorizations, the Ryukyu

Islands are separated into three groups. The central group consists of Okinawa Island and nearby surrounding islands such as Ie, Kudaka, Kumejima, and the Zamami Islands. The island groups south of the Okinawa Islands are categorized as the Sakishima Islands that stretch from Miyako

Island to Yonaguni Island. Within the Sakishima group are the Miyako Region and the Yaeyama

Region, which include Ishigaki, Iriomote, and Yonaguni Islands. The islands north of Okinawa

Island are referred to as the Northern Ryukyu Islands, which consist of the Amami Islands that stretch between Kikaishima and Yoronjima. Kagoshima Prefecture currently administers the

Amami Islands.

The geographic names used in the categorization of the Ryukyu Islands reflect the history and politics that have shaped the region. The term Ryukyu itself stems from the independent

Ryukyu Kingdom, which existed from the 15th to 19th centuries, based in Shuri on Okinawa

Island. When the Amami Islands were annexed by the feudal Satsuma domain (in today‟s

Kagoshima Prefecture) in the early 17th century, the term Nansei Islands was used, meaning southwestern Islands, to distinguish the remaining territories of the Ryukyu Kingdom, which lay southwest of Satsuma‟s newly acquired territories. The term Sakishima roughly translates into

“outer islands” or “marginal islands” which reflect their peripheral locations from the viewpoint of Okinawa Islanders who considered their island as the core. Indeed, these terms are not widely accepted by those living in the Sakishima Islands. According to Shizuoka University Professor

Tomoaki Hara who conducted research in Yonaguni Island, the peoples of Miyako and Yaeyama considered the term Okinawa as being strictly limited to Okinawa Island itself. Furthermore, the residents of Yonaguni referred themselves as Dunantu (Yonaguni people) and not Unnantu

(Okinawans), or Damantu (Yaeyama people), despite its categorization as part of Okinawa

Prefecture and the Yaeyama region (Hara 2009). In the context of Okinawa, the classification of the Sakishima residents is based solely on their geographical location despite the different linguistic and cultural aspects on each island, and the different views of identity held by the island‟s residents.

In addition to the Ryukyu Islands, two other island groups fall under the jurisdiction of modern Okinawa Prefecture. The first are the Daito islands, located several hundred miles to the east of Okinawa Island, consisting of Minami Daito (Southern Daito) and Kita Daito (Northern

Daito), which were added to the prefecture during the Meiji period. To the southwest of

Okinawa Island lies the Senkaku Islands (also known as Diaoyutai in Taiwan and the PRC), whose sovereignty is currently disputed. The Republic of China considers them as a part of

Taiwan. The People‟s Republic of China considers Taiwan as a part of the PRC, and by extension, considers Diaoyutai a part of the PRC (Suganuma 2000).

1.1.2 Climate

As Okinawa Prefecture lies between 27° N and 24° N longitude, its climate falls within the humid sub-tropical region based on the Köppen Climate Classification standard. However in comparison to similar climates in southern Honshu and Kyushu, Okinawa Prefecture experiences significantly more precipitation in the form of rain while its winters are not as cold with almost no snow recorded (an exception was in 1963 when snowfall was recorded in Naha). In contrast,

Kagoshima City, located in the southernmost prefecture of Kyushu Island, experiences significantly lower winter temperatures and the possibility of snowfall. Table 3 compares weather characteristics of Naha in Okinawa with other cities throughout Japan. Okinawa‟s southerly location provides warmth and a natural environment distinct from the prefectures to the north. The islands lie outside the tropics, but have corals and many attractions associated with tropical islands.

Table 3. Weather characteristics of selected Japanese cities based on data from the Japan Statistical Yearbook (Source: Statistical Research and Training Institute of Japan 2011)

Station Temperature (°F) (1970- Annual Annual Annual Rainy Snowy 2000) average total of Precipitation Days Days Annual January July of sunshine total (mm) (2007) (2007) Average relative hours humidity Naha 22.7 16.6 28.5 75 1821 2037 133 N/A Kagoshima 18.3 8.3 27.9 71 1919 2279 120 2 Tokushima 16.2 6.0 26.3 67 2044 1541 85 3 Osaka 16.5 5.8 27.2 64 1967 1306 98 5 Tokyo 15.9 5.8 25.4 63 1847 1467 89 3 Sapporo 8.5 -4.1 20.5 70 1775 1128 132 130

1.1.3 Okinawa‟s Historical Geography

Okinawa Prefecture has a unique position within Japan, as it was the only prefecture that existed as a separate political entity prior to its annexation. Its centrality eroded under Japanese rule until the islands suffered warfare and occupation in the mid 20th century.

Prior to the era of the Ryukyu Kingdom, the islands of the Ryukyus consisted of several independent principalities and villages. Okinawa Island, the largest island within the Ryukyu archipelago, contained several large city-states, which engaged in tributary relations with Ming

Dynasty China before the formation of the Ryukyu Kingdom.

In 1429, Sho Hashi conquered and unified the three city states on Okinawa Island and established the First Sho Dynasty of the Ryukyu Kingdom. By the late 16th century, the Ryukyu

Kingdom expanded its territory through the conquest of islands within the Ryukyu archipelago, with Miyako and Ishigaki Islands brought under control in 1500 and 1524 respectively, and the

Amami Islands by 1571. However shortly after the incorporation of the Amami Islands into

Ryukyu, the Satsuma Domain from Kyushu invaded the kingdom and enforced heavy taxation on Okinawa, which in turn, placed heavy taxes on the outer islands. The Ryukyu Kingdom was

8 left nominally independent in order for the Satsuma to benefit from the kingdom‟s trading relations with China until the late 19th century when the kingdom was annexed by Japan and made Okinawa Prefecture in 1879.

As Okinawa entered the 20th century, it was one of the poorest regions in Japan.

Overpopulation, scarcity of food, and other conditions led to large scale migration of Okinawans abroad, primarily to Brazil, Hawaii, and Peru, where they would engage in plantation labor.

During World War II, Okinawa became the battleground of the only land war between Allied and Imperial Japanese forces on Japanese territory, culminating in the deaths of over 100,000 civilians, the destruction of Shuri Castle, and wide spread environmental deterioration. The extent of the war damage was so severe that the war is often referred to as Tetsu no Ame

(Typhoon of Steel) by Okinawans (Belote 1970).

Between 1945 and 1972, the Ryukyu Islands came under the jurisdiction first of SCAP, and then of the United States, whose control became official in 1952 under the Treaty of San

Francisco. The establishment of the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyus

(USCAR) gave the US authority over the Ryukyuan Government. The Amami Islands were eventually returned to Japan in 1953 and became a part of Kagoshima Prefecture, to which it was previously incorporated to in 1879. The rest of the Ryukyu Islands would remain under

USCAR; economic development transitioned from primary industries, such as pineapples, rice, and sugar cane plantations, to tertiary industries with an economy centered on the U.S. military bases.

1.1.4 Reversion to Japan, Economic Development Plans, and Tourism

Okinawa‟s long suspension outside of the Japanese economy left it a periphery of Japan in many ways. In 1972, after much protest, the rest of the Ryukyu Islands reverted to the administration of the Japanese government. Although Okinawa‟s economic development under

USCAR exceeded that of other Asian countries, it lagged behind the rapid development experienced in Japan during this period. To bring Okinawa up to the levels of Japanese economic development, Japan made Okinawa the object of a series of economic plans, beginning in 1972 with the Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan (Purves 2011).

The effects of the 1972 Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan were limited, partly as a result of the slow growth of the global economy at the time (Figure 5)(Yaka 2002). The

1975 Marine Expo, Kaiyohaku, however, acted as a catalyst that would spur strong interest in the development of Okinawa as a tourism destination. First, the Marine Expo highlighted

Okinawa‟s potential as a tourism destination, emphasizing its tropical climate, pristine beaches, and natural environment. Secondly, the Marine Expo showcased planned infrastructural projects improving Okinawa‟s transportation network and proposing new river and coastline regulations that would benefit tourism development. The Second Okinawa Development Plan was unveiled in 1982, again stressing the development of tourism in Okinawa to promote regional development. This was followed by the national 1987 Resort Law, which designated the entire prefecture as a tropical resort.

45,000 18.0 40,000 16.0 35,000 14.0 30,000 12.0 25,000 10.0 20,000 8.0 15,000 6.0 10,000 4.0 5,000 2.0

0 0.0

1976 1990 2005 1972 1973 1974 1975 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Gross Prefectural Income (in hundred million yen) Revenues generated by the military Ratio of military revenues in relation to prefectural income

Figure 4. Okinawa’s gross prefectural income and revenues generated by the military (Source: Okinawa Statistical Division 2011)

Integration into the Japanese economy and central government development plans did increase the proportion of non-military revenues annually, and reduced the military share of the local economy from about 16% in 1972 to half that amount in 1982. In the same decade following reversion, the gross prefectural income tripled, as seen in Figure 4.

7,000,000

6,000,000

5,000,000

4,000,000

International 3,000,000 Domestic 2,000,000

1,000,000

1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Figure 5. Number of tourists entering Okinawa Prefecture from 1972 to 2010 (Source: Okinawa Prefecture Tourism Policy Division 2011) In 1991, the Okinawa Tropical Resort Project was approved under the Resort Law, approving the construction of 13 golf courses, 163 tennis courts, 6 marinas, 5 gymnasiums, and

30 pools (Yaka 2002). More recently the 2002 Act on Special Measures for the Promotion and

Development of Okinawa was initiated to stimulate growth via tourism, IT, manufacturing, agriculture and fisheries over a ten-year time span. Further infrastructural development in the outer islands was also promoted. These short-term development plans aimed to increase annual tourist intake to 6 million tourists by the end of the century, comparable to other mega resort destinations such as Hawaii and Bali. Figure 5 illustrates the general success of these measures in promoting tourist numbers from fewer than 1 million at reversion in 1972 to about 2 million in

1982, then adding another million tourists each decade to 6 million tourists in 2007.

1.2 Examining Tourism in the Multi-Island Economic Geography of Okinawa

In terms of their economic geography, small islands face several disadvantages due to their size, population, fragile eco systems, and remoteness from major market centers (Abeyratne

1999). Due to their limited resource base and production capabilities, small islands face limited abilities in exporting primary products while heavily relying on imports for consumer goods and capital. For these reasons, some small islands have welcomed tourism development in order to increase its market base and consumption. For islands that are sub-national entities, tourism policies have been used as a means for small island economies to reach the national levels of economic development (Rao 2002).

Further, islands are often actually multiple islands within a unit of political territory, and the

“island” destination might best be studied with all islands in focus. This thesis will investigate the spatial expression of the temporal changes in Okinawa Prefecture‟s tourism production since

1972. This research will take into consideration existing literature on tourism development and tourism geography in an attempt to conceptualize a new theoretical model on tourism development for Okinawa‟s multi-island geography. In doing so, this study will also examine the following questions:

1. Since the Okinawa Prefecture‟s reversion to Japanese administration, how has Okinawa‟s

tourism grown?

2. What kinds of policies have driven the geographical expansion of Okinawa‟s tourism

economy to its various islands?

3. What has been the spatial pattern of tourism flows since 1972 in terms of air links, road

links and resort locations?

4. Do the data at the scale of individual islands help reveal the effects of tourism policies?

5. To answer these questions, this research will construct a multi-island destination model

built upon existing tourism and geographic literature in Chapter 2. The thesis will posit

indicators for analyzing multi-island tourism growth in Chapter 3, such as policies, flight

routes and resort growth across the islands. In all, this thesis seeks a way to understand

the distribution of tourism numbers over time and space in a multi-island geography.

CHAPTER 2 SPATIAL THEORIES OF TOURISM GROWTH AND A PROPOSED MODEL OF TOURISM EXPANSION IN A MULTI-ISLAND DESTINATION

How can tourism be expected to grow across an archipelago like Okinawa? This section reviews literature on the geography of tourism development in peripheral regions, the history of tourism development in Japan and Okinawa, and the economic geography of tourism production.

While geographers have discussed theoretical models for the spread of tourism development to and in “a destination,” no-one has proposed a model of growth across multiple islands in an archipelagic destination. I suggest a stage-theory model of the spread of tourism facilities to many islands as a framework for analyzing Okinawa.

2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 Tourism Development in Peripheral Regions

International tourism has grown significantly within Asia where much of the tourism is intra-regional and domestic. However economic and tourism developments exhibit strong core- periphery relationships where tourism may play a role to facilitate the development of these peripheral areas. These relationships exist not only between countries but also within a sub- national space (Wall 2008). Tourism is utilized as a tool for the accumulation of capital in peripheral regions with rich tourists travelling from the metropolitan center to the periphery, bringing foreign exchange and creating jobs. The state in particular, plays an important role in regional tourism development as it is often responsible for the proposals for regional development schemes (Telfer 2002).

Toshiaki applies this concept of core-periphery relations to Okinawa‟s space within the context of the Asian region. Beginning with the Ryukyu Kingdom, Medieval China served as the core of the East Asia region with Okinawa as its periphery. As time progresses, China is replaced by Japan as its core, which was then supplanted by the US after the end of the Second

World War. Currently, Toshiaki considers Okinawa as a periphery of both Japan and the US which views Okinawa as their frontier space (Toshiaki 2003). In regards to tourism development,

Okinawa can be described as foreign space in which it was Japanese, yet contained an atmosphere of double “foreignness” due to Okinawa‟s unique culture, the presence of American culture, as well as an international culture. Thus, Okinawa‟s tourism space is often portrayed and perceived as one that differs from Japan and thus, exotic (Graburn 2009).

2.1.2 Tourism Development in Japan and Okinawa

Tourism development in Japan, rooted hundreds of years ago through group pilgrimages to Buddhist temples, which continues today in the form of secular group tourism that follows a similar pattern. Carlile discusses the role of the government in Japan's tourism development in his 1996 article. During the late 1960s, group tours were formed in order to provide a means for inexperienced Japanese tourists travelling abroad, a sense of security and a method to ease adjustment to foreign surroundings. As a result, many companies began developing tour packages, resulting in the emergence of mega wholesalers, ready-made packaged tours, which were sold to the general public under a brand name. The following decade saw the introduction of the Boeing 747 jumbo jet, which led to a dramatic increase in the supply of seats available.

However with the rapid economic development and rising income levels, tourism production changed between the late 1970's to the early 1990s, as Japanese travelers become cost conscious

16 and demanding. Herding, which was typical of group tours, was no longer acceptable. There was a desire for variety and choice. Tour operators were forced to modify their mass standardized approach and develop a distinctive brand image (Carlile 1996).

Carlile explains the role of the state in the development of Japan's tourism industries.

During the 1960s, the Tourism Basic Law utilized tourism as a means for promoting a positive modern image to foreign visitors, while calling the government to facilitate family travel and wholesome travel practices domestically. During this time, international and domestic tourism were related but two separate associations of travel business. By the early 2000's, Japan's economy had changed significantly since the collapse of the bubble economy in the 1990s.

Since then, the Japanese government switched from its stance of using tourism to balance payments, to a method of nation building that emphasizes local cultures, history, natural environment and resources. What was once separate, international and national tourism became unified, which is reflected in the 2003 slogan "building a nation that is good to live in and good to visit". Nation building based on tourism is as much about domestic community building as it is about attracting visitors (Carlile 2008).

Japan‟s Resort Law, a key policy implemented in Japan during the 1980‟s sought to revitalize the decaying economies of Japan‟s peripheral regions. The law divided Japan up into categories of potential tourism destinations utilizing the unique geographic traits of each region.

Within the context of Okinawa, the resort law designated the entire prefecture as a candidate for resort development, utilizing its sub-tropical climate and maritime features (Rimmer 1992).

Funck assesses the problems in the Resort Law‟s planning that have led to its failure. These problems include the scale of the development, which was done at a national level but failed to

17 take into consideration local resources and input from local stakeholders, as well as attempting to leave development to market forces, but yet allowed every prefecture to submit similar numbers and types of bidding. As a result, neighboring prefectures were offering similar products to each other, and many construction plans either not coming into fruition or not economically viable, especially after the effects of the bubble economy became apparent (Funck 1999).

2.1.3 Economic Geography of Tourism Development

One of the earliest papers to discuss tourist flows was published by Walter Christaller in the early 1960‟s. Christaller argued that people, as tourists, tend to create a pattern of spatial behavior that was marked by flows from large urban centers to the remote rural periphery.

Within these peripheries, larger towns function as important tourist places while smaller towns in peripheral regions see growth purely due to tourism traffic (Christaller 1963). Since then, geographers attempted to identify, describe, and to a lesser extent, to explain the reasons for observed patterns of international tourist flows (Mansfeld 1990).

Figure 6. Sicily's tourist regions based on Christaller's research (Redrawn from Christaller

1963)

In an earlier work that analyzes economic movement between settlements, Christaller introduced the Central Place Theory in 1933, which was an attempt to model the pattern of settlement locations using geometric shapes through the analysis of spatial arrangement, size, and number of settlements. The two basic concepts Christaller introduces are threshold, the minimum market needed to bring a firm or city selling goods and services into existence, and

19 range, which is the maximum distance people will travel to acquire goods and services.

Focusing strictly on economic reasons for social interaction in settlements, he defined the central place as a settlement which functions as a distribution center that provides goods and services to surrounding populations. Settlements that provide more goods and services than others are categorized as higher order central places, while lower order central places may have smaller market areas and provide goods and services more frequently purchased than higher order goods and services. Higher order places are more widely distributed and are few in number comparison to lower order places. In relation to threshold and range, consumers are more willing to travel further distances to acquire the products and services offered by higher order places that contain more functions (Christaller 1980). In Christaller‟s earlier work he theorizes about hierarchies over space, which he later uses to model hierarchies of tourism functions and relationships

(Figure 6). Christaller‟s incipient recognition of dynamics within hierarchies informs my study of archipelagic tourism.

Figure 7. Christaller's Central Place Theory (Redrawn from Christaller 1980) French geographer Jean-Marie Miossec applies the concepts of core-periphery in tourism systems through a model that proposes five stages of development beginning with a pioneer resort to a fully developed hierarchy in his examination of the spatial and temporal dimensions of tourism development (Figure 8). The model takes into consideration the proliferation of resorts, transportation improvements, tourist behavior, and the attitudes of decision makers as factors in tourism growth (Miossec 1976).

Figure 8. Miossec's model of tourism development (Source: Pearce 1995) Coastal resorts in particular, are among the most common and distinctive form of tourism development, the coast being the premier tourist destination in many countries. Much of their distinctiveness arises from their location along the beach or seashore (Pearce 1989). Andreas

Papatheodorou‟s article on the evolution of tourism resorts, examines the importance a resort‟s

22 size has on the spatial economy as its existence can justify major infrastructure projects and accessibility for both residents and tourists. As a result, the resort becomes more attractive and the number of tourist increases, leading to further investments.

Following Miossec, Richard Butler, in 1980, conceptualized the product cycle-based evolution of tourism destination through a six-stage model that centers upon the life cycle of a resort (Figure 5). Butler‟s Resort Life Cycle model has since been adopted by many tourism researchers, criticized, and improved upon. Prideaux offers a variant of the resort life cycle, The

Resort Development spectrum, which like Miossec takes into consideration multiple variables influencing development over time and space (Prideaux 2000a). Despite conceptual differences,

Butler, Miossec, and Prideaux‟s models predict the episodic growth and decline of a tourism destination.

Figure 9. Butler's Resort Life Cycle Model (Pearce 1995)

Figure 10. Prideaux's Resort Development Spectrum (Source: Prideaux 2000) Tourism is very often the major financial activity of island economies, in which transport services play a critical role as they not only offer a means to reach a destination but are also part of the tourism experience (Rigas 2009). Prideaux also examines the role of transportation in destination development, and in particular the influence on the development of air transportation and passenger jets which have opened new areas for travel. Although Prideaux expresses the significance of transportation in destination development, he emphasizes in particular, the importance of accessibility of international airports to the development of international markets, especially in areas that require lengthy sea or surface travel (Prideaux 2000b). In the case of islands, air transportation has transformed many of them into potential tourism destinations as tourists become interested in travelling to what they perceive as exotic, newly accessible locales.

Tourism is inextricably linked with air transportation as many islands could not have been accessible to foreign tourists without the establishment of transportation routes between them and their markets (Lohmann and Nguyen 2011).

Many of the world's islands are part of archipelagos. Bardolet and Sheldon examine planning and development issues in tourism in archipelagic regions using the Balearic Islands as an example. Governance in archipelagos is shared between many levels, from those in the mainland, archipelago, and individual islands. This leads to a complex hierarchy of governmental structures which can potentially cause conflict and political and communication difficulties. Centralized tourism planning is also challenging. There are a variety of community interests, as each island in effect is a separate stakeholder. In the case of tourism, each island also faces the challenges of competing with each other as they seek to distinguish themselves from each other, and levels of tourism may vary between them. Finally, travel between islands in an archipelago is critical to their tourism development (Bardolet and Sheldon 2008).

2.1.4 Theories on Tourism Production

New tourism literature has addressed some of the changes in tourism production since the publication of Butler and Miossec‟s models three decades ago. Ioannides and Debagge apply

David Harvey‟s writing on Fordism and Post-Fordism on tourism production by examining multiple aspects in the types of tourism products offered and its consumers. Fordist tourism production is classified as production that relies on economies of scale/mass production and packaged tours, while tourism labor has low functional flexibility and high labor turnover. The tourists who consume this product are often mass tourists seeking sun-lust locations, and are motivated by price. In contrast, Post-Fordist tourism is defined as tourism that takes into account economies of scale and scope, specialized operators, utilization of information technologies, while the consumers are more independent (Ioannides and Debagge 1997). Rebecca Torres article on tourism in Cancun, adds another stage of production, Neo-Fordism, which is similar to

Post-Fordist tourism in which there is flexible specialization aimed at independent tourists, yet, maintains aspects of mass tourism production, such as flexible yet specialized products and mass customization (Torres 2002).

Yamamoto and Gill examine the recent global expansion of Japanese travel companies and package tourism production, in which the role of Japanese travel companies which play a vital intermediary role between tourism demand and destination suppliers by providing a reflexive mode of tourism production that enables faster circulation of capital. This reflexivity is derived from intense information exchange, especially between local suppliers and tour operators from outside the region. As a result of these interactions, the operators adopt production of package tours that walk a fine line between mass distribution and the risk of over stocking. This reflexivity stands in contrast to North Americans who tend to travel independently and interact directly with destination suppliers rather than through an intermediary. Yamato and Gill caution that “mass” tourism is still a dominant system of production in Japan. This form of production system is a unique outcome of the complex economic, social, and cultural conditions of Japan

(Yamamoto and Gill 2002). We thus might still expect the need for large resorts in Okinawa accommodating groups touring together.

These literatures set forth several lines of tension when we think of an economic geography of island tourism. Several trends are operating at cross purposes in island tourism development. Factors that would promote island tourism would be their attractiveness as new, warm, natural destinations, islands‟ easy access through new air links, islands‟ eagerness to capture tourism capital, and tour packagers eager to market island destinations. Factors that would limit island tourism would be the capacity, the risk of room oversupply with expansion,

26 the expense of airports and infrastructure to small local economies, decay of the destination when new resorts out-compete, and the fear that other destinations and tour promoters will direct tourists elsewhere.

2.2 A New Model of Archipelago Tourism Growth Based on Okinawa

The literature above assumes “a destination” or “a resort” as a unity. The real world of destinations however is often a set of discontinuous places within in a political unit. This is especially true for an island nation, province, or state. To investigate tourism in the Japanese prefecture of Okinawa, we need a model in which tourism must be traced across many islands. I suggest here a model that takes a closer look at the major and minor islands within the destination. At this scale, we can see core and periphery relations at the intra-prefectural level.

We will also have a template on which to gather information about tourism growth across time and space.

Table 4. A spatial and temporal model of tourism growth in an archipelagic destination

Temporal phases Policies Resort Transport Tourists 1. Pioneer phase Discrepancies Modest growth in between levels tourist numbers of economic development Tourists unfamiliar between with destination mainland and archipelago Fordist modes of tourism production Exploration of rapid tourism development Flight routes limited to Pioneer resorts largest cities/capital concentrated in one or two areas 2. Growth phase Rapid Rapid growth in Development tourist numbers of tourism industries Tourists becoming aware of Increase in destination infrastructure development Fordist modes of tourism production Develop peripheral areas Expansion of routes to Multiplication major secondary cities of resorts near pioneer resorts 3. Peak/Saturation phase Rapid Rapid growth in Development tourist numbers of tourism industries Destination is popular with Establishment tourists, becomes of recreational very well known areas nationally

Develop Fordist modes of peripheral tourism production

areas Expansion of Connections to most new resorts regions in the mainland, into secondary islands now neighboring have direct flights to areas mainland

4. Maintain Stabilization/ slight Maturation/Consolidation growth decline in tourist phase numbers Shift to international Many mainlanders tourism have already experienced travel Diversification to the destination of industries Post-Fordist modes

Revitalization Expansion to of tourism Consolidation of routes, and peripheral production loss of routes to some repopulating areas of the cities, existing routes outer islands island and new continues growth resorts in smallest of islands

While models of the evolution of a tourism destination exist, such as Miossec‟s model of tourism development or Butler‟s resort life cycle, few examine the temporal and spatial changes of tourism in archipelagic destinations such as Okinawa Prefecture. Using the collected data and analyzed in following sections, I propose that an evolutionary model can be constructed which describes the spatial and temporal characteristics of the change archipelagic destinations undergo. This model examines four stages of change in five areas: the period of time, tourism policy changes, changes in resort distribution, changes in transportation, and changes in tourists.

The first phase is termed as the pioneer phase when the archipelago is still in its infancy in tourism development. In cases where the archipelago is a sub-national entity such as Okinawa Prefecture, concern over the perceived gap in economic development between the archipelago and the mainland may set the stage. For the sake of this comparison, the mainland can include either a larger continental land mass or a larger island. During the planning phases, policies which utilize rapid tourism development of the archipelago as a method to accelerate development are examined. Very few resorts exist on any of the islands but the few that do exist tend to be concentrated in the same areas and are usually a small mix of large and small resorts. Air transportation links to the mainland are limited to the main island, and flights are only to the capital and/or major population centers. Inter island flights are dominated by a hierarchy where flights begin at main island flights and end at secondary islands, and secondary islands offering connections to smaller islands. Rarely are there flights between the main island and the smaller islands. Tourists are unfamiliar with the destination at this stage as Okinawa was

30 still viewed as a rural prefecture with few attractions, yet a large promotion, such as the

Marine Expo, may stimulate tourism.

The second phase is referred to as the growth phase as the foundations of tourism development policies begin to take effect. Policies during this phase continue to emphasize the need for rapid tourism development as a means to reduce the perceived economic gap between the archipelago and the mainland. Additional infrastructure begins to take place during this period and interest in developing the outer islands continues to grow. New resorts are built, but are found primarily near existing pioneer resorts, and there is a steady expansion into neighboring cities. Flight connections expand to other major cities during this period. Tourists begin to become familiar with the destination and the growth in annual visitors becomes rapid. Much of the tourism production during this period is Fordist, in which tours are packaged mass tours. Large resorts in particular, are closed environments, isolated from other parts of the island.

The third phase is one in which the destination has reached its peak and is saturated with tourists and development. While policies continue to urge further tourism promotion as a means to reduce the gap with the mainland, the sense of urgency is now much reduced. Further interest is gaining in developing peripheral areas particularly those within the main island and those in secondary islands. Flight connections have now expanded to all major cities and many secondary cities, connecting nearly every region to the main island. Direct flights between major cities to airports in the secondary islands begin during this period allowing tourists to bypass a stopover at the main island. By this time the destination has become well known nationally and visitor numbers continue to skyrocket. While many resorts developed in this period continue to be big, many smaller

31 resorts are built within the saturated pioneer resort areas, as well as new resorts that continue to expand away from them. While tourist production continues to be Fordist, the number of independent tourists seeking a different product begins growing.

The fourth phase is the maturation and consolidation phase. The number of annual visitors begins to slow or decline. The types of tourists have changed to ones who are more independent and no longer require group tours as information on the archipelago can be easily found and most tourists already having some background knowledge of the destination. Resorts have become saturated after decades of expansion.

The few new resorts tend to be in peripheral areas of the mainland or secondary islands that have yet to become developed. In addition, small islands begin to experience the construction of their first resorts. Air transportation networks contract and flights to secondary cities begin disappearing. However flights to existing major cities increase in passengers as well as flight frequencies. Secondary islands continue to maintain direct flights to major cities in the mainland. During this phase, development policies undergo major shifts, perhaps in anticipation of this period of stagnation. As tourist numbers begin to stabilize, economic planners begin to seriously consider diversifying tourism to other markets, such as foreign tourists. Moreover, limitations on the tourism economy become more apparent and there is interest in diversifying the economy with other industries. As the tourism economy flourished on the main island and secondary islands, some of the smaller islands have suffered from demographic losses as residents migrate to other islands for employment opportunities. New policies seek to revitalize the economy of these regions in order to maintain sustainable population growth.

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Measuring Tourism Growth in a Multi-Island Destination

Seeking indicators of tourism growth across a multi-island destination, I have chosen four realms of data to examine. I examined island-by-island policies and pattern of tourist numbers, the spatial expansion of air routes, the growth of resorts and agents behind them, and I have noted the problems in the expansion of tourism across the island system and challenges in its analysis. In this chapter I will explain my methods for collecting data and indicators which will be applied to my proposed model to assess its conformity with Okinawa Prefecture. I present a summary of my sources for each question in Table 5.

Table 5. Data sources used to answer the four questions and to test the validity of the model

Growth of Spatial change in Policies behind Problems of Okinawa as a resorts, transport, tourism analysis of destination etc development archipelago tourism Okinawa Dev. & X X X X Prom. Plans Resort Law X X X Tourism statistics X X X Flight statistics X X Road construction X history Resort data and X X inquiries

3.1.1 Defining and Measuring Tourism Growth

Pearce acknowledges the problems of defining tourism due to its multi-faceted activities and the horizontally integrated nature of its associated industries. However he

33 identifies six broad topics that constitute major components in the geography of tourism: spatial patterns of supply, spatial patterns of demand, the geography of resorts, analysis of tourism movement & flows, the impact of tourism and models of tourist space. In regards to tourism development, Pearce suggests the examination of the relationship between the process of development and the state, the extent of tourism‟s contribution to the state of development in any area, and the extent of the impacts of tourism on the development of countries, regions, or communities (Pearce 1989). Other geographers and tourism researchers such as Miossec and Prideaux have also utilized multiple variables when analyzing changes in tourism production. These include the number of incoming tourists, the contribution of incoming tourism to the economy, the proliferation of resorts, transportation infrastructure, and the policies guiding its development.

In order to examine the temporal and spatial patterns of Okinawa‟s tourism development, I assembled several sources of data related to tourism, including policies related to tourism and economic development, tourism statistics, transportation data, and resort data. I also created a base map of Okinawa Prefecture‟s islands in order to map these data spatially.

3.1.2 Development Plans

I first examined Okinawa‟s Promotion and Development Plans as they framed and regionalized the paths of development in Okinawa and in specific islands. Currently there have been a total of four development plans, each spanning a period of 10 years. A fifth development plan is currently being developed and will begin in 2012. I analyzed these plans alongside national and prefectural data in order to assess how tourism goals have been met. In addition to these development plans, I have examined national

34 development plans such as the “Resort Law” which encompassed the entire prefecture and shaped its development. The importance of the scales of development mentioned in these documents will be closely examined to determine the rationale behind its planning.

These plans will identify the correlation between Okinawa‟s development policies to those outlined in the policy section of the model.

3.2 Timeline of Development Plans

• The First Comprehensive Okinawa Development Plan (1972 – 1981)

• The Second Comprehensive Okinawa Development Plan (1982 – 1991), including

the National Resort Law of 1987

• The Third Comprehensive Okinawa Development Plan (1991 – 2001)

• The Okinawa Promotion Plan (2002 – 2011)

• Proposed New Okinawa Development Plan (2012 – 2021)

3.2.1 Tourism Statistics

Next, I utilized Okinawa Prefecture‟s tourism statistics, the most recent of which was published in 2008. These statistics cover a wide range of tourism related activities which include: annual tourism arrivals by year since 1972 and route of entry into

Okinawa Prefecture, entry into the major outer Okinawan Islands, utilization of tourist facilities, and effects on the prefectural economy. In addition, the prefectural arrival data will be compared with the national flight data set. Other sets of data such as the movement of tourists to the outer Okinawan Islands are useful in observing ripple effects from tourism development on the main island. Both the national and prefectural data can be used to determine the growth of Naha as a hub for transportation activities and the growth of smaller hubs on the outer islands. The statistical data identifies the correlation between Okinawa‟s growth in tourism numbers with the model‟s tourist category and temporal phases category.

3.2.2 Airline Flight Data

At the national level, the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism‟s (MLIT) annual publication of airline traffic was utilized in analyzing trends in the movement of passengers between airports in Okinawa Prefecture with other prefectures in Japan. The MLIT has published air and sea transport data since 1948.

However for the purpose of this thesis, I utilized data from 1973 as post-war Okinawa

Prefecture was not administered by Japan until 1972, with the first flight data set being available in 1973. Due to the wealth of data, I utilized data from 1973, 1981, 1991, 2001, and 2008. These years represent the beginning of air transportation links since reversion, and the air transportation links at the end of each development plan, the last which relying on 2008 data as the most recent available. The data collected from these five publications were compiled in a table that lists total annual passengers both ways, distance travelled, flight frequency, and seat utilization ratio by every airline and every route flying into every airport in Okinawa Prefecture (Appendix I). I have generated several maps by ArcGIS to visualize these datasets in order to understand the changes in

Okinawa‟s air linkages throughout different time periods. These maps will be utilized in correlating Okinawa‟s temporal changes in air transportation linkages, with the transportation category of the proposed model.

3.2.3 Land Infrastructure

A history of land transportation infrastructure, such as the development of key highways in Okinawa‟s islands, was compiled based upon information provided by the

Department of Public Works at the city level, as well as available data from Okinawa‟s

Prefectural site and at the national level from the MLIT. Highways that link the resorts

37 and transportation hubs such as ferry terminals and airports have been prioritized in this list (Table 5).

3.2.4 Listings of Okinawa Resorts

A resort may be defined as a leisure facility, but what counts as leisure may differ between people. Defining the difference between a hotel and a resort hotel can be difficult, but I have assumed that a resort hotel is accompanied by a number of non- lodging related facilities, such as pools, wedding chapels, restaurants, tennis courts, and private beaches built primarily to create a captive trade. In Appendix II, I have created a list of resorts found in Okinawa Prefecture by cross-listing resort and hotel lists from three Okinawa agencies: The Okinawa Convention Visitors Bureau, the Okinawa

Prefecture Hotel-Ryokan Trade Association, and the Okinawa Prefectural Government‟s

Tourism Statistics Division (Okinawa Convention Visitors Bureau 2011, Okinawa

Prefecture Hotel-Ryokan Trade Association 2010, Okinawa Prefecture Tourism Policy

Division 2011). From these lists, I have created a comprehensive map of Okinawa‟s resorts, though each agency holds slightly different definitions of what constitutes a resort. To the list of Okinawa‟s resorts I added the following attributes of the resort:

Location of the resort, ownership, the location of the ownership firm, the first year of the resort‟s operation, and the total area the resort encompasses in square meters. These attributes have allowed for the analysis of spatial-temporal trends such as the spatial distribution of the resorts, the temporal distribution of the resorts, the concentration ratio of ownership (whether it is owned locally or not), and its relation to transportation and policy developments when cross-referenced with the flight charts and development policies. I acquired the necessary resort data directly from the resort through three

38 methods: the resort‟s official webpage, direct contact with the resort via email communications or telephone. To calculate land area, I utilized GIS tools such as Google

Earth Pro and ArcGIS (Appendix II).

3.2.5 Mapping and Analysis

The collected indicators were compiled into a series of maps using ArcGIS and its associated programs. Air transportation data were used to examine the spatial dynamics of tourism by analyzing travel patterns derived from an origin-destination matrix. A map was also created for the distribution of resort hotels, showing total area in square meters and opening date. I have combined these maps, to analyze the spatial and temporal changes in the distribution of transportation networks and resort hotels. These maps will be utilized in correlating Okinawa‟s temporal changes in resort distribution and its size, with the resort category of the proposed model.

3.2.6 Data Limitations

Statistical data on Japanese tourism still require much improvement compared to those provided in Europe. Okinawa‟s prefectural government does not hold any data collected through the survey of tourists beyond 2004 (Kakazu 2008). I confirmed this personally by contacting Okinawa‟s Tourism Planning Department, which acknowledged the unavailability of specific data for certain years. Although Nikkei Research, a subsidiary of the Japanese newspaper, Nihon Keizai Shimbun, publishes rankings of popular tourism destinations, its lists have been released bi-annually since 2006. As a result, statistics on tourist behavior have not been analyzed due to the lack of data.

3.2.7 Significance of This Research and its Contributions

While this study acknowledges aspects of historical and spatial development models pioneered by Butler and Miossec, it also takes into consideration new literature and research on tourism development as well as recent economic changes since 1980. In addition, this study also acknowledges that every tourism destination is unique in its own right. Okinawa is an example of a multi-island territorial unit in which resorts expand across many islands. Okinawa‟s status as a peripheral region within a core economy and the strong role of state in tourism development, calls for the conceptualization of a new tourism development model based on this uniqueness.

CHAPTER 4 TOURISM EXPANSION ACROSS A MULTI-ISLAND DESTINATION: AN ANALYSIS OF FOUR INDICATORS

4.1 Okinawa Promotion and Development Plans

Since reversion to Japanese administration in 1972, Okinawa Prefecture has undergone four ten-year development plans which have framed and regionalized its path of development. The following table contains a summary of the major points in each development plan, based on the original Japanese data and translated into English for this thesis. The categories used in this summary include the various time lines utilized by the development plans, planning objectives, the direction of the plans and its objectives, regional focus, and the economic and demographic data from the ending years of each development plan.

Table 6. Okinawa Development and Promotion Plans (Source: Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport and Tourism 2009)

First Okinawa Promotion and Second Okinawa Promotion and Third Okinawa Promotion and Okinawa Promotion Plan Development Plan Development Plan Development Plan 1. Period of December 18, 1972 as decided by August 5, 1982 as decided by the September 28, 1992 as decided by the July 10, 2002 as decided by the Prime Decision the Prime Minister of Japan Prime Minister of Japan Prime Minister of Japan Minister of Japan

Final Outlook November 25, 1972 In regards to July 14, 1987 In regards to the March 25, 1997 In regards to the the outlook of the Okinawa outlook of the Second Okinawa outlook of the Third Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan Promotion and Development Plan Promotion and Development plan

Final Outlook Submitted to the Prime Minster in Submitted to the Prime Minister in Submitted to the Prime Minister in thereafter May 21, 1981 (in regards to the June 12, 1991 (in regards to the August 3, 2001 (In regards to the Okinawa Promotion and Okinawa Promotion and Okinawa Promotion Plan) Development Plan) Development Plan) 2. Planning 10 year period from 1972 to 1981 10 year period from 1982 to 1991 10 year period from 1992 to 2001 10 year period from 2002 to 2011 duration land mark － 1991 Fiscal year 2001 Fiscal year 2011 Fiscal year fiscal year 3. Planning  Immediately  Correct the gap  Correct the gap  Establish the objectives correct the gap between Okinawa between Okinawa and fundamental criteria between Okinawa and Mainland Japan Mainland Japan for self development and Mainland Japan  Establish the  Establish the  Establish each area's  Establish the fundamental criteria fundamental criteria unique characteristics fundamental for self development for self development to contribute to the criteria for self  Realization of a  Establish each area's development of the development peaceful, bright, and unique characteristics socio-economy and  Realization of a rich Okinawa to contribute to the culture at a Asia- peaceful, bright, development of the Pacific regional scale and rich Okinawa socio-economy and  Realization of a culture at a national peaceful, bright, and scale rich Okinawa  Realization of a peaceful, bright, and rich Okinawa

4. Planning and responsibility Foundation Selection and concentration Posture Cooperation and exchange

5. Main  Maintaining social  Development of  Promote distinctive  Construction of private Direction capital distinctive industries industries towards the businesses under and maintaining its goal of economic self civilian leadership  Develop social base sufficiency welfare and secure  Establish regional health/medical care  Establish  Take advantage of promotion and enrichment of regional characteristics development towards  Preserve the natural people, develop and establish a the Asia-Pacific environment and diverse human exchange hub of the Region traditional culture resources and south promote culture  Establish an  Establish the  Maintain social capital internationally enrichment of  Secure a in correspondence to acclaimed academic people and develop comfortable living progress in the region centered on the the abilities of the environment and economic system Okinawa Institute of prefecture's citizens enrich welfare and Science and health/medical care  Develop human Technology  Promote the resources for the development of  Establish balance future and promote  Creating a peaceful, industries between regions and science and culture healthy and rich living exhibit unique space and characteristics of implementing a  Establishing  Secure good and each island comfortable living healthy social welfare facilities for society international environment and exchange  Establish facilities welfare, for international health/medical care  Establish human exchange, take resources and facilities advantage of  Maintain urban areas for sustainable regional and revitalize development characteristics agriculture, fishing, outer islands and  Balancing depopulated areas development of prefectural land and dealing with military base issues

6. Objectives  Maintain  Develop water  Develop industries  Promote industries for of each plan‟s transportation and resources and secure the creation of a self development communication energy  Maintain sufficient economy categories systems transportation and  Maintain communication  Stabilize employment  Develop water transportation and systems and develop vocational resources and communication job abilities secure energy systems  Develop water resources and secure  Promote science and  Develop facilities  Develop industries energy technologies, and for the living international exchange environment  Promote tourist  Establish tourist and and cooperation recreation resort areas and  Develop welfare promote recreation  Establish a society that and secure  Preserve the natural lives with the health/medical care environment and  Establish international environment and national land, exchange hub of the develop advance  Promote education control pollution south information and culture technologies  Develop facilities  Comprehensive  Preserve the natural for the living maintenance of urban  Implementation of a environment and environment and agricultural areas, healthy and safe national land, develop environmental society guaranteeing a peaceful livelihood control pollution  Promote education facilities and culture  Develop industries  Preservation of the  Develop diverse human resources and natural environment  Develop welfare and promote culture  Enrich leisure life secure and national land, and develop health/medical care control of pollution tourism  Establish foundation for sustainable  Promote education and  Stabilize development  Stabilize employment and culture employment and develop labor develop labor welfare  Develop welfare  Revitalize the outer welfare islands and depopulated areas  Establish and  Maintain and ensure  Develop the outer promote facilities public health islands for international  Promote the utilization of the returned base exchange  Stabilize employment areas and develop labor  Develop the outer welfare islands  Develop the outer islands

7. The Chunanbu Region, Hokubu Chunanbu Region, Hokubu Region, Chunanbu Region, Hokubu Region, Hokubu Region, Chubu Region, orientation of Region, Miyako Region, Yaeyama Miyako Region, Yaeyama Region Miyako Region, Yaeyama Region Nanbu Region, Miyako Region, each area of Region Yaeyama Region development

8. Frame Planning Duration

①Total ① Over 1 million ① Over 1.2 million (1991) ① Over 1.3 million (2001) ① About 1.39 million (2011) Population

②Number ② 460,000 ② Over 510,000 (1991) ② About 630,000 (2001) ② About 670,000 (2011) employed

③ Labor ③ ― ③ Over 530,000 (1991) ③ About 650,000 (2001) ③ About 700,000 (2011) Force

④ ¥1 trillion ④ (1991 Fiscal year) ④ (2001 Fiscal year) Prefectural ④ (2011 Fiscal year) Prefectural Prefectural GNP approx. ¥2.4 GNP approx. ¥4.9 trillion (1990 GNP approx. ¥4.5 trillion (2000 ④Percentage trillion (1980 Fiscal year value) Fiscal year value) Fiscal year value) of Prefecture GDP

Primary 5% (1991 Fiscal year) 6% (2001 Fiscal year) approximately 3% (2011 Fiscal Year) 2% Industry

Secondary 30% 24% 22% 16% Industry

Tertiary 65% 73% 75% 82% Industry

⑤Prefectural ⑤Prefectural per capita ⑤(1991 Fiscal Year) About ¥2 ⑤ (2001 Fiscal Year) Over ¥3.1 ⑤ (2011 Fiscal Year) Over ¥2.7 per capita income (to triple the per capita million (1980 Fiscal year value) million (1990 Fiscal year value) million (2000 Fiscal year value) income income from 330,000 yen)

4.1.1 Development Plan Analysis

As mentioned previously, one of the factors that led towards the reversion to

Japanese administration in 1972 was concern over the Okinawa‟s pace of economic development in comparison with the economic boom experienced in mainland Japan during the 1960‟s. Indeed, the themes found in the First Okinawa Development and

Promotion Plan emphasized the urgent need for economic policies that would reduce the economic disparity through development. In particular, Chapter One of the plan sought to develop a core resort zone in the northern peninsula of Okinawa Island, utilizing the area‟s natural features to promote maritime based tourism activities. This area would become the site of the Marine Expo which would showcase the natural beauty of the area‟s oceans. The central areas of Okinawa Island would utilize its proximity to urban centers and promote tourism activities based on those attributes. In regards to the

Miyako Islands and the Yaeyama Region, tourism would revolve around its natural

45 environment that would provide forms of recreation for tourists. Due to the archipelagic geography of Okinawa Prefecture, the plan outlines the importance of air transportation in developing the region‟s economy. The plan anticipated growth in tourism numbers coincides with growth in air transportation. Thus the plan sought to encourage a network of flight routes where Naha Airport would serve as the primary hub of air transportation to the prefecture, and as the main hub that connects the other islands to Okinawa Island.

The plan also explains the urgency of examining the needs of airports found on the outer islands. By 1981, the final year of the plan, Okinawa‟s per capita income tripled to

990,000 yen (Okinawa General Bureau 2007a).

The Second Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan, which began in 1982, retained many of themes found in the previous plan, continuing to focus on the reduction of the economic gap between Okinawa and mainland Japan. The plan sought to build upon the attention created by the 1975 Maritime Expo by promoting the acceleration of resort development along Okinawa Island‟s coast, particularly along scenic areas. In specific, the northern areas of the island where the expo was held, is cited by the plans as an area that required urgent development of coastal resort recreation. In regards to the outer islands, the plans identify Ishigaki Island as the center of tourism in the Yaeyama region, where resorts should be built along its coast line, utilizing the natural maritime and forest environment of the island. In terms of accessibility, the plan identified the need to expand the network of air routes between Okinawa Prefecture to major cities in mainland Japan to increase tourism numbers, while within the prefecture, expanding transportation access to the outer islands, particularly with Ishigaki Island and surrounding islands. Finally, in regards to road infrastructure, the plan promotes the

46 utilization of public buses, bypass, and expressways, connecting the airports and urban areas to the resort areas, which are vital for the viability of the tourism industry. The plan argues that by promoting tourism industries in every island, it would be able to create ripple effects that would improve the regional economy. By 1991, the tertiary industries expanded at the expense of secondary industries, while per capita income rose to 2 million yen at 1980 fiscal value (Okinawa General Bureau 2007b).

The Third Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan began in 1992, and again focused on correcting the economic disparity between Okinawa and mainland Japan; however its urgency has been reduced. While the third plan continued to outline the need for industrial development and the promotion of tourism, its approach towards the promotion of Okinawa differed from the past two plans. The plan emphasizes the promotion of Okinawa as a regional center for social exchange at the national level. This is evident in vocabulary which pushed Okinawa to become a center of peace and dynamism, to act as a contributor to socioeconomic and cultural development of the entire Japan, and to act as an exchange hub of the south. In terms of tourism development, the plan begins focusing on the promotion of specific activities, for example, sports, education, and research based tourism. The plan also sought to promote international level hotel and resorts that would be inexpensive.

Despite the changes in vocabulary, the third plan continues to maintain the importance of resort development as a contributor to the improvements of the prefecture‟s standard of life. In regards to development in the outer islands, Chapter Two of the plan calls for the acceleration of wide area development from international flights, domestic flights, and interisland flights, which would promote wide area regional

47 development. In specific, the plan promotes the expansion of Naha Airport as the primary driver of tourism and economic growth in the prefecture, while promoting the utilization of airports in remote areas. The airports of Kumejima, Miyakojima, Ishigaki, and Minami Daito are listed for candidates of expansion. In regards to airlines operating from these airports, the third plan identifies the need to develop a commuter airline that is suited for the island‟s archipelagic nature. Secondly, the plan also identifies the need to increase the size of smaller airports in order to correspond to the changes in aircraft sizes. Together these transportation changes would promote the expansion of the network of flight routes. By 2001, the tertiary industry slowly grew at the expense of the secondary and primary industries, while the prefectural per capita income had risen to 3.1 million yen (Okinawa General Bureau 2007c).

The fourth plan which began in 2002 did away with the word “development” and was simply referred to as the Okinawa Promotion Plan. This plan contained numerous differences from the previous three, particularly in omission of the need to reduce the gap between the levels of economic development in Okinawa and mainland Japan. Another change was the promotion of Okinawa internationally within the Asia-Pacific region which stands in contrast to the previous plan which sought to promote Okinawa more domestically. Elsewhere, there was growing interest in diversifying Okinawa‟s labor force and economy towards other industries particularly in the areas of science and technology through the development of facilities in the Naha area to Ishikawa.

In regards to tourism, the plan identifies the southern parts of Okinawa Island as sites for the promotion of coastal resorts and shopping along the west coast, while other parts of the area should utilize the area‟s historical monuments and war sites to promote

48 tourism. In particular, the plan uses the term green and blue tourism (tourism in rural areas and tourism based on maritime activities respectively) as the optimal form of tourism in the south. In the central area of Okinawa Island, the plan seeks the development of international resorts on the east coast; particularly it is the location of the convention center. These resorts would revolve around maritime recreation and are part of a wider plan to strengthen the availability of accommodations around the convention center. In the northern parts of the central area, the plan seeks the promotion of tourism based on healthy life styles and large events which include rock festivals, marathons, and local and foreign cultural events. In the northern parts of Okinawa Island, the plan again promotes green and blue tourism based on health and longetivity activities as well as cultural exchanges.

In regards to the outer islands, the plan again promotes resort tourism based on health and sports recreation in addition to green and blue tourism centered upon diving and marine sports. The plan specifically mentions the potential of sports tourism on

Shimoji Island. Further south in the Yaeyama Region, the plan seeks to promote nature tourism, emphasizing the area‟s mangroves, coral reefs, Iriomote Wild Cat, among others that would be utilized for the purposes of ecotourism, green tourism and blue tourism. In specific, Ishigaki is again emphasized as the hub for tourism activity in the region, while

Taketomi Island is mentioned as a site where its traditional architecture and cultural uniqueness can contribute to tourism. Yonaguni Island is also mentioned in the tourism plans, as its geographic location next to Taiwan and south-east Asia, could be utilized for tourism. Yonaguni‟s resort centers upon the island‟s underwater tourist attractions.

In terms of transportation needs, the plan seeks the expansion of cargo terminals and foreign passenger terminals in Naha Airport, while emphasizing the need to guarantee maintenance concerns and accessibility of airports on remote islands. In

Miyakojima, the plan suggests the expansion of charter flights from the island to cities in

Mainland Japan in order to increase tourism, as well as the expansion of flights into

Ishigaki Airport. For the first time, this latest development plan mentions the importance of the new Shin-Ishigaki Airport and Yonaguni Airport in network expansion.

For the first time, the latest development plan also identifies specific environmental and social problems affecting tourism. For example, the plan identifies concerns over red dirt runoff caused by development in the northern areas of Okinawa

Island. Secondly, the plan also identifies concerns over the health of coral reefs and water supplies in Miyakojima and islands in the Yaeyama Region. Third, is the concern over human resources as depopulation in the outer islands, especially in Miyakojima, is causing labor shortages in the tourism industries. In order to address some of these concerns, the plan suggests the viability of establishing an international research center that would monitor coral reefs. It is estimated that the tertiary industry grew to 82% compared to 75% in 2001, with the primary industries shrinking to 2% and the secondary industries to 16%. Per capita income fell to 2.7 million yen (2000 fiscal year value)

(Okinawa General Bureau 2007d).

While the first three development plans emphasized the urgency of tourism development as a method to decrease the disparity between Okinawa and mainland

Japan‟s economies, the fourth development plan conveyed a sense of maturity in the levels of economic development in Okinawa. Gone were concerns over economic gaps

50 between Okinawa and mainland Japan, and gone were the mention of continued development of the tourism industry. Instead the language had changed to one of maintenance, preservation, diversification, revitalization, and internationalization. In other words, tourism development may have possibly reached saturation levels and through this development plan, Okinawa sought new tourism markets from abroad and moved itself away from resort tourism and into business, education, and cultural forms of tourism. Concerns over preservation and revitalization also reflected upon some of the imbalances in economic development as the local labor forces shifted to other areas, resulting in areas which now face demographics concerns, as well as concern over the deterioration of the environment.

4.2 Resort Law

In 1987, Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone unveiled the Comprehensive

Regional Resort Preparation Plan (Sogo Hoyo Chiiki Seibi Ho) or Resort Law, which sought to establish regional tourism in specific areas of Japan, particularly those located in the peripheral areas where economic development has stagnated (Ministry of Land

Infrastructure Transport and Tourism 2009). These peripheral regions were the scenes of attempts by past administrations to create new growth centers by promoting economic incentives for large factories to relocate and negate some of the uneven economic development in Japan during the 1960‟s. Despite tax incentives and new infrastructure developments, many heavy industries ultimately relocated offshore, resulting in the

“hollowing out” of production complexes built in the periphery (Rimmer 1992).

The purpose of the resort law was to revitalize economic activity in these regions by turning these peripheral spaces into tourism destinations through the creation of

51 specific types of theme parks and resorts that would utilize the natural conditions of a given area. For example, regions that experience heavy snowfall such as Hokkaido and

Nagano Prefectures are optimal locations for resorts that centered on winter activities, while the sub tropical climate of prefectures in Kyushu Island and Okinawa are optimal for maritime leisure activities (Figure 13). As seen in development diagram in Figure 12, the creation of resort areas in peripheral regions would spur development of the local economy by creating a new industry that would attract tourists. The increase in tourist consumption will lead to the development of resort industries which will create jobs in both the service and construction sector, which in turn would reduce the number of youths migrating to other areas in search of employment. Increased productivity in these areas and consumption will result in tax increases. It was hoped that this supply side economics model would inject new capital that would revitalize the economies of peripheral areas that were hollowed out by the decay of past industries.

Figure 11. The distribution of designated resort areas (Source: Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport and Tourism 2009)

Figure 12. Effects of resort development on regional society (Based on P J Rimmer, Sato 1991)

Figure 13. Regional classification based on climatic and accessibility characteristics (Based on: P J Rimmer, NSKK 1991, Updated by D. Nguyen)

However in order to entice industries to develop these regions, adjustments to existing laws and regulations were required. First, the maximum number of working hours was reduced through legislation proposed by the Economic Planning Agency that would require companies to give compulsory one week‟s leave per year in order to encourage domestic travel (Rimmer 1992). Secondly, a number of environmental laws were relaxed and tax benefits created in order to attract investment into these regions. By

1989, nearly 19.2% of Japan‟s land area were designated as resorts (Figure 11) encompassing over 7 million hectares compared to the 5.5 million dedicated to agriculture (McCormack 1991). Okinawa would become the only prefecture where the entire archipelago was designated a resort area.

The Resort Law was a national plan intended to expand the domestic economy, and it worked together with land deregulation and financial easy-money policies to fuel speculative investments in land, hotels, and golf courses. Further, “third sector” schemes drew municipalities into investment with construction firms, assuming public debt for resort development intended to expand the local tax base. When the bubble burst in 1991 many of these expensive schemes could not repay banks for money borrowed, thus protracted financial problems surrounding these resorts have been one feature of Japan‟s post 1991 recession.

The effects of the bubble economy on Okinawa Prefecture differed due its unique economic circumstances. Companies from other parts of Japan began aggressively acquiring land for the purpose of tourism development or land speculation around Onna after reversion. However beginning in the 1980‟s, land acquisitions by local enterprises became noticeable. After the bubble burst in the early 1990‟s, the amount of land

56 acquisitions and tourism development by outside firms decreased while firms that were based within Okinawa Prefecture continued. Thus while enterprises outside of the prefecture dominated large scale tourism development, Okinawa Prefecture retained local control the developments small firms unlike the trend in Kyushu. Uezu mentions however, that some local enterprises have gone into bankruptcy due to the management crisis that was created by the recession caused by the bubble economy, and the Onna

Environmental Protection Regulations in 1992 (Uezu 2001).

1,000,000 900,000 800,000 700,000 600,000 500,000 1975 400,000 1985 300,000 1995 200,000 100,000 0 Hokubu Region Chunanbu Region Miyako Region Yaeyama Region Islands Islands

Figure 14. Tourism growth in the outer islands of Okinawa Prefecture

(Source: Okinawa Prefecture Tourism Policy Division 2011)

As a result of the prefectural level development plans and the national level resort law, tourism numbers grew in every outer island region. However the rate of growth in each region differed with the Hokubu islands (islands near the northern half of Okinawa

Island such as Ie, Iheya, and Izena)and Chunanbu islands (islands near the central half of

Okinawa, such as Zamami, Tokashiki, and Kumejima), experienced lower rates of

57 growth in the tens of thousands. In contrast, the islands in the Miyako Region nearly doubled in tourism numbers between 1985 and 1995, while the Yaeyama Region experienced the largest growth, with its 1995 tourism numbers surpassing those of the other three outer island regions combined.

4.3 Flight Routes

Based on data collected from the MLIT, I have mapped flight routes to Okinawa

Prefecture from 1973 to 2009, which can be found from Figures 15 to 24. Based on these maps, patterns can be seen in the distribution of flight routes and its temporal changes. In

1973, the first year after Okinawa‟s reversion to Japanese administration, 12 flight routes were operating from Naha airport, with nearly 16,000 incoming and outgoing flights combined. Trunk route destinations included: Tokyo, Osaka, and Fukuoka, the three most populated cities in Japan. The trunk routes were serviced by both Japan Airlines

(JAL) and All Nippon Air (ANA), contributing 71% of the 1.66 million passengers. In addition to its trunk routes, ANA offered local routes to three places outside of Okinawa which included Nagoya, Kagoshima, and Amami Oshima. Interisland routes were operated by Nansei Airlines (Southwest Airlines), which offered flights from Naha to

Miyakojima, Ishigaki, Kumejima, and Minami Daito. Flights operating in the outer islands include Miyakojima to Ishigaki, and Ishigaki to Yonaguni.

In 1981, the year the First Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan ended, the number of flight routes to Okinawa had more than doubled, with connections to 25 cities, and over 4.8 million passengers that year. Trunk routes to Tokyo, Osaka, and Fukuoka again contributed the largest share of passengers, with 58% of the year‟s total passenger although its proportion had decreased. In addition to its three existing routes to cities

58 outside of Okinawa Prefecture, ANA expanded its network to include routes to other cities in Kyushu such as Miyazaki, Kumamoto, and Nagasaki, as well as flights to Sendai, the first linking the Tohoku Region with Okinawa. While Okinawa gained new routes to cities in mainland Japan, the biggest increase in flight routes were interisland, with

Nansei Airlines operating routes to smaller islands in the prefecture and the nearby

Amami Islands in Kagoshima, which include Kita Daito, Tarama, Aguni, Yoron, and

Shimoji Islands. Flights from Ishigaki also expanded with flights to Tarama and

Hateruma in addition to its existing routes to Miyakojima and Yonaguni. However, the

Nansei‟s existing routes between Naha and the bigger islands, Miyakojima, Ishigaki, and

Kumejima saw the most significant increase in passengers, 349,000, 539,000, and

198,000 respectively, in comparison to 1973 numbers which were at 103,000, 89,000, and 48,000.

In 1991, the year of the conclusion of the Second Okinawa Development and

Promotion Plan, the number of flight routes increased by three, with connections to 28 cities with 56,624 flights conducted that year. Although the expansion of flight networks and flight frequencies was not as large as the 1973-1981 period, the total number of incoming and outgoing passengers had nearly doubled from 4.8 million in 1981, to 7.5 million in 1991. Again a majority of the passengers came from trunk routes, consisting of 58% of the total passengers. Changes occurred in trunk route operations as Japan

Airlines now offered a route to Sapporo‟s Chitose Airport, connecting Japan‟s northern most and southern most prefectures for the first time. Secondly, a new airline, Japan Air

System (JAS) now offered flights from Tokyo to Naha. Local routes to other cities in mainland Japan remained largely the same, with the addition of routes to Oita in Kyushu

59 and Hiroshima. However operators of these routes changed slightly, with Japan Airlines now offering routes to Nagoya, competing with ANA. On routes to Miyazaki,

Kagoshima, and Amami Oshima, ANA‟s subsidiary, Air Nippon, has taken over operations as the airline was created for some of ANA‟s short routes and remote routes.

An exception is the Miyazaki route which in which both ANA and Air Nippon offered flights. Nansei airlines also expanded outside of its exclusively interisland network, by offering flights to Okayama and Komatsu in the Kansai and Chubu regions respectively.

Flights to Miyakojima, Ishigaki, and Kumejima continue to rise, increasing to nearly

100,000 passengers since 1981. The most important addition to this route is Air Nippon offering flights on the Naha-Ishigaki route, challenging Nansei‟s monopoly. These expansions reflect the Second Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan‟s calls for flights into other main cities on the mainland and increasing the network of interisland flights in the prefecture.

The end of the Third Okinawa Promotion Plan in 2001 saw the largest expansion of flight connections to Okinawa, doubling to 52 cities. In addition to ANA, JAL, and

JAS, subsidiaries of ANA and JAL operated on trunk routes into major cities, which included flights to the newly constructed Kansai International Airport, near Osaka. The total number of incoming and outgoing passengers grew to 11.8 million, a 57% increase from 1991. Trunk routes constitute a majority of these passengers, at 57%, however its proportion remains steady.

As mentioned previously, the decade from 1991 to 2001, witnessed a dramatic expansion of flight routes within and to Okinawa Prefecture. Dominated by JAL and

ANA a few decades ago, trunk routes now experienced intense competition as JAS

60 offered flights from Osaka, Kansai, and Fukuoka Airports in addition to Tokyo‟s Haneda

Airport. Air Nippon is now operating flights from Fukuoka, while Japan Transocean Air

(JTA), renamed from Nansei Airlines in 1993, and offered flights into Haneda. The addition of trunk routes operating to Kansai International Airport reduced the importance of Osaka‟s Itami airport. All routes except for those between Osaka-Naha, saw significant increases in passengers from 1991.

Local lines also saw significant changes in flight networks. Kumejima,

Miyakojima, and Ishigaki islands now offered flights directly to airports in mainland

Japan, bypassing the necessary stop over at Naha Airport. These routes connected the larger outer islands to Tokyo Haneda, Kansai International, and Nagoya Airport. In regards to Naha Airport, in 2001, its flights were offered to every major city in Kyushu, as well as major cities in Shikoku, Chubu, and Hakodate, the second largest city in

Hokkaido. Operators on these routes included most of the major operators including JAL,

ANA, Air Nippon, as well as JTA, who once held a monopoly on interisland routes during its time as Nansei Airlines. Interisland routes to remote islands were now operated by Ryukyu Air Commuter (RAC), a subsidiary partially owned by JTA,

Okinawa Prefecture, and various share holders. As JTA is partially owned by Japan

Airlines (along with Naha Airport and Okinawa Prefecture), RAC is also affiliated with

JAL. The emergence of RAC corresponds to the promotion of a new commuter airline, as outlined in the Third Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan.

At the conclusion of the 2001 flight period, Okinawa Prefecture was now connected to every region in Japan through air transportation, and nearly every major city in the nation. Within the prefecture, most islands were also connected by air, with the

61 larger islands, Ishigaki, Kumejima, and Miyakojima, now offering direct flights to several destinations in the mainland, reflecting the growing passenger traffic on these specific routes and its popularity. In particular, Ishigaki and Miyakojima's direct flights to cities in the mainland have altered their functionality as a transportation hub, placing them higher in Okinawa's tourism hierarchy while Naha's role as the primary hub for the prefecture has been reduced. Airlines such as Air Nippon and Japan Transocean Air, which were originally conceived to operate short routes and outer island routes, were now flying beyond these routes, directly into large cities that were once exclusively dominated by JAL and ANA.

As of this time of writing, the current Okinawa Promotion Plan has yet to end, and it is not possible to acquire flight data for 2011. The MLIT‟s statistics site currently offers flight data for 2009, which were used to analyze the most recent air transportation trends related to Okinawa Prefecture.

In 2009, the network of flight routes to Okinawa Prefecture saw significant reductions, with connections to 42 cities, down from 52 in 2001. However the frequency of flights had increased from 89,325 to 101,441. The total number of incoming and outgoing passengers increased to 13.5 million, from 11.8 million, with 59% of passengers coming from trunk routes. Significant changes occurred in airline operators to Okinawa, as JAS and Air Nippon no longer operated any routes, with the former merging into the

JAL in 2001 and the latter adopting ANA codes in 2004. Replacing JAS and Air Nippon on the list of airline operators are two low-cost airlines, Skymark and Skynet Asia, based in Tokyo and Miyazaki respectively.

Trunk routes in 2009 saw the removal of Sapporo‟s Chitose Airport, but the addition of Tokyo‟s Narita Airport which alongside Haneda Airport, offered a connection from Naha to the Kanto region. For 2009, passenger numbers on these trunk routes continue similar trends in 2001, with continued increases in passenger traffic, with the exception of Osaka‟s Itami Airport, which continues to lose passengers as Kansai

International continues to grow. Skymark Airline operated two trunk routes during this period, to Tokyo Haneda and Fukuoka, where its passenger numbers exceeded those of

Japan Transocean Air in both cases.

Local routes in 2009 saw some of the biggest changes compared to those in 2001.

In the past decades, Ishigaki, Kumejima, and Miyakojima, saw significant increases in passenger numbers and flight connections. By 2009, Ishigaki continued to grow, with new routes to mainland Japan, including the new Chubu Centrair Airport and Kobe, in addition to flights to Tokyo Haneda, Kansai, and Fukuoka. The growth of Ishigaki

Airport corresponds to the Okinawa Promotion Plan‟s calls to expand Ishigaki‟s flight network and to further its status as a hub into the Yaeyama Region. Kumejima and

Miyakojima on the other hand, were reduced to flights to Tokyo Haneda in addition to its interisland connections. Another significant change was the loss of routes to several remote islands, which include Tarama, Hateruma, and Kerama. Flights to smaller cities in Japan, such as to Aomori and Oita were also no longer in operation.

In the 36 years of flight data on Okinawa Prefecture, which spans the period of four Okinawa Prefecture Development Plans, rapid changes in air traffic occurred, coinciding with the expansion of tourism development. The number of incoming and outgoing passengers skyrocketed from 1.6 million in 1973 to 13.5 million in 2009.

Beginning with flights to only three major cities in mainland Japan and interisland flights, air transportation in Okinawa expanded tremendously, giving every region in Japan accessibility to Okinawa‟s airports. The end of the Second Okinawa Development and

Promotion Plan in 1991 saw the largest increase in passenger traffic to Okinawa, while the end of the First Okinawa Promotion Plan in 2001 saw the largest flight network increase, where Okinawa Prefecture was connected to nearly every prefecture in the nation. However in 2009, Okinawa Prefecture was no longer connected to Hokkaido, and its connections to the Tohoku region were significantly reduced. In addition, it no longer offered interisland flights to some of the smaller islands.

While traffic air traffic in Okinawa skyrocketed during the period of the four development plans, the increase in passenger traffic was focused primarily on Okinawa

Island‟s Naha Airport, with Ishigaki, Kumejima, and Miyakojima also experiencing significant increase. Between the three outer islands, Ishigaki experienced the highest passenger traffic as well as the most growth in connections as Kumejima and

Miyakojima‟s accessibility declined. Traffic to other islands on the other hand, remained small, continuing in the realm of tens of thousands of passengers throughout these 36 years.

Figure 15. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 1973, the year of the First Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 16. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 1981, the final year of the First Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 17. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 1991, the final year of the Second Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 18. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 2001, the final year of the Third Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 19. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by airline company in 2009, the most recent year of flight data currently available as of 2011

Figure 20. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 1973, the year of the First Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 21. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 1981, the final year of the First Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 22. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 1991, the final year of the Second Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 23. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 2001, the final year of the Third Okinawa Development and Promotion Plan

Figure 24. Map of flight routes into Okinawa Prefecture by passengers in 2009, the most recent year of flight data currently available as of 2011

In summary, the analysis of the spatial changes of Okinawa Prefecture‟s flight routes displays significant changes over time. Initially limited to flights between Naha and the largest cities on Mainland Japan, Okinawa‟s air transportation network changed over the decades as Naha‟s network expanded to every major city in Japan, and most of

Japan‟s smaller cities. Secondary airports, found in Okinawa‟s larger outer islands,

Miyakojima and Ishigaki, also saw significant expansion as they began bypassing Naha‟s function as the sole hub into the prefecture, and offering direct flights to major airports in

Mainland Japan. In the most recent flight data, the number of routes began declining, reaching a peak in 2001, however much of the passenger growth in 2009 was focused on trunk routes, between Okinawa‟s airports and large airports in Mainland Japan.

4.4 Road Infrastructure

One indicator of the expansion of tourism across multiple islands is the improvement of island roads. As on Oʻahu Island in Hawaiʻi, much of Okinawa‟s highway infrastructure was developed for military needs. During the USCAR period in the early 1950‟s, most of Okinawa‟s current highways were developed under a large infrastructural development project that spanned most of Okinawa‟s major islands. A majority of these roads were significant in length, often covering much of the island, and in some cases encircling the entire island. Table 5 presents a summary of the major highways in Okinawa Prefecture, by island, build date, with a brief description of the area of coverage.

Table 7. Compilation of the history of Okinawa's major roads (Source: Matsunami 2000)

Island Road Built Areas within reach Okinawa Island National Route 58 1952 Covers entire eastern coast of Okinawa Island, from Naha to Kunigami Okinawa Island National Route 449 1972 (merger of Covers Motobu area, Routes 112, 113, 124) including ferry to Ie Island. Okinawa Island National Route 505 1953 (originally Covers Nakijin Route 124, renamed in 1993) Okinawa Island National Route 329 1953, renamed in Covers Uruma and 1972 Yonabaru areas on the eastern side of the island Okinawa Island National Route 331 1953, renamed in Covers eastern side of 1972 Kunigami. Southern half covers entire southern third of Okinawa Island Okinawa Island Prefectural Sea Road 1974 Series of bridges that connects Okinawa Island to Henza, Miyagi, Ikei, and Hamahiga Islands Kumejima Prefecture Route 89 1953, circle route Covers entire northern built. Southern half half of Kumejima renamed Route 89 in 1993 Kumejima Prefecture Route 242 1953, circle route Covers entire southern built. Northern half half of Kumejima renamed Route 242 in 1993 Miyakojima National Route 390 Covers southern half of island, connects to Hirara Port Miyakojima Prefecture Route 83 Covers northern coast Miyakojima Prefecture Route 243 1953, renamed Route Connects to 243 in 1994 Miyakojima Airport Miyakojima Prefecture Route 197 1955 Covers southern coast Miyakojima Prefecture Route 235 1989 Covers eastern coast, portions maintained by Tokyu Miyakojima Ikema Bridge 1995 Connects Miyakojima

to Ikema Island Miyakojima Kurima Bridge 1995 Connects Miyakojima to Kurima Island Miyakojima Irabu Bridge 2012 est Connects Miyakojima to Shimoji Island Ishigaki Prefecture Route 79 1953 Covers western and northern areas of the island including Kabira Bay Ishigaki National Route 390 1953 Covers eastern end of the island including the airport Ishigaki Prefecture Route 87 1953 Ishigaki Prefecture Route 206 1953, renamed in Covers far northern 1975 peninsular area near Ibaruma Bay and Cape Hirakubo Iriomote Prefecture Route 215 1953, upgraded to Circles 3/4ths of Prefecture Road in Iriomote Island, the 1972 only main road Yonaguni Prefecture Route 216 1953 Covers most of Yonaguni Island

Although many of these roads were built during a time when Okinawa‟s economy revolved around American military bases, their extensive network has eased the transition into the tourism economy since the prefecture‟s reversion to Japan. The famous National

Highway 58 connects the Naha to Kunigami, allowing vehicular access through dense resort areas such as Onna, Nago, and Yomitan. Ishigaki‟s Prefecture Route 79 and

National Highways 390 and 206 cover much of the island, allowing access from Ishigaki airport and the surrounding urban areas, to distant resorts spread across the island‟s coastline.

However there exists infrastructure built after 1972 which has led to the accessibility of new areas for tourism development. In Okinawa Island, the Prefectural

Sea Road began construction in 1974, connecting a series of small islands off the coast of eastern Okinawa Island, to the mainland. More recently, several bridges were built in

Miyakojima in the 1990‟s, which connected nearby islands to Miyakojima, with another to be completed by next year. An interesting road on Miyakojima is Prefectural Route

235. Portions of the route are maintained by the Tokyu Corporation, known for heavy construction and resorts. The route also traverses several large resorts and popular tourist attractions such as the Hotel Breeze Marina resort and the Ueno German Culture Village.

Existing infrastructure has also seen some changes over time, such as the widening of roads or the development of new overpasses.

4.5 Resorts

A key indicator for the expansion of tourism across many islands is the appearance of new and enlarged resorts. I compiled a list of resorts in Appendix II, and produced the following maps based on the collected resort data. The maps display the

78 changes in the distribution of resorts over time and the distribution of resorts based on size (Figures 25 to 28). In order to better display the details of the resort distribution, the maps are separated into two geographic regions, the Okinawa Region which includes

Okinawa Island and nearby Kumejima, Tokashiki, and Zamami Islands, and the Miyako and Yaeyama Regions in the south, which includes Miyako Island and the surrounding islands, and islands within the Yaeyama group including Yonaguni Island. The data presented on the maps of resort distribution over time are grouped by decades. The maps on resort distribution based on resort size are grouped by quantiles due to the highly skewed distribution of the resorts caused by the extreme outliers in the dataset.

While many hotel classification systems found throughout the world often categorize hotels based on room number, for the purpose of this research, land area size was chosen as the basis of categorization in order to measure the footprint of a resort. As mentioned previously, resorts differ from hotels due to additional non-lodging related amenities offered on the property such as a pool, tennis courts, beaches, and golf courses which impacts the footprint of the resort. For this reason, using a categorization system that relied strictly on the number of hotel rooms would not accurately portray the nature of the spatial qualities of a resort. Secondly a classification system based on resort functions would not have been possible due to the lack of data for certain resorts, as some companies were unwilling to provide information. The resort‟s physical size is thus used as a surrogate in place of functionality.

4.5.1 Distribution of Resorts

The resort data display several trends in terms of changes in its distribution and size since 1972. In terms of its distribution, most of the resorts in Okinawa Prefecture are

79 concentrated in Okinawa Island, in particular along Onna on the central western coast, and its surrounding areas, such as Yomitan and Nago (see Figure 10). The remainder of the resorts on Okinawa Island is found primarily in the south, while the nearby islands also host a small number, especially in Kumejima.

In regards to the other regions of Okinawa Prefecture, within the Miyako region, all resorts are found on the southern coastline of Miyako Island where many popular beaches are located. An exception to this is the lone Villabu Resort found on Irabu Island.

Farther south in the Yaeyama region, most of the resorts are concentrated in Ishigaki

Island‟s southern coast, with a few also being found on Iriomote Island, despite much of the island being designated as protected state land. Within the smaller islands in

Yaeyama, Yonaguni and Taketomi each contain one resort while two resorts can be found on Kohama Island.

4.5.2 Temporal Trends of Resorts

The oldest resorts, those built from 1970 to 1980, are few in number, but are concentrated again in Onna in Okinawa Island, but one could also be found in the far north in Kunigami, and another in Kumejima Island. Further south, there was no resort development in the Miyako region based on the collected data; however there existed two resorts in the Yaeyama region, one in Ishigaki Island and one on Kohama Island nearby.

In the following decade, the numbers of resorts multiplied but were primarily found near the existing resorts in Onna and Kumejima. Other resort developments during this time were found near the existing groups but began spreading to neighboring cities. Within the southern regions, Miyakojima saw its first two resorts built on its southern coasts while new resorts were built near existing ones in Ishigaki. The emergence of early

80 resorts along the eastern coast of Okinawa Island‟s central area, northern coastal areas near the site of the Marine Expo, and on the coast lines of Miyakojima and Ishigaki reflect the recommended resort development sites outlined in the First and Second

Okinawa Promotion and Development Plans.

The 1990‟s saw the largest increase of new resorts within every region. Within the Okinawa Island, new resorts spread further south into new areas such as Okinawa

City and Ginowan, however most of the new developments continue to be concentrated within Onna and surrounding areas. Nearby, resort developments have also spread to

Tokashiki and Zamami Island. Within the Miyako region, several new resorts appeared again on the southern coast but at some distance from the two pioneer resorts on the island. In the Yaeyama region, new resorts in Ishigaki appeared in the northern coast instead of the southern coast while Iriomote Island witnessed the construction of its first resort.

During the 2000‟s, the number of new resorts declined compared to the previous decade, however the locations of these resorts continued to spread beyond areas of previous concentration. The Okinawa region saw new resorts being built in the southern areas of Okinawa Island in addition to the Onna areas, as well as another new resort in

Kumejima. The Miyako region saw a new resort built near the resorts of the previous decade while Irabu Island saw its first resort. Finally within the Yaeyama region, the development of new resorts continues to spread in Iriomote Island, while Yonaguni

Island‟s first resort was built. The expansion of new resorts into smaller islands such as

Iriomote, Taketomi, and Yonaguni, reflect the Okinawa Promotion Plan‟s calls to

81 develop new resorts based on ecotourism and green tourism, utilizing these island‟s natural and cultural assets.

4.5.3 Sizes and Locations of the Resorts

Most resorts in Okinawa Prefecture fall within 500 to 60,000 square meters

(roughly from the size of a house with a yard, to that of three Japanese residential blocks), however there are outliers such as the Kanucha Resort at over 2.6 million square meters, nearly equal in size to Naha Airport. On Okinawa Island, there are several large resorts, virtually all of which are found within Onna and nearby areas in Yomitan and Nago which serve as the pioneer resort region, located away from a central place (in Okinawa‟s case, Okinawa‟s capital city Naha). This zone functions as the primary resort area due to its location next to Okinawa‟s popular beaches, while maintaining accessibility to large towns and cities on the island. However, the largest resorts on the island are located in areas that are more isolated from other resorts, such as the Kanucha Resort in Nago and

The Southern Link Resorts in Yaese which are located on the eastern coast instead of the west where most of the resorts are typically found. Resorts that are located closer to the

Naha-Urasoe urban area, tended to be smaller than those found in and around Onna.

Within the Miyako region two large resorts could be found, both on the southern coast, the remainder of the resorts in Miyako range from small to mid sizes. Further south, a few mid to large resorts can be found on the southern coast of Ishigaki Island as well as another currently being built in Taketomi Island. Kohama Island, which is 7.84 million square meters, is host to two resorts which combined; encompass nearly a quarter of the island‟s total area. Iriomote which has only seen resort development in recent

82 years contains four resorts that range from small to mid-size while Yonaguni further west has one small resort built in 2009.

4.5.4 Combining the Temporal and Size Changes in Resorts

When cross-referencing the map of the temporal changes of resort distribution with the distribution of resorts based on its area, a few trends could be observed. From

1972 to 1980, the few resorts that were on Okinawa Island were large sized resorts that were concentrated in Onna, with one in Kunigami and one in Kumejima, all located near beaches. During the 1980‟s, several large resorts began appearing again within Onna as well as one in Yaese and Ikei Island in Uruma, while other resorts during this time period, particularly those located away from the Onna area, were of small to medium size.

During the 1990‟s tourism boom the large resorts constructed during this time period were primarily found within and near Onna, but also began appearing on the eastern coast line such as in Okinawa City, Eastern Nago, and in Hamahiga Island in Uruma. Other resorts built in the 1990‟s that were not within Onna, tended to be of small to medium sizes. More recent resorts, particularly those built at the beginning of this century, tended to be smaller than those built previously.

None of the resorts currently found in the Miyako Region was constructed before the 1980‟s. The first resorts that appeared in the following decade appeared on the eastern half of the island on the southern coast, which included one large and one medium sized resort. The largest resort, the Miyakojima Tokyu Resort, is located next to the famous Maehama beach, which stretches for seven kilometers. During the resort boom of the 1990‟s, two more resorts were built, this time further west, but again on the southern coast line. The two new mid-sized resorts are located near the Ueno German

Culture Village which opened in 1996. Both resorts are also located near the Abaragi

Golf Course and the Shigira Bay Golf Course. Three more resorts were constructed in the

2000‟s, a large resort built near the ones built in the 1990‟s, a small resort far to the north in a rural area near the bridge to Ikema Island, and a small resort in Irabu Island, the first of its kind. The resort in Irabu is located between the island‟s port and a new bridge to

Miyako Island that is currently under construction.

Within the current list of resorts in the Yaeyama Region, only two resorts were built during the 1970‟s, a mid-sized resort on Ishigaki Island on the southern coast near the beach, and a large resort on Kohama Island which includes a large private golf course.

During the 1980‟s, three more medium sized resorts were built in Ishigaki, two of which are located within Ishigaki City, and one near Fusaki Beach on the southeastern coast line.

The resort boom of the 1990‟ssaw large resorts being built in the north of the island located near Sukuji Beach and Kabira Bay, becoming the first resorts on the northern coastline. In neighboring Iriomote Island, a small resort was built, the first on the island.

During the 2000‟s, three large resorts were built, one on Ishigaki island located to the west of Ishigaki City next to Maesato Golf Course, another in Kohama Island, and a controversial resort currently under construction in Taketomi Island. Two more resorts were built in Iriomote Island while Yonaguni Island received its first resort.

Figure 25. Distribution of resorts on Okinawa Island and nearby islands, sorted by year

Figure 26. Distribution of resorts in the Yaeyama region, sorted by year

Figure 27. Distribution of resorts on Okinawa Island and nearby islands, sorted by area

Figure 28. Distribution of resorts in the Yaeyama region, sorted by area

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

5.1 Re-Examining the Thesis Questions

Question 1. Since Okinawa Prefecture’s reversion to Japanese administration, how has Okinawa’s tourism economy grown?

The end of the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands and the reversion to Japanese administration in 1972 led towards major changes in Okinawa

Prefecture‟s economic development. From an agricultural economy during the first half of the twentieth century where primary industries such as sugar cane plantations were dominant, the islands quickly transitioned to a service economy which revolved around

American military bases during the USCAR period, and then transitioning to a tourism economy upon reversion to Japanese administration. Although the economy still relies on directly and indirectly from revenues generated from the military bases, the impact of the tourism economy quickly reduced the share of base revenues to the overall economy from 15.6% in 1973 to roughly 7% in 1980.

Since 1972, the number of tourists went from approximately half a million to 1.7 million in 1980, to the current 5.8 million in 2008. In comparison, tourism numbers are close to Hawaii‟s 6.8 million in 2008(DBEDT 2008), while other popular island destinations include Spain‟s Balearic Islands with 13 million in 2008(Canada 2009),

Spain‟s Canary Islands with 9.2 million in 2008 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), and approximately 2.7 million in 2009 for Jamaica(Jamaica Labour Exchange 2009). While the majority of Okinawa‟s visitors are domestic, the number of international visitors continues to grow, particularly among tourists from countries within the Asia-Pacific. As

89 of September 2011, the Japanese government has recently adopted visa policies which allow multiple-entries for Chinese tourists provided that they first enter through Okinawa

Prefecture. Representatives from Okinawa‟s tourism industries told me there is a strong push in marketing Okinawa to tourists in the PRC, South Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, and

Thailand. It is expected that in the following years, the growth of international tourists will grow at a rapid pace.

Question 2. What kinds of policies have driven the geographical expansion of

Okinawa’s tourism economy?

Concerned over the disparities in the levels of economic growth between

Okinawa Prefecture and mainland Japan, the First Okinawa Promotion and Development

Plan was enacted in 1972 which sought to reduce this gap. This ten year plan sought the promotion of industries, development of infrastructure, development of the outer islands, and the establishment of the foundations for tourism growth. While the plan included input from Okinawa Prefecture, it was primarily guided by the Japanese government.

Initially tourism growth was limited, the Marine Expo of 1975 held in Okinawa

Prefecture would ignite tourism growth to the islands. Conceived as a fair to commemorate the 1972 handover of Okinawa from the US to Japan, the expo showcased

Okinawa‟s maritime qualities and natural environment to a broader audience than before.

Soon after, the Churaumi Aquarium, one of the largest in Asia, was built on the Expo site.

Tourism numbers would begin doubling from previous levels.

The Second Okinawa Promotion and Development Plan in 1982 would continue the promotion of tourism and infrastructure development as a means to reduce the economic gap with Mainland Japan, and to continue to lay the foundations of a tourism

90 economy. However it would be in 1987 which saw another major policy being introduced that would affect the Prefecture‟s tourism development. That year the

Japanese government passed the Resort Law which envisioned spheres of leisure based upon the type of environment and potential activities. While various Japanese prefectures saw parts of their land designated as a resort area, Okinawa was the only location where the entire prefecture was designated as a resort. The law would become a catalyst for other laws at the prefectural level, all of which would set the tone for the rapid development of new resorts throughout the prefecture.

The next major plan would be the Third Okinawa Promotion and Development

Plan in 1992. While concerns over the economic gap between Okinawa and mainland

Japan existed, its urgency was reduced. One of the key features of the plan was re- envisioning Okinawa‟s role as a contributor to the socio-economic development of the nation through various exchanges. This would mark a transition from the past development plans which sought rapid tourism development through a Fordist style of mass tourism consumption to one of which that encouraged other types of visitors which did not rely on packaged tours. The following plan in 2002 dropped the term development and was simply known as The Okinawa Promotion Plan. By this time the scale of the plan were no longer national but international, as the plan sought to make

Okinawa a place for international exchange within the Asia-Pacific region. The plans also sought to address issues of depopulation and stagnation on some of the outer islands.

Indeed it was during this period in which tourism growth began slowing and stabilizing at around 5-6 million tourists.

The Okinawa Promotion Plan is set to conclude in 2011 and the next plan will begin in 2012. The changes in the tone of the current plan in comparison to the previous three reflect some of the challenges Okinawa is facing on its economy, environment, and society. The rapid development of tourism has saturated the island with resorts and rapid consumption of local resources, leading to the deterioration of the environment. While every region experienced tourism growth, this growth was uneven as certain areas, especially Okinawa Island, Miyako Island, and Ishigaki Island, experienced far more growth than other islands. This uneven growth has contributed to some of the demographic changes as employment seekers migrate to the opportunities found on these three islands. While Okinawa has been successful in attracting tourists from other parts of Japan, particularly those who would like to travel to a sun-sand-sea destination, its growth has slowed down due to a variety of factors which include Japan‟s economic challenges and in particular, the high-yen, which has contributed to Japanese tourists travelling abroad and may represent a financial obstacle for foreign tourists entering

Japan.

It is for these reasons that Okinawa Prefecture has sought to diversify both its tourism markets and its industries. Rising incomes in the Asia-Pacific has led towards

Okinawa heavily promoting its tourism industry to invite a new class of wealthy tourists to the prefecture. Many public transportation facilities, shopping centers, and resorts, now display English, Korean, and both Simplified and Traditional Chinese on their signs.

In addition to tourism, Okinawa Prefecture is also promoting the islands as a place for international research, finance, and trade, utilizing the island‟s location between China,

Korea, mainland Japan, and South East Asia. Many of these plans come from various

92 levels of government within Okinawa Prefecture but have met some resistance from the

Japanese government which has resulted in limited success in establishing economic autonomy. It was only recently that the Japanese government changed its stance on visa- entry for Chinese tourists after multiple attempts by Okinawa Prefecture, perhaps due to softening the effects of tourism loss caused by the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and

Fukushima Nuclear Disaster (Xinhua 2011).

Question 3. What has been the spatial development of tourism flows across the multi-island geography since 1972 in terms of air links, road links and resort locations? Is it consistent with the proposed model?

As Okinawa Prefecture saw changes in its economy since 1972, its network of airline flights from the prefecture to other cities also grew. The first decade since reversion saw a modest flight network with flights being limited to Naha and the largest cities of Japan with a hierarchy of smaller interisland flights within the prefecture. The

1980‟s saw the expansion of flights between Naha to other major cities within Japan and increasing flights to smaller islands within the prefecture. The 1990‟s saw the peak expansion of flight networks as Naha was now connected to nearly every prefecture, while secondary cities such as Ishigaki and Miyako began direct flights to major cities on the Japanese mainland about 2000. The 2000‟s saw a contraction of this flight network with the loss of several routes to minor and secondary cities however an increase of traffic along routes to major cities such as Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka, and Nagoya was recorded. Throughout this process certain islands such as Aguni and Shimoji which were once connected through air links during the early decades after reversion, found themselves without air transportation and its airports falling into decay. In contrast

93 airports located near popular tourism destinations such as Miyako and Ishigaki, have grown rapidly, with the latter soon to replace its current airport with a controversial new one under development to accommodate larger aircraft and allow an increase in visitors.

Much of Okinawa‟s road links were already developed prior to reversion as

USCAR developed a series of infrastructure projects throughout the prefecture which established many of the major roads used today. Most of the resorts, airports, and major attractions could be found on or near one of these pre-existing roads. New road infrastructure however, has been added since reversion as existing roads were lengthened or widened. More importantly, a series of bridges throughout the prefecture have been built since reversion, connecting many of the nearby smaller islands to the larger main island, creating new accessibility for residents, tourists, and development. For example,

The Big Time Resort and the Hotel Hamahigashima Resort were erected after the

Prefectural Sea Road was completed, connecting the series of islands off the coast of

Uruma. Certain resorts, such as the Hotel Breeze Bay Marina in Miyakojima, saw the construction of new roads specifically to improve accessibility to their resorts and nearby attractions.

As with Okinawa‟s air links, the spatial distribution of resorts within the prefecture has changed dramatically since reversion in 1972. Few resorts existed within the prefecture prior to 1980, with a few pioneer resorts primarily found in Onna in

Okinawa Island, and one in Ishigaki Island in the Yaeyama Region. The rise of Okinawa as a tourism destination profoundly affected the development of new resorts, particularly between the 1980‟s and 1990‟s as the Resort Law came into effect. While new resort developments continue to be concentrated in Onna and surrounding cities, resorts spread

94 further and further outwards, particularly southward in Okinawa Island while new resort development on the outer islands continued to be near existing ones. Many of the resorts, particularly those built within and near Onna, and those near Ishigaki, tended to be large, especially those built between the 1970‟s and1990‟s. The 2000‟s saw some changes as resort development slowed down, with many of the new resorts spreading to new areas and smaller islands. Most of these new resorts tended to be smaller than the older resorts.

Question 4. What do these data reveal about measuring tourism across an archipelagic geography? Are all islands now more visible to analysis? Were tourism policies effective on all islands?

While Okinawa Prefecture is but one prefecture of Japan, the country‟s long coast lines and multi-island geography presents certain unique characteristics in its tourism development. In its entirety, from Hokkaido in the north to Okinawa to the south, Japan stretches over 1,700 miles between Sapporo and Naha. If placed within Europe, Japan would stretch from Norway in Northern Europe, all the way down to the southern coast of Spain, traversing many countries in the process. During periods when flights from

Naha to Sapporo existed, each flight would consume between five to six hours, similar to a flight between Los Angeles and New York. While Hokkaido is connected to the other three main Japanese land masses through the Seikan Tunnel, the deepest and longest rail tunnel in the world, Okinawa Prefecture‟s insularity and distance keeps it isolated from the rest of Japan. As ferry travel could consume up to 48 hours of travel, air transportation remains the only viable form of transportation that links Okinawa

Prefecture with the rest of Japan and foreign countries. While bridges offer the potential to connect certain islands that lay close to one another, most multi-island chains rely

95 heavily on air transportation to connect with other population centers. For islands that rely on a tourism economy, air transportation links are synonymous with tourism growth, as one cannot exist without the other.

As with the challenges of tourism planning in the Balearic Islands, Okinawa

Prefecture has faced issues in planning its tourism policies over an archipelago. Many major policies affecting Okinawa‟s tourism, such as the Resort Law, were done at a national scale, while others such as the 2002 Okinawa Promotion Plan contained input from the national level and prefectural level, but may not have properly addressed the unique circumstances of each island. Infrastructure policies such as new airports, bridges, and roads, generate much controversy as different levels of government and stakeholders clash over their justification.

The challenge of tourism planning in archipelagos such as Okinawa Prefecture, stem from the fact that each island is effectively a separate stake holder. While large scale plans such as the Okinawa Development and Promotion Plans seek a prefecture wide campaign to boost tourism production, results have differed as islands are in separate stages of tourism development. Indeed, as the air transportation maps have shown, flight routes to certain islands, particularly islands those have a low population, have disappeared in a few decades while flight routes and visitors have increased to others. For islands that retain their air transportation linkages, tourism numbers and flight frequencies are disproportionately large. Islands such as Okinawa and Ishigaki receive several million annual visitors while others receive a few hundred or thousands.

The scale of tourism flows within Okinawa Prefecture‟s islands show high levels of disparity when analyzed at close range.

Variability is not limited to the number of tourists into each island but the number and sizes of resorts as well. As shown in Chapter Four, there is a wide range of resorts throughout the islands with some as small as a house and others that approach the size of an international airport. The island of Kohama utilizes nearly 25% of its total land area for resort use. In such cases, concerns over an island‟s capacity to provide resources for tourism consumption are in question. Other small islands such as Zamami and Tokashiki maintain only one small resort which may be better suited for the island‟s limited resources than a large resort as found in Kohama.

Islands which have neither resorts nor transportation linkages, whether air or sea, also face difficulties as local population begins to migrate elsewhere for employment opportunities, often to core islands within the archipelago such as Okinawa Island.

During my field observations in Okinawa, I encountered many in the tourism industry, such as taxi drivers, travel agents, and resort employees whose hometowns were in smaller islands such as Amami and Kita Daito, who migrated to Okinawa to find jobs as few existed on their island. As certain islands solidify their tourism markets, other islands may find difficulty in providing a differentiated product for tourists who may be unwilling to travel to these islands that have limited access and whose tourism experience could be found easily elsewhere.

5.2 Conformity of the Okinawa Case with the Proposed Model of Tourism Growth in a Multi-Island Destination Table 8 applies the results of collected data with the proposed theoretical model of tourism development in an archipelagic geography, as outlined in Chapter 2 of this research. The collected data closely mirror the spatial and temporal patterns proposed by this model. The four development plans utilized by Okinawa Prefecture falls closely in line with the temporal phase of tourism development, although there is some overlap with the results of the Second and Third Okinawa Promotion and Development Plans. The fourth plan, the Okinawa Promotion Plan, reflects the maturity of Okinawa‟s tourism economy as policies seek to diversify the prefecture‟s industries as well as markets, shifting away from its position as a domestic destination in seeking international markets.

Figures 4, 5, and 14 provide tourism numbers and economic indicators that provide data for both the model‟s temporal phase category and tourist category.

The results of the air transportation and resorts data fill in the spatial development category of the model. The maps produced for flights in 1991 and 2001are combined to explain the peak/saturation phase of tourism development in the model. The resort distribution maps explains the rise of a pioneer resort concentration and its steady spread outwards, first into bordering areas of an island, then towards nearby smaller islands.

Both maps display the changes in functionality of the main and secondary islands, as islands such as Miyakojima and Ishigaki become major destinations that begin to bypass

Naha‟s function as a hub to other islands within Okinawa Prefecture. The smaller islands however, remain reliant upon either the main or secondary islands, or both, for transportation accessibility.

Table 8. Applying research data on Okinawa’s tourism development to the model

Temporal phases Policies Resort Transport Tourists 1. Pioneer phase The First Okinawa Promotion Pioneer resorts were Flight routes between Tourism growth initially and Development Plan concentrated along Onna prefectures were limited limited, but begins to From 1972 to the emphasized the need correct the in Okinawa Island, and on to Naha and major cities grow during the first half mid 1980‟s economic gap between the southern coast of in Mainland Japan, while of the 1980‟s Mainland and Japan. During Ishigaki Island interisland flights utilized this time the development of Naha as the main hub. the tourism industry was Ishigaki served as a the promoted. hub for flights to the smaller Yaeyama Region The northern areas of Okinawa Island designated resort areas centered on maritime recreation, central areas urban recreation, and outer islands based on nature-based tourism.

Expansion of flight network vital in expanding tourism numbers and economic development 2. Growth phase The Second Okinawa Multiplication of resorts Flight routes now connect Rapid tourism growth Promotion and Development near pioneer resorts, new Naha to all large cities in begins, primarily on From mid 1980‟s to Plan continue the emphasis in resorts begin appearing in Mainland Japan and Okinawa Island, but also early 1990‟s utilizing tourism as a method to cities near the pioneer connections to smaller on Ishigaki and Miyako reduce economic disparities. resorts. Secondary cities begin to emerge Island destinations such as Northern and central areas of Miyakojima, witnesses Okinawa Island to continue most of its expansion ocean themed resort during this phase development while pushing for further development in the outer islands, especially in Ishigaki.

Expand flight connections to main cities in Mainland Japan

3. Peak/Saturation The Third Okinawa Promotion Resorts continue Naha is now connected to Tourism numbers during phase and Development Plan expanding away from the every large city in this period witnessed the emphasizes tourism growth but pioneer resort area. In the Mainland Japan, and most highest rates of growth, From mid 1990‟s to also examines policies to case of Okinawa Island, of the smaller cities, but during the mid mid 2000‟s preserve natural resources, the resort expansions connecting it to nearly 2000‟s, begins to develop unique characteristics begin to reach major every prefecture. Airports stabilize. Growth of each island, and promoting urban areas in Miyakojima and continues Miyako and Okinawa as the premier Ishigaki now offer direct Ishigaki Island. Tourism destination in Japan‟s south flights to Mainland Japan. growth on other smaller islands is much smaller To realize this, promote the Ryukyu Air Commuter expansion of airports in Naha, begins service to Kumejima, Miyakojima, interisland destinations Ishigaki, and Minami Daito as well as the number of flight routes. Creation of a commuter airline to serve interisland routes 4. The Okinawa Promotion Plan Resorts begin appearing The network of flight Tourism numbers Maturation/Consoli no longer emphasizes the need in smaller islands that routes into Naha is stabilize and experience a dation phase to reduce the economic gap previously had no resorts. reduced and the airport is slight decline. The with Mainland Japan. Much of On Okinawa Island, no longer directly Yaeyama region is an Mid-2000‟s to the policies are focused towards Miyakojima, and Ishigaki, connected to a number of exception as its growth far current the diversification of the most of the resorts built prefectures in Mainland exceeds those on other economy into other industries. during this time are Japan. Flights to smaller outer islands There is also concern over usually small in size islands in Okinawa has depopulation affecting human been terminated or resources in Miyakojima and suspended. However deteriorating environmental flights between Naha

conditions. airport to major airports in Mainland Japan continue Shift towards resorts that to gain more passengers. promote eco-tourism, green Miyakojima and Ishigaki tourism, and blue tourism. continue direct flights to These resorts would be built in Mainland Japan largely rural areas of Okinawa Island and on the outer islands, particularly the smaller ones.

Expand airports, particularly in Naha, with terminals favoring cargo and foreign connections, while Ishigaki should continue its expansion of its network of flight routes

5.3 Limitations of the Study

While this thesis contains an extensive collection of transportation, resort, and government policy data, the lack of publicly available data in certain details of these data sets has created limitations for this study. In regards to the air transportation data set, while detailed information on Japan‟s domestic flight routes are easily available, data on international flights is lumped together on a national scale rather than by airport or city.

Flight data from Okinawa Prefecture on foreign visitors exist, but details of the composition of foreign visitors are mentioned only in very recent statistical surveys.

Thus this study was able to analyze neither the evolution of international flight routes in

Okinawa nor the composition of foreign tourists prior to 1998.

The Okinawa Prefecture resort data also presented certain limitations as it is solely based on the number of resorts that currently exist. While this research was able to analyze the distribution, sizes, and dates of the existing resorts, there could be an unknown number of resorts that were built and disappeared prior to this study. The resort data set was based upon current information from OCVB, JTB, and The Okinawa

Prefecture Hotel-Ryokan Trade Association. Unfortunately through my contacts with

100 representatives there as well as other Okinawan travel companies, brochures and maps are kept only to a certain period before being discarded, and I was highly unlikely to find anything older than those printed in 2000.

5.4 Further Research and Recommendations

The data collected on Okinawa‟s resorts could be used for further research into other aspects of tourism research. The resort data has shown wide variations in the sizes of resorts throughout the islands as measured in land area. Those resorts which are classified as outliers within the data set are often those that contain a private golf course.

This does not necessarily mean other resorts are smaller because they lack golf courses, as it is possible that companies responsible for the construction of a particular resort and nearby golf courses have reached an agreement to develop an area together for mutual gain. A separate research dedicated to the relationship between the spatiality of these resorts and golf courses as well as theme parks could provide further background on the reasons behind the distribution of resorts, golf courses, and theme parks.

Issues related to the scale of tourism flows and resort distribution would require further research into the types of planning conducted at the national government, prefectural government, and local governmental levels. Interviews conducted at each level could provide details on perceived representation each level of government has in planning tourism for each island. Controversies surrounding the resort being constructed in Taketomi Island or the New Ishigaki Airport reflect some of the conflicts between different stakeholders in Okinawa‟s tourism production. Questions that could be generated from such a research include: What are the levels of representation within tourism planning in Okinawa? Have past and current tourism policies worked to benefit

101 of some islands and the detriment of others? Could better planning at different levels of government contribute to sustainable levels of tourism development?

Data collected for the research has shown a growing interest in Okinawa in attracting international attention to the island‟s financial, research, tourism, and trade industries. As the past few decades saw much of Okinawa‟s tourism market reliant on domestic tourists, could an increase in foreign tourists alter the way tourism is consumed in Okinawa? Much of Okinawa‟s early tourism industries centered on Fordist methods of production which included package tours, mass groups of tourists, and large resorts isolated from major population centers in Okinawa. As time progressed, the types of tourists have changed to those who are more independent and more interested in the cultural aspects of Okinawa. However could the increase in foreign tourists result in a shift in tourism production that reflects those of earlier periods? Such research may be feasible in a few years after the results of the recent visa changes for foreign tourists become more apparent.

The continuing changes in Okinawa‟s tourism economy also call for the addition of a new category in my proposed model that takes into consideration alternative futures of the tourism economy in archipelagos. This proposal would take into consideration trends in energy prices, demographics, socio-political events, and environmental changes, in analyzing the sustainability of current tourism development policies, and the type of outcomes it could lead to based on those variables. The framework would take into account different discourses in future development, such as survivalist discourses, promethean discourses, democratic pragmatism, sustainable development, ecological

102 discourses, and so on. In essence, the addition would form the fifth phase of my model proposal, but would be divided into sub-categories, each with alternative futures.

Finally, further research which adopts this research‟s proposed model of spatial and temporal changes of tourism development could be applied to other archipelagos where tourism forms a significant proportion of the economy, such as the Aegean Islands,

Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Hawaiian Islands, West Indies, and so on. While the proposed model was based on Okinawa‟s circumstances, a variant could perhaps find similar application to the aforementioned islands which also face similar issues of multi- island tourism, especially in the Balearics, Canary, and Hawaiian Islands which, like

Okinawa, are sub-national entities of a larger nation.

103

APPENDIX I Flight routes from and to islands in Okinawa Prefecture at selected time periods (Sources: Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport and Tourism 1974, 1982, 1992, 2002, and 2010)

1973 (12 connections. 15,914 incoming and outgoing flights) Route Airline Distance (in Annual Frequency Seat km) Passengers Utilization Ratio Trunk Routes Tokyo to Naha Japan Airlines 1,702 301,895 1,297 71.3% ANA 1,702 198,509 1,616 70.9% Osaka to Naha Japan Airlines 1,285 271,259 2,175 61.1% ANA 1,285 166,624 1,454 66.3% Fukuoka to Naha Japan Airlines 909 175,558 1,465 69.8% ANA 957 33,045 494 43.2% Local Routes Nagoya to Naha ANA 1,475 60,960 723 73.7% Kagoshima to Naha ANA 762 137,813 1,153 72.9% Kagoshima to ANA 356 47,130 1,416 65.5% Amami Oshima to Naha Naha to Miyakojima Southwest 303 103,088 1,769 91.1% Naha to Ishigaki Southwest 429 89,195 1,567 88.9% Naha to Kumejima Southwest 148 48,926 868 88.1% Naha to Minami Southwest 379 4,671 94 77.6% Daito Miyakojima to Southwest 133 17,223 313 86.0% Ishigaki Ishigaki to Southwest 128 9,409 214 73.0% Yonaguni

104

1981 (25 connections. 45,341 incoming and outgoing flights) Route Airline Distance (in Annual Frequency Seat km) Passengers Utilization Ratio Trunk Line Tokyo to Naha Japan Airlines 1,702 781,950 3,039 61.9% ANA 1,702 589,862 2,469 62.2% Osaka to Naha Japan Airlines 1,285 485,599 2,199 59.3% ANA 1,285 418,273 2,182 60.5% Fukuoka to Naha Japan Airlines 957 322,557 2,202 58.2% ANA 276,590 2,071 60.3% Local Line Sendai to Naha ANA 2,051 49,088 716 58.6% Nagoya to Naha ANA 1,475 238,327 1,683 61.1% Nagasaki to Naha ANA 940 55,987 693 62.8% Kumamoto to Naha ANA 890 79,827 715 65.3% Miyazaki to Naha ANA 860 48,945 702 54.4% Kagoshima to Naha ANA 762 148,226 1,440 62.7% Kagoshima to ANA 430 5,443 172 59.4% Amami Oshima to Naha Amami Oshima to ANA 356 18,961 528 63.0% Naha Naha to Tarama Southwest 362 1,690 190 46.8% Naha to Miyakojima Southwest 303 349,720 4,562 72.7% Naha to Ishigaki Southwest 429 539,283 5,751 75.0% Naha to Kumejima Southwest 148 198,745 4,024 77.2% Naha to Minami Southwest 371 15,269 1,182 68.0% Daito Naha to Kita Daito Southwest 386 5,339 404 69.6% Naha to Aguni Southwest 83 14,216 934 80.1% Naha to Yoron Southwest 192 35,002 800 68.4% Naha to Shimoji Southwest 338 23,652 709 52.1% Miyakojima to Southwest 133 69,871 1,429 73.6% Ishigaki Ishigaki to Southwest 128 31,763 2,056 81.3% Yonaguni Ishigaki to Tarama Southwest 69 2,934 475 32.5% Ishigaki to Southwest 63 11,879 890 70.2% Hateruma Tarama to Southwest 67 17,020 1,125 79.6% Miyakojima

105

1991 (28 connections. 56,624 incoming and outgoing flights) Route Airline Distance Annual Frequency Seat (in km) Passengers Utilization Ratio Trunk Line Tokyo to Naha Japan Airlines 1,692 1,311,993 3,771 76.4% ANA 1,692 842,440 2,814 66.4% Japan Air 1,692 151,765 720 70.9% System Osaka to Naha Japan Airlines 1,293 709,446 2,211 69.3% ANA 1,293 556,959 2,201 61.1% Fukuoka to Naha Japan Airlines 979 431,975 2,177 68.6% ANA 979 398,268 2,296 64.2% Sapporo Chitose to Japan Airlines 2,419 30,617 164 69.1% Naha Local Line Sendai to Naha ANA 2,010 70,772 545 55.0% Nagoya to Naha Japan Airlines 1,462 189,115 1,263 53.5% ANA 1,462 277,587 2,239 54.2% Hiroshima to Naha ANA 1,113 106,202 699 53.6% Nagasaki to Naha ANA 908 53,258 711 59.4% Kumamoto to Naha ANA 880 80,029 714 55.8% Oita to Naha ANA 996 29,760 412 55.4% Miyazaki to Naha ANA 857 47,344 570 65.9% Air Nippon 857 10,299 122 67.0% Kagoshima to Naha Air Nippon 763 156,905 1,609 77.4% Amami Oshima to Air Nippon 398 32,443 694 73.3% Naha Naha to Yoron Southwest 216 44,843 990 71.1% Naha to Minami Southwest 411 16,735 1,308 67.4% Daito Naha to Kumejima Southwest 169 259,975 4,896 83.1% Naha to Miyakojima Southwest 344 489,052 4,940 78.6% Naha to Ishigaki Southwest 468 680,540 6,939 76.1% Air Nippon 468 154,357 1,833 66.7% Naha to Kitadaito Southwest 406 6,155 507 63.9% Naha to Aguni Southwest 65 14,764 912 85.2% Naha to Southwest 363 19,361 676 44.7% Shimojishima Naha to Okayama Southwest 1,234 79,537 900 68.4% Naha to Komatsu Southwest 1,577 39,308 413 73.7% Miyakojima to Southwest 153 109,398 2,080 60.8% Ishigaki Ishigaki to Southwest 169 57,089 1,330 67.1% Yonaguni Ishigaki to Tarama Southwest 87 4,339 703 32.5% Ishigaki to Southwest 55 6,236 666 49.2% Hateruma Tarama to Southwest 81 23,796 1,599 78.3% Miyakojima

106

2001 (connections. 89,325 incoming and outgoing flights)

Route Airline Distance (in Annual Frequency Seat km) Passengers Utilization Ratio Trunk Line Tokyo Haneda to Japan Airlines 1,687 1,595,088 5,182 68.7% Naha ANA 1,687 1,531,219 5,135 62.8% Japan Air System 1,687 544,269 2,949 70.5% Japan Transocean 1,687 108,334 964 74.5% Air Osaka to Naha Japan Airlines 1,304 324,436 940 69.2% ANA 1,304 292,452 859 69.0% Japan Air System 1,304 150,235 816 62.1% Kansai to Naha Japan Airlines 1,261 241,347 1,471 60.6% ANA 1,261 429,141 2,374 64.0% Japan Air System 1,261 72,946 722 60.5% Japan Transocean 1,261 65,789 730 60.0% Air Fukuoka to Naha Japan Airlines 1,008 384,145 2,371 62.3% ANA 1,008 638,277 3,623 61.2% Japan Air System 1,008 113,864 1,082 64.5% Japan Transocean 1,008 55,291 567 64.9% Air Air Nippon 1,008 65,269 767 66.5% Sapporo Chitose to Japan Airlines 2,418 94,729 547 68.4% Naha ANA 2,418 35,158 180 83.3% Local Line Tokyo Haneda to Japan Transocean 1,888 23,102 236 63.5% Kumejima Air Tokyo Haneda to Japan Transocean 2,020 84,347 723 70.0% Miyakojima Air Tokyo Haneda to Japan Transocean 2,171 116,696 962 72.8% Ishigaki Air Kansai to Air Nippon 1,530 72,980 728 61.4% Miyakojima Kansai to Ishigaki Japan Transocean 1,650 98,576 907 67.8% Air Hakodate to Naha Japan Airlines 2,108 0 0 0% Sendai to Naha Japan Airlines 2,010 2,276 14 51.1% ANA 2,010 115,480 722 56.9% Fukushima to Naha Japan Airlines 1,858 14,776 176 56.0% Japan Transocean 1,858 42,540 549 51.7% Air Niigata to Naha ANA 1,935 55,243 473 50.2% Nagoya to Naha Japan Airlines 1,483 339,985 2,200 63.8% ANA 1,483 351,526 2,384 64.8% Nagoya to Japan Airlines 1,611 0 0 0% Miyakojima Nagoya to Ishigaki Air Nippon 1,872 60,166 726 69.5% Hiroshima to Naha ANA 1,143 146,055 726 56.1% Hiroshima to Ishigaki Air Nippon 1,532 2,794 62 35.7% Takamatsu to Naha Air Nippon 1,194 53,235 721 58.2% Kochi to Naha

107

Fukuoka to Ishigaki Air Nippon 1,370 59,631 730 65.4% Nagasaki to Naha Japan Airlines 915 538 2 99.6% Air Nippon 915 49,433 725 53.4% Kumamoto to Naha ANA 890 101,176 724 48.6% Oita to Naha Air Nippon 1,003 48,201 724 51.0% Miyazaki to Naha Japan Airlines 859 296 2 98.7% Air Nippon 859 62,211 723 62.5% Kagoshima to Naha Japan Transocean 758 7,542 118 50.7% Air Air Nippon 758 180,042 2,163 63.5% Amami Oshima to Ryukyu Air 390 1,601 66 63.2% Naha Commuter Naha to Aomori Japan Air System 2,175 10,330 90 70.7% Naha to Hanamaki Japan Air System 2,127 9,634 88 68.5% Naha to Yamagata Japan Airlines 1,806 148 1 98.7% Naha to Kanazawa Japan Air System ? 77,190 848 61.1% Naha to Izumo Japan Air System 1,246 3,580 34 78.6% Naha to Okayama Japan Transocean 1,252 112,819 797 67.4% Air Naha to Matsuyama Japan Transocean 1,072 36,518 488 53.8% Air Naha to Yoron Japan Transocean ? 38,657 1,616 61.3% Air Naha to Kumejima Japan Transocean 168 211,451 2,744 53.0% Air Ryukyu Air 169 19,823 756 67.2% Commuter Naha to Miyakojima Air Nippon 352 682,974 8,545 56.5% Naha to Ishigaki Japan Airlines 472 148 1 98.7% Air Nippon 472 930,365 10,440 64.5% Naha to Yonaguni Ryukyu Air 597 3,784 225 42.1% Commuter Naha to Minami Ryukyu Air 28,394 1,090 66.8% Daito Commuter Naha to Kita Daito Ryukyu Air 417 10,380 369 72.1% Commuter Naha to Aguni Ryukyu Air 85 26,201 4,226 68.8% Commuter Naha to Kerama Ryukyu Air 41 3,435 926 39.4% Commuter Minami Daito to Kita Ryukyu Air 62 9,475 355 68.4% Daito Commuter Miyakojima to Japan Transocean 183 91,113 1,370 44.9% Ishigaki Air Ishigaki to Yamagata Japan Airlines 2,184 148 1 98.7% Ishigaki to Yonaguni Japan Transocean 168 26,309 339 60.2% Air Ryukyu Air 175 6,839 278 63.1% Commuter Ishigaki to Tarama Ryukyu Air 87 3,618 656 34.6% Commuter Ishigaki to Hateruma Ryukyu Air 63 4,223 674 45.5% Commuter Ishigaki to Kumejima Ryukyu Air 383 803 26 79.2%

108

Commuter Tarama to Ryukyu Air 81 32,872 2,777 70.6% Miyakojima Commuter

2009 (101,441 incoming and outgoing flights) Route Airline Distance (in Annual Frequency Seat km) Passengers Utilization Ratio Trunk Line Tokyo Haneda to Japan Airlines 1,687 2,565,779 8,456 63.2% Naha ANA 1,687 2,181,831 7,239 66.0% Japan 1,687 33,966 274 83.1% Transocean Air Skymark 1,687 334,942 2,173 80.2% Tokyo Narita to Naha Japan Airlines 1,887 0 7 0% ANA 1,887 113,136 729 72.1% Osaka to Naha Japan Airlines 1,304 275,227 855 69.6% ANA 1,304 301,748 852 74.1% Kansai to Naha Japan Airlines 1,261 444,428 2,944 66.9% ANA 1,261 468,775 3,117 61.4% Japan 1,261 14,477 180 53.9% Transocean Air Fukuoka to Naha Japan Airlines 1,008 410,092 3,662 58.3% ANA 1,008 744,255 5,816 61.4% Japan 1,008 62,874 732 59.1% Transocean Air Skymark 1,008 93,724 1,185 44.7% Local Line Tokyo Haneda to Japan 1,888 14,385 151 52.9% Kumejima Transocean Air Tokyo Haneda to Japan 2,020 82,610 727 69.4% Miyakojima Transocean Air Tokyo Haneda to Japan 2,159 133,462 1,061 71.3% Ishigaki Transocean Air Kansai to Ishigaki ANA 1,650 789 10 62.6% Japan 1,650 75,866 733 64.2% Transocean Air Sendai to Naha ANA 2,010 129,856 727 66.2% Fukushima to Naha Japan 1,858 7,658 62 82.5% Transocean Air Niigata to Naha ANA 1,935 51,854 717 45.0% Shizuoka to Naha ANA 1,388 38,762 416 77.1% Chubu to Naha Japan Airlines 1,470 489,556 2,186 57.4% ANA 1,470 458,539 2,379 58.5% Chubu to Ishigaki Japan 1,865 55,756 557 59.6% 109

Transocean Air Kobe to Naha ANA 1,308 309,365 2,049 62.0% Japan 1,308 184,426 1,484 60.8% Transocean Air Skymark 1,308 3,300 28 66.6% Kobe to Ishigaki Japan 1,680 78,909 727 63.4% Transocean Air Hiroshima to Naha ANA 1,143 142,134 727 72.3% Takamatsu to Naha ANA 1,194 104,834 727 53.4% Kochi to Naha Japan 1,080 3,332 28 79.9% Transocean Air Fukuoka to Ishigaki ANA 1,370 31,467 427 58.9% Kitakyushu to Naha Japan 1,072 63,794 734 58.0% Transocean Air Nagasaki to Naha ANA 915 3,787 62 50.9% Skynet Asia 915 48,794 665 49.0% Kumamoto to Naha ANA 890 78,556 604 48.2% Skynet Asia 890 12,386 122 67.7% Miyazaki to Naha ANA 859 55,268 601 55.2% Skynet Asia 859 10,929 122 58.8% Kagoshima to Naha ANA 758 66,816 849 64.6% Skynet Asia 758 111,435 1,325 54.8% Amami Oshima to Ryukyu Air 390 16,399 742 56.4% Naha Commuter Minami Daito to Kita Ryukyu Air 62 10,106 357 72.4% Daito Commuter Naha to Kanazawa Japan 1,577 76,113 775 65.5% Transocean Air Naha to Okayama Japan 1,252 80,655 812 66.2% Transocean Air Naha to Matsuyama Japan 1,072 54,423 675 53.8% Transocean Air Naha to Yoron Ryukyu Air 231 31,542 1,360 54.4% Commuter Naha to Kumejima Japan 168 130,634 1,725 50.6% Transocean Air Ryukyu Air 169 80,629 2,844 64.7% Commuter Naha to Miyakojima ANA 352 258,847 3,619 57.2% Japan 352 504,904 4,831 67.9% Transocean Air Ryukyu Air 352 22.272 838 67.5% Commuter Naha to Ishigaki ANA 472 530,393 7,920 52.9% Japan 472 663,055 8,322 53.2% 110

Transocean Air Naha to Yonaguni Ryukyu Air 597 8,521 439 47.7% Commuter Naha to Minami Ryukyu Air 414 27,303 1,077 59.2% Daito Commuter Naha to Kita Daito Ryukyu Air 417 10,904 372 75.0% Commuter Naha to Aguni Ryukyu Air 85 4,557 825 61.4% Commuter Miyakojima to Japan 183 56,203 927 31.4% Ishigaki Transocean Air Ryukyu Air 183 11,013 424 66.6% Commuter Ishigaki to Yonaguni Japan 168 52,134 722 48.3% Transocean Air Ryukyu Air 175 13,048 439 72.9% Commuter Tarama to Ryukyu Air 86 28,436 1,446 50.4% Miyakojima Commuter

111

APPENDIX II Compilation of Resorts in Islands of Okinawa Prefecture (Sources: Okinawa Convention Visitors Bureau 2011, Okinawa Prefecture Hotel- Ryokan Trade Association 2010, Okinawa Prefecture Tourism Policy Division 2011).

Name Location Ownership Main Office Area (in square Year Built meters) Okinawa Island JAL Private Resort Kunigami JAL Hotels Tokyo 32,000 1978 Okuma Chisun Resort Kunigami Solare Tokyo 17,900 1989 Okinawa Churaumi Resort Hotel Nakijin Belparaiso Nakijin 22,000 BelParaiso 1991 Okinawa Marriott Nago Solare Tokyo 49,148 2005 Resort and Spa Hotel Resonex Nago Nago Resonex Nago 8,000 1996 The Busena Terrace Nago The Terrace Naha 165,000 1997 Hotels Kanucha Resort Nago Shiraishi Group Naha 2,640,000 1997 Hotel Yugaf Inn Nago Maedasangyo Nago 2,400 1989 Hotel Tanew Nago Maedasangyo Nago 34,000 2006 Wellness Resort Kise Beach Palace Nago Kanehide Naha 10,300 1992 Holdings Hotel Yugaf Inn Motobu Maedasangyo Nago 1,200 1993 Bise Hotel Mahaina Motobu Maedasangyo Nago 8,000 2000 Wellness Resort On The Beach Lue Motobu SSK Osaka 2000 1990 Corporation Rizzan Sea Park Onna Rizzan Onna 43,281 1993 Hotel Tancha Bay Natural Resort Onna Domo Tokyo 1,900 N/A Panacea Okinawa Kariyushi Onna Kariyushi Naha 264,462 1987 Beach Resort Hotels Manza Beach Hotel Onna IHG-ANA Tokyo 135,900 1983 Hotels Sun Marina Hotel Onna Ishin Hotels Tokyo 153,271 1987 Hotel Moon Beach Onna Hotel Moon Onna 66,728 1975 Beach Renaissance Resort Onna Marriott US 27,706 1992 Okinawa Hotel Hamabaru Onna Miyuki Group Onna 53,000 Resort 2002 Hotel Sunset Hill Onna Hotel Sunset Onna 4,100 1991 Hill Moon Beach Palace Onna Palace Okinawa Naha 83,000 1975 Hotel Onna Marine View Onna Kanehide Naha 17,194 1990 Palace Condominium Hotel Onna Yumeya Resort Onna 1,800 1998 Shimanchu Club Okinawa Suncoast Onna Okinawa Naha 10,300 1998 Hotel Suncoast Group

112

Okinawa Yomitan Daiwa House Osaka 111,519 1988 Zampamisaki Royal Hotel Hotel Nikko Avilia Yomitan JAL Hotels Tokyo 42,000 1994 Morimar Resort Yomitan Morimar Yomitan 14,000 2002 Hotel The Beach Tower Chatan Kyoritsu Group Tokyo 21,607 2004 Okinawa Big Time Resort Ikei Island Big Time Resort Uruma 44,519 1989 Coco Garden Resort Uruma HPD Osaka? 23,423 2000 Corporation Hotel Uruma Hotel Uruma 41,000 1997 Hamahigashima Hamahigashima Resort Laguna Gardens Ginowan IHG-ANA Tokyo 25,300 Hotels 1992 Culture Resort Ginowan Culture Resort Ginowan 7,400 2004 Festone Festone Okinawa Grand Okinawa KPG Luxury Tokyo 24,449 1991 Mer Resort City Hotels Okinawa Kariyushi Naha Kariyushi Naha 10,000 Urban Resort Hotels 1995

Okinawa Miyako Naha Miyako Hotels Osaka 4,000 1974 Hotel & Resorts/ Kintetsu Hotel Systems Chisun Resort Naha Naha Solare Tokyo 11,133 2009 The Southern Links Yaese Ryukyu Resort Yaese 773,200 1990 Resort Co. Southern Beach Itoman Southern Beach Itoman 34,927 2009 Hotel & Resort Hotel & Resort Okinawa Outer islands near Okinawa Island ANA Eef Beach Kumejima Court Hotels Yokohama 34,650 1977 Hotels Cypress Resort Kumejima U & R Hotel Tokyo 5,463 2007 Kumejima Management Resort Hotels Kume Kumejima Kume Island Kumejima 27,350 1986 Island YYY Club Ie Resort Ie Island JOT Enterprises Nagoya 16,528 1991 Tokashiku Marine Tokashiki Tohashiku Tokashiki Island 19,000 1995 Village Island Shirahama Islands Zamami Shirahama Zamami Island 3,000 1993 Resort Island Islands Resort Miyakojima Region Atoll Emerald Miyakojim Route Inn? Tokyo 14,318 1988 a City Miyakojima Tokyu Miyakojim Tokyu Hotels Tokyo 178,006 1984 Resort a City Hotel Breeze Bay Miyakojim Unimat Tokyo 26,000 1993 Marina a City Resort Villa Brisa Miyakojim Unimat Tokyo 12,000 1998 a City Shigira Bay Side Miyakojim Unimat Tokyo 104,000 2005 Suite Allamanda a City Pai Base Resort Miyakojim Pai Base Resort Miyakojima 500 2000 a City City

113

Villabu Resort Irabu Villabu Resort Irabu Island 6,000 2003 Island

Yaeyama Region Seamen's Club Ishigaki Kamori Tokyo 27,000 1998 Resort Hotel Hotel Nikko Ishigaki JAL Tokyo 17,625 1984 Yaeyama Hotels/Nikko Yaeyama Hotel Route Inn Ishigaki Route Inn Tokyo 2,994 2001 Grantia Ishigaki Club Med Kabira Ishigaki Club Med Paris/Tokyo 50,000 1999 ANA Ishigaki IHG-ANA Tokyo 182,000 2009 Intercontinental Hotels Ishigaki Resort Fusaki Resort Ishigaki Fusaki Resort Ishigaki 11,700 1982 Village Village Grand Vrio Hotel Ishigaki Route Inn Tokyo 18,066 2008 Ishigaki Resort Chisun Resort Ishigaki Solare Hotels Tokyo 1975 Ishigaki Beach Hotel Ishigaki Hotel Beach Ishigaki 10,000 1978 Sunshine sunshine Hotel Ibaruma Ishigaki Hotel Ibaruma Ishigaki 4,300 2007

Ishigaki Seaside Ishigaki Nakamura Ishigaki 10,000 No Phone Taking Hotel Enterprise Yamaha Resort Kohama Marriott Wash. D.C 400,000 1979 Haimurubushi Island Kohama Resort & Kohama Unimat Tokyo 34,000 2001 Spa Nirai Kanai Island Nirai Kanai Iriomote Unimat Tokyo 38,000 2004 Sanctuary Resort Nilaina Resort Iriomote Nilaina Resort Iriomote 1,650 1997 Hotel Lateada Iriomote Lateada Hyogo 3,000 2001 Eco Village Iriomote Iriomote Flower Group Iriomote 9,900 2008 Hoshino Taketomi Taketomi Hoshino Karuizawa 130,000 2010 Resort Island Ailand Resort Yonaguni Ailand Resort Naha 9,081 2009 Yonaguni

114

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