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At Mahoney Lake, British Columbia, Canada 219 DOI 10.2478/Limre-2020-0021

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At Mahoney Lake, British Columbia, Canada 219 DOI 10.2478/Limre-2020-0021 Limnol. Rev. (2020)Fifty years 20, 4:of 219-227limnology (1969-2019) at Mahoney Lake, British Columbia, Canada 219 DOI 10.2478/limre-2020-0021 Fifty years of limnology (1969-2019) at Mahoney Lake, British Columbia, Canada Markus L. Heinrichs1,*, Ian R. Walker2, Ken J. Hall3, Jörg Overmann4, 5, Molly D. O’Beirne6 1 Department of Geography and Earth & Environmental Science, Okanagan College, 1000 K.L.O. Road, Kelowna, British Columbia V1Y 4X8, Canada, e-mail: [email protected] (*corresponding author) 2 Department of Biology and Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada, e-mail: [email protected] 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada, e-mail: [email protected] 4 Leibniz-Institut DSMZ- German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstraße 7B, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany, e-mail: [email protected] 5 Braunschweig University of Technology, Universitätsplatz 2, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany 6 Department of Geology and Environmental Science, 4107 O’Hara Street, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, United States of America, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract: Mahoney Lake is a small, meromictic saline lake in south-central British Columbia noted for its unique layer of purple sulfur bacteria. First examined in 1969, this lake has undergone physical, chemical, biological, and pre-historical research to generate an understanding of how the lake and its biota function have developed through time. Advances in understanding the sulfur transformations and bacterial nutrient cycling over the last fifty years have been prolific, resulting in the description of several new taxa. Mahoney Lake is exceptional in its limnological characteristics and is an ideal site for training future limnologists. Key words: purple sulphur bacteria, meromictic, redox Introduction is acutely sensitive to water balance. The shoreline length is estimated at less than three kilometres (BC Mahoney Lake, British Columbia, Canada is a Parks 2020). It is currently bounded by the twenty closed-basin meromictic lake with unique stratifica- nine and a half hectare Mahoney Lake Ecological tion patterns and physical chemistry that are cur- Reserve on the southern side, established by the rently reflected as euxinic (i.e., anoxic and sulfidic) province of British Columbia in 1972, and the 3764 conditions. Its biota are similarly unique and di- hectare White Lake Grasslands Protected Area, es- verse, having adapted to the extreme environ- tablished in 2001, on the northern side. The lake is ments that developed in the Holocene. As such, it located in the Ponderosa Pine biogeoclimatic zone, has received scientific attention for over fifty years. with a mean annual temperature of 10.1°C and 345 Mahoney Lake is an approximately twenty mm of precipitation (1981-2010 Canadian Climate hectare lake situated at ~470 metres above sea lev- Normals from Oliver, BC). el, ten kilometres south of Okanagan Falls, British Mahoney Lake was officially named as such Columbia, with a catchment of about 385 ha in area. in 1936, after John Mahoney who pre-empted Lot The lake has a depth of eighteen metres, however, 521 in February 1908; prior to this it was identi- the surface elevation fluctuates by several metres in fied as Alkali Lake on some 1918 land surveyor’s any decade as there are no outlet streams and in- field notes (BC Geographical Names 2020). The let streams are ephemeral. As such, Mahoney Lake Syilx peoples, the local First Nations, have for mil- lennia interacted with this and other special lakes 220 Markus L. Heinrichs, Ian R. Walker, Ken J. Hall, Jörg Overmann, Molly D. O’Beirne in the area (e.g. Spotted Lake) and likely had given portant observations and speculations that directed Mahoney Lake a name in the Nsyilxcən language subsequent research, for example, that the purple based upon the unique character of this lake. sulfur bacterial plate may move with seasonal light Here we present a three-part, comprehen- penetration, that the copepod community feeds sive summary of the research conducted over the upon the bacteria, and that warm monimolimnion last fifty years. We first describe research examin- temperatures may allow year-round reproduction ing the unique physical and chemical characteristics within the zooplankter community. Lastly, they of this lake. Second, we outline the paleolimno- stated that Mahoney Lake is probably unsuitable for logical studies that highlight changes the lake has trout due to its salinity and low oxygen concentra- undergone since deglaciation in the region. Last, tions – for this we may be grateful that there was we highlight research in carbon and sulfur transfor- no artificial mixis technology installed in Mahoney mations and characterization of the sulfur bacterial Lake, setting the stage for decades of limnological community and suggest possible future avenues of research into this fascinating lake. research. Fourteen years later, Northcote and Hall (1983) compared the adjacent Green and Mahoney Mahoney Lake Lakes (separated by less than one kilometre), both of which are considered saline. They proposed that the differences in conductivity (Green Lake = 3520 A unique aquatic ecosystem μS cm–1 and Mahoney Lake = 55,000 μS cm–1) and mineral composition between lakes is due to the A Zeitgeist of the postwar period was to “im- underlying bedrock – Greenlake astride the Skaha prove” the sport fishery in British Columbia, specifi- formation that is low in alkali materials, Mahoney cally for brook and rainbow trout (Ashley and Nor- bounded by the Kitley Lake and Marama forma- din 1999). In the late 1960s, Halsey was tasked to tions (see Church 1973 for additional discussion on investigate the overwintering capacity of a variety these rock formations), both high in alkali miner- of inland lakes for game fish (Halsey 1968). An aera- als. Differences in bedrock contributions were later tion system was eventually installed at Yellow Lake confirmed (Michel et al. 2002), with a conductiv- in 1969 to facilitate the salmonid fishery (Halsey and ity value of 135,000 μS cm–1 in October, 1981 at MacDonald 1971). This mandate was likely the rea- Mahoney Lake, though values of 5800 and 8500 son for examining Mahoney Lake, as Northcote and μS cm–1 from May and September, 1983 were ob- Halsey compared four similarly sized lakes in south- served. Differences in ion concentrations were also ern British Columbia, three near the community of observed between Mahoney and Green Lakes (see Penticton (White, Yellow, and Mahoney Lakes) and Table 1). one (Lyons Lake) near Kamloops (Northcote and Although the salinity of Mahoney Lake is Halsey 1969). They provided physicochemical data comparable to that of marine environments, and for the lakes and their watersheds, noting that the the lake is not alkaline, it is rich in magnesium and thermal, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and fauna sulfate ions which seem to be the cause of the ab- profiles indicated that strong meromixis occurred sence of fish and the low diversity of zooplankton. in Mahoney and Lyons Lakes. Furthermore, using Northcote and Hall (1983) additionally proposed an echo sounder, they discovered two layers within that meromixis is maintained in Mahoney Lake not the water column of Mahoney Lake, the lower one occurring at the chemocline which was dominated by purple sulfur bacteria at the time identified as Table 1. Ion concentrations (in mg dm–3) of Mahoney and Green Thiocapsa sp. with a jellylike consistency because of Lakes, British Columbia an extremely high biomass density, and an upper Mahoney Lake Green Lake Ion layer that may have been caused by phytoplank- (Oct. 1981) (Sept. 1983) ton, but that may have been ephemeral in nature. Na+ 4900 228 Aside from noting the presence of the distinct lay- K+ 730 37 er of bacteria (later photographed to be distinctly SO 2– 19440 701 stratified (Overmann 2001), they made several im- 4 Fifty years of limnology (1969-2019) at Mahoney Lake, British Columbia, Canada 221 due to differences in salinity, but rather local topo- by Hamilton et al. (2014) as Thiohalocapsa, thus it graphical differences, suggesting that the surround- is referred to here by the name Thiohalocapsa sp. ing hills protect Mahoney Lake from prevailing strain ML1) and lesser populations of Thiocapsa ro- winds whereas Green Lake is more exposed and seopersicina, Rhodobacter capsulatus, Chloroherpe- lies parallel the main axis of the Okanagan Valley. ton thalassium, and Prosthecochloris aestuarii. They However, one cannot help but feel they were ulti- determined that the concentration of bacteriochlo- mately more interested in examining the biological rophyll a was up to 20,900 μg dm–3, the highest implications of the unique stratification of Mahoney value observed in any natural body of water to date Lake. Four distinct oxygen zones were confirmed, (nine times higher than the next reported value), the surface high O2 zone (likely originating from with primary productivity amounting to fifteen mil- melting snow), a low O2 zone at two metres depth, ligrams of carbon per square metre per hour with- a moderately oxygenated zone at six metres depth, in the bacterial plate. In subsequent years, record and the anoxic monimolimnion below eight me- concentrations of 27,500 μg bacteriochlorophyll-a tres depth. They also observe that productivity is per litre were detected (Overmann et al. 1994). dominated by bacterial activity, unlike Green Lake, Overmann et al. (1991) also investigated the flux where lake productivity was dominated by phyto- of sulfide within the water column, recognizing the plankton as in most other lakes. Finally, they associ- redox roles of a variety of bacteria within the layer ate two distinct zooplankton zones associated with itself, including purple non-sulfur bacteria which re- the surface and six metre oxygenated layers.
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