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The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia This page intentionally left blank THE ANCIENT LANGUAGES OF SYRIA-PALESTINE AND ARABIA This book, derived from the acclaimed Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Lan- guages, describes the ancient languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia, for the convenience of students and specialists working in that area. Each chapter of the work focuses on an individ- ual language or, in some instances, a set of closely related varieties of a language. Providing a full descriptive presentation, each of these chapters examines the writing system(s), phonol- ogy, morphology, syntax, and lexicon of that language, and places the language within its proper linguistic and historical context. The volume brings together an international array of scholars, each a leading specialist in ancient language study. While designed primarily for scholars and students of linguistics, this work will prove invaluable to all whose studies take them into the realm of ancient language. Roger D. Woodard is the Andrew Van Vranken Raymond Professor of the Classics at the University of Buffalo. His chief research interests lie generally within the areas of Greek and Roman myth and religion, Indo-European culture and linguistics, the origin and develop- ment of writing among the Greeks, and the interaction between Greece and the ancient Near East. His other books include The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology (2007), Indo-European Sacred Space (2006), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Lan- guages (2004); Ovid’s Fasti (with A. J. Boyle, 2000); Greek Writing from Knossos to Homer: A Linguistic Interpretation of the Origins of the Greek Alphabet (1997), and On Interpreting Morphological Change (1990). He has also published numerous articles and served as Presi- dent of the Society for the Study of Greek and Latin Language and Linguistics from 1992 to 2001. The Ancient Languages of Syria- Palestine and Arabia Edited by roger d. woodard CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521684989 © Cambridge University Press 2008 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-39338-9 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-68498-9 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents List of figures page vi List of tables vii List of maps viii List of contributors ix Notes on numbering and cross-referencing x List of abbreviations xi Preface roger d. woodard xv Preface to the first edition roger d. woodard xix 1 Language in ancient Syria-Palestine and Arabia: an introduction roger d. woodard 1 2Ugaritic dennis pardee 5 3Hebrew p. kyle mccarter, jr. 36 4 Phoenician and Punic jo ann hackett 82 5 Canaanite dialects dennis pardee 103 6 Aramaic stuart creason 108 7 Ancient South Arabian norbert nebes and peter stein 145 8 Ancient North Arabian m. c. a. macdonald 179 Appendix 1. Afro-Asiatic john huehnergard 225 Appendix 2. Full tables of contents from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, and from the other volumes in the paperback series 247 Index of general subjects 252 Index of grammar and linguistics 255 Index of languages 258 Index of named linguistic laws and principles 262 v Figures 3.1 The seven full vowels of Tiberian Hebrew page 43 4.1 Vowel phonemes of Standard Phoenician 87 7.1 The great inscription of Karib’il Watar (c. 685 BC) R3945: section of lines 11–20 148 8.1 Pre-Islamic Arabia 180 8.2 Examples of the Ancient North Arabian scripts 182 8.3 Letter-forms in the Ancient North Arabian scripts 187 vi Tables 2.1 The Ugaritic cuneiform consonantal script page 8 2.2 The Ugaritic noun: absolute state 13 2.3 The Ugaritic verb: G-stem 23 3.1 The Hebrew alphabet 39 3.2 The Tiberian representation of the principal Hebrew vowels 40 3.3 The consonantal phonemes of Hebrew 42 3.4 The vowel classes of Hebrew verbs 68 4.1 The Phoenician consonantal script 85 4.2 The consonantal phonemes of Standard Phoenician 86 4.3 The enclitic personal pronouns of Standard Phoenician 92 6.1 Aramaic consonantal scripts 110 6.2 Aramaic vowel diacritics 111 6.3 Old Aramaic consonantal phonemes 113 7.1 The Ancient South Arabian consonantal script 147 7.2 The consonantal phonemes of Ancient South Arabian 149 8.1 The consonantal phonemes of Ancient North Arabian 188 8.2 The cardinal numerals in Dadanitic 213 A.1 The consonantal phonemes of Common Semitic 229 A.2 Proto-Semitic personal pronouns 237 vii Map 1 The ancient languages of Northeastern Africa and Arabia page xx viii Contributors stuart creason University of Chicago jo ann hackett Harvard University john huehnergard Harvard University m. c. a. macdonald University of Oxford p. kyle mccarter, jr. The Johns Hopkins University norbert nebes Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat¨ Jena dennis pardee University of Chicago peter stein Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat¨ Jena roger d. woodard University of Buffalo (The State University of New York) ix Notes on numbering and cross-referencing This volume is one of five paperbacks derived from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages (WAL), with the content now organized by region for the convenience of students and specialists wishing to focus on a given area of the ancient world. Cross-references to material within this volume use its own internal chapter numbers. Any cross-references to other chapters of the original WAL refer to the chapter numbers in that work, and are prefixed by WAL. The contents list of WAL is reproduced at the back of this volume, as are the contents of the respective volumes of the paperback series derived from it. x Abbreviations Any abbreviation that deviates from the form given below is noted within the text of the individual chapter or within a chapter-specific list. Linguistic terms dir. directive dir. obj. direct object abl. ablative disj. disjunctive abs. absolutive du. dual acc. accusative dur. durative act. active emph.-pcl. emphatic particle adj. adjective encl. enclitic adv. adverb (adverbial) eq. equative all. allative erg. ergative anim. animate ext. extended aor. aorist fem. feminine art. article final-pcl. final-particle asp. aspirated fut. future aux. auxiliary (verb) gdve. gerundive caus. causative gen. genitive cl. clause ger. gerund coll. collective impf. imperfect com. common impftv. imperfective comp. comparative impv. imperative comt. comitative inan. inanimate conj. conjunction inc. inclusive conjv. conjunctive indef. art. indefinite article conn. connective indet. indeterminate cons. consonant indic. indicative constr. construct (state) inf. infinitive cont. continuant instr. instrumental cop. copula interr. interrogative dat. dative intr. intransitive def. art. definite article iter. iterative dem. demonstrative juss. jussive det. determinate loc. locative detv. determinative mediopass. mediopassive dial. dialect mid. middle xi xii List of abbreviations N. noun top. topicalizer neg. negative tr. transitive neut. neuter V. ver b nom. nominative var. variant NP noun phrase vent. ventive num. number voc. vocative obj. object vow. vowel obl. oblique VP verbal phrase opt. optative part. participle Languages pass. passive pcl. particle Akk. Akkadian per. person Ar. Arabic perf. perfect Ass. Assyrian perfv. perfective Av. Avestan perfvz. perfectivizer Bab. Babylonian pert. pertinentive Cis. Gaul. Cisalpine Gaulish pl. plural Eg. Egyptian (Old, Late, Earlier) pluperf. pluperfect Eng. English poss. suff. possessive suffix Etr. Etruscan postp. postposition Gk. Greek PP prepositional phrase Gmc. Germanic prec. precative Go. Gothic preC. preconsonantal Hisp.-Celt. Hispano-Celtic pref. prefix Hitt. Hittite prep. preposition IE Indo-European pres. present Lat. Latin pret. preterite Lep. Lepontic preV. prevocalic Luv. Luvian pro. pronoun Lyc. Lycian prosp. prospective MA Middle Assyrian quot. quotative particle MB Middle Babylonian refl. reflexive NA Neo-Assyrian rel. pro. relative (pronoun) NB Neo-Babylonian rel./connec. relative/connective OA Old Assyrian sg. singular O. Akk. Old Akkadian soc. sociative case O. Av. Old Avestan SOV Subject–Object–Verb OB Old Babylonian (word order) OHG Old High German spec. specifier OP Old Persian splv. superlative PG Proto-Greek stat. stative PGmc. Proto-Germanic subj. subject PIE Proto-Indo-European subjunc. subjunctive PIIr. Proto-Indo-Iranian subord. subordinate/subordinator/ PIr. Proto-Iranian subordination marker PMS Proto-Mije-Sokean subord.-pcl. subordinating particle PS Proto-Semitic suff. suffix PSo. Proto-Sokean s.v. sub voce SB Standard Babylonian List of abbreviations xiii Skt. Sanskrit dict. dictionary Sum. Sumerian intro. introduction Y. Av. Young Avestan lit. literally NA not applicable Other NS new series trad. traditional abbr. abbreviation translit. transliteration Preface Preliminary remarks What makes a language ancient? The term conjures up images, often romantic, of archeol- ogists feverishly copying hieroglyphs by torchlight in a freshly discovered burial chamber; of philologists dangling over a precipice in some remote corner of the earth, taking impres- sions of an inscription carved in a cliff-face; of a solitary scholar working far into the night, puzzling out some ancient secret, long forgotten by humankind, from a brittle-leafed manuscript or patina-encrusted tablet. The allure is undeniable, and the literary and film worlds have made full use of it. An ancient language is indeed a thing of wonder – but so is every other language, all remarkable systems of conveying thoughts and ideas across time and space.
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