2012 Volum.Pdf

Redefining Community in Intercultural Context

rcic’12

“Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy Publishing House

Editor: Adrian LESENCIUC

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României

REDEFINING COMMUNITY IN INTERCULTURAL CONTEXT. Conferinţă internaţională (2012: Braşov) Conferinţa internaţională „Redefining community in Intercultural context”: Braşov, 2012 ed.: Lesenciuc Adrian – Braşov: Editura Academiei Forţelor Aeriene „Henri Coandă”, 2012 ISBN: 978-606-8356-05-1

I. Lesenciuc Adrian (ed.)

First cover: Hora de la Frumuşica, a work of art from Cucuteni culture (about 3700- 2500 BC), Eneolithic. “Hora” (meaning a traditional Romanian dance) is a bottomless cylindrical cult vessel, with reliefs and holes describing symmetrical dancers. This prehistoric vessel represents a symbol for community and communion.

SCIENTIFIC BOARD

Gabriel-Florin MOISESCU - „Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania, rector Elena BUJA - “Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania Diana CISMARU - Faculty of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Public Administration, Bucharest, Romania Ella CIUPERCĂ - National Intelligence Academy, Bucharest, Romania Nicoleta CORBU - Faculty of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Public Administration, Bucharest, Romania Alberto FORNASARI - Laboratory of Intercultural Pedagogy, University of Bari, Italy Giuliana GARZONE - Department of Modern Languages and Cultures, State University of Milan, Italy Dorina GUŢU - Faculty of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Public Administration, Bucharest, Romania Diana ILIŞOI - Department of Military Sciences and Management, „Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Ingrid KELLER-RUSSELL - Department of comparative and intercultural educational sciences, Hamburg University, Germany Paul L. LANDRY - PhD Program-Instructional Leadership-McNair Scholar, School of Law, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA Lachlan MACKENZIE - Honorary member of the University of Amsterdam; Instituto de Linguística Teórica e Computacional, Lisbon, Portugal Vasile MACOVICIUC - Department of Philosophy and Socio-Humanities, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania Dana POPESCU-JOURDY - Institut de Communication, Universite „Lumiere” Lyon 2 / Equipe de Recherche de Lyon en Sciences de l’Information et Communication, France Esther PASCUAL - University of Groningen, The Netherlands Angel RALUY ALONSO - Facultat d’Educació, Traducció i Ciences Humanes, Universitat de VIC, Barcelona, Spain Maria de SÃO-JOSÈ CORTE- - Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais e Humanas, Universidade REAL Nova, Lisbon, Portugal Asher SHAFRIR - Niv Language Proficiency Institute, Tel Aviv, Israel Malgorzata SUSZCZYNSKA - Departmenet of English Studies, University of Szeged, Hungary Andreea SZILAGYI - European Board for Certified Counselors, Lisbon, Portugal Bledar TOSKA - Department of Foreign Languages, University of Vlorë, Albania Jef VERSCHUEREN - University of Antwerp, Secretary General of International Pragmatics Association (IPrA)

SUMMARY

Summary...... 5 Plenary Session ...... 7 Intercomprehension – Language Tools for Intercultural Communication (Maria Filomena Capucho) ...... 9 Security and Intercultural Communication ...... 19 Country Image Mangement – Element of National Security Strategy (Dumitru Borţun) ... 21 Military’s Professional Values. The Reflection of an Openning Communication in Military Central Press (Ana-Maria Susan, Cosmina-Oana Drăghici) ...... 26 The Community Behind Sport Competition (Diana-Luiza Dumitriu) ...... 30 A Communication Perspective on Organizational Image and Identity: Study upon a Romanian Rugby Team (Oana Barbu) ...... 37 Innovations’ Acceptance for Reducing Global Warming: Influences on Public Opinion when Social Trust is Low (Diana-Maria Cismaru) ...... 47 The Image of the Roma People Online: Crime and Non-Integrability as Dominant Opinions (Diana Ramona Gavra) ...... 53 Organizational Health Check. A Comparative Investigation into Organizational Communication Patterns (Aura Codreanu) ...... 59 The Intercultural Experience Acquired in Military Operations. Another Passage to I(ndia)? (Aura Codreanu) ...... 69 Doublespek or Military Slang – Proof of Cultural Background (Daniela Nagy) ...... 79 Romanian Managers’ Attitudes and the Dynamics of Security (Ella M. Ciupercă) ...... 86 Public Relations in the Digital Era (Iulian Vegheş, Vera Ularu) ...... 93 The Geo-Economic Relevance of Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Implications for Energetic Security Ensurance in the Wider Black Sea Region (Veronica Mihalache) ...... 101 Culture & Communities ...... 109 Language Policy in Israel in the 21st Century: The Case of Arabic in Public Sphere (Asher Shafrir) ...... 111 The Clash between Two Worlds: Past, Tradition, Myths vs. Present, Modernity, Hopes (Oana-Andreea Pîrnuţă, Anca Bădulescu) ...... 117 Sectarianism in Scotland and in Glasgow: The Present and the Past (Federico Zannoni) ... 121 Linguistically Interconnecting Cultures (Bledar Toska) ...... 127 Culture, Communication, Community: What’s in a Name? (Armela Panajoti) ...... 132 From Voltaire to Cioran (Virgil Borcan) ...... 138 Redefining Taboos in Modern Literary (Con)Texts (Oana-Andreea Pîrnuţă, Anca Sumănaru) ...... 141 Language Unity, Cultural Diversity. A Diachronic Perspective on British Military Terminology Corpus (Cosmina Drăghici) ...... 149 Volunteering – Discursive Devices of Framing a European and National Community (Camelia-Mihaela Cmeciu) ...... 156 Who is Afraid of the Greeks? What Second Generation Immigrants who Study in Greek Universities believe about Greeks and the Way in Which they treat them (Argyris Kyridis, Besmira Mucaj, Christos Zagkos, Elias Michailidis, Prokopis Pandis, Ifigenia vamvakidou, Kostas Tsioumis) ...... 162 Creative Processes in a Cybrid Community (Jorge Luiz Antonio) ...... 172 Ethnic Identity of the Csangos on the Siret Valley (Maria Cristina Chiru) ...... 179 Glocalization – A New Synthesis of Contraries? The Cultural Identities Perceived as

Composition Effect (Adrian Lesenciuc, Grigore Georgiu) ...... 185 Globalization – A Semiotic Approach (Richardo Nedela) ...... 193 Cultural Relativism and the Conflict of Principles (Corina Matei) ...... 199 Intercultural Education ...... 203 Tolerance – Fundamental Value of Intercultural Education (Diana Ilişoi) ...... 205 Study on the Association between Personality Traits and Cultural Dimensions (Mihaela Guranda) ...... 211 To Interpret Success: The Success in Schools and the Integration of Foreign Students in Italy (Alberto Fornasari) ...... 215 Southern Europe and the Far East Early Contacts: Fieldwork Remarks from Pioneer Experience in Intercultural Education (Maria De São José Côrte-Real) ...... 231 The Role of Intercultural Education in Defining Personal Identity in the Postmodern Society (Mihaela Voinea) ...... 236 The Critical Thinking – A Strategy to Develop Intercultural Competences (Mihaela Voinea) ...... 240 The Perceiving of the Word from Psycho-Pastoral Perspectives (Maria Dorina Paşca) ...... 245 Reading Strategies: A Catalyst for Enhancing Comprehensive and Summary Writing Proficiency among High School Students in Lagos, Nigeria (Nonye R, Ikonta, Anthonia N. Maduekwe) ...... 249 Mentoring and Coaching – Efficient Instruments for the Young Officers’ Professional Development (Florentina Hăhăianu, Cerasela Tudose, Andreea Cucută) ...... 257

Plenary Session

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION1

Maria Filomena CAPUCHO

Centro de Estudos de Comunicação e Cultura, Universidate Católica Portuguesa, Viseu, Portugal

Abstract: Speaking about the importance of intercultural communication in our globalised world has become more than obvious. Independently of the personal, social or professional context of our lives, our daily interactions are no more limited to the geographical small sphere of our nations or regions, but have to be placed in a much larger world which is characterised by diversity (ies). The language of communication is very often taken for granted: it seems we have only one option, English. However, the use of English in intercultural encounters is not the only possibility, and in many cases it may become a barrier to cultural awareness and to the actual needs of effective communication. How can we conciliate the naïve use of an international language and Wittgengstein’s aphorism 19 (1953) «(…) to imagine a language means to imagine a form of life»? Intercomprehension, a quite recent concept that has been developed since the 1990’s, may help us to find other ways to communicate that allow deeper understanding of otherness and the respect for cultural specificities, which include language use. In our paper, we will present this notion and analyse its effects on a new perspective of intercultural communication.

Keywords: Culture, intercultural communication, intercultural awareness, intercomprehension

1. INTRODUCTION observe intercultural communication in this context.

1 Nowadays, when someone mentions “the But, in a world of linguistic and cultural community where I belong” or “the diversity, how can we actually communicate? community where I live”, it is not an easy task What are the tools that we may use to share to define the exact limits of what it is meant by our ways “of thinking, feeling and believing” those expressions. International mobility, as Clyde Kluckhohn (1959: 28) puts it? The virtual or real social networks, professional question obviously raises complex issues contexts, largely go beyond the narrow linked to language choice and language boundaries of the here and now, whatever policies, leading to the on-going debate on the “here and now” may mean today. The actual use of English as a lingua franca vs meaning of the word “community” is multilingualism. I will discuss the various constantly being redefined, although its arguments put forward by experts in the last etymological root remains the same: few years and conclude on the absolute need to “community” means a group of people who preserve linguistic diversity in the world (and have something in “common”, a group of most especially in our case, in the EU, by people who “communicate” with each other. showing the negative effects of the use of a In this paper, I propose to characterize this sole international language on cultural new sense of community (Capucho, 2006) and awareness and intercultural effective communication. 1 Some of the ideas expressed in this paper, namely the Finally I will introduce the concept of debate between English as a lingua franca and Intercomprehension, “one of the most plurilingualism, have been presented in an earlier remarkable and challenging ideas for the publication, Capucho, 2010. 9

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION realization of plurilingual education” (Doyé, whether globalisation is actually just a 2005:7) and show how it may contribute to the complex contemporary myth, the truth is that harmonious development of the new various the phenomenon has affected society and the communities we live in. individuals themselves and created new cultural identities. However, the change may 2. WHERE DO I BELONG? cover two distinctive, opposite results: • The grouping of individuals around Several authors, such as Friedman (2000), primary identities (cf. Castells, 1998:23), consider that the globalisation process started leading to an increasing social fragmentation many centuries ago, namely after the epoch of which is opposed to the globalised networks. maritime discoveries with its consequent Identities grow more and more specific, thus Diaspora and increasing contacts with parts of more difficult to be shared. Fellow human the world unknown or hardly known before beings become strangers and represent a the XVIth century. Nevertheless, we may threat. Fundamentalisms of all sort are thus locate the global shift of perspectives at the spreading, based on religion (with all the end of the XXth century. This shift originates negative consequences that we have witnessed in deep historical changes such as the fall of in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Israel, the Berlin wall, and also in the huge Palestine, and elsewhere), politics (with a transformation caused by the sudden growing importance of extreme-right parties in development of information and countries like Austria, the Netherlands, France communication technologies: the global and Belgium) or nationalist and regionalist implementation of the Windows computer beliefs (in the Basque Country, Cataluña and system, Netscape in 1995 and the Internet after Belgium). 2000 (cf. Munshi, 2006). During the last 15 • The sharing of cultural identities, years, we have participated in a true rooted in effective communication between technological revolution, centred on digital social groups and/or individuals, leading to a processes, which “remodèle à un rythme sense of belonging to various international accéléré les fondements matériels de la groups that exceed the borders of one’s native 2 société” (Castells, 1998: 21). This revolution country. Individuals construct a new identity may be compared to the industrial revolution that is no longer simply based on their in the XVIIIth and XIXth century: language, but which is built on enculturation processes that allow stronger links between “With the convergence between Internet and people and cultures and contribute to the mobile communication and the gradual general development of society and of the self. diffusion of broadband capacity, the As Benko (2002: 282) affirms: “Não communicating power of the Internet is being precisamos apenas de cadeias de distributed in all realms of society life, as the electrical grid and the electrical engine abastecimento, mas também de cadeias de distributed energy in the industrial society.” almas que liguem os seres humanos uns aos (Castells, 2007: 246). outros com o fim de alcançarem o potencial da 3 humanidade” . This process of an harmonious The new technological reality shapes our cultural change is represented in the following lives and the world at large, and has image that I proposed in an earlier publication determined the development of the (Capucho, 2006): globalisation process. Even if we may wonder

3 “We do not simply need supplying chains, but also 2 “reshapes in an accelerated rhythm the material chains of souls that link human beings aiming to foundations of society” (my translation). achieve the full potential of humanity” (our translation) 10

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

differences, mitigate problems, and assist in achieving more harmonious, productive relations.” (Samovar, Poter, McDaniel, 2012:8)

3. HOW CAN I SHARE?

Thus

“globalization provides a good opportunity to reflect on the efficiency of the tools which the intercultural enterprise so far has developed to promote intercultural understanding […]” On this picture, cultural national identities (Saint-Jacques, 2012:46). closely linked to languages are represented by And the basic tool is… language learning! the coloured cones, but at the basis, where How can we share without language? But social groups and individuals live, they are which language(s)? crossed by a colourful rainbow, which Let us take the EU as an example: 495 represents translinguistic cultural factors that million people; 27 countries; 23 official may be shared amongst the different cultures. languages, a context that is characterised by They correspond to geophysical, the diversity of the national cultures that geodemographical, organizational, profes- compose its physical and mental space: sional, generational, gender, ethnical and ideological elements that may link people “[...] the European ideal is founded on two independently of their linguistic/cultural inseparable conditions: the universality of background, establishing bridges of shared moral values and the diversity of cultural expression; in particular, linguistic understanding and enabling individuals or diversity for historical reasons is a major groups to narrow the distances between them. component […]” (Maalouf, 2008:8) Obviously, the colours of the rainbow do not erase the original colour of each of us, which How can we communicate in this modern remains as our solid background, but through a Babel? continuous process of enculturation, they The long debate about language policies in create in each of us a colourful mosaic that Europe can only have two outcomes: either we brings us closer to the others and prevents the agree on using a common lingua franca, which emergence of primary identities. The is nowadays, obviously, English, or we awareness of the importance of any of these 8 become largely plurilingual. In fact, factors depends entirely on the possibility of discussions opposing plurilingualism and actually sharing them with others, of creating monolingualism (the development of a lingua new communities, and this is only possible franca in Europe) are consistent and have not through successful processes of intercultural yet been closed. communication: Several authors argue for the use of People’s lives are guided by their cultural English as the sole language of international perspectives, and when their worldview, communication and use various designations beliefs, and values come under assault through to name it: English as an International social change, they can feel threatened and Language, English as a Lingua Franca, World resort to extreme measures to maintain the Standard English or Global English (cf. Price, status quo. A knowledge of intercultural 2004) or even, in a recent jargon, Globish (cf. communication, and the ability to use it Baer, 2009). effectively, can help bridge cultural 11

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

In 2004, De Swaan, insists on the same • 4 Linguistic imperialism associated to arguments that he had fully developed in his social, economic and political imperialism 2002 book: “In the general confusion of may bring about a dual society divided up tongue, in which no indigenous language can between the included and the excluded, the predominate, English automatically imposes integrated and the marginal. itself as the sole, obvious, solution”. Similarly, • The reduction of the cognitive after presenting his arguments in favour of a capacities of individuals and subsequent sole lingua franca, Van Parijs concludes: reduction of knowledge. The very notion of English as a lingua […] we can accept without rancour or franca is, in itself, questionable. A lingua resentment the increasing reliance on English franca is the result of a combination of as a lingua franca. We need one, and only one, morphosyntactic elements that compose the if we are to be able to work out and implement languages that are spoken by the interactants efficient and fair solutions to our common problems on both European and world scales, and not a language that is the mother tongue of and indeed if we are to be able to discuss, any of them (cf. Grin, 2008:22-23; also Frath, characterise and achieve, again Europe- and 2010). Grin also discusses the pseudo- world-wide, linguistic justice.(Van Parijs, economic arguments often put forward in 2007:243) favour of a lingua franca, which is supposedly cheaper to implement. He convincingly argues The use of Globish has even been that, in the end, multilingualism is in fact the presented as a sort of natural phenomenon akin cheaper option... to the sun rising and setting everyday (cf. On the other side of this debate, one is to Baer, 2009). However this somewhat extreme find the official position of the European position hides some elements that somehow institutions that argue in favour of the oppose active citizenship and the construction development of multilingualism, by of a democratic European society or simply reinforcing the possibilities for citizens to effective intercultural communication, as learn several languages. But why should Tremblay (2009: 32) clearly denounces. citizens be plurilingual? What are, in fact, the dangers of the The reasons that have been evoked by acceptance of a lingua franca, in general, and researchers and decision makers are diverse specifically English? and they cover a vast number of fields: • The use of a language that is not fully Personal development of individuals: mastered by a majority may produce a democratic deficit: many citizens will be Language learning is endowed, in the long run, unable to participate in collective debates with a high transversal value: “It supports • A growing loss of interest for the cognitive functions such as attention, perception, memory, concentration, concept cultural diversity in Europe: formation, critical thinking, problem solving, cognitive flexibility, and ability to work in Le monolinguisme de l’anglais […] donne teams. It supports both the cognitive l’illusion que tout le monde se comprend, que chacun fait partie de ce fameux village global où l’on écoute la même musique industrielle, 4 “English monolingualism […] gives the illusion that regarde les mêmes films stéréotypés, porte les everybody understands each other, that everybody mêmes vêtements à la mode, et adopte les belongs to the famed global village where one listens to mêmes clichés politiques, culturels et the same industrial music, watches the same stereotyped économiques. Il peut en résulter une perte films, wears the same fashionable clothes and adopts the same political, cultural and economic clichés. It may d’intérêt envers les cultures des autres, lead to a loss of interest towards the cultures of others, chacun pensant y accéder aisément grâce à 4 everyone thinking that they may easily have access to l’anglais (Frath, 2009:4) them by means of the English language.” (my translation) 12

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

development of young children and the mental cultural boundaries. (Commission of the agility of old people.” (Commission of the European Communities, 2007:9). European Communities, 2007:9). • Economic improvement Plurilingual groups present a higher flexibility Knowledge of foreign languages increases of thought and larger creative capacities when the capacity of transnational mobility and compared to monolinguals (cf.Skutnabb- enlarges employment opportunities: Kangas, 2002 : 19). Mastering various languages (at a higher or lower level) enables a multifaceted referential construction, thus If current trends are anything to go by, multiplying life experiences and opening the mobility between jobs, geographical mobility, way to various forms of thought: “Parler des and transnational co-operation will become an langues, c’est accéder à des formes de pensée accepted part of the working lives of a large différentes, rencontrer d’autres constructions percentage of Europeans. It will become mentales et imaginaires”5 (Burdin, 2009:174). increasingly difficult to predict the course of people’s careers. It is precisely because of this • that the learning and knowledge of several Social development languages is an important aspect of sustainable employability. The experience of learning Plurilingualism opens the way to individual several languages, and competence in several autonomy in a social environment, because it 6 languages form a sound basis for learning allows the freedom to name reality and freely additional languages if and when the need found categories of thought. (cf. Supiot, arises. (Commission of the European 2005:155) Communities, 2007:9)

On the other hand, the personal benefits that • Political cohesion were mentioned in the previous point are extensive to society as a whole and contribute Plurilingualism is a factor of social to social progress “Language learning has a cohesion and enables the construction of a major impact on the level of education of an European identity: entire community, which in turn has been demonstrated to correlate with living Individual plurilingualism is a significant standards, health standards and societal influence on the evolution of an European wellbeing in general.” (Commission of the identity: Since Europe is a multilingual area in European Communities, 2007:9). its entirety and in any given part, the sense of belonging to Europe and the acceptance of a Plurilingualism also favours social European identity is dependent on the ability to harmony by enabling openness to the plurality interact and communicate with other of cultures, respect of differences and the will Europeans using the full range of one’s linguistic repertoire (Council of Europe, 2003 : to communicate with others: 10)

Learning other languages has an intercultural All these arguments may finally be value. In addition to openness to other people’s cultures and attitudes […], language education gathered in a maxim that Nieder (2009:364) attributes to Charles the V: “un homme qui can raise awareness of one’s own culture and 7 values and stimulate the willingness and parle quatre langues vaut quatre hommes” . enhance the ability to communicate and co- Nevertheless, the defence of operate with people across language and plurilingualism and the respect for linguistic diversity is not contrary to the learning of English, as a language whose importance is 5 “To speak languages is to have access to various forms of thought, meet other mental and imaginary constructions” (my translation) 7 “A man who speaks four languages is worth four men” 6 And thus to construct it. (my translation) 13

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION undoubtedly essential in our globalised world. that may help to extend the scope of As Maalouf (2008: 15-16) refers: “It is individuals’ competencies. important for English to retain and consolidate The EU authorities share this position and the eminent place it holds as a language of the official language policy of the EU culture rather than being straitjacketed in the Comission aims at supporting role of instrument of global communication, a multilingualism8, especially since 2000, with flattering but detractive role, and one which is the Declaration of Lisbon, which was potentially a factor of impoverishment.” reinforced in 2002 with the Declaration of Yet, English is A language, not THE Barcelona. It is thus recommended that all language, and its importance in the world of citizens learn at least two languages during today should not lead to the submission (and their life. The same tendency is stressed in the the death) of all the other languages. Learning Treaty of Lisbon, which was signed on the 1st English for utilitarian immediate purposes will of December 2009. The former EU bring about the destruction of the English Commissioner responsible for Education, language itself – it will become a pidgin or, Training, Culture and Multilingualism, Ján even worse, a collection of pidgins that are not Figel (2005), explains the main reasons for this mutually understandable. Interpreters often choice: report difficulties in translating foreigners who think they speak English, but who are actually […] languages are not mere means of using some kind of pidgin that they are the communication. They contribute to a better only ones to understand. knowledge of other European cultures and Learning English is important, but let us not have a real potential for a deeper simply look at it as a code. Language is much understanding between European citizens. Multilingualism policy aims at ensuring more than a code, it is a way of perceiving and multiculturalism, tolerance and European representing the world. English as a lingua citizenship. Widespread general competence in franca will immensely reduce the possibilities foreign languages also plays its part in keeping of intercultural communication. If «to imagine xenophobia and intolerance at bay. We have to a language means to imagine a form of life» understand each other if we want to reap the (Wittgengstein, 1953), how can we actually full benefits of the cultural, social and express the cultural diversities of the world economic richness of our continent. with a sole language? And, on trying to do that, aren’t we erasing the differences, as if the The EU has, in fact, strongly supported world was a simple flat landscape where several programs and actions to promote everything was neutrally coloured? How can multilingualism. In order to extend the we respect cultural diversities if we are not knowledge of foreign languages, some aware of the different ways of saying the solutions were proposed: world? • The early learning of a first foreign language 4. YES, BUT HOW TO ACHIEVE • Content Language Integrated Learning PLURILINGUALISM?

Speaking all the languages in the world, or 8 even all the European languages, is an Usually, we distinguish “multilingualism” (a term that impossible task. It takes time, effort, is massively used within the EU Commission) and “plurilingualism” (mostly used by the Council of commitment and a lot of money to learn but a Europe). Even if both are often used randomly, I use few! Nevertheless, the learning at least two multilingualism to “societies where more than one foreign languages may open unsuspected language is spoken, be it officially or not, while doors to a larger number of idioms and there plurilingualism refers to the fact that individuals speak are innovative approaches to language learning more than one language.” (Van de Craen and Perez- Vidal, 2003: 1) 14

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

• The development of a “personal aspect of IC consists mainly in this idea of adoptive language” (cf. Maalouf 2008) being able to understand a language in spite of • Intercomprehension not having learnt it before. Therefore, it allows These four approaches do not exclude each plurilingual interactions to play an important other, but my choice today is to focus on the role in intercultural communication, avoiding importance and effectiveness of the systematic use a lingua franca. In fact, IC Intercomprehension on the development of is a natural process, which has been accepted plurilingual competencies. by all those who travel around the world and The concept of Intercomprehension (IC) by those who live in border regions (cf. has been under discussion for more than 20 Capucho, 2008). It was thought impossible, years now. Since the beginning of the 90’s, until very recently, to implement IC in the several European teams have been studying it context of formal school learning. However, and its implementation in the process of the efficiency of IC has been proved in the language learning. Definitions may vary context of at least 183 different training events according to the many theoretical schools, or that have been surveyed so far to the direct pragmatic aims of specific applied (http://www.formations-redinter.eu/) and in research (cf. Capucho, 2011a). the context of more than 25 projects In 2004, the academic group that met for (http://www.redinter.eu/web/proyectos). It is a the project Eu & I defined IC as “[t]he process flexible approach that may be adapted to of developing the ability to co-construct personal and institutional needs: some of the meaning in the context of the encounter of latest projects (PREFIC, CINCO, different languages and to make pragmatic use INTERMAR) have been specifically designed of this in a concrete communicative situation” in order to address professional needs on the (Capucho, 2004) or, in other words, the tertiary sector or on naval and maritime process of co-constructing meaning in contexts. intercultural/interlinguistic contexts (Capucho, Over the past few years, training in IC has 2011b). The development of such a process had various objectives, according to the will lead to the ability to understand, to a specific skills that were at stake in the context certain extent, one and/or several languages, of the projects. The first projects conceived the by using existing communicative (discourse) IC processes in written reception activities; competences (plurilingual skills from personal later, IC also comprised situations of oral life experiences). This may be enabled by the reception. The use of new technologies fact that languages belong to specific families brought the possibility to use IC in written (the Romance languages, the Germanic interactions, in chats and forums. Finally, languages, the Slavic languages), which share nowadays, the projects linked to professional a great number of linguistic features (lexical, training place IC in any oral or written morphological and syntactic); however the situation of interaction, either in face-to-face possibility of IC between languages belonging encounters or at distance. This latter to different families has also been conception of IC aims at developing learning demonstrated (cf. Ollivier, 2007, Capucho, in 2011a), and some recent projects have • Written reception – which is, in fact, specifically focused on this possibility. The the easiest skill to acquire in many languages, knowledge of English may, as well, become a more specifically amongst languages of the bridge for the development of IC in Romance same family. Learning activities focus on the families (cf. Robert, 2011). development of linguistic awareness Intercomprehension is, therefore, a new (similarities between forms and structures, form of communication in which each correspondences between linguistic forms, individual uses his or her own language BUT even when they differ), text awareness (the understands that of the others. The innovative structure of a text corresponds to sets of rules 15

INTERCOMPREHENSION – LANGUAGE TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION that are the same in any language; text Muttersprache. Retrieved June 7 2017, formats, as well as “text images” are from: http://www.observatoireplurilinguis translinguistic), pragmatic awareness (any text me.eu/index.php?option=com_content&tas is marked by a certain intentionality and k=view&id=2207&Itemid=88888945. addresses a specific kind of reader) and 2. Burdin, J-P (2009). Témoignage de strategic transfer of knowledge and syndicaliste. In Aligny (D’) F-X & al. (ed) competences; (2009) Pluriliguisme, interculturalité et • Oral reception, very often supported by emploi : défis pour l’Europe. Paris, video documents that contextualise the L’Harmattan. 173 – 178. message and allow the support of nonverbal 3. Capucho, F. (2004). Línguas e Identidades features for the construction of meaning – in culturais: da implicação de políticos e fact, in daily life, most of the oral documents (socio)linguistas. In Fábio Lopes da Silva in a foreign language that one deals with are & Kanavillil Rajagopalan (orgs). A audio-visual (not many people listen to the Linguística que nos faz fallhar – radio in a foreign language, but we often see investigação crítica. São Paulo, Parábola films or watch the television when travelling Ed. 83 – 87. abroad); 4. Capucho, M. F. (2006). Sobre línguas e • Written and oral interaction, creating a culturas. Rev. Veredas, vol. 10. Juiz de context for interactional cooperation Fora: Ed. UFJF, 113 – 122. (including collaboration and conflicts), where 5. Capucho, F. (2008). L’intercompréhension the negotiation of meaning is central. Thus, the est-elle une mode? Du linguiste citoyen au activities focus not only on written and oral citoyen plurilingue, In Revue Pratiques nº reception but also, in “interproduction”, i.e. 139/140-Linguistique populaire?, Cresef, strategies to be used by a speaker to make .238 – 250. himself/herself understood (when using his/her 6. Capucho, M. F. (2010). The role of the native language) by a foreigner (who does not English Language in a Plurilingual speak that language) and reduce interactional Society. In Dinçay Köksal, Ísmail H. conflicts. Erten, Ece Zehir Topkaya & Aysun Yavuz Intercomprehension is certainly one of the (eds) 6Th ELT Research Conference – most productive approaches to language Current Trends in SLA Research and learning nowadays. By respecting language Language Teaching. Çanakkale Onsekiz diversity, by NOT imposing any exterior Mart University, pp. 300 – 308. language for communication, IC creates 7. Capucho, F. (2011a). Intercomprensione intercultural awareness and is, in its very fra lingue appartenenti a diverse familgile essence, an open door to cooperation between linguistiche. In De Carlo, Maddalena (a speakers of different languages. In plurilingual cura di). Intercomprensione e educazione interactions, the commitment of both speakers al plurilinguismo. Porto S. Elpidio,Wizarts to the success of communication is vital and editore. 223 – 241. involves attention, tolerance, and respect, 8. Capucho, M. F. (2011b). Cooperating and which are the main factors of intercultural innovating – Redinter, working together communication. Accepting the IC approach to for the implementation of language learning will thus open the way to intercomprehension methodologies. the co-construction of newly redefined International Conference “The Future of communities. Education” – Conference Proceedings – Firenze. Retrieved June 7, 2012, from: BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.pixel-online.net/edu_future/ conferenceproceedings.php. 1. Baer, O. (2009). Ein 9. Castells, M. (1998). La société en réseaux. Wirtschaftsverträglicher Weg zurück zur Paris : Librairie Arthème Fayard (trad.). 16

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10. Castells, M. (2007). Communication, 18. Frath, P. (2010). Should the world rely on Power and Counter-power in the Network English as a Lingua Franca?. In Dinçay Society. In International Journal of Köksal, Ísmail H. Erten, Ece Zehir Communication 1 (2007), 238 – 266. Topkaya & Aysun Yavuz (eds) 6Th ELT Retrieved June 7, 2012, from Research Conference – Current Trends in http://ijoc.org/ojs/index.php/ijoc/article/vie SLA Research and Language Teaching. w/46/35. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. 290 – 11. Commission of the European 295. Communities. (2007) Final Report - high 19. Friedman, T. (2000). The Lexus and the level group on multilingualism. Retrieved Olive Tree – Understanding Globalization. June 7, 2012, from http://ec.europa.eu/ New York, First Anchor Books Ed. education/policies/lang/doc/multireport_en 20. Grin, François (2008). Pourquoi .pdf. l’intercompréhension ? In Conti, V. & 12. Council of Europe. (2003). Guide for the Grin, F. (dir) S’entendre entre langues Development of Language Education voisines: vers l’intercompréhension. Policies in Europe: From Linguistic Chêne-Bourg, Georg Editeur. 17 – 30. Diversity to Plurilingual Education. 21. Kluckhohn, C. (1959) Mirror for Man, The Executive version. Retrieved June 7, 2012, Relation of Anthropology to Modern Life. from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/Linguistic/ New York, McGraw-Hill Education, New Source/FullGuide_EN.pdf. edition. 13. De Swann, A. (2002). Words of the World. 22. Maalouf, A. (2008) A Rewarding The Global Language System. Cambridge Challenge. How the multiplicity of [MA], Polity Press. languages could strengthen Europe. 14. De Swann, A. (2004). Endangered Retrieved June 6, 2012, from languages, sociolinguistics, and linguistic http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/arc sentimentalism. European Review. hive/doc/maalouf/report_en.pdf. Retrieved June 7, 2012, from 23. Munshi, S. (2006). Será o mundo plano?. http://www.deswaan.com/engels/from_our In Pacheco, C. et al. O Estado do Mundo. _archives/Endlan.htm. Lisboa, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 15. Doyé, P. (2005). Intercomprehension. In Ed. Temas e Debates. 257 – 285. JC. Beacco and M. Byram (ed), Guide for 24. Nieder, B. (2009). Synthèse. In Aligny (d’) the development for language education F-X & al. (ed) (2009) Pluriliguisme, policies in Europe: From linguistic interculturalité et emploi : défis pour diversity to plurilingual education. l’Europe. Paris, L’Harmattan. 363 – 365. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, Language 25. Ollivier, Ch. (2007): Dimensions Policy Division. linguistique et extralinguistique de 16. Figel, J. (2005) Preface. In European l'intercompréhension. Pour une didactique Commission. Key Data on Teaching de l'intercompréhension au-delà des Languages at School in Europe. Bruxelles: familles de langues. In F. Capucho, A. Eurydice. Retrieved June 7, 2012, from: Martins, Ch. Degache et M. Tost, (dir) http://ec.europa.eu/languages/documents/e Diálogos em Intercompreensão. Lisboa: urydice/key-data-2005_en.pdf. Universidade Católica, 59 – 74. 17. Frath, P. (2009). Plurilinguisme et 26. Price, J. (2004). Of course it's English, it's développement du français, de l’allemand in the dictionary! : Global English, et des autres langues. Retrieved June 7, Standard English, and the challenge to the 2012, from http://www.observatoirepluri English historical lexicographer. In Trans, linguisme.eu/index.php?option=com_conte Internet-Zeitschrift für nt&task=view&id=2207&Itemid=8888894 Kulturwissenschaften, 15Nr. June. 5. Retrieved June 7, 2012, from: 17

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http://www.inst.at/trans/15Nr/06_1/price15 e&rorder=500&rprox=500&rdfreq=500&r .htm. wfreq=500&rlead=500&rdepth=250&sufs 27. Robert, J-M. (2011). L’inglese: un ponte =1&order=r&cq=&rpp=10&id=4edd722c1 verso le lingue romaze. In De Carlo, 1. Maddalena (a cura di). Intercomprensione 31. Supiot, A. (2005). Communiquer ou se e educazione al plurilinguismo. Porto S. comprendre? La question du régime Elpidio,Wizarts editore. 242 - 251. linguistique de la recherche en sciences 28. Saint-Jacques, B. (2012). Intercultural humaines et sociales. In Fritz Nies (org.). Communication in a globalized world. In Europa denkt mehrsprachig - L’Europe Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E. & McDaniel, pense en plusieurs langues. Tübingen, E. R. Intercultural Communication: A Gunter Narr Verlag. 153-163. Reader, Boston: Wadsworth, 13th ed. 45 – 32. Tremblay, Ch. (2009). Introduction – Les 55. Assises du Plurilinguisme : une ambition 29. Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E. & McDaniel, fondatrice. In Aligny (d’) F-X & al. (ed) E. R. (2012). Using Intercultural Pluriliguisme, interculturalité et emploi : Communication. The building blocks. In défis pour l’Europe. Paris : L’Harmattan, Samovar, L.A , Porter, R.E. & McDaniel, 29-33. E. R Intercultural Communication: A 33. Van de Craen, P. & Perez-Vidal C. (2003). Reader, Boston: Wadsworth, 13th ed. 4- Formation des enseignants pour les écoles 18. plurilingues en Europe. Le projet ALPME 30. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2002). Why should : Programme de niveau avancé pour une linguistic diversity be maintained and éducation plurilingue. Retrieved June 7, supported in Europe? Some arguments. 2012, from : http://userpage.fu- Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved berlin.de/elc/bulletin/9/fr/craen-perez.html. June 7, 2012, from: 34. Van Parijs, Ph. (2007) Europe's Linguistic http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/ Challenge. In Dario Castiglione & Chris Skutnabb- Longman (eds). The Language Question in KangasEN.pdf#xml=http://thunderstone6.c Europe and Diverse Societies. Oxford: oe.int/texis/ThunderstoneSearchService/pd Hart, 217-253. fhi.txt?query=Why+should+linguistic+div 35. Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical ersity+be+maintained+and+supported+in+ Investigations, Oxford, Blackwell. Europe%3F+&pr=Internet_D5&prox=pag

Security & Intercultural Communication

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

COUNTRY IMAGE MANAGEMENT – ELEMENT OF NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY

Dumitru BORŢUN

National School of Political Studies and Administration / The Romanian Association of Public Relations Professionals (ARRP)

Abstract: Post-industrial society is a “devalued” society, where great ideologies do not have a decisive impact on public area: they are no longer participating in the legitimacy of individuals, groups, organizations or states. The need for legitimacy cannot be satisfied even in science, since cultural relativism undermines the idea of "objective reality", post-positivist epistemology defines knowledge as "social product", and The Truth is deposed in public by the new purpose value: Consensus. Within this changed landscape, legitimacy is no longer built from top-to-bottom and once-for-all, but the other way round: from bottom-to-top and day-by-day. New kind of legitimacy has brought new strategies and objectives, and hence the legitimacy of new techniques, for which the central concept is Credibility and the main instrument is the Image. Therefore, legitimate statehood becomes the stake of a permanent, daily, and highly specialized activity - conceived, designed and built according to a new social engineering: Public Relations. For example to legitimize the existence within the Carpatho-Danubian- Pontic area of a nation-state called Romania, with the current attributes of statehood - sovereignty, independence, unitary and indivisible character – is no longer a matter of ideology, but one of image. In a world where Wilson`s principle1 stops functioning as instance of legitimacy, the national security strategy does not necessarily refer to doctrine field, but to that of Communication. It is an effective communication strategy, i.e. a PR campaign..

Keywords: devalued society, Legitimacy, Country image, National security

1. POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY AS offered another insight into the world and DEVALUED SOCIETY man's place in it, but had the same claim of universality; the proposed picture by them was

1 Modernity was born along with the great as comprehensive and totalizing the explains ideologies, usually seen as alternatives to the origins of the world and man, describes Christianity. (Touraine, 1996:3-18). But to their evolution and prescribed rules of Christianity, as a universalist religion, it could behavior to harmonize the man with the world. only be opposed a universalistic and That is why the great ideologies of comprehensive vision. Indeed, laic ideologies modernity were eschatologies, too - this time, laic ones – being forced to postulate a sense of

1 history without which it couldn`t provide a Woodrow Wilson`s Principle, of „national self- sense of life. However, they have wanted to be determination”, has been presented to the USA Congress on the 8th January, 1918, as a response to "made", and in order to turn to reality they Lenin`s proposals of 22nd November, 1917 (peace appealed to 'large format subjects', true heroes "without annexations and indemnities"). Due to the of world history. Therefore, Lyotard (1993) Wilsonian project, between 1918-1920 they were able to calls them “great stories”. All these "stories of complete the union of more nations, the Romanian legitimacy" (Lyotard, 1993:59-68) contain an nation being one of them. In the XXth century, „the national principle” functioned as court of legitimacy, ontology, a gnoseology and ethics; most contributing to the affirmation of nationalism as a contain a "sociology" and "political science", „great legitimate nation” (Lyotard). COUNTRY IMAGE MANAGEMENT – ELEMENT OF NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY and some also propose a "pedagogy". This vault in force becomes evident later on; it is exhaustive character made them part of the ideologically processed and attributed to other process of legitimacy in the same manner in phenomena than the real ones. In such cases which Christianity had done and tradition did devastating conflicts arise and the symbolic in case of “closed societies” (Popper). This vault collapses into the deafening noise of war manner is called by Lyotard “legitimating – see the former Yugoslavia in the 90s. narrative”. As participating in a tradition was sufficient to ensure social recognition before, 2. INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS reflected in the moral sense of "respectability", OF “GREAT STORIES” COLLAPSE great ideologies have allowed continued top- to-bottom legitimacy; if before legitimizing The end of great ideologies of modernity is presupposed the appeal to “tradition sky” not the result of the collapse of communist (Habermas), now purpose values are used, ideology as the dominant ideology, but on the being proposed by great ideologies. The contrary: anticommunist revolutions of 1989 ffundamental function of "great stories" is the represent the end point of last universalist harmonization of the painting world with ideology survival which claimed to act as human life, rendering a meaning to both world symbolic vault for an entire society. What history and human life. By this, they meet Francis Fukuyama tried to underline in the some basic necessities: of unitary picture of study “Is This the End of History?”, first the world, of emotional security, of devotion published in the summer issue of 1989 of and sense of life. Making reference to all “National Interest” U.S. magazine (1989), is elaborate systems”, Erich Fromm wrote: only an unsuccessful attempt to replace “Whatever their content is, they all respond to communism with liberalism, as a last unique the double human need to have a system to and symbolic vault, valid for all humanity in support thinking and an object of devotion to the globalization stage. Today, nobody assure the significance of his existence and his believes in Fukuyama, for the decades that situation in the world.” (Fromm, 1993:93). have elapsed since the publication of his One can argue that great ideologies have controversial study, event-history prediction worked, until recently, as symbolic vaults for denied the prediction: “universalization of human communities, as whole societies. Thus, Western liberal democracy as the final form of they took over from the Christianity and human government.” Rather, his forecast on tradition, being the main sources of survival in the short term, on nationalism and recognition and respectability, including self- of Islam, on the long term, as an alternative to recognition and self-respectability. liberal democracy doctrine, was confirmed. But the vault has a bivalent symbolic (Fukuyama,1989:466). Here is a subject of function: a) on the one hand, it provides a meditation closely related to the topic of our community the identity guidelines and ensures work. The nationalisms explosion would equal the coherence of social behavior; b) on the that of great structures of world peace; the other hand, it creates a “greenhouse effect” that political and military powers fragmentation delays the community adaptation to changes in can also mean losing control of destructive the environment. People renounce to the forces on planetary range; the collapse of symbolic cornerstone when it becomes traditional economic structures can cause a obvious that it no longer provides adaptation dangerous isolationism and, therefore, can and thus, evolution, when they feel lead to the appearance of numerous "fascism of “suffocated”. (See, for example, the case of helplessness" that may generate whole new collapsed communist ideology in the former international conflicts, of widespread socialist countries of Eastern Europe). instability. Sometimes the tension between objective Out of such a bleak perspective, but not headquarters of development and the symbolic entirely unrealistic, the point that Allan Bloom 22

COUNTRY IMAGE MANAGEMENT – ELEMENT OF NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY drew attention to seemed interesting, being represented in many countries as before and, one of the most convincing critics of the idea finally, at regional level, business management of universalization of liberal democracy: development through meetings, of information “Nations of Africa and the Middle East which, circulation – all these developments have for one reason or another, do not easily reach changed the ways of meaning and the way in modernity, are tempted to find meaning and which companies produce their own sense” affirmation of identity in various forms of (2001: 15). European nations cannot find a rational reason The new way to produce meaning is easily to exclude from their territories the numerous described by the term “small story”. People potential immigrants that return to their still need a story and in the absence of “great national myths. Even the American left side stories” they resort to substitutes of great has enthusiastically embraced the fascist ideologies, i.e. replacing the theory with arguments against modernity and “genres such as ethnography, narrative eurocentrism, being perceived as expressions journalist, humorous comic book, of rationalism.”(Bloom, 1989:472). From the documentary and, especially, the novel”. perspective of national security strategy it is (Rorty, 1998:30). important to understand whether the relapse A true priest of the “post-metaphysical from the “sky” off rationality and universality culture” which he considers “not less possible is an irreversible trend of human history or it than a post-religious one and as desirable” will remain only a necessary step backwards in (1998:29). Richard Rorty theorizes the the more general trend of history "historicist turn" whose essence would reside universalization, “one step back” before “other in replacing Truth with Freedom. Truth three forward”, "a simple return to the point becomes a private value, as Belief at the where the history universality was seized by beginning of secularization of modern great powers and forced to distortion through societies, and the search for truth – a strictly imperialist-like strategies. We must be also personal matter, as seeking God, that is, a interested in ways and means to counterattack matter of "self creation" and "private the possibility that a likely omnes against perfection”. In public places we cannot omnis war to degenerate into Armageddon, a legitimize through appeal to Truth, because final battle with no losers and no winners. today it became clear that self creation and justice, private perfection and human solidarity 3. “SMALL STORIES” AND “BOTTOM- cannot be consolidated into a single vision: TO-UP”LEGITIMACY ”There is no way that self creation can be reunited with justice, at the theory level. The The end of “great stories of legitimacy” is self creation vocabulary is a private one by al due, ultimately, to astonishing developments means, being unshared, unsuitable for any of advanced capitalist societies.” “Post- argumentation. The vocabulary of justice is industrial society, or “neo-capitalism”, has necessarily a public, shared one, an abandoned hierarchical management mode, environment good for argumentative turning into a network of networks, an "anti- exchanges” (1998:27) system based on autonomy of agents, on We`ve considered this point of view not so teamwork, on flexibility and communication. much for its philosophical significance, but for (Hauser & Michon, 2001: 15). its social relevance; the fact that Rorty was This new form of society is described by one of the most popular American Pascal Michon: “The development of philosophers is explained by the coincidence telecommunication technology, of information of his ideas and the obsession of North networks in real time, the globally American society with Consensus. The "neo- interconnected world, but also at intermediate capitalist" society orientation from Truth to level, the development of democracy Consensus is interpreted by Rorty as a general 23

COUNTRY IMAGE MANAGEMENT – ELEMENT OF NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY turning “against theory and towards narrative”. legitimacies, the last stage of post moralist Therefore, “the novel, film and TV program secularization.” (Lipovetsky, 1996:291-292). have replaced gradually but firmly, the preaching and the treaty as main means of 4. COUNTRY IMAGE AS A moral change and progress”. (Rorty, 1998:30) LEGITIMACY TOOL On the other side of the Ocean, Gilles Lipovetsky (1996) remarks the same In the context of contemporary societies, distancing of contemporary society from truth secular and “devalued”, we witness the end of and from the theoretical explanation, in favor the trend noticed by Jurgen Habermas (1983) of consensus and intuitive image. In Twilight related to the transition from traditional to of debt, Lipovetsky speaks of post-Kantian modern society: “Capitalism (…) gives a ethics specific to a post moralist society: “post legitimacy to domination that does not descend moralist culture expanded the range of options from the heaven of cultural tradition, but that and possible lifestyles, coerced conformity to can be based on social work. Market step back from the invention of individualistic Institution (…) corresponds to justice self: we do not believe in the dream of equivalence of exchange relations. With this 'changing life', there is only the sovereign category of reciprocity, bourgeois ideology is individual concerned with the management of itself a standing point of legitimacy, out of a life quality. (…) The hyper liberal phase is report specific to communicative action. But coming to an end, ultra rigorism has no here the principle of reciprocity is the very legitimacy; this is the new cultural principle of social organization of production configuration of our time, that combines the and reproduction processes. Therefore, requirements of private autonomous with those political power can now be legitimized 'down', of a clean public place. The post moralist era not 'up' (through appeal to cultural tradition).” is no more transgressive, nor Puritan, it is (Habermas, 1983:159-160) In other words, correct.” (Lipovetsky, 1996:86-89). legitimacy occurs not through teleonomic In this new socio-cultural context, values or, as Jean Piaget calls them, "values of strategies of legitimacy in the public space finality" (Piaget, 1967:44) inoculated into the radically change. We cannot legitimize social body through the great ideologies, but claiming us from a great ideology, and even through yield values, which are presented and from certain moral principles. But, if moral perceived as values of finality. Thus, values cease to be values of finality, they Propaganda is replaced by Advertising. There become values of yield. Lipovetsky speaks of is no question of promoting a set of values of "operational utilitarian morality", which is finality, but to transform yield values into illustrated best by the new communication values of finality. strategy of enterprises. Here's how he Our thesis sustains that today, replacing describes this great shift in the mechanisms of legitimacy “top-to-bottom” with "bottom-to legitimating: “Although free enterprise top” one has been generalized, going beyond becomes the unsurpassable horizon of the the nation-state boundaries and bursting into economy, it is forced to define and create its the international relations. Individuals, own criteria of legitimacy; the era when the organizations and states legitimize themselves great enterprise could be considered a pure through the management of their own self- trader has passed; it no longer limited to image (euphemistic phrase, where the true merely sell products, but it must manage content of this activity is distorted: the public relations, to conquer and to promote management of social representations). To their institutional legitimacy. (...) Now, the serve this task, a whole system of social legitimacy of the enterprise is no longer given engineering was born, with all the technology or challenged, it is built and sold, we live in related to it: Public Relations. An extensive the era of values marketing and promotional literature talks about the evolution of 24

COUNTRY IMAGE MANAGEMENT – ELEMENT OF NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY techniques for managing social 3. Fukuyama, Francis. (1989). La fin de representations. l’histoire?. In Commentaire, no. 47- Many of these techniques could be Automne. undertaken effectively in the Romanian 4. Habermas, Jürgen. (1983). Tehnica şi national security strategy. ştiinţa ca ‘ideologie’. In Cunoaştere şi The lack of a strategy of managing the comunicare. Bucharest: Political Publishing country image does not mean that Romania House. doesn`t have an image outside; it has several 5. Hauser, Philippe, Michon, Pascal. (2001). images, in different socio-historical areas. But Hermeneutica văzută ca istorie a spontaneous image of a subject, comprising subiectului. In Dilema, no. 425. 20-26. "natural way" is influenced by many factors 6. Lipovetsky, Gilles. (1996). Amurgul beyond the subjects` control. It is exactly what datoriei. Etica nedureroasă a noilor happens to the image of Romania, in which the timpuri democratice. Bucharest: Babel imagological viewpoint indicators develop as Publishing House. weeds, serving the country's development 7. Lyotard, Jean-François. (1993). Condiţia objectives on the medium and long term and postmodernă. Bucharest: Babel Publishing through it, sabotaging the national security House. policy. 8. Piaget, Jean. (1967). Problema mecanismelor comune în ştiinţele despre BIBLIOGRAPHY om. In Sociologia contemporană. Al VI-lea Congres mondial de sociologie – Evian. 1. Bloom, Allan. (1989). “Le momment de la Bucharest: Political Publishing House. philopsophie. În “Commetaire”, no. 47 - 9. Rorty, Richard. (1998). Contingenţă, Automne. ironie şi solidaritate (trad. Corina Matei). 2. Fromm, Erich (1993). Societate alienată şi Bucharest: ALL Publishing House. societate sănătoasă. In Texte alese, 10. Touraine, Alain. (1996). Formarea Bucharest: Political Publishing House. subiectului. Revista de cercetări sociale. Nr. 4.

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

MILITARY’S PROFESSIONAL VALUES. THE REFLECTION OF AN OPENNING COMMUNICATION IN MILITARY CENTRAL PRESS

Ana-Maria SUSAN*, Cosmina-Oana DRĂGHICI**

*Faculty of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Public Administration, Braşov, Romania, ** Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Department of Military and Managerial Sciences, Braşov, Romania

Abstract: The axiological relief represents the foundation of any culture, the key element in the formation of a cultural identity. Individual values are formed on one hand from the cultural sediment and on the other hand they are a part of professional axiological system, which aims to highlight particular aspects of professional activity more or less desirable. The military career is actually the result of browsing several stages of training (military college, academy, application school) during which the entire construct of professional values is formed, fact that will influence the military activity long after that. Despite the fact that the media contributes usually in leveling the axiological terrain, military media, especially newspapers, are do not limit their activity in informing people about military organization, but moreover they focus on the improvement of the organization by character education that they are able to offer. Professional values coexist in the base of some communication bridges that are relevant to military training. The opening of these bridges inside and outside the system makes possible the engagement in the flow of communication, designed to inform, to educate and to assimilate the cultural identity in a personal manner. This research paper focuses on how to reflect the prevailing military values, in connection with relational/communicational values, values that reflect a certain intercultural openness, essential for contemporary military professional profile. Starting therefore from the assumption of newspapers formative role (depth axiological) out of those with informative and entertaining, we intend to analyze using a mixed longitudinal research method, a central publication Military Observer, by monitoring it during 2011, and interpret qualitative, the opening to a certain type of profile value.

Keywords: professional values, military profile, intercultural communication

1. INTRODUCTION because they satisfy certain needs, but may also carry the meaning of ideals or aspirations. Presently, we experience a period when the The element that underlines the value is the medium is the message (McLuhan, 1964/2001) contrast between what it is and what it should and mass-media phenomena changes the face be. of cultural reality in which the value is representative. We define moreover values as 2. VALUES IN MILITARY being those things that are important or to be ORGANIZATION valued by someone who can be an individual or an organization. Education and socialization When speaking about values, as profession, mechanisms make sure that values are we talk about what we judge to be right from assimilated and internalized by individuals. our point of view or from an organizational Thus, they acquire a normative character and one. In military organization, as in every other, enter in our belief structure and mentality, value represents the embodiment of what an where they act as benchmarks and criteria to organization stands for. In order to share and guide our behaviour and actions. Values may internalize the values of the organization we take the form of goods that are acquired must talk about a connection between

MILITARY’S PROFESSIONAL VALUES. THE REFLECTION OF AN OPENNING COMMUNICATION IN MILITARY CENTRAL PRESS individual and organizational values. Military others by giving guidance to social services, career faces several stages of formation, which social issues that concern military profession; may begin at the age of 14, a key-period in - Esthetic values (E) as a framework for forming military personnel. In order to achieving artistic products, value dissonant represent the cultural identity of the military with military environment; organization we may step through Lambert’s - Intellectual stimulation (Si) aimed for symbolic model seen as an iceberg (apud self-reflection and continuous learning, Chiciudean, David, 2011). The visible part consonant especially with military education consists in what we are allowed to see or to and scientific research; know about the organization whereas, the - Professional success (R) in providing invisible part is known only by military satisfaction of work well done, assuming organization’s members. Military values attain orientation activities. This value is a visible both of these levels but in a different manner. indicator for military organization knowing The identification to military core values: that models are better perceived in order to duty, loyalty, integrity and courage, is seen fulfill with: applications, exercises, missions. from the visible side of the iceberg while - Independence (I) is a value dissonant getting to the real content of these values is with military environment because of strict made only by experiencing the unseen face by rules and engagements; retreading the stages in military career. - Prestige (P) associated to professional activities involving respect is highly desirable 3. PROFESSIONAL PROFILE VS. in the military environment PROFESSIONAL VALUES - Leadership (Co) represents the key of military organization, which consists in Beside from leveling the axiological planning, making decisions, organizing, terrain, military mass-media, represented by training; central press, focuses on educational and - Economic advantages (Ae) as being formative character of news in the the orientation to satisfactory compensation; improvement or formation of military - Occupational safety (Sp) which refers professional profile. Based on this aspect, to job certainty, one of key indicators in mass media assumes the model and continues choosing military career; the sedimentation process of axiological - Physical environment (Am) is terrain, with the aim of constructing a certain associated to satisfactory work conditions. axiological profile. This profile representative Military environment is perceived as being a for the military reflects a fundamental difficult one; intercultural opening that enhances the - Relations with leaders (Rs) is relations between the members of organization important when talking about impartial and and those from outside of it. The military professional officers whom can establish in the professional profile merges finally with the organization relationship based on mutual image of the institution fact that underlines the respect; importance of knowing the main professional - Relations with colleagues (Rc), values. In order to reflect the image of how expected to be very consonant with military military media promotes professional values environment, since l’esprit du corps and we overview the professional values using the relationship within teams/work groups are IVP tool (Donald E. Super) adapted of very important for the development of Septimius Chelcea (1994). The IVP highlights organization; 15 professional values: - Way of life (Mv) not very consonant - Altruism (A) represented as being the with military environment from certain opportunity to contribute to the welfare of perspectives;

MILITARY’S PROFESSIONAL VALUES. THE REFLECTION OF AN OPENNING COMMUNICATION IN MILITARY CENTRAL PRESS

- Variety (V) as being dissonant with • Social criterion: the formative articles military environment because it regards that lead to specific physical, intellectual and professional issues that enables the exercise of emotional moods that the reader need to adapt diversified operations; to the social life; - Creativity (C) is associated to those • Model criterion: the formative articles professional issues that allow the production of monitor the life experience of certain ideas/new products and is in dissonance to individuals and offer the frame for the re- military environment. organization/management of the reader’s activity, in accordance with these experiences; 4. RESEARCH • Persuasive criterion: the formative articles implied in influencing/persuading as The current research is actually, part of a guidance/orientation towards creating/ larger research project, aiming at identifying consolidating the cultural values and rendering the role of formative military mass-media. sensitivity in readers in relation with these Starting from the premise that media values. (especially the written one) has an important formative role, besides the informative and 5. THE INTERPRETATION OF entertaining ones, known under the name of RESULTS. CONCLUSION infotainment (Ilişoi et al., 2009:4313-4320), we have decided to identify the share of With The Military Observer containing articles having a formative role within the within its pages a very high percentage of Romanian military publication. The case study articles with informative character, that focuses on the weekly issue of The Military represent for the year 2011 32,33% of the Observer. entire printable area of the 50 issues The intention of my research consists in (12.500m2), namely 3.928,1 m2, with a finding out the way of reflecting military minimum of 15,80% and a maximum of values in comparison with communicational 59,08%, the turning to this questionnaire on values in military central press. In this way we promoted professional values percentage approach to the specific values that provide an becomes more important. intercultural opening in forming the The study revealed a difference between professional profile of contemporary military. the perceptions of some of the professional The Military Observer is a weekly central values. The Military Observer bears a newspaper that contains a number of 24 pages, hierarchy that differs, on the one hand, from property of Ministry of Defense, which stands the professional values hierarchy of Romanian for all categories of personnel existed in the Army, on the other hand, from the professional organization, but also for the one that seeks in values hierarchy presented in the collective finding out about it. The publication reflects mind. More, given that there are expectations the major changes in military environment, regarding the compensation of professional changes that ensure the process of adaptation values found in lower percentage in the profile to NATO standards. The study was released by of the Romanian soldier, namely, while the monitoring the articles published in 2011, need of education involves a certain priority using a scale of marks from -3 to 3. We approach, the high amount of articles with a monitories the newspaper for a year of 2011 formative character is not doubled by an by selecting the articles with an axiological identical qualitative structure. Therefore, we character based on the following independent find that there is a gap that should be taken criteria: into account in the editorial policy of the • Moralistic criterion: the formative publication. The results of the qualitative articles that include the activity of cultivation, analysis are displayed in Figure no. 1. of civilizing and moralizing of the reader; 28

MILITARY’S PROFESSIONAL VALUES. THE REFLECTION OF AN OPENNING COMMUNICATION IN MILITARY CENTRAL PRESS

Altruism and prestige represent the key mainly due to the economical crisis, crisis that values in forming the profile of military leader. affected also the occupational safety which This means that the institution tries to create a finally lead to difficult physical environment good image between her members and also to aspects. raise the cohesion in the group. In order to conclude, the intention of the press is along forming a professional profile of military, advertising military career by revealing mostly positive aspects of this environment. Lesenciuc’s study revealed that while military mass-media tries to prefigure a positive image of the organization, the personnel that know reality of this environment takes in a different manner this information.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Chelcea, Septimiu. (1994). Personalitate şi societate în tranziţie. Studii de psihologie socială. Bucharest: Scietific and Technical Publishing House. 2. Chiciudean, I., David, G. (2011). Managementul comunicării în situaţii de criză. Bucharest: comunicare.ro. 3. Georgiu, Grigore. (2001). Filosofia culturii. Bucharest: NSPAS – Faculty of Communication and Public Relations. 4. Ilişoi, D., Lesenciuc, A., Nagy, D. (2009). Challenges of the education system in relation to mass media. Proceedings of EDULEARN09 Conference. 6th-8th July, Fig. no.1 Reflecting professional values in the Barcelona, Spain. Barcelona: IATED. publication The Military Observer, 2011 4313-4320. 5. Lesenciuc, Adrian. (2010). The The values are mostly consonant with communication profile of the Romanian military environment and the results of my military, scientific research paper no.1 studies correlated with Lesenciuc`s results of within the project Developing intercultural (2010) in the paper “Professional profile of communication competence of Romanian military students”, as a result of a research soldiers joining peacekeeping missions. conducted in 2010 on 1.020 military students Defended within „Carol I” National of Romanian military academies of categories Defence University, Bucharest, 25th of of forces seem to be alike. There are although February some aspects that the newspaper tries to 6. McLuhan, Marshall. [1964] (2001). improve. The professional success value is Understanding Media. The Extensions of mainly regarded in the newspaper by offering Man. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. to the readers’ models of life, models of satisfactory life enhanced by work in years of experience. The economical aspect decreased

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THE COMMUNITY BEHIND SPORT COMPETITION

Diana-Luiza DUMITRIU

Faculty of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Public Administration

Abstract: Besides the master frame of competition and the opponent dyad that are usually used in speaking about the dynamics of sport events, there is a complementary approach of sport event as gathering of sport community. From the complex repertoire of sport actors’ social roles, most studies tend to focused on the differences attached to their competing positions, minimizing the similarities of sport actors as part of the same professional community. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze sport field from the perspective of community dynamics, pointing out those main elements which show that, behind the competitive orientation, there is a clear community feeling among sport actors. There are two types of arguments that are brought into discussion by this study: those regarding spatiality and those related to sport actors’ public discourses as an important symbolic resource in defining this intercultural community. The first ones cover the effects of athletes’ dual field of play: national teams versus club teams and the emerging category of transnational athletes as a product of sport global market. As for the discursive dimension, sport actors’ public discourses reveal significant insights regarding the existence of a global community revived with every new competition. The high level of familiarity between sport actors, the cyclicity of competitions as common experience, as well as the constraints of public exposure have proved to have a great impact on keeping together this type of ‘sport community islands’.

Keywords: sport community’ islands, glocalisation, paradiplomacy, transnational athlete, sport courtesy, social comparison

1. INTRODUCTION winner-loser logic. However, sport means more than competition. Besides this zero-sum When speaking about sport, competition process, which implies that only some can win seems to be the first aspect that most people at the expense of others, sport means also think about. Based on Goffman’s conceptual cooperation and convergent forces. The ‘win- field, Birrell outlines the fact that “strategic at-all costs’ ethos is just one face of sports’ interaction is the very model for sport, where coin. The duality of sport field, as both teams and athletes work to maintain their unifying and divisive (Eitzen, 1999) is, in this competitive advantage” (Birrell, 2004: 53). context, the approach which best reflects the Seen as the defining principle for the complexity of sport dynamics. dynamics of this social field, competition is The prioritization of differences over also the main element that sport has similarities and, therefore, the leading transferred to other social areas. As a position of competition among sport values consequence of this phenomenon of liquid can be related to the overall tendency to boundaries between sport and other social redefine sport as ‘social drama’ (Craig & areas, competition became the social master- Beedie, 2008). However, beyond frame, whether we refer to politics, education, confrontation, competition and adversity, entertainment or business. sport is ‘primarily about shared experiences’ Living in these ‘competitive times’, the (Hilvoorde, Elling, Stokvis, 2010). This is tendency is to think in terms of hierarchies or why the focus of this paper will be upon a

Diana-Luiza DUMITRIU concept that is built on this differentiation- regarding sport practice or media sport similarity dyad: community, as a core element consumption often indicates membership or for the dynamics of sport social field. some kind of affinity towards different social Beyond rules, records, victories or defeats, groups. Every ‘I’ dimension is, to some sport is all about people. Whether we speak degree, correlated with a ‘we-feeling’. Based about team or individual sports, there is on the complex repertoire of identities which always a snowball effect that brings people defines our role as social actors, a corollary together around the same objective, the same multilayer structure of communities can be activity, the same sport actor or the same sport thus built up. In defining this ‘I’ - ‘we’ event. Thus, the main aim of this study is to structure of identification for the sport field, a approach the sport dynamics as a result of a dominant model was focused on the micro- permanent process of redefining community macro nature of sport, moving the analysis boundaries or defining sport field as a from the individual, relational and group multilayer structure of communities. level, to organizational, cultural and international level (Halone, Meân, 2010). 2. SPORT COMMUNITY Defined in terms of similarity, whether we ISLANDS speak about common interests, social or spatial boundaries, community is the most 2.1 Repertoire of identities. Sport has appropriate social reference when addressing surpassed its peripheral beginnings, becoming the ‘we-feeling’ that dominates the sport a social field per se in bourdieusian terms. ethos. As A. Cohen pointed out, community Being part of everybody’s day to day life, should be understand as ‘a symbolic construct whether we are a sport hero or an anonymous and a contrastive one; it derives from the armchair viewer, nowadays sport really does situational perception of a boundary which matter: socially, culturally and economically. marks off one social group from another: Sport has gained and reaffirmed its autonomy awareness of community depends on in different, but convergent forms: from consciousness of boundary’ (apud Barnard, separate newscast in prime time, to separate Spencer, 2002:174). Due to their complex cloth section or lifestyle principle. Taking repertoire of identities, individuals belong to a sport as a referential point, every one of us wide range of communities. The aim of this can be defined on several axis: passive or paper is to discuss the dynamics of sport active, neutral or passionate, fan or adversary, social field in terms of community ‘complete amateur or complete professional’ identification. However, given the multiple (Krawczyk, 1995). How we socially dimensions that can be involved in defining experience and understand sport is part of sport communities, it should be said that this who we are and, therefore, is an outcome of paper will address only two of them: the the joint between the objective and subjective spatially and the communicative aspects. aspects of everyday life. 2.2 Spatial and symbolic boundaries of Giving the symbolic value attached to sport communities. Whether we speak about sports, ‘questions of identity and identification classic communities or we refer to a more are of critical importance both for the routine fluid concept of community, we came across a functioning of sports and for some of the problem of spatial boundaries and problems recurrently generated in connection connections. In addressing this dimension of with them’ (Dunning, 1999: 3). Every sport sport communities the local-global axis is event is part o a wider play and every sport probably the most important one. Today, sport actor has his own role on what can be called offers input and, at the same time, is itself an the itinerant sport spectacle. What is really output of the globalization process, building the core of the sports’ saga is the permanent bridges on different levels of interaction: alternation between the ‘I’ and the ‘We’ part individual, group, regional and international. of the performance. Individual choices Part of a wider phenomenon of ‘cultural 31

Diana-Luiza DUMITRIU globalization’ (Jarvie, 2006), sport has sport communities are the most politicized become a powerful tool in increasing the one, as they are based on national identities similarities between people all over the word. and geopolitical similarities. Although, on the Due to its universal system of values and field, the competition seems to be only rules, sport had a strong contribution to the between athletes or teams, beyond this hybridization of cultures, growing into a performance lays a symbolic confrontation culture itself: the sport culture. between nations and socio-political models. On a micro-macro scale, if we focus on the The symbolic capital of these sport macro extreme, we can speak about the communities contributes to drawing out a existence of a global sport community, ‘soft power’ (Nye, 2004) map of the world. transnational and non-territorial. This is the Another community anchor at the global maximum level of integration and the most level is correlated with every sport discipline: flexible type of boundaries, bringing together football community, handball community, all those people who are involved in this area tennis community, rugby community etc. of activity. Coaches, athletes, referees, Sharing a particular system of rules, specific journalists, fans, managers or sponsors, they role models, different competition designs, are all part of this community of action. these sub-discipline sport communities enter Surpassing space and time constrains, this can another symbolic competition in trying to gain be understood as a network community – a followers, supporters, sponsorship or media newborn concept based on the ‘network coverage. Popularity is the main capital that society’ model framed by Castells (1996). All these communities are looking for. However, these sport actors are somehow interconnected affiliation to a specific sport is, in this case, and play their particular role on the global more important than national identity, as we stage of sport. speak of transnational, non-territorial When we get to regional or national level, communities. we find ourselves in front of a new master The last dimension on this global-local frame: sport as a substitutive form of war. It is axis is the organizational one, or the sport now all about power, strategies and politics as club communities. The core principle that nations moved their fights on the symbolic keeps these sport communities together is the battlefield of sports. The representational identification with a sport club brand and a mechanism is thus activated as the ‘we’ clear spatial delimitation. Beyond the global reference is more clear: everybody is part of a ramification of today’s sport clubs and the larger region or a nation that he wants to overall principle of ‘imagined communities’ outperform the others. Is a matter of ‘we’ (Anderson, 1983/2006) that best fits the sport versus ‘them’ confrontation and world, there is a clear hometown community differentiation. Competition between nations as a hard core of every sport club. Members of on the sport battlefield is able ‘to arouse Manchester United football community can be strong emotions in a direct manner and, in a found all over the word, but Manchester less direct way, to create a sense of belonging remains the incontestable hard core of this and national pride’ (Hilvoorde, I., Elling, A., sport community. The deepest feelings of Stokvis, R., 2010: 92). Even the official belonging and highest level of involvement statistics outline these regional and national come with the smallest distance towards the boundaries of sport communities when they main stage of sport club’s activity. This local compare Europe versus America medal index, profile of sport communities is more Scandinavian versus Latin track records, USA prominent when it comes to national versus Russia titles and so on. For many years competition, where it becomes the strongest now, sport has become more than a game and principle of differentiation. athletes took on the corollary role that came This model of global-local sport along with this ‘paradiplomacy’ function of communities is based on a Matroska doll sport (Xifra, J., 2009). These dimensions of principle of concentric layers. However, this 32

Diana-Luiza DUMITRIU model is too static for explaining the sport sport club, while tomorrow they can compete dynamics. In reality, sport actors find against each other in different national or themselves in front of a phenomenon of regional representative teams. What really overlapping communities. The communities’ matters is the ability to switch between the boundaries are fluid and, in the end, active and the passive community community identification is circumstantial. It identification. all depends on what community referent is Sport mega events like Olympics, World activated by a particular sport event. The same or European Championships and club polo player for example could relate to its competitions contribute to the emergence and club community on the National consolidation of sport community islands. Championship stage, to its national They provide the perfect gathering design and community during a World Championship or activate those shared emotions that bring to the polo community when comparing to people together. Moreover, these events keep other sports’ activities. Moreover, sport the global sport community alive and actors have to cope with contradictory celebrate the ‘unity in diversity’ principle of situations generated by the globalizing frame sport social field. Alternative sport of sport; for example FC Barcelona’s hero is communities are brought into the spotlight of not a Spanish football player and French this global ‘emotional symbiosis’ teams become stronger by athletes’ (Ponomariev, 1980) of the sport show. exchanging or amending their original All in all, in talking about global versus national citizenships. Beyond its recreational local sport communities, spatiality should be and entertaining dimension, sport raised as an understand as socially constructed rather than industry aligned with the consumer society’s physically determined. The ‘glocalization’ principles. Therefore, sport has become a (Horne, 2006) concept is probably the one that resourceful labour market where being best address the global-local problem of sport competitive transcends national borders. The communities. These ‘glocal’ sport community ‘citizenship of convenience’ (Campbell, 2011) islands are hybrid forms that combine both and the increasing phenomenon of sport global and local aspects of sport dynamics. migration define a professional sport field 2.3 Communicative anchors of sport dominated by transnational sport actors. This communities. One of the most important is why it can be said that in defining sport resources of similarity that define a communities, hard criteria like physical space community is the communicative dimension. and national origin are not enough. Sport ‘Speaking the same language’ is probably the communities are all about shared emotions most used metaphor of similarity and and common competitive interests. The convergent interests, as language has a nation-based sport model is now old- powerful symbolic value in addressing fashioned and it cannot cope with the identity and identification aspects. globalizing pressure of sport dynamics. So, Although the communication register of instead of a static model of concentric spheres postmodern times is dominated by the of sport community belonging, it is more intertextuality principle, sport communities suitable to speak about a matrix representation distinguish themselves in terms of of what can be called sport community communicative forms and contents. We can islands. If we intercross the community speak about a dual structure of sport dimensions we come up with a netting communication whether we address the structure of these sport community islands. popular versus professional dimension or the Part of so many sport communities, public versus private dimension of sport juggling with different ‘we-ness’ referents, actors’ performances. sport actors came across a sort of d symbolic Globalization and ‘paradiplomacy’ are two ‘dissociative identity disorder’: today factors that, along with the high competing together as members of the same professionalization of this social field, 33

Diana-Luiza DUMITRIU contribute to the emergence of a common or a temporal one, referring to sport actors’ frame of communicative practices among previous level of performances. Regardless of sport actors. Moreover, the cyclicity of the competition type or the sport actor, it all competitions and their ritual dimension gets to a direct or indirect ‘us’ versus ‘them’ consolidate the ‘communication contract’ polarization. Comparative logic is the very associated with sport events. Understood as a nature of sport competitions. ‘We were better set of social norms and expectations which than them’, ‘They played better than us’, ‘It govern a particular frame of interaction, the was our best match’ or ‘it was our worst communication contract ‘allows the performance’ are common aspects of post- participants to co-construct the sense of their match public discourses. Thus, evaluating discourses’ (Charaudeau, 2002: 309) and sport performances implies a form of increases the predictability of their structure comparison, built on a relational and not an and content. Being part of a sport community absolute system of reference. island, sport actors call on to common The last thematic component that will be discursive resources. Thus, many of the brought into discussion is strongly correlated elements that define the communicative with the sport paradiplomacy function and profile of a community are, in fact, standard sport actors’ public exposure. The constrains formulaic routines (Bing, Ruhl, 2008). These associated with these two aspects have standardized aspects of communication contribute to the emergence of what can be contribute to establishing and maintaining the called sport courtesy. Based on sport global relationship between communities’ members values like fair-play, respect and fairness, in a conventional register, which has already sport courtesy refers to common behaviour been socially negotiated and reaffirmed. and discursive practices. Besides the ritual Even though an exhaustive analysis of dimension of these practices, there is also an sport discursive gender is not within the scope instrumental value attached to them: of this paper, there are some communicative maintaining a ‘positive face’ (Goffman, aspects that must be approached in outlining 1959/2003) and reflecting the desirable role the communicative dimension of sport model that people expect from sport actors. communities. If we refer to the thematic This is why athletes and coaches congratulate component of sport actors’ public discourses, their opponents, give thanks to their we can speak about some recurrent frames or opponents for the ‘good game’, admit and metaphors. One of them is the representation appreciated the value of the opponent of sport confrontation in terms of war, as sport performance, empathize with the opponent has become for many years now a symbolic defeat disappointment or even wish their surrogate for war. References like: ‘old opponents ‘good luck’ in the next enemies’, ‘final fight’, ‘revenge’, ‘an entire confrontations. All in all, sport courtesy is arsenal of techniques’, ‘battlefield of action’ about ‘impression management’ (Goffman, are part of a wide conceptual field build on 1959/2003), as well as keeping to an informal this war metaphor of sport confrontations. moral rule of the global sport community. Even the competitional designs and Besides these three main frames associated repertoires of roles reflect a social imaginary with sport actors’ public discourses, there are of war: every game has its strategy, its attacks many other common features regarding both and defences, its spies and its retires. Behind content, as well as discursive structure. Most athletes and teams, there are local or national of them are related to the cyclicity and communities that fight for gaining material cumulative representation of sport dynamics. and, most important, symbolic resources and Sport performances are rarely understood as proving their superiority. isolated events, but rather put in connection Another common element of sport with the history of similar confrontation and discourses is the comparative frame, whether to the forecast for the next ones. This is why it involves a social comparison with ‘others’ statistics and track records are always brought 34

Diana-Luiza DUMITRIU into discussion: ‘numbers show that ...’, BIBLIOGRAPHY ‘statistics are not in favour of...’ as powerful arguments for the competitions’ outcomes. 1. Anderson, B. [1983], (2006). Imagined Thus, keeping the track records seems to Communities: Reflections on the Origin make up for the uncertainty of sport results, as and Spread of Nationalism. London: people look for increasing the predictability of Verso. competitions. On the other side of the coin is 2. Barnard, A., Spencer, J. (eds.) (2002). the common tendency to speak about future Encyclopedia of social and cultural action using, in most cases, the ‘hope’ frame anthropology. London: Routledge. or the ‘commitment’ one. ‘I hope that our next 3. Bing, J., Ruhl, C. (2008). It’s all my fault! performance will be much better than today’, The pragmatics of responsibility ‘I assure you that we will do our best to’ or statements. Journal of Pragmatics, 40 (3), ‘We promise our fans that we will win the 537–558. next mach’ are just some examples of sport 4. Birrell, S., Donnelly, P. (2004), actors’ way of always looking further than Reclaiming Goffman: Erving Goffman’s today’s performance. Influence on the Sociology of Sport. In All these aspects regarding the sport actors’ Giulianotti, R. (ed.), Sport and Modern contextual and structural components of Social Theorists, Palgrave: Macmillan. discourses outline the existence of some solid 5. Bourdieu, P. (1998). Practical Reason. On communication anchors of sport communities. the Theory of Action. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 3. CONCLUSION 6. Campbell, R., (2011). Staging globalization for national projects: Global Sport social field is not all about sport markets and elite athletic competition and differentiation. Beyond this transnational labour in Qatar. International powerful master-frame, sport means also Review for the Sociology of Sport. 46(1), identity and identification. Defined in terms of 45–60. shared experiences and emotions, sport social 7. Castells, M., (1996). The Rise of the field can be understood as a complex net of Network Society. Oxford: Blackwell. sport community islands. 8. Charaudeau, P. (2002). A communicative Two of the main sources of similarity that conception of discourse. Discourse stands as the formative principle of Studies, 4 (3), 301-318. communities are spatiality and 9. Craig, P., Beedie, P. (eds), (2008). Sport communication. Given the duality of global vs. Sociology. Parkstone: Learning Matters. local dimension of sport dynamics, 10. Dunning, E. (1999). Sport Matters: ‘glocalization’ and transnational athletes seem sociological studies of sport, violence and to be the hybrid forms that define the new civilization. London: Routledge. mapping of sport community islands. 11. Eitzen, D. S. (1999). Fair and Foul. Furthermore, the sport global values and the Beyond the Myths and Paradoxes of Sport. public exposure of sport events contribute to a Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. standardization of sport actors’ discourses. The 12. Goffman, E. [1959], (2003). The everyday war metaphor, the comparison frame and the life as a spectacle. Bucharest: sport courtesy principle are three common Comunicare.ro. aspects that dominate the discursive practices 13. Halone, K.K., Meân, L.J., (2010). Situating of sport community. Hence, whether we speak Sport, Language, and Culture as a Site for about the global sport community or about a Intellectual Discussion. Journal of particular sport community island, between Language and Social Psychology, 29(3), their fluid boundaries, individuals share a 386–396. common social imaginary of the sport field. 14. Hilvoorde, I., Elling, A., Stokvis, R. (2010). How to influence national pride? 35

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The Olympic medal index as a unifying 18. Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: the means to narrative. International Review for the success in world politics. New York: Sociology of Sport, 45(1), 87–102. PublicAffairs. 15. Horne, J. (2006) Sport in consumer 19. Ponomariev, N.I. (1980). Sport as a Show, society. London: Palgrave. International Review for the Sociology of 16. Jarvie, G. (2006). Sport, Culture and Sport. 15: 73. Society: Can Sport Change the World. 20. Xifra, J. (2009). Building Sport Countries' London: Routledge. Overseas Identity and Reputation: A Case 17. Krawczyk, Z. (1995). Sociology of Study of Public Paradiplomacy. American physical education, Warsaw: University of Behavioral Scientist. 53 (4), 504-515. physical education.

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A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM

Oana BARBU

Faculty of Political Sciences, Philosophy and Communication Sciences, West University of Timi oara, Romania

Abstract: There is a huge gap in the current PR literature concerning the balance between an assumed identity and a received image of an organization. To little is discussed upon the transfer of identity to a targeted public, and a certain amount of PR strategies are concerned more about “how it should be done” (the event or the campaign), than about “why it should be done” in this particular manner. More and more, the world of sport branding is gaining interest in the PR research field, as the sports industry is booming like never before. Sports are now a global business that is on the cutting-edge of entertainment, new media technology, communication and marketing synergies. And the industry will only continue to grow by leaps and bounds into the foreseeable future. When debating on image-identity formation with regards to sport fans, the current PR literature base does not adequately address the creation of fan’s brand image or fan’s decision to foster a team or another. Therefore, we will try, in our presentation, to identify the challenges facing today’s sport branding and advocate for a rigorous attention on the transition between identity and image in organizational communication. We will also propose a methodology to qualitatively measuring an organizational image profile, and offer a study case on developing a brand image for a Romanian local rugby team.

Keywords: PR, identity, image, online branding, rugby

1. PREVIOUS RESEARCHES through which an existing business will be communicating a content. On the other hand, More and more, authors like Jonathan E. brands have become more important to the Schroeder or Miriam Salzer Morling propose a upcoming generations. Brands are used by cultural approach of the brands by pointing people to define their identities. You are a out the tendency of this field towards the Pepsi drinker, a Volvo driver, a user, a TiVo cultural, sociological and theoretical research. devotee, a Madonna fan, a New York Times The anthropologists, the historians and the Journal reader, etc. In addition, the Internet is sociologists have recently spoken about brands having a greater influence on people’s daily from a cultural perspective, by comprehending lives and the speed at which information can their importance at the social level and by be shared. The question is how a brand recognizing at the same time their economical identity manages to become a mirrored image and psychological links (Bentley, 2008; of a specific community, transforming itself Koehn, 2001; Lury, 2004). from an abstract to a social level? Does a Starting from Al Reis book (The 11 product/ company/organizational identity Immutable Laws of Internet Branding), The manage to remain intact along with the highly Law of Either/Or asserts that the Internet influence of the user generated content in should be viewed as an entirely new business, social media? The debates are still on even at a starting from scratch, not just a new medium theoretical level.

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM

2. OUR APPROACH supposes the comprehension of regional cultures, of cultural spheres and brands Our work is going to support the approach implications as social active “symbolic forms”. of branding phenomenon from a cultural perspective, analyzing it contextually and 3. CONCEPTUAL DELIMITATIONS dynamically according to contemporary researches. We will approach a qualitative 3.1 What are images? Despite the research method focusing on a comprehensive existence of many diverse researches on image perspective without quantification, seeking theory, despite imagery’s important role over more for an integrated approach on the time (paintings, drawings, symbolic branding phenomenon. Starting from Ernst representations, visual or textual Cassirer’s “symbolic forms” (1997, 1975), we representations etc.), the study of image still propose a qualitative method of “the symbolic presents a great deal of issues regarding its function of an image” as a complementary definition and use. Moreover, we can analysis. acknowledge the fact that it is hard to define We defined the symbolic functions of the such a broad domain, without framing organizational image according to its iconic delimitations. We consider though that these components (organizational identity, desirable demarcations not rigorously operated, thus the image, received image). From this perspective, concept of image is used excessively, without the symbolic function of an organizational having an explanation for the direction of its image can be comprehended in three main use. The reasons for these omissions often forms: derive from the fact that the term ”image” has 1) The expressive function that transforms several meanings used both in specialized an organizational identity in a “proposed language and in common language. image” (by using identity expressions and Consequently, many of these meanings symbols such as logo, representative colours, intertwine inside the same speech. values, an organizational mission and vision) – And yet, an image designates not only a the level of expressions. visual content, as a text is far from lacking 2) The representational function that iconicity or an imagological experience transforms a “desired image” into a “received (Mitchell, 1986). It is, therefore, imperative to image” in a two –way action: a) Putting operate a reassessment of the critical expressions into action (all the exterior equipment concerning the methodology manifestations of a brand) and b) Interpreting applied in the study of images from the and filtering expressions at a public’s level Communication Sciences’ point of view. We (including media level) – the level of advocate for this approach merely because, as representations. we will try to point out, most of the corporate 3) The significant function of an image campaigns are formed in the praxis of a organization that creates attitudes and highly symbolized cultural context that transforms an organization’s image into a includes visual images, texts, sounds, myths, “motivational” abstraction for the targeted symbolic interactions of an audience. audience, a brand, so to say. – the level of (Bratosin, 2007). significances. Two observations can be made regarding In this sense, the concept of “brand any attempt to take into consideration the culture" refers to the cultural codes developed assembly of imagery phenomena. First of all, by the brands at a significant level (history, as noticed above, there is a variety of images, myths, art, communities, beliefs), that situations in which the term “image” is used: influence the comprehension and the value of we talk about visual image, but we also use the a brand on the market, especially on the term when we describe optical illusions, maps, contextual-social praxis level. From this diagrams, dreams, hallucinations, shows, outlook, the study of this phenomenon often projections, literary works, patterns, memories, 38

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM ideas, organizations, people, etc. The absolute take into consideration a closer look over the diversity of this list seems to make any fields in which the term is used, and not over a systematic understanding impossible to unify. universal definition of the term, as Mitchell Second, the mere use of the same term in noted (ibid), we could obtain a family tree of different fields cannot lead us to the its associated senses, and automatically of conclusion that it means the same thing. If we their current use.

IMAGES

GRAPHICAL OPTICAL PERCEPTUAL MENTAL VERBAL Visual images Mirrors Sensorial Data dreams metaphors/ figures of speech Sculptures Projections “categories/ memories descriptions concepts” Design appearances creative ideas/ fantasies/ inspiration hallucinations

Fig.1 Visual imagery family tree according to W.J.T. Mitchell (1995)

We strengthen in this way our position lifestyles, and especially the desire to form according to which imagery constructions around these a community with a specific set (visual image, discourse text, imago-text) of properties. Thus, identity is also a operate with symbolic forms proper to a polyvalent concept; it includes from tangible practiced context, in such manner that they end elements, such as historical proofs (historical up by building significance for a receiver. In identities) or artistic trends (artistic identities), this sense, an image does not open but it to intangible elements, such as quality or delimitates an interpretation frame for the reputation. In this respect, more recent authors observer, interpretation which is itself such as Juan Costa (2007), Eines (2007) or symbolically mediated by a context. Ernest Akerlof, (2010) approach identity as having its Cassirer (1994) asserted that this concept of roots in the lifestyles of communities strongly “symbolic forms” covers all phenomena that symbolically and socio-culturally defined. determine, no matter the way, the fulfilment of These perspectives claim the existence of even a meaning in a symbol and all contexts in more evidence regarding lifestyles, related not which a datum is sensitive. Through this only to individual decisions, but also to mediation the individual builds himself patterns of collective action (emergent from a universes of perception and discourses. certain national identity). Thus the identity- In the present paper we will define the culture-image triangle is formed. If we accept image as a mean through which visual the fact that an organizational identity is an information (real or mental) is communicated, assumed symbolic discursive form, we will be through shape, as well as through content. The able to analyze the connection between it and image holds an entire field of iconicity images, in terms of iconicity, cohesion and (Mitchell, Picture Theory, 1995). The imago- delimitation of defined communities. text is in this case the “evocative” text of Organizational identity generally refers images through representation. more to what members perceive, feel, and 3.2 Organizational identity and image. think about their organization/institution. It’s We define identity from the perspective given supposed to be a “collective agreement” upon by Professor Montserrat Guibemau (1997), the values and distinct characteristics of the according to which identity means culture, organization, starting from an internal language, symbols, values, traditions, environment. Albert and Whetten (1985) offer

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM such a definition of the organizational identity and identified only with the visual elements of as representing what is essential, durable, and an organization (logo, visual signs, the regarding the distinctive character of an representative colours, mascots, etc.). organization. The theoretical basis of this Although the visual identity remains an perspective concentrates on the theory of important component o the corporate identity, social identity and on the theory of auto- this is without doubt only a form of symbolic classification. Albert and Whetten consider the representation of an organizational identity, organizational identity as being a distinct form the organizational image representing an of social identity, concept analyzed in the ‘70s assembly of symbolic forms through which an by scholars, such as Tajfel (1978), G. Vignaux identity is communicated in various ways. or Serj Moscovici (1994). Thus the identity is Taking the definition of professor defined as “the acknowledgement that the Guibernau as starting point, we shall consider individual belongs to certain social groups, to in the present paper that an organization's which values and emotional significances public image is an abstract construct upon an which he associates as a group member are identity that serves as a recognition symbol for added” (Tajfel, 1972:292).In other words, an a target audience. We shall distinguish individual is defined by adhering to social between: a) the desired image (what the groups that are relevant and make sense to that organization proposes to transmit) and b) the individual. received image (the filtered discursive form Corporate identity, on the other hand, is an that is received by the audience). A brand exteriorization of organizational values and image will be defined as a mean through beliefs to another audience that the one created which iconicity (Mitchell, 1995) and the by the employees; however the accent on a significant function are communicated, symbolic identity is preserved. It differs from through shape, action and interpreted content. the organizational identity, as it is conceived Most often, the desirable image is as a symbolic communication process with represented in accordance with the emphasis on the visual identity of the organizational identity and sent to be received organization. Corporate identity has been by the targeted audience. We could even say conceptualized especially in the corporate that the desirable image, built by the branding studies that have pointed out the organization/institution, is nothing else but a relationship between organizations and their representation of an organizational identity. communication context in the process of a The whole set of graphic, perceptual, mental strategic communication. (Abratt, 1989; or verbal elements proposed under the form of Balmer, 1995; Olins, 2008). In this respect, the messages or symbolic representations must be corporate identity is communicated through decoded at the audience level. This the representations of its valuable contents. hermeneutics is realized through media and Although both organizational and corporate contextual filters. This conceptual-value communications are built on “what the mediation transforms the image “support” organization is” (Balmer, 1995, p. 25), the (banner, spot, portfolio, online campaign, strong connection of the latter with iconicity website, or a team) in significant elements. emphasizes explicitly the representation They transmit representations of an identity function of the corporate identity. enforced by a communication strategy that has The organizational image is, therefore, the power to transform a desirable image into a defined as a construct through which a received image. phenomenal representation is communicated. It is interesting to underline here also that This representation has a meaning generator field practitioners do not step away too much function and is significant for a targeted from the academic theorizations of the image. audience. Regarding the organizational image, They may “dilute” the ideational content by this is often confused with corporate identity proposing a functional, practiced form of it, 40

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM but use the same meaning. For example: This mediation appears as action or activity, according to Ernst Cassirer’s (1972), always functional at a social level as a Wunnenburger’s (1998) and Bratosin’s (2007) meaning creator! Any concept (like theories, symbols are integrated parts of our “creativity” for Apple Company) is a step in existence which interfere as screens between the formation of a meaningful symbol. In this reality and our representations. For Cassirer sense, organizational concepts are tied, in a (1996), the father of “symbolic forms”, it is universal yet mobile manner, to what they not the content of mythical representations that produce for their public. This symbolization must be explained, but “the meanings that they marks a functional relation between develop on the human consciousness and the individuals and the real world. In our case, this spiritual force that it unleashes on it”. In a boundary is marked between the identity of an more practical perspective, Bernstein (1986) organization and its public. states that in order to communicate an Starting with Cassirer’s theorizations organizational image, not the symbol but what presented above (1997, 1975) we have tried to it represents has value for the receiver. This define the symbolic functions of the function of representing symbols (like the organizational image connecting them to an apple from “Apple”) marks the importance of organization’s immaterial components a visual identity for the entire corporative (identity, desired image, received image); the image. symbolic function stands out through three The received image represents a filtered main qualities: form of an image by contexts, supports and Expressive – “defining the manner in communication channels. Authors from the which an object or product sensibly exists”. In marketing field, like Bernstein (quoted by the case of an organization, the expressive Abratt, 1989, p. 68), state that “the image is function generates the production and not even far what the company thinks it is, but reproduction of its visual image and all of the the feelings and beliefs about it that are in the characteristics of a corporative image. mind of the auditorium”. This perspective Expressions are symbolic forms through which emphasizes on the external character of image the corporate identity is being made visible: formation and the important role of the the visual identity, the mission, the vision and consumer to define it. And so, the the company’s profile, the characteristics organizational image becomes a global and through which it stands out, the set of alive “impression” held by an individual or a assumed values, the core target’s profile etc. target-public over an organization and it is the Representative – the set of perceptive result of the meaning created between the representations about the company, group and the communication of a projected object/product, context or environment. The image and manufactured by an organization representative function deals with the actions (Alvesson, 1990, p. 376). And so, the received that a company/corporation/organization/group image of an organization approaches more and establishes at a social level. Representations more the form of the generated myth under the nominate an associated content that is not form of representation. necessarily directly linked to expressions; organizational features indirectly linked to 4. ANALYSING THE SYMBOLIC external characteristics or qualities. It is a FUNCTIONS OF AN IMAGE descriptive function which exemplifies both through interaction and action at a social The power of branding process transforms level: events, campaigns, social media, fan the perceptual content of an organization in a clubs, CSR campaigns, communication and symbolic one. At an organizational level, the PR with the public and the media. mediation between corporative identity and Significant – It offers a distinct brand image is being realized through symbol. signification to these perceptions 41

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM

(representations) through which it organisation’s social media activity (Facebook differentiates them from competition and sets page) and illustrate the action of the significant them in a practiced context. The Significant function, starting from the “fans” generated function includes a detachment from the main content. These emerging images are able to tie activity of the organization and the situation of us to the way social communication is the iconicity on a symbolic level. More changing and growing. It is important that we precisely, we are dealing with all the abstract recognize these images as representations of representations, comparisons, metaphors, an identity. The Internet and other mediums of indirect associations generated by the image of global communication are not just tools to help an organization (for example: Apple’s us communicate and access information, but products are for “creative people”, the also have a significant function. They are Montpellier’s rugby team “represents The dynamic metaphors of a worldwide South-Eastern France”). The significant interconnectedness that create intercultural function is at the same time both identity- communities. As symbols they express a related and informative. The significances of a deeper meaning and purpose than their corporative image are the result of the interactive function. simultaneous action of the other two functions In order to exemplify this, our framework with great accent on the reputation-notoriety will focus on sport branding and how a sport couple. The communication activities that are team is interacting symbolically with its fans mainly aimed towards the positive generation on a social media platform (Facebook). We of significations are also the ones that have chosen sport, mainly because it is a transform the image of an complex growing industry and organization/corporation/company into brand supporters/fandom engagement involves a image because at this level distinctive “signs” special type of interaction. of an identity are being built. 1. As we stated above, the expressive function of a sport team is being used at the assumed organizational identity level: in the mission declaration, vision and the company’s values. These are easy to recognize in the “about section” and the “profile picture” - The expressive function can be deducted also by analyzing its corporate identity. - Expressions are highly underlined in motivational or campaign slogans. Ex. Rugby Club Timisoara has a slogan that links rugby to Timisoara and the regional identity “For rugby and for

Timisoara”. The Montpellier team is Fig.2 Symbolic functions and organizational levels oriented more on the “wow effect” of a slogan, often using hyperbolas in order 5. ANALYSING THE ONLINE to attract fans’ attention” faire quelque SYMBOLIC FUNCTION OF IMAGES chose d’extraordinaire”. These slogans are acting like driving forces for the So, how can we analyse the symbolic targeted public (in terms of function of images in the online medium? representations): Starting from the observation that the web is o For Timisoara’s rugby fans, regional highly imagistic, we will briefly analyse the culture and regional history has a use of expressions and representations in an positive impact activating what Garry 42

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM

Crawford (Consuming Sports, expressions, while “putting in action”, Routledge, 2004) calls “a special form so to say, the expressive function. This of pride, the exceptional forms of is a very important step taking into support, the myriad of ways in which consideration that it gives fluidity to sport can be experienced and consumed the communicational process, but also in everyday life”. opens ways of interpretation. o For Montpellier’s fans, expressions are - On the other hand, like any other also fan oriented and often linked with setting into action, the representational the regional specificity. Calling function marks versions of themselves “the representative rugby interpretation of the expressive team of South-East of France”, their function, grounded in promotional message is more accurate and socio- campaigns, social campaigns or CSR. cultural oriented. We will exemplify on our charts what 2. The representational function of a sport kind of content is significant for the use brand can be deduced from the organisation’s of representational function. communication and promoting actions. The significant function of the company is Facebook activity, content management and noticeable in the feedback given to these fans engagement are signs of its action. It can messages and in the further abstract meanings be quantitatively measured with Facebook associated with the brand. It can be insights, especially with likes per content quantitatively researched by likes, comments, analysis, engaged users and total reach. true reach, evolution results charts etc. - The representational function must be consistent with the company’s

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM

Fig.3 Comparative Timeline analysis

Fig.3 Online elements analysis

6. ANALYSIS AND FURTHER team etc).More precisely, the expressive DEVELOPMENTS function, in which these context accompanies the desirable image of a rugby team, will be As we can notice, the expressive function, determined (influenced) by the representation carrier of all symbols (expressions) of of this team in real life: from the match played corporative identity, makes the construction of on the field, to the attitude manifested by the a desirable image possible that proposes itself supporters, the involvement at community towards public recognition. But in most of the level and ending with the filtered cases, this image is just the ipothese for what it representations through different environments is going to be received by the public. The like the written press. Untill now, nothing representation function (representative) acts new! Our observations state that the team like a “set into action” of organization representations are not at all enough. In most expressions, being at the same time both action of the times, the received image is strongly (being represented by all of the actions of the influenced by the context of representations organization) but also by interpretation of the (field, competition, website, involvement at expressions of an organization (the miting is a community level, official statements) but also active interpretation form of some values, the through the filtering methods (the teams supporters of a team are the interpreters of representation in media, newspaper articles, some positive representations of their favourite rumors, buzz activities, for example). In a very 44

A COMMUNICATION PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL IMAGE AND IDENTITY: STUDY UPON A ROMANIAN RUGBY TEAM small manner, an organization has control over apart from their activity domain that involves: the way in which its image will be received. results, victories, performance and fairplay. Just as we will see in the following We notice, that once the significant paragraphs, the desirable image and expressive function is affected by the interpretations at function are often eroded thorugh the use of representative level, the whole image of the false representations of filtering environments. organization has to suffer, no matter how Filtering the representative function positive the offered representations are. A automatically leads to the erodation of the clear administration of the representative received image and the significand function function is required at the same time both at that accompanies it. company level and also at filtering Another interesting situation for our environments to ensure a glide towards the discution is represented by the association of formation of positive significations associated some representations that are very strong with the company. spread apart or that have no direct connection We exemplified in this paper a positive use one with the expressions or the identity of an of the symbolic forms of an organizational organization. But they are parts taken out of image. However, starting from expressions, context of some certain situations and their this methodological analysis can be also used transformation, through interpretation, in to underline image communication errors or representations generated among the entire propose suggestions for an image crisis. Our organization. For example, because of the observations state, for example, that corporate “show” aspect of the spor, it is often mistaken representations are not enough in order to with “entertainment”, and the informations assure a correct transfer between a desired (representations) associated with the activity image and a coherent received one. The of a sports club, have often taken the form of received image can be strongly influenced by tabloid articles. The representatives of a sports the context of representations (socio-cultural club were often taken as a representative contexts, competition, social level standard for the entire context. And so they are involvement, official statements etc.) but also equivalated falsely with the club's identity, by various filtering mediums such as: through the great accent that is being put on representation in media, recommendations, “entertainment”. It’s no wonder that, the rumours, buzz activities, online activities etc. majority of sports news, do not present real results of that certain sport, but extra-ordinary BIBLIOGRAPHY situations, in which the club’s identity was involved (fights between supporters, 1. Barthes, R. (1978). Image, music, text. unappropriate declarations of some player, New York, Macmillan: Hill and Wang. taking out of context certain situations, club 2. Baudrillard, J. (1998). The Consumer members activity outside context, like a Society: Myths and Structures, Thousand seaside family roadtrip etc.). For a very long OaksCA: Sage Publications Ltd. time, were offered informations not about the 3. Caillois, R. (1967). Les jeux et les hommes. club itself but and the marked results, but Paris: Gallimard. about the financial status of a famous sports 4. Chemama-Steiner, B. (1994). Que peut-on club, about the unfortunate “adventures” of attendre d’une typologie de l’image? some team members or about their love affairs UTINAM Revue de Sociologie et in which they were involved. The association D’Antropologie. no. 12. 15-29. of this kind of representation of desirable 5. Debord, G. (2010). Society of the image, makes the received image to be a very Spectacle. Detroit: Black & Red. widely spread apart from the assumed identity 6. Hogg, M., Terry, D., White, K. (1995). A of the sports club, but even further spreaded Tale of Two Theories: A Critical Comparison of Identity Theory with Social 45

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Identity Theory. Social Psychology 9. Strauss, A. (1959). Mirrors and Masks: Quarterly. 58. 255-269. The Search for Identity. San Francisco: 7. Rein, I., Kotler, Ph., Shields, B. (2006). The Sociology Press. The elusive fan: Reinventing Sports in a 10. Wann, D. (1995). Preliminary Validation Crowded Marketplace. Columbus: of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale. Journal McGraw-Hill. of Sports and Social Issues. 19. 377-396.. 8. Stets, J., Burke, P. (2000). Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory. Social Psychology Quarterly. 63.s 224-237.

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

INNOVATIONS’ ACCEPTANCE FOR REDUCING GLOBAL WARMING: INFLUENCES ON PUBLIC OPINION WHEN SOCIAL TRUST IS LOW

Diana-Maria CISMARU

College of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Public Administration

Abstract: The paper presents the factors which influenced the construction and the stability of public opinion in the Romanian space, while testing the public acceptance of innovative technologies for reducing global warming. The attitude of Romanian publics and the public acceptance in this matter are compared to the attitude of publics in other five European countries, highlighting social and cultural characteristics of the Romanian environment. The findings in the paper were collected in an ERA-NET research project developed during 2009-2010, in which the author of the paper had the function of country scientific coordinator. The methods used were the focus group discussion and the representative national survey. The comparison with results from the other five countries revealed distinct characteristics of the Romanian social climate. Finally, the paper emphasizes the characteristics of formation and evolution of public opinion in Romania, in view of future persuasion strategies addressed to publics for implementation of public policies.

Keywords: trust, communication, public acceptance, environment, energy

1. INTRODUCTION results depend on the capital of social trust. The sociological surveys in the last years in Trust is indispensable for the development the Romanian space showed the erosion of the of a social life, being the premise for capital of social trust, which makes more constructing relationships, considering the fact difficult the introduction of innovations or the that very little is knew for certain about people development of effective economic projects. (Meyerson, Weick & Kramer, 2006: 429). According to barometers, in the last years Scholars (Rotter, 1967, apud Mayer, Davis & (RISE poll, 2010) develops a tendency of Shoorman, 2006: 87) define social trust as “the accentuated decrease of trust in institutions, expectance of an individual or of a group that and in other traditional actors of democracy. the promise, verbal or written declaration of The level of trust in legitimate democratic another individual or group will be fulfilled”. institutions is the lowest (the Parliament and Tied to the social trust are, for the trusted pole the Government have the lowest level of trust, of relationship, the credibility (or the under 18%). NGOs have only 25% level of characteristics that enables trust from other trust (RISE poll, 2010: 57-78). Also, suspicion people) and, back to the other pole, the is a general feature of the climate, about two orientation to trust of individuals or groups thirds from Romanians believe that people in (the availability to have trust). Groups and their community look for profit in societies could have different level of relationships, and have confidence only in orientation to trust, depending of their stage of people they know personally (idem). development and cultural characteristics. The data from surveys suggest the The introduction of an industrial difficulties of obtaining public acceptance on innovation determines a public debate which large scale innovations. The public perceive

INNOVATIONS’ ACCEPTANCE FOR REDUCING GLOBAL WARMING: INFLUENCES ON PUBLIC OPINION WHEN SOCIAL TRUST IS LOW public policies as being abstract and with little recalling of information. The only difference impact in the real life. Cautions are necessary in the content among countries referred to in applying research tools and building technologies (different, due to economic recommendations based on findings in public conditions). In Romania, the technologies policies. This paper presents the factors which tested for implementation were: “A cluster of influenced the construction and stability of four coal-fired power plants with onshore public opinion in Romania, as resulted from an storage in a saline aquifer” (technology 1), and ERA-NET research project developed in six “One gas turbine power plant with offshore European countries, in order to test the public storage in a saline aquifer” (technology 2). acceptance of industrial technologies 2.2 The quantitative research. The introduced for reducing global warming. second part of the project supposed the organization of representative polls at a 2. METHODS national level, in order to identify the level of information and potential public acceptance of FENCO-ERA research project technologies and the influence factors. The “Scrutinizing the impact of CCS public poll tested the influence of the source in communication on general and local publics” changing attitude: information was presented (2009-2010) was a beginning in Romania in in four ways to respondents (negative message the field of industrial innovations for with/without a source, positive message protecting the environment. The CCS (carbon with/without a source - for Romania, the capture and storage) technologies are designed source for “negative information” was to decrease the level of industrial CO2 Greenpeace, and the source for “positive emissions, having an important effect in information” was Shell). The questions in the decreasing global warming. The project has survey were the same in all countries; only the been developed in Germany, Netherlands, method of implementation was different (in United Kingdom, Norway, Greece and Norway, online survey; in Romania, telephone Romania. Some of the countries (as Germany survey). and Netherlands) were advanced in the development of the new technologies, while 3. RESULTS others were at beginning. 2.1 The qualitative research. The first 3.1 The focus groups and information- part of the research project used the focus choice questionnaires results. The results in group method to test the stability and strength this phase for Romania (Cismaru et al., 2010: of opinion and the type of information which 59-60) showed a fine reception of the stimulate a better reception and recollection of information: both types of participants (focus publics. Using the same methodology groups and information-choice questionnaire) (Dancker et al., 2010), three presentations of considered the information comprehensible, an expert followed by focus groups were valid and useful. Further, both types of organized in each country. Three alternative participants recalled the greatest part of the groups (ICQ groups, abbreviation from information provided. When comparing the “information-choice questionnaire groups”), effectiveness of the two methods of with an equivalent composition of participants, communication, oral presentation of an expert received the same information in a written followed by group debate was in advantage for form, without discussing it. The purpose of Romanians. The self-reported awareness to this part was to see which presentation form is form an opinion on technologies was slightly more effective, and which generates the most better in focus groups. Participants reported stable opinion. After receiving information, fewer difficulties in forming an opinion, a participants from both groups answered to a greater certainty and sufficient information. detailed questionnaire in order to verify the 48

INNOVATIONS’ ACCEPTANCE FOR REDUCING GLOBAL WARMING: INFLUENCES ON PUBLIC OPINION WHEN SOCIAL TRUST IS LOW

Table 1. Means (and SD) of self-reported express about the technologies was ability to form an opinion on technology 1 appreciated (general mean was 5,71, with SD A. Diffi- B. Infor- C.Cer- D.Expec- of 1,41), which shows an availability of culties mation tainty tancy informed subjects to public participation in FGD 3,40 5,00 4,93 3,70 (1,83) (1,72) (1,25) (1,60) debates about policies. ICQ 3,63 4,67 5,37 3,83 3.2 The representative poll at national (1,40) (1,58) (1,15) (1,57) level results. The poll at the national level Note. Scale was from 1 to 7 (less/more). A- showed a fine level of information about experienced difficulty; B- sufficient information; pollution and global warming effect, but C- certainty of opinion; D-expectancy to change almost no information on capture carbon and storage technologies at a majority of the Table 2. Means (and SD) of self-reported Romanians (75% never heard about carbon ability to form an opinion on technology 2 A.Diffi- B.Infor- D.Certa E.Expec- capture and storage, only 2,9% had more culties mation inty tancy information). For respondents, environmental FGD 3,27 4,87 5,57 3,63 issues were placed on the third place on the (1,59) (1,67) (1,19) (1,92) public agenda, after medical system problems ICQ 3,63 4,67 5,37 3,83 and economic problems, but before criminality (1,40) (1,58) (1,15) (1,57) (graph 1 – the percentage of respondents Note. Scale was from 1 to 7 (less/more). A- considering environment as being important or experienced difficulty; B- sufficient information; C- certainty of opinion; D-expectancy to change the most important).

Further, the score on recalling information was better on focus groups (mean of 2,46 with Unemployment SD 1,17) compared to ICQ participants (mean Criminality of 2,23 with SD 1,14). At last, the collective Health system opinion towards innovations was more Economy positive if the information was presented by an Environment expert, and could receive feed-back (table 3). 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85%

Table 3. Mean (and SD) for opinions on technology 1 and technology 2 Overall Vote Overall Vote on T1 for T1 on T 2 for T2 Graph 1. The priority of issues for respondents FGD 5,43 5,30 5,43 5,60 (1,59) (1,80) (1,52) (1,83) ICQ 4,87 6,00 4,60 4,83 (1,79) (2,01) (1,90) (2,23) solar Note. Overall opinion was measured on a scale wind ranging from 1 = very bad, to 7 = very good. water plants Higher scores indicate a positive evaluation. biomass

In testing acceptance of the two coal technologies in the focus groups, the score was gas high. The mean for overall opinion for both nuclear the two technologies tested was high (table 1, 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 2). Also, the activity in favor of implementation (vote for it in a national referendum) would be strong, while the Graph 2. The percentage of preferences for attitude for rejecting technologies or vote forms of energy (strongly agree or total agree) against them was low. The opportunity to 49

INNOVATIONS’ ACCEPTANCE FOR REDUCING GLOBAL WARMING: INFLUENCES ON PUBLIC OPINION WHEN SOCIAL TRUST IS LOW

The poll revealed that Romanians the level of total opposition (strong and understand the importance of the maintenance moderate) is around 38%. The increase of of the environment, and would evaluate percentage of opposition attitudes in case of positively modern options of producing ambiguous message or public debate shows energy, as solar and wind energy (graph 2). the general lack of stability of public opinion Another finding is that the level of in Romania. acceptance is very high, even if the information was new. Almost three quarters of the Romanians (73%) would be in favor of 40% testing the CCS technology in the country and only 12,8% would be against. The active 30% attitude (vote or sign a petition in favor of 20% implementation) would be stronger than the opposite attitude (vote or sign a petition 10% against implementation). The high level of 0% public acceptance has a small variation (only "-" with "-" "+" with "-" 3%) between negative and positive S S presentation even if it comes from a public authority (a well known non-governmental Graph 4. The percentage of people voting against organization as Greenpeace) (Cismaru & Ivan, the technology. Note. Red-the total options of 2010: 14-16). agreement; blue – the intense options (“totally agree”)

80% 60% 100% 80% 40% 60% 20% 40% 0% 20% "-" with "-" "+" with "-" S S 0% "-" with "-" "+" with "+"

S S Graph 3. The change in acceptance while changing positive/negative (+/-) information with/without a source (S). Note. Red-the total options of agreement; blue – the intense options (“totally Graph 5. The percentage of people who would vote agree”) for introducing the technology. Note. Red-the total options of agreement; blue – the extreme options In Graph 3, the variation among agree (totally agree) responses is slight (maximum, between positive and negative with a source), but in the The lowest level of activism is associated last variant still an important percentage of with the case of positive message with a people agreed with the testing of the positive source. Also, the lowest level of technology. “maximum agree” with voting or active The variation of people voting against implication is associated with sources, positive introducing the technology is also slight. The or negative. The intervention of a source does lowest value is encountered in case of positive not necessarily change the results, in the information with a source (31%); for the rest, positive, or in the negative part of the balance.

INNOVATIONS’ ACCEPTANCE FOR REDUCING GLOBAL WARMING: INFLUENCES ON PUBLIC OPINION WHEN SOCIAL TRUST IS LOW

The level of public acceptance is high lack of awareness on carbon capture and about any new technology of protection for the storage technologies (71% of Romanians) environment. Carbon capture and storage (Pietzner et al., 2010: 36). Other difference technologies were associated with even more was in the level of public acceptance. The positive effects, though in reality positive Netherlands, the UK and Norway citizens are effects were only on global warming. For essentially neutral regarding the use of carbon example, toxic waste or water pollution were capture and storage technologies, although the considered positive effects of CCS Germans are the most sceptical. Greece and technologies (which was not true) by 70% of Romania have the highest level of supporting the respondents (Cismaru & Ivan, 2010: 10- the introduction of new technologies (around a 14). But, even with the unrealistic half of respondents strongly agree). (Pietzner expectations, the public acceptance would not et al., 2010: 40-42). Also, almost a half of be totally guaranteed; still, a quarter of Greek and Romanian respondents would respondents do not accept the testing of the action (signing petitions or vote) in favour of new technology. When asked what technology CCS facilities (Pietzner et al., 2010: 43). would introduce for reducing global warming, When comparing Romania with the other respondents preferred the new forms of energy countries in the four options of presenting the (solar and wind energy) and low-consuming information, a distinct characteristic occurs. machines (Cismaru & Ivan, 2010: 16). Even in the case of negative presentation (with or without a source), the attitude towards 4. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS carbon capture and storage technology changes in a positive way. This change was 4.1 Comparison of qualitative results. registered only for Romanian respondents, When comparing Romanian sample with the while the respondents from other countries other countries participants in the project, reacted “normally” to the change in the some characteristics come into evidence. All message and to the source, with a negative the other countries (exception Norway change after negative message and positive respondents, who preferred equally FDG and change after positive message (strongly in case ICQ form of presentation) indicated ICQ of a source). groups (written information) as producing a more accurate and stable opinion on the matter 5. CONCLUSIONS discussed. The availability to publicly express varied, Romania being among countries with The evaluation of information during an intense positive attitude towards expressing Romanian focus groups demonstrated a strong opinions. Also, Romania had the lowest level orientation for information received by an of information on CCS technologies expert source, followed by a group/public (completely new as information). The debate. The preference of Romanians has been acceptance of technologies varied, being different from the preference from other positive for the majority of the countries, while countries (for example, Germany). This result in Germany the overall opinion towards them suggests that the best method for introducing was negative (population preferred renewable industrial innovation would probably be by energies instead of CCS technologies). public events, where expert presentations and 4.2 The comparison of quantitative debates could both take place. results. The level of information on On the other hand, the large acceptance of environmental issues in the poll for Romanians innovations without information shows a lack was lower than Netherlands and Norway, of maturity to Romanian publics (as a higher than Greece and comparable to United difference from publics from other countries, Kingdom. (Pietzner et al., 2010: 26-28). for example United Kingdom or Germany). Romania had the highest level of self-reported The functioning, the benefits and limits of the 51

INNOVATIONS’ ACCEPTANCE FOR REDUCING GLOBAL WARMING: INFLUENCES ON PUBLIC OPINION WHEN SOCIAL TRUST IS LOW technologies should be clearly explained, in Næss, R.; Nihfidov, O.C.; Pietzner, K.; order to avoid unrealistic expectations. Samoilă, I.R.; Sava C. S.; Stephenson, The four scenarios used in the poll M.H.; Tomescu, C.E.; Torvatn, H.Y.; (positive presentation with/without a source, Tvedt, S.D.; Vallentin, D.; West, J.M.; & negative presentation with/without a source) Ziogou, F. (2010). Scrutinizing the impact revealed that, in promoting innovation, the of CCS communication on opinion quality: most important factor in creating public Focus Group Discussions versus acceptance is not the importance and Information-Choice Questionnaires: Results credibility of the source, but the accessibility from experimental research in six of the information presented. The little or no countries”. In Proceedings to International change in positive attitude show deviations in Conference of Greenhouse Gas Control the formation of public opinion, due to the Technologies no.10, Amsterdam: Elsevier lack of social trust. 4. Mayer, R.C.; Davis, J.H. & Shoorman, F.D. As a general conclusion, in a social climate (2006). An integrative model od characterized by a low level of trust, the organizational trust. In R.M. Kramer introduction of technological innovations (editor). Organizational trust (pp. 82-111). should be done with the support of experts and New York: Oxford University Press opinion leaders in the field, while the 5. Meyerson, D.; Weick K.E. & Kramer, R.M. spreading of information and the obtaining of (2006). Swift trust and temporary groups. public acceptance should be based on In R. M. Kramer (editor). Organizational neutrality and adequate structure of trust (pp. 415-445). New York: Oxford information presented to publics. University Press 6. Pietzner, K.; Schumann, D.; Torvatn, H.Y.; BIBLIOGRAPHY Tvedt, S.D.; Naess, R..; Reiner, D.M.; Anghel, S.; Cismaru, D.M.; Constantin, C.; 1. Cismaru, D.M. & Ivan, L. (2010). Daamen, D.D.L.; Dudu, A.; Esken A.; Scrutinizing the impact of CCS Gemeni, V.; Kristiansen, G.; Ivan, L.; communication on general public in Markos, A.; Nihfidov, O.C.; Pietzner, K.; Romania: results of the national survey Papadimitriou J.; Samoila, I.R.; Sava C.S.; (30.09.2009-30.06.2010), Research Report. ter Mors, E.; Tomescu, C.E.; Terwel, B.W.; Bucharest: NSPAS & Ziogou, F. (2010). Results of 2. Cismaru, D.M.; Sava, C. S.; Anghel, S.; representative surveys of public awareness, Dudu, A.; Constantin, C.; Tomescu, C. E.; knowledge and opinions concerning CCS. Samoila, I. R., & Nihfidov, O. C. (2009). Research Report. Communicating CCS information to the lay 7. Romanian Institute of Social Evaluation public by means of Focus Group (March 2010). Barometrul încrederii Discussions (FGD) and Information-Choice românilor.[Barometer of Romanian’s trust] Questionnaires (ICQ): National report for Retrieved on 10.12.2011, from Romania. Research report. http://bit.ly/xMT5MX. 3. Dancker, D.D.L; Terwel, B.W.; ter Mors, 8. Schumann, D. (2010). Scrutinizing the E.; Reiner, D.M.; Schumann, D.; Anghel, impact of CCS communication on general S.; Cismaru, D.M.; Constantin, C.; de Jager, and local public – final research report. C.C.H.; Dudu, A.; Firth R.M., Gemeni, V.; Final Research Report, available at Hendriks, C.; Koukouzas, N.; Markos, A.; http://bit.ly/wmND8A.

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

THE IMAGE OF THE ROMA PEOPLE ONLINE: CRIME AND NON- INTEGRABILITY AS DOMINANT OPINIONS

Diana Ramona GAVRA

Faculty of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Public Administration

Abstract: The social integration of the Roma people is a permanent theme in the public debate. One of the barriers of the integration of Roma people is their reputation as criminal and aggressive, inside and outside of the country. Paper explores the image of the Roma people online, on three categories of sources: online media (large audience online press), blogs, and free forums. The method applied is the content analysis with its particular formula, the image analysis. Findings show that crime is the main characteristic displayed in online media, while bloggers are rather skeptical about the possibility to integrate the minority, and racism and nationalism are very frequent attitudes in free anonymous discussion on forums.

Keywords: Roma, image, online, crime, opinion

1. INTRODUCTION Therefore, in order to investigate the current status of the majority population’s Over the last decades a great amount of attitudes towards the Roma people, it is useful sociological research has been made in the to make an analysis of the image and Romanian territory in order to facilitate the reputation of this ethnic group - not only to social integration of the Roma people. The highlight the most important obstacles in the current state of opinion in the public space way of perception and acceptance of the Roma suggests, however, that either the people, but also to show the intensity of the implementation strategies have not been intolerant attitudes. designed properly or the project goals were Any project for social integration of the unrealistic or not sufficiently supported in Roma people should consider the Internet as a order to have the desired outcome. main source of information. In any Another hypothesis on these results refers controversial social issue, and especially in to the high level of intolerance in the minorities issues, people will be less inclined Romanian space. According to the theory of to express their real opinion. Therefore, the Hofstede (1998), which set the dimensions of views expressed in the real environment can national culture and was followed by extensive be either forged or severely limited, due to the investigations in many countries (from which fact that the respondents are more cautious in Romania has a score of 6 out of 10 on the responding to interviews and surveys. intolerance scale) Romania is among the Another reason why the Internet should be countries where social innovation is not easily the main source comes from the theoretical accepted by the public, whether it refers to the perspective, considering the spiral of silance integration of the minorities considered theory (Noelle-Neumann, 1964). According to "deviant" (minorities of all kinds, including the this theory, people tend to express themselves chronically ill with certain diseases), or it in accordance with the quasi-static evaluation refers to social phenomena (e.g. alternative of most of the opinions. Thus, if they consider sexual orientation or alternative religions). themselves as part of the majority, they tend to take a stand; if, on the contrary, they see

THE IMAGE OF THE ROMA PEOPLE ONLINE: CRIME AND NON- INTEGRABILITY AS DOMINANT OPINIONS themselves as part of the minority, people will valid. Google enables an appropriate sampling tend to refrain. The spiral of silence theory (over the past months different types of acquires a specific character in the online sources have been classified: media, blogs, environment (Cismaru, 2012: 14), this forums, videoclips, etc.). Therefore, the environment being the only one that provides sources can be selected by categories and a traceability of the "spiral" process by which preferred topics can be monitorised (Google minorities are silenced. Therefore, besides Alert). Ranking sites for any online providing a statistical record, the Internet also publications allow people to identify the online offers the opportunity to pursue the formation market share for publications and this can be of collective opinions. used as weighting coefficients to obtain a However, refering back to the preference profile picture (for online news, especially). for the Internet, the attitudes for or against the Thus, the online information was monitored integration of the Roma people are the most during 22.02-29.02.2012, based on three visible, as the people who comment (on blogs categories of sources: media, blogs, free or forums) can retain their anonymity and they discussions (forums). Of these source can express themselves freely without being categories, the coefficients resulting from the suspicious of the fact that they might be seen market share (source: website trafic.ro) were as part of a nationalist movement or suffer the applied only in the case of the media. As consequences (formal or informal) of their illustrative elements: sources as Libertatea, way of thinking. Realitatea, Cancan have a strong impact (on Research questions in this analysis: average 10%). Other high-impact publications 1. Which are the main ideas that the media are Evenimentul Zilei, Jurnalul National, transmitted online about the Roma people in Adevarul or Ziare.com (average 6%). Other covering events related to them? sources have a slightly lower impact (Gandul, 2. What are the main topics in the media Hotnews) while most local media has a market regarding the Roma people? share less than or equal to 1%. These figures 3. Is the dominant attitude of the media neutral were used as weighting factors in the results, or biased when commenting negative aspects to calculate the correct weighting coefficients (crime, lack of education)? in order to determine the likelihood of the 4. Do the bloggers have the tendency to impact of the broadcast image (broadcast tolerate or exclude them? image - image via the mass media). For blogs, 5. Which are the main characteristics of the the market share is less than or up to 1%, so Roma people as reflected in discussions? that the sources have an approximately equal weighting coefficient. Regarding forums, there 2. METHODS was a significant difference between large- sized boards (Softpedia - 6% market share, For the reasons stated above, in the online about equal to a high impact publication) and environment the most appropriate method is Hotnews.com forum, which has a triple the content analysis with its specific weighting coefficient compared with the rest alternative called “image analysis” (Halic, of forums. Blogs image is both a released and 2002). For many years, the classic image reflected image (Cismaru, 2012) while forums analysis (Chelcea / Halic) could not be applied image lies within the reflected image category. online due to the inability to select and A special feature in the selection of the prioritize sources and also due to the difficulty blogs was that a supplementary selection was to find online materials and evaluate them made in addition to Google (the search engine according to certain criteria. However, recent provides a series of articles coming from the online tools have made it possible to transfer local media sites registered as blogs). The the method in the online environment in order selection of individual blogs was preferred to conduct analysis which is sociologically (due to its authenticity). 54

THE IMAGE OF THE ROMA PEOPLE ONLINE: CRIME AND NON- INTEGRABILITY AS DOMINANT OPINIONS

The content and the title were also effectively discussed. Of the three, the topic considered as analyzed material for the media. was selected because it is on the forum with Only the content of the articles was used for the largest audience and was the most blogs, as titles are irrelevant in most cases. For "specialized" (the alternative topic related discussion forums, the criterion of analysis directly to the potential tolerance of the was posting (entry site). As type of analysis, respondents). Due to the large volume of frequency analysis was used combined with postings, only the first four pages of ten were the intensity one, according to the model of V. analyzed. Stancu (1998) adapted by Iacob et al. (2011). The intensity of opinions is established by 3. RESULTS providing opinion intensity ratios for each unit analyzed by the following rules (Iacob et al., 3.1 Online media sources analysis. The 2011: 162-163): main issues reflected in the media refer to (-4) negative superlative adjectives towards organized crime, either outside or inside the the subject, as shown to affect country. Also, tax evasion is an old issue that communities or countries (including is constantly present in the media. Dimensions allegations of proved participation in of organized crime are complemented by organized criminal networks); reports of individual cases, either locally or (-3) negative comments, involvement in public less spectacular. The profile, mainly negative, scandals and offenses proved in court; has only one positive aspect (resulting from a (-2) negative evaluation of adverse actions; small proportion of the articles analyzed, (-1) ironic appreciation, humorous stories; where the case of a poor minority settlement (0) informative news, stories related from an where no offenses had been committed was objective point of view; presented, and a child being assaulted in a (1) slightly positive feedback; supermarket) (see graph 1). (2) reports of actions with positive impact; (3) positive comment on actions or results; (4) positive feedback on efficiency and competence, contribution to solving social drug dealing or national interest problems; thieves network After granting these coefficients to the illegal wealth analyzed unit, the final calculation is done by adding the importance of the source, thus tax evasion obtaining a value on this dimension. dishonest The sample of materials used was: victims a. News media: 33 articles (those published during the monitoring period were 0 10203040 removed, but the references on "Gypsy" were contextual) located on first page obtained by searching on Google topic " Gypsies "; Graph 1. Image profile and the impact expected in b. Blogs: 30 articles published on blogs the online media. Note. Last bar: positive dimension (online portals were removed and only individual blogs were maintained); In graph 1, the impact is shown on a scale Forums: 100 Forum Posts by from -40 to 40, the weighted importance of the Softpedia.com (topic called "The Gypsy source, by the formula µ (average issue") between 22.02-26.02.2012. In the coefficient) = ∑ (absolute value × the analyzed period, there were only three topics importance of the source)/total of counting (active discussion forums) in which the issues connected to the Roma minority were 55

THE IMAGE OF THE ROMA PEOPLE ONLINE: CRIME AND NON- INTEGRABILITY AS DOMINANT OPINIONS units on the particular dimension (in this case The most favourite topics of the media are articles). as follows: drug trafficking (10 releases) is a The importance of the source was preference that has news value (it is a calculated by reference to the market share of relatively new phenomenon in Romania). the online media: sources of high online Also, the network of organized thieves in audience, such as Libertatea, Realitatea or England was a major issue (6 releases) CanCan have a market share of 10% and because of taking place abroad and deceiving therefore have a maximum impact factor (10). Great Britain (high value of story). Finally, Sources of large audience, such as Adevarul, illegally acquired wealth is a subject on the Jurnalul National, Ziare.com oscillate around agenda of the media. Basically, the subject 6%, with an impact factor of 6. Journals with concerning "illegally acquired wealth" (7 low audience like Romania Libera or releases) referred to the same network of Cotidianul have an impact factor 1 (with a criminals who had committed robbery, forgery market share less than or equal to 1). and identity fraud in the UK, but has been Returning to the data results, there is only reformulated in Libertatea. one dimension which presents a positive 3.2 Blogs’ image analysis. impact, namely the one concerning the The image profile on the analyzed segment unreasonable assault as a result of is mainly negative, except for some views that discrimination (because this news was have interpreted cultural issues (in a slightly broadcast by Realitatea, a source with a positive way). One observation that can be maximum impact). made is the splitting of opinions about integration: subjects are either extremely intolerant or racist (down to the assertion of intention to eliminate / exterminate / neutralize drugs dealing the Roma people) or positive, arguing about thieves network mitigating circumstances and generalizing labels (more moderate voices). To what illegal wealth regards the terms ”crooks" and "uncivilized", tax evasion the content of the articles has also involved the dishonest lack of education and training as the victims foundation of the anti-social behavior and the anti-work cultural models of the Roma people. 0 10203040

Graph 2. The structure profile of the image, on dimensions organized crime crooks, dishonest In graph 2, the share of structural uncivilized dimensions in the image profile shows again a jokes very high proportion of issues relating to organized crime (43% of the total references poor living conditions concerns crimes committed abroad). Both the pro/cons opinions idea of criminal organizations and the idea of Roma culture operating outside these groups have a very negative impact on the image of the Roma 0102030 community. In this context, any member of the minority can be considered a priori a Graph 3. The image profile dimensions on blogs potentially aggressive person and a criminal.

THE IMAGE OF THE ROMA PEOPLE ONLINE: CRIME AND NON- INTEGRABILITY AS DOMINANT OPINIONS

As a difference from the similar profile Of social behavior, aggression, illegal gains made based on the media articles on the largest and high demographic growth were the most audience, we can see that there is no mention discussed (described as worrying). Among the to tax evasion. This topic, often brought up on cultural aspects, the term of “closed the agenda of the media, is absent on blogs community” stood out ("intolerance" as some (because the Romanian state and the respect respondents noted) and the unfortunate for the law is not a norm for the Romanians) incidents in recent history were reminded. (graph 3). Also, elements of the nineteenth century As shown, criminality does not have the history were mentioned as well as correct same weight as in the profile broadcast by the names or internal cultural issues. Under the media channels with large audience. Topics theme "able or not to integrate" more than half like "crooks, dishonest, poor living conditions" (14%) felt that the Roma people cannot be are mainly found on blogs (compared with the integrated, giving as example the failure of traditional media agenda), as blogs consist integration policies in Europe. more of evidence from subjective, individual experiences. The cases presented in the media were taken and debated to an extent, but were seen as additional elements adding to the respect of laws already established reputation (negative) of a adoption of children community. Articles about the possibility or elimination impossibility of integration have a low share (20%). Also, on blogs and forums we can find isolation, separation ironic jokes (labels translated in the 0204060 anonymous folk as poems and jokes) in 10%. 3.3 Forums’ discussions analysis. As can be seen, the structure of an online discussion Graph 5. Integration measures proposed forum has a different configuration than that Note. The percentages in chart 6 are calculated present in the media, where it is required by from the total units on "integration measures". the moderator. Since the segment of the Forum As to the measures that were discussed on Softpedia users is informed and competent in integration, there were three types of views: assessing the social measures taken on a those inclined to radical measures, nationalist macroeconomic level, the methods of and racist (half) and those who lean towards integration have attracted the largest more punitive sanctions given in court (but participation (graph 4). also these, with a rather severe judgment,

suggesting the introduction of the death penalty or forced labor in prison). It was country's manelization emphasized the inefficiency of the current able or not to integrate system of justice in punishing crimes committed by the Roma minority and that they methods of integration "are used" to the punishment and, given the social behavior imperfections, in particular when it comes to cultural features catching, arresting and prosecuting them, they offtopic are not effectively “corrected” (graph 5). 0204060 4. CONCLUSION

Graph 4. Issues related to the Roma people on the The media gives little or no space in its public agenda agenda to the issue of the Roma people

THE IMAGE OF THE ROMA PEOPLE ONLINE: CRIME AND NON- INTEGRABILITY AS DOMINANT OPINIONS integration. It is not considered a theme of Regarding the discussion forums, the public debate or something urgent and analyzed postings confirm the findings for important. The deterioration and blogs, with a more pronounced shade of disappearance of journalistic objectivity in the extremism. Even though both on blogs and social story type leads to a lack of coverage of forums there are isolated voices defending the the Roma minority’s issues or any information poor Roma, the abused or those labeled about the progress or the position of this unfairly, the general consensus is that the minority. Roma people cannot be integrated and they are The news presents mainly scandals related a social problem (a "lost cause") that to the network of criminals acting abroad, the Romanians must get used to. The general offenders affecting Romania's image abroad, opinion is that there are no integration the confusion made in some countries between solutions for this minority, because of their Romanians and the Roma people; also, the "cultural" and social resistance. Also, the national news presents only the damage done findings indicate that there have been attempts by the Roma people through state tax evasion to communicate with Roma minority, but this and organized crime. The fact that the articles is a "closed caste" which refuses to adapt. And published relate to networks rather than in terms of integration methods suggested by isolated cases and the ongoing law suits (and some respondents on the forums, not only are therefore on facts proved, not presumed) they radical but also unacceptable to a causes greater reflection of these facts and a European civilization. The tone of these greater impact on the audience. Moreover, discussions suggests that not only the Roma articles propagated in the media almost community is closed but the public’s identical in their content, were all on the same intolerance is also on a high level. topics (illegally acquired property, an internal network involved in drug trafficking, an BIBLIOGRAPHY external network involved in extortion and robbery in the UK). Since those materials 1. Chelcea, S. (2007). Methodology of relate to only a selected week in the analysis, sociological research: qualitative and we can estimate what profound impact the quantitative methods, Bucharest: Editura constant repetition of this type of articles could Economică have on the collective image, in time. 2. Cismaru, D.M. (2012). Social media and In the conclusion drawn based on the reputation management, Bucharest: results of the analysis done on blogs, we can Tritonic see the same severe observations about the 3. Halic, B.A.; Chiciudean, I. (2004), The state of the public. The balance clearly tilts analysis of the organizational image, towards exclusion, the attitude is rather Bucharest: Comunicare.ro nationalistic, and there are relatively few 4. Hofstede, G. (1998). The management of voices defending the honest members of the multicultural structures – software of Roma community. It should be noted that thought, Bucharest: Editura Economică although cases of scandal commented in the 5. Iacob, D.; Cismaru, D.M.; Pricopie, R. press during this period had quite a strong (2011). Public relations – cohesion and impact (as shown in the chart on the news), efficiency through communication, they had a much lower impact in the Bucharest: Comunicare.ro blogosphere (not considered of high current 6. Noelle-Neumann, E. (2004). The spiral of value so as to be retransmitted). Opinions silence, Bucharest: Comunicare.ro rendered are more concerned with personal 7. Stancu, V. (1998). Public relations- success experience and the labels are linked with and credibility, Bucharest: Concept education and uncivilized behavior in society. Publishing.

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

Aura CODREANU

Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper presents some of the conclusions of a research endeavour undertaken in two different institutions: a private company (PO) and a state- financed organization (SO). Its purpose was the comparative investigation into the similarities and differences characterizing them in terms of the communication patterns underlying their organizational behavior. Hence, the research method employed was based on the comparison and contrast techniques, whereas the paradigm it adopted was that of organizational communication patterns. Thus, out of the five dimensions describing the concept of organizational communication, namely vertical, horizontal, informal, formal and organizational outward communication this article will only present the findings related to informal, formal and horizontal communication patterns. Based on these, the paper will then focus on the prospective challenges for the two organizations in terms of micro-organizational behavior and also on the way the two dimensions of organizational communication can inform on the future decision-making process. In the end, the conclusions will highlight the role of organizational communication patterns in conducting an organizational health check and the way ahead from such an assessment.

Keywords: communication patterns, horizontal communication, informal/formal communication, organizational behavior

1. INTRODUCTION theoretical concepts to be operationalized, namely “organizational behavior”, and This paper is based on a study that focused “communication” by drawing on specialized on the following research hypothesis: literature in the fields of organizational Organizational behavior can be investigated behavior (Johns, 1998:4, Cole, 1995:4, R.M. from the perspective of the organizational Steers and J.S. Black, 1994, Miner, 2002, communication patterns underlying it. As a Mullins, 2006), group theory (Barth, 1992:19, result, the aim of the overall research Jenkins, 1996:80, Cooley, 1909, Radu, endeavour was the investigation of 1994:112-113), communication theories organizational life through the conceptual lens (Bougnoux, 1998, Muchielli et al., of organizational behavior. In addition, taking 2006,Auroux, 1997, Wilson et al., 1986:6 ) into account the complexity of such a concept, and organization theory (Hackman and morris, the latter was tackled by resorting to the 1975:49). Second, it moved on to the paradigm of organizational communication exploration of organizational life through the patterns underlying the concept proper. The attitudes expressed by the sample units method considered as best fitting both the selected to account for it. In this respect, an paradigm and the concept was the comparison important input from a theoretical point of and contrast one. view was provided by the psychological All of the above considered, the aims theories in the field of attitude and behavior established for undertaking this endeavor were change (Ilut, 2004:43, Stanciu,S., Ionescu, three-fold. First, the research described the Mihaela Alexandra, 2004:13, Allport, 1971:19,

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

Stoetzel, 1963:167, Popescu-Neveanu, 2. RESEARCH DESIGN 1987:71, Katz, 1960:163-204, Gross,1987:134, Azjen and Fischbein, 1977). Moreover, For a better understanding of the way another exploration was carried out in order to organizational communication patterns inform investigate how a paradigm drawing upon on overall organizational behavior and, communication studies can better describe the inherently, on the decisions made, this sub- concept of organizational behavior. Hence, an chapter will briefly focus on the research underlying aim was that of attempting to make hypothesis of interest for the aims of this a contribution towards better describing this paper, on the identification of the dimensions concept from the perspectives suggested since and variables underlying the communication it is the communication techniques that patterns of interest for the current endeavor, determine the structure and the scope of an types of instruments, sample description and organization (Barnard:1938). ethical considerations. The nominal definitions for the noun 2.1. Current paper research hypothesis. phrases “organizational behavior” and Out of the initial ten questions and 15 “communication patterns” employed in the alternative hypotheses (Baker: 1998, 9.139) operationalization effort of the aforementioned established for the overall study, this paper concept were as follows: will only focus on the hypotheses according to Organizational behavior is individuals’ which: behavior among themselves and within groups, H.1. Organizational behavior can be groups’ behavior between and among them, investigated from the perspective of the and organization’s behavior towards organizational communication patterns individuals and groups within it, as well as its underlying it. behavior within its environment. H.2. There are underlying causes that can As for the formal communication account for the differences and similarities patterns, the latter were described by the between the organizations investigated. variables of: H.3. The findings of this research can be upward communication, namely used to the benefit of the organizations under communication that flows towards the top of investigation. the hierarchical ladder and that involves H.4. The findings of this research can be problems and exceptions presented to the used to the benefit of organizations at large. manager, performance reports, grievances, 2.2. Research dimensions and variables. disputes, accounting and financial reports; Based on the identification of the dimensions downward communication (...) employed and variables describing the two concepts of by managers in order to direct and control the interest for the initial research endeavor, this activities of those in the chain of command, paper will provide de framework by which the and data interpretation will be carried out by taking horizontal communication, designating a look at the dependent and independent the inter-departmental and intradepartmental variables.Thus, the dependent variable of the activities carried out in order to ensure study was “organizational behavior”, whereas completion of projects and tasks assigned to the independent variables informing on the departments or workgroups. former were grouped under the generic In terms of the informal communication heading of “organizational communication patterns, the latter emerge from the complexity patterns”. Out of the two broad interrelated of networks established among people because categories established by the initial research, of their psychological needs, the frequency of namely inter-organizational communication interactions among them, age, gender and organizational outward communication, similarities and its inherent information flows the paper will only focus on the former and on in all directons regardless of hierarchy. the variables of interest for this paper: 60

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

V1. Formal communication V1.3.3. Development of non-specific job skills V2. Informal communication (C-DNSJS) V3.Horizontal communication V1.3.4. Career opportunities (C-CO) The interpretation of the data obtained V1.3.5. Professional goals (C-PG) from the respondents took into account the V1.4. Leadership (i.e. management following concept-defining variables: communication) V1. Formal communication V1.4.1. Management style (C-MS) V1.0. Communication in terms of organization V1.4.2. Flexibility (C-F) processes V1.5. Work environment V1.0.1. Formal communication of objectives V1.5.1. Work conditions (C-WC) and strategies (C-FCOS) V1.5.2. Respect and appreciation (C-R) V1.0.2. Formal channels of communication V1.5.3. Freedom of speech (C-FS) (C-FChC) V1.5.4. Equal opportunities (C-EO) V1.0.3. Lessons-learned follow-up (C-LLFU) V1.5.5. Individual perception of work-related V1.0.4. Employment of lessons learned (C- stress (C-S) ELL) V1.5.6. Stress factors (C-SF) V1.0.5. formal communication of change (C- V1.6. Conflict FCC) V1.6.1. Conflict sources (C-CS) V1.0.6. Individual attitude to formal V1.6.2. Conflict approach (C-CA) communication channels (C-IAOHSC) V2. Informal communication V1.1. Organization design V2.0. Communication at informal group level V1.1.1. Individual attitudes to organizational V2.0.1. Informal channels of hierarchy and span of control (C-IAOHSC) communication(C-IChC) V1.1.2. Communication facilitated by V2.1. Informal communication emerging from knowledge of the hierarchical structure (C- organizational behavior KHS) V2.1.1. Informal communication facilitated by V1.2. Job policies and procedures organizational policies (C-ICOP) V1.2.1. Individual attitude to performance V2.1.2. Individual attitudes towards informal assessment procedures (C-IAPAP) communication facilitated by organizational V1.2.2. Solutions for performance policies (C-IAICOP) improvement V2.2. Power relationships V1.2.3. Downward communication of V2.2.1. Informal leaders (C-IL) assessment criteria (C-DCAC) V2.2.2. Hidden agendas (C-HA) V1.2.4. Job procedures and work performance V2.2.3. Rites of passage for new comers (C- (C-JPWP) RPNC) V1.2.5. Job security (C-JS) V3. Horizontal communication V1.2.6. Individual perception of job incentives V3.0. Communication at formal group level (C-IPJI) V3.0.1. Inter-department communication V1.2.7. Responsibilities/tasks assignment (C- (CInterDC) RA) V3.0.2. Work team/group-other departments V1.2.8. Deelgation of responsibilities (C-DR) communication (C-WGDC) V1.2.9. Delegation of customer-focused V3.0.3. Intra-workgroup communication (C- responsibilities (C-CFR) IntraWGC) V1.2.10. Job-related resources availability V3.0.4. Team Work (C-TW) V1.2.11. Job-related information availability V3.0.5. Team work and responsibilities V1.3. Career (CTWR) V1.3.1. Training opportunities (C-TO) V3.0.6. Team work and equity (C-TWE) V1.3.2. Employees’ on the job opportunity to V3.1. Conflict (measured through the category apply knowledge gained from training of “conflict sources”) 61

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

V3.1.1. Conflict consequences on individual educational institutions from the public and performance private fields in Romania. The latter V3.2. Power and politics contributed to the identification of the V3.2.1. Job-specific vocabulary usage population (Baker, 1988:144) of likely V3.2.2. Discrimination informants in terms of field of activity: V3.3. Peer to peer communication informants from the public sector (i.e. V3.3.1. Peer to peer cooperation institution’s orientation towards the benefit of V3.3.2. Peer to peer mutual trust community) and from the private sector (i.e. 2.3. Types of instruments, sample the institution’s for-profit nature of activities). description and sampling methods. The Second, in deciding upon the sampling instrument used for focusing on the hypotheses frame to be drawn from this population, a listed in this paper consisted in an attitudes- major role was played by the features of the related questionnaire made up of 82 closed two institutions. Thus, I tried to identify ended questions and it was administered in the organizations as similar as possible not only Romanian language. Some of the questions from the point of view of their major field of listed mutually exclusive alternatives: yes, no, activity, target audience, number of don’t now, whereas others were multiple employees, but also from the point of view of choice ones listing several alternatives, the their subordination or not to a central structure. others category included, and allowing for Thus, the sampling frame consisted of multiple answers. twenty seven (employees) working with public The reasons that led to choosing the sector institution on a full time basis, and questionnaire as an instrument were thre-fold. thirteen (13) people employed by the private First, there was the large sample of institution both part time and full time. On the respondents that made impossible the primary sampling units further reductions were employment of interviews to elicit their carried out. First, I decided to leave out of the opinions and attitudes identified in the available population the top, the middle and previous sub-chapter. Second, the time line managers from both institutions since the constraints (the time period for designing and research aimed at investigating employees’ writing the research report was not more than attitudes, perceptions and cognitions of the one year) did not allow for another instrument organization as a whole and not decision such as observation or recording employees’ makers’ position on the topic under scrutiny. behavior, which required of the researcher not Consequently, the short listed sample reached only time to do the observation, but also to eighteen (18) people working full time with process the data obtained. Moreover, related to the public organization, and twelve (12) part this instrument of investigation, there was also time and full time employees working with the the likelihood of not obtaining permission private organization. from the directors of the two institutions Next, I employed non-probability sampling identified as providers of the sample of methods, namely convenience, quota and respondents to observe organizational behavior dimensional sampling (Cohen, 1994: 88) in in vivo. order to comply with the requisite of 2.4. Sample description, sampling representativeness of the population under methods. The sampling decisions concerning investigation. the group of informants were taken in Taking into account the researcher- accordance with two major criteria. respondents relationship (i.e. the researcher First, there was the scope of the worked both part time with the private investigation: a comparative exploration and organization and with the public organization description of organizational behavior through when the research was conducted) the communication patterns underlying it and convenience sampling was employed in terms as acknowledged by the employees of two of “the nearest individuals” (Cohen, 1994: 88) 62

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS to be investigated until obtaining the necessary unequal, considering some of the variables of sample size as established through the quota the research (i.e. gender discrimination, equal and dimensional sampling methods. opportunities, respect, level of formality), as Quota sampling involved taking into well as the type of organization under account the gender and the department the investigation, I decided to have equal quotas of respondents worked in. Decisions on the male/ male and female respondents. Moreover, the female and department quotas were not a above reasons added to the research aim led to problem in the case of the private company a similar decision in terms of the quotas of due to the small number of employees in each informants per department. Dimensional department (i.e. three in the administrative and sampling was further resorted to in order to nine in the teaching department) and to the identify the years of employment of the absence of any males among the private respondents. However, the prerequisite of this school’s staff. Thus, the questionnaire was method (1994:90), namely that of obtaining at administered to all employees and the response least one respondent for every category, was rate was 91.66%. met indirectly by applying the convenience In the case of the public institution I and quota sampling methods as previously identified eleven (11) possible respondents described. With a view to this, the following working in administrative departments out of ‘features’ of the respondents were set out: which eight (8) females and three (3) males, employed for less than a year; employed and seven (7) in the teaching department of between 1-2 years; 3-5 years; 6-10 years; for which four (4) females and three (3) males. more than 10 years. Even though the quotas of males and females within the sampling frame were

Table 1: Sample Frame and Dimensional Sampling Private Public No. of organization: organization: No. of respondents: 12 out of 14 respondents: sampling sampling frame: (85.71%) 11 out of 12 frame: 12 18 employees (91.66%) employees Employment period Less than one 8.33% 9.09% year 1-2 years 8.33% 27.27% 3-5 years 25% 27.27% 6-10 years 58.33% 27.27% More than 10 - - 9.09% years Department 27.27% 50% administrative administrative 50% teaching 72,72% teaching department department 50% males Gender 100% females 50% females

All this considered, the table below employment period and it will be further reviews the quotas of respondents per referred to when interpreting the data collected department, as well as the quotas of after the survey administration. respondents in terms of gender and their

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

2.5. Data interpretation. Referring back fairer in the public organization compared to to the number of respondents having the private organization. completed the questionnaires and by relying • Assessing whether the other employees on the thorough analysis of the differences and carry out their job-related tasks is felt as a similarities in the answers provided by the sensitive issue by the majority of the respondents from the two organizations, the respondents from the public organization who percentages were interpreted in the following prefers to refrain from answering the question manner: related to this issue. • half and above was referred to as majority, • Even though not reaching majority, most unless majority (i.e. 50%) was also recorded of the employees from the private organization in the case of the same question when the are divided between remaining neutral and interpretation viewed the position of the agreeing that their colleagues do their share of respondents as divided over the issue and tried jobs. to account for it as much as possible; • In both organizations formal • 46.66% was referred to as almost half and communication of objectives and strategy is counted as significant if the rest of the answers done well taking into account the impressive was equally or almost equally divided between majority recorded when it comes to agreeing the other alternatives provided. that cooperation underlies work relationships. • 33.33% or 36.36%, as well as 25% was • If the majority from the public regarded as significant as long as they brought organization agrees that interpersonal any light into the issue investigated in contrast exchanges are based on mutual trust, the with a majority expressed on the same issue. respondents from the private organization are 16.16%, 18.18%, 8.33% and 9.09% were also quite divided on the issue. referred to but left aside if the information they • Formal communication seems to fail in provided was not significant compared to the conveying the feeling of trust in the employees information provided by the majority of the within the private organization (considering respondents. the answers recorded for the question related to the category of ‘mutual trust’), whereas 3. RESEARCH FINDINGS within the public institution the situation is quite encouraging even though leaving room In terms of horizontal communication for improvement. the findings can be concluded upon as follows: • A merger between professional and • Even though inter-department friendship relationships may be noticed within communication suffers in both organizations, the private organization, even if in the case of the answers of the respondents from the public less than half of the employees; organization point out a rather worrying • The informal relationships go deeper than situation in this respect. the professional level for the majority of the • In terms of the communication between respondents from the public organization, respondents’ workteam/group-other depart- which sets out the increased likelihood of ments both organizations confront with informal groups’ and leaders’ presence and communication problems; activities. • In both organizations communication • In both organizations there is a high focus within workgroups or departments is very on behalf of the employees on work good because clear norms and roles are performance and final results despite potential assigned to individuals. disturbing factors such as conflict with • Even though team work is encouraged in colleagues. both organizations, the way work tasks are • The majority of the respondents from the distributed among employees seems to be public organization claim neither to have

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS witnessed, nor to have experienced work-related issues need to be taken by top discrimination within their company. management. However, the voices of some of the Considering the complexity of the variable respondents from the administrative of formal communication this paper is to list departments, point out discrimination because only the most important findings related to this of employees’ education, as well as position variable. Thus, they are as follows: related discrimination which makes it obvious • While the for-profit nature of the private that some of the peer-to peer relationships are organization imposes good formal built up along the roles and status of the communication of organizational objectives individual within the organization. and strategy, as well of changes directly In terms of informal communication two affecting the employees, the public major interrelated aspects need to be organization needs to work on these aspects in mentioned: the role of informal leaders within order to avoid individuals’ and groups’ passive the two organizations under investigation and resistance to organizational goals and future the way formal channels of communication are activities. paralleled by informal ones. Thus the • Within the private organization unwritten conclusions that can be drawn are as follows: rules by which employees communicate well • The public organization seems to succeed in terms of task-related conclusions exchange better in facilitating employees’ interaction at seem to be in place, whereas the public an informal level compared to the private organization seems to convey contradictory organization where it seems that messages in this respect to the employees. communication at an informal level, outside Consequently, what the public organization the organizational framework, needs to be needs to do is to encourage employees to encouraged by top management. However, exchange their conclusions at the end of despite the public organization’s apparent projects by reinforcing organizational strength in terms of informal communication objectives and by working on the relationship opportunities outside the formal organizational among work groups or departments that does activities, work relationships are still one of not seem to excel from this point of view. the causes leading to stress within the public • The private organization is more likely to institution, as highlighted by the variable of solve complex problems faster and more formal communication. accurately because of its ‘all-channels’ • In both organizations the premises for the communication network as contrasted with the appearance of informal leaders are high since public organization where it is the simple professionalism and personality are considered problems that are solved faster and more to be representative features of some of the accurately as a consequence of its ’chain’-like colleagues of the respondents communication flow. Moreover, within the • Rumors are not by far the core of public organization the employees are less information sharing at an informal level within likely to have a positive attitude towards their the private organization. Consequently, power jobs because of lack of participation, while in relationships in terms of who has access to and the PO the members take on a more active role shares information are not likely to appear. in the decisions to be made. That testifies to a good communication flow • While in both organizations almost all downward which rules out the likelihood of respondents feel that vertical communication informal leaders emergence from this point of from the point of view of bottom-up view. communication is ensured through • Informal communication within the public organizational design, there are clear organization relies to a certain extent on differences when assessment of organizational rumors which may point out those timely design efficiency is at stake since the actions towards informing employees on respondents form both organizations do not 65

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS reach majority in agreeing on how by diverging goals by disagreements over organizational design affects organizational work-related responsibilities. Moreover, the results. public organization is equally prone to a • Both organizations seem to represent dysfunctional approach of conflict, as well as satisfactory work places for their employees to a positive one leading to cooperative • The public organization needs to work behavior within the organization. Contrasted to towards meeting staff’s esteem needs as well this the private organization is more likely to in order to have them happy about their work display collaboration among employees environment. On the other hand, the private despite the conflicts that could occur at a organization meets only partially these needs certain moment. and it has a long way to go (if it is ever to take it considering its for-profit nature) to meet the 3. ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK safety needs of its employees in terms of the incentives offered. As far as the relationship between • Within the public organization individual behavior, group behavior and employment of resources will never represent organizational behavior is concerned the a reason for communication breakdown. findings of the current research highlight the However, there is the likelihood for the same importance of viewing the individual as organization’s formal communication pattern multifaceted, some of the personas being built underlying organizational behavior to lead to up and shaped in accordance with the the development of informal communication secondary groups designed or triggered by channels through which people to try and organizational behavior. Thus, if we are to talk compensate for the information the formal about the differences and similarities path does not make ready for them to carry out underlying such a relationship, then there are their activities more similarities than differences. • The private organization is the most prone In terms of the differences between to encountering difficulties in ensuring individual behavior, group behavior and employees’ commitment if the latter’s organizational behavior, the latter can be extrinsic motivation is stronger than the discussed only from two perspectives: intrinsic one as the research seems to unveil. informal groups and personal decisions • Even though managers form both concerning individuals’ welfare. However, as organizations show flexibility to employees’ their overview is to highlight, when it comes problems, the public management style seems to correlating the macro dimension of to be disputed as far as its influence upon the organizational behavior to the micro working environment is concerned dimensions of individual and group behavior it • While in the private organization the major becomes obvious the framework reinforces the sources of stress are related to the job the similarities and not the differences. employees have, within the public Thus, regarding informal groups as the organization work relationships seem to be dimension of group behavior that differentiates partially out of the control and regulation of itself from organizational behavior is not the formal communication channels and appropriate, since the likelihood for informal inherently of top management. However, groups to appear is the direct consequence of considering the overall attitude of satisfaction the formal communication variable underlying expressed by the employees in relation with organizational behavior, as demonstrated by their job it seems that stress factors are seen as the answers of the respondents concerning the an inherent part of the job the staff holds. variables of horizontal communication. Both organizations are likely to be confronted As for the differences between individual with interpersonal conflict generated mostly behavior, group behavior and organizational behavior, the latter may choose to act against, 66

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS to join or to distance from the two as a direct Consequently, a paradigm that could fit such result of the communication flow underlying an investigation would be symbolic them. As a consequence, if difference is interactionism in terms of the way employees chosen by the individual to point out and to interact with their peers and with their enact, as pointed out by the small percentages managers. recorded for some categories and coming in Last but not least, from the perspective of sharp contrast with the majority of the organization theory, management attitudes in respondents taking a completely different terms of organizational behavior could also be stand, then the difference has to be viewed held under scrutiny and then compared with strictly correlated with the issue and with the their employees’ in order not only to gain a behavior from which an individual distances. more complete picture of the topic of As common knowledge has it, there are no organizational patterns underlying two things alike. Consequently, it is organizational behavior, but to also accurately impossible to claim that the two organizations point out where communication breaks down are similar, their private and state field of and why. activity considered. on overall, the basic Finally, taking into account the elusiveness differences between the two organizations can of the topic organizational patterns underlying be accounted for mostly in terms of how organizational behavior simply because successful the formal communication flow communication itself is a difficult concept to underlying organizational behavior is in grasp and account for, as well as the cross- conveying and convincing the employees to sectional nature of the study, the findings are share common norms, principles work-related strictly context-related and thus valid only for tasks. a limited period of time. Consequently, the Moreover, starting from the same variable, relevance of these findings for other levels of formality and informality, as well as organizations is restricted to the advice to be relationships among employees can be encountered in specialized literature on described as manifesting differently in the two organizational communication and organizations. organizational behavior according to which it In terms of the similarities observed is the manager that has an important saying in between the two organizations, the latter can the way things are in a small organization like be summed up from the same perspective the ones that provided data for this paper. which yielded the differences, namely the way formal communication influences in a positive BIBLIOGRAPHY manner respondents’ satisfaction with management style, commitment and trust in 1. Bougnoux, D. (1998). Introducere in the organization, to mention only few. stiintele comunicarii. Bucharest: Polirom. In conclusion, it is obvious that 2. Barnard, C. (1938) The Functions organizational communication patterns of the Executive. Cambridge: Harvard alongside with their dimensions, variables and University Press. categories are a valid instrument for an 3. Baker, T. (1988) Doing Social Research. organization’s health check. Mc-Graw Hill. 85-194 However, a larger and more thorough 4. Child, J. (1988) Organization: a Guide to perspective may be adopted by moving away Problems and Practice. Paul Chapman. 4- from the attitudes held by individuals and 6 expressed in a quite limited manner because of 5. Cohen, L., Manion, L. (1994). Research the nature of the instrument of the initial Methods in Education, London and New research towards observing the way York: Routledge. 83-104; 347-380. individuals interact within the organizational 6. Cole, G. A. (1995).Organizational framework both verbally and non-verbally. Behavi-or Ashford colour press. Gosport. 67

ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH CHECK. A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

7. Daft, R., Steers, R. (1986) 13. F. Luthans and J. Larsen. (1986). Observe Organizations: a Micro/Macro Approach. How Managers Really Communicate. Glenview: Scott Foresman. 538. Human relations. 167-168 8. Jackson, J. (1959) The 14. Muchielli, A., Jean Antione Corbalan and Organization and its Communication Valerie Ferrandez. (2006). Teoria Problems. Journal of communication. 165 proceselor de comunicare. Iasi: Institutul 9. Jenkins, R.(1996). Social Behavior. European London and New York: Routledge 15. Martin, J. (2001). Organizational 10. Johns, G. (1996). Comportament organi- Behavior. Thomson learning. zational. Bucharest: Economic Publishing 16. Neculau, A. (2003). Manual de psihologie House. sociala. Iasi: Polirom, pp. 203-227 11. Ilut, P. (2004) Valori, atitudini si 17. Steers, R. M. and J. Stewart Black. (1994) comportament sociale. Teme actuale de Organizational Behavior. Harper Collins psihosociologie. Iaşi: Polirom. publishers 12. Ionescu-Ruxandoiu, L. & Chitoran, D. 18. Zlate, M. (2004) Tratat de psihosociologie (1975). Sociolingvistica. Orientari organizational-manageriala. Iasi: Polirom, actuale. Bucharest: Didactical and pp. 501-505. Pedagogic Publishing House. 108.

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)?

Aura CODREANU

Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The spectrum of military operations conducted in various geographical areas by coalitions of the willing or by alliances has widened as much as the increasing number of risks and challenges raised by the asymmetrical threats described by authoritative figures in the field of national and international security. Consequently, swift and flexible strategies for mitigating these are required. In this respect, this article argues that the hard power is no longer enough to uphold the formulation and the application of such strategies. Therefore, an all inclusive approach is mandatory and the direction suggested by this paper is that of integrating the skills and competences of the soft power into the overall framework needed to conduct such operations. However, a number of difficulties are envisaged since the very term of “soft” power is an elusive one due to its dependence on the development and use of a set of skills underlying not only on the national/community/military cultural values of the participants to such operations, but also on the values of the inhabitants of the areas where such operations unfold. As a result, the question raised by this article is to what extent the intercultural experience acquired in military operations can be a passage to understanding oneself and, as a result, the other (that can be defined both as the co-worker from the same unit, the co-worker(s) form the same military operation/exercise, the military organization as an evolving body of knowledge requiring sharing and contributing to the overall knowledge pool, or the very civilian involved through its very presence in the area of operations/at the very core of a mission’s end state). Based on the answer to this question, the article will then look at the feasibility of developing a prospective model for institutionalizing the lessons learned in the intercultural field as a result of a country’s military’s participation into international missions. Last but not the least, the conclusions will highlight that the intercultural encounter should not be solely a matter of individual and group experience that is passed along in the “word-of-mouth” fashion. Therefore, for this to become an integral part of the policies and strategies yielded by the dynamism of the national and international security environment, a model for recording and institutionalizing such an experience is needed..

Keywords: intercultural, military operations, soft power, lessons learned, institutionalization model, security, skills, (meta) competences

1. INTRODUCTION aspects into the management of the Romanian military human resource involved in The article argues the need for the multinational military operations such a Romanian military to establish a system and system is already described both at NATO and process of lessons learned in the intercultural Romanian level at the level of formal field based on the experience already gained in documents. However, what I want to the unfolded/unfolding multinational military emphasize is that making this system work, operations. In this respect, I would like to and more particularly, adapting it to the underline that, in accordance with the intercultural field requires a well-defined conclusions of the research I conducted as part theoretical framework, a good understanding of my doctoral degree between 2008-2011 and of both the advantages and the limitations of that was focused on identifying the need and such a system in general, and of a system feasibility of integrating the intercultural focused on institutionalizing the intercultural

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? experience, in particular, and last but not the and peculiarities, as well as the capacity to least on modeling this experience into an identify and build upon the experiences understandable and usable piece of knowledge relevant for an organization as a whole. Thus, fo both the individual, the group(s) the latter is it is only the development of such part of, and for the military organization as a competences that can actually pragmatically whole. Consequently, this paper will look at uphold and substantiate the discussion on the extent to which the intercultural experience managing the human resource in accordance can be truly transferred from an individual, with principles of modern management like strictly experiential level, to a formal employee empowerment and tasks delegation. group/organizational level. Moreover, it will Moreover the very concept of intellectual briefly provide a tentative taxonomy of lessons capital is substantiated by the continuous and learned in the intercultural field and, in the constant influx of useful and pertinent end, based on the latter, it will present a model knowledge transferrable into behavior through based on which the lessons learned in the social learning. Consequently, a well defined intercultural field can be passed on into the framework for the collection, elaboration and collective consciousness of the military dissemination of good practices, as well as of organization. the most efficient means of solving various issues at individual, group and establishment 2. THE INTERCULTURAL level is one of the first steps towards the basic EXPERIENCE: A PASSAGE TO I(NDIA) desideratum of any learning organization, namely the gathering, dissemination and use of The elaboration and use of lessons learned knowledge for the common good. From this in the intercultural field as a result of the point of view, provided that the system and military missions undertaken by the alliances/ process of lessons learned are adequately coalitions of the willing Romania has already implemented, they can play a major role in the been part of through its military indirect motivation of the employees. In this representatives can not only yield advantages respect it is worth noting that the possibility of in terms of the better training and education of reflecting on one’s own critical and relevant the human resource to be deployed in theatres experience and of sharing it at system level by of operation or on missions of various nature, transforming it into a guide for the other but is also prone to a number of disadvantages. employees renders not only a feeling of One of the major advantages that a system belonging to that establishment, but also of and process destined for recording lessons every individual’s importance. learned in the intercultural field is rendered by A well-defined system of lessons learned the unimpeded access of any defense in the intercultural field at the level of the establishment to the intellectual capital of its Romanian military would also be employees. In this respect, it is noteworthy advantageous in terms of the improvements that a system of lessons learned, in general, brought to the educational curricula in and one of lessons learned in the intercultural accordance with the commitments made by the field, in particular, must not be viewed as mere Romanian Ministry of National Defense to its formality, but as an effective means of NATO and EU partners and, inherently, to its improving both individual and group main stakeholder, that is the civil population. efficiency. Only by meeting this prerequisite, From this point of view, these very do employees have the chance of developing a commitments make the transfer of the set of metacompetences such as the ability to knowledge gained by the military in the broad correctly assess one’s own experience and spectrum of military operations characteristic performance in an intercultural environment of the contemporary environment a national through the lens of advanced knowledge of priority. Thus, the argument according to colleagues’ needs and requirements, of work which the existence of training programs in the groups’ and an establishment’s characteristics intercultural, multicultural, multilingual fields 70

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? at the level of the United Nations or at the higher echelons for decisions to be made. One level of other coalitions of alliances renders answer to this interrogation is that the their development unnecessary at national experience of the reporting officer is the level is not a consistent one as long as the guarantee that the information is filtered and, number of individuals who can benefit the hence, trustworthy. However, that does not latter is a narrow one, compared to the need to really account for the objectivity of the train and educate not only the cadets, but also information and for its alignment to the needs to update the personnel in various positions on characteristic of an overall system. Hence, the the latest developments in the field of interest. need to develop a guiding model for the Consequently, establishing a system of lessons assessment of experiential observations and learned in the intercultural field at national for their transfer into lessons learned, if case level can contribute to the development of may be. One possible problem that can be programs aimed at but not restricted to the foreseen when it comes to developing and following: the transfer of the knowledge implementing such a model consists in the gained and of the competences developed by adequate understanding of the cultural the personnel that has already been involved in variables of the military organizational culture military operations into formal training by its very members, and hence their programs for those who are to be inclination towards understanding, identifying, deployed/trained to be deployed in no time by analyzing and evaluating aspects of finesse developing general models that can be characteristic of the culture of other afterwards adapted to the needs of each organizational groups and/or peoples. particular group/unit; the establishment, Moreover, what is extremely challenging and maintenance and use of a database of the rewarding at the same time is the gathering, personnel that has already been part of transfer and integration of the tacit knowledge missions abroad, and more specifically, of gained through personal interaction with other their propositions to the after mission linguistic and cultural environments, as well as suggestions so that the really valuable ideas the transfer efficiency of a strictly personal and input can be easily transferred into action; piece of knowledge into lessons learned. the development of assessment systems that Another reason why lessons learned in the should not only check on an evaluation chart intercultural field can be of use at formal, the participation into a military mission organizational/group level is that beyond a abroad, but also the added value of such a mere conclusion and hence a principle of participation that could be measured in terms behavior, such lessons are based on solid, of the relevance, usefulness and practical corroborated evidence and arguments that character of the suggestions made by the surpass the mere empirical observation. participant towards the improvement of the Consequently, one of the reasons for which a overall management system, in general, and system of lessons learned in such a field is the intercultural approach, in particular. necessary is that it ensures the avoidance of One major aspect that actually is the tell applying a simplistic paradigm like the East- tale sign of a real lesson learned is the change West one, and inherently of clichés that fall in behavior that occurs upon its internalization into the dos- don’ts advises and that simply at individual level/institutionalization at record a set of acceptable/forbidden organizational level. However, for an gestures/behaviors without sufficiently observation/lesson to become a lesson learned, explaining, nor substantiating them. an evaluation system needs to be in place in One major role of the lessons learned is order to filter relevant form irrelevant that of signaling not only system/group information. The question that arises is if such level/individual behavioral deficiencies, but an evaluation grid is one that is also successful behaviors. In this respect, one empirically/scientifically grounded and hence, of the roles of the lessons learned system in a valid one when information is submitted to the intercultural field is to identify valid 71

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? behavioral patterns worth replicating if the national level is the development of a set of context that generated the latter is similar to capabilities specially designed for the adequate the one when a decision has to be made as to establishment and use of the lessons learned how better behave at cultural/linguistic level. system and, more specifically, a capability Such a verification function of this system and focused on the lessons learned system in the of the methodology upholding it should be intercultural field. However, such a capability taken even further by applying an analysis can only by designed and built if the framework built around the following importance and effects of the intercultural measurement parameters: time length (i.e. the aspects on multinational missions are fully necessity to analyze the recorded the grasped. In this respect, what is needed is a lessons/observation for a longer period of methodology that describes and regulates not time); multi-focus (i.e. the need to resort to only the process of gathering multiple perspective, make comparisons and lessons/observations in the intercultural field, only afterwards draw conclusions); integrated but also the elaboration, dissemination and framework (i.e. a clear-cut and formally institutionalization of lessons learned. In my accepted operationalization of the concept of opinion, such a methodology should be interculturality at the level of the specialists in designed around the following questions: the field). The use of such analysis parameters • What are the criteria justifying the can be advantageous when it comes to drawing transformation of individual/group conclusions of a more general, credible, experiences/observations/lessons into lessons applicable nature than the intercultural learned? (e.g. what is their impact on the framework apparently allows. perception and representation of one’s own The aforementioned advantages and self and of the world in general, on the limitations of the lessons learned in general, dichotomy good-evil, and, inherently, on and of those in the intercultural field in overall behavior); particular, actually underlines the discrepancy • What are the criteria used in selecting between the qualitative nature of any lesson those lessons worth retaining and transferring learned and the quantitative means in use to into the collective organizational memory? gather and disseminate the observations and • What is the significance and validity of lessons that could become lessons learned. these observations/lessons for overall Thus, so far, the system in place at NATO organizational processes? level and at the level of the Romanian armed What are the best means to collect and forces is actually a database organized by disseminate lessons learned given their highly fields and restricting the access to the position subjective character? and professional field/specialization of the officer who may upload relevant information. 3. A TENTATIVE LESSONS LEARNED Besides this restrictive, quantitative and TAXONOMY FOR THE position-based approach to the system of INTERCULTURAL FIELD lessons learned, another hindrance to its adequate use is rendered by the A taxonomy of lessons learned in the absence/insufficient dissemination of the intercultural field (and not only) should be relevant information already uploaded in the framework to be employed in the analysis and system and, hence, the failure in its differentiation among lessons/observations. institutionalization. In this respect, the NATO Currently, the framework employed in efforts towards delivering a course on lessons discussing these follows two major learned to staff officers is noteworthy. coordinates. One of this describes “the lessons However, that is one attempt that does not learned from missions, activities and cover the needs in the field of every nation international military applications with participating into the Alliance’s operations. As Romanian involvement” and the taxonomy a result the solution that can be envisaged at 72

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? used to define it is quite generous detailing the • Tacit lessons/explicit lessons; main fields of expertise involved in the • Individual lessons/ collective lessons. military actions and exercises: psychological In the case of the “general principles based support, technical-military support; CIMIC; lessons” I believe they can only be formulated communications; logistics; doctrines and when the context related ones have already regulations; education; sports; infantry; been identified. Moreover, for the former to be intelligence; training; humanitarian law; legal formulated, the experience underpinning them support; medical support; NATO; PfP; Joint; needs to be replicated and confirmed by NBC; operations; personnel; simulation; different sources in different contexts as it is environmental and labor protection; technical the case of the lessons identified in Bosnia and metrological surveillance; public relations; Herzegovina, Iraq and Afghanistan. Thus, visits, etc. The other coordinate focuses on the since the Romanian troops were involved in all lessons learned from the theatres of operations three theatres of operations, I believe that it is (e.g. Irak, Afghanistan) and more specifically not difficult to identify general patterns related on: the composition of the beligerant forces; to the intercultural experience of the Romanian operations; lessons of other contingents military. In this respect, worth reminding is participant into the theater of operations. As a that one important intercultural lesson result of these coordinates, the result is the identified in three different contexts underlines lack of an integrated approach toewards the the need for the Romanian military to speak a intercultural field. In the end, that can only foreign language at conversational level in account for the necessity of the taxonomy order to be able to properly interact with both suggested by this paper, as well as for the need alliance/coalition partners and with the locals. to explicitly integrate the intercultural issues in Thus, based on the manifestation of such a a well-defined framework so that the need it is not farfetched to talk about a collection, dissemination and behavioral pattern that leads to future institutionalization of intercultural decisions in this respect and, hence to general lessons/observations can finally lead to principles based lessons. However, the relevant intercultural lessons learned. What is question that arises concerns the way/method worth mentioning is that the category of context-related lessons are identified and lessons/ lessons learned for which I plead is recorded and, inherently, the consequences the one that goes beyond the surface, that may have on the correct transformation of quantifiable aspects and reaches the indepth specific lessons into general principles-based threshold of the tacit knowledge that needs to ones. Moreover, worth noting is that the be brought to surface through a continous number of context-related lessons that can monitoring of its use in specific contexts, as become general principles-based lessons are well as by maintaining the post-mission loop quite limited given the context constraints and open. peculiarities. For example, not all lessons The main criterion used for the taxonomy identified by the Romanian military in Bosnia suggested in this paper is that of the type of could be transferred and used as lessons information that is conveyed through lessons learned in Iraq or Afghanistan. learned in the intercultural field. As a result, As for the “tacit lessons/explicit lessons” the framework I propose runs as a set of category, I believe this is the most important antinomies and is an adaptation of the one and must be emphasized and better taxonomy suggested by of Gannon, J., M. and analyzed due to the great amount of Karen L. Newman (144) to classify information it may yield in terms of organizational knowledge. Thus, the individual/group/organizational behavior (i.e. classification runs as follows: perceptions, attitudes) during mission • Context related lessons/general unfolding. The explicit lessons can be either principles based lessons ; grasped by any individual who has an open

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? attitude towards the development of compulsory stages. The first one requires the metacompetences, or by sharp contrast to what identification of the context-related lessons by is viewed as commonly accepted at employing instruments of analysis and individual/group/organization level. On the evaluation that are to be built in accordance other hand, the tacit lessons are the ones with the parameters describing the difficult to identify and analyze since they intercultural communication competence cover experiences/attitudes/ behaviors viewed concept described in previous research papers as naturally occurring, unquestionably (Codreanu: 2012, 95). The information accepted and hence difficult to obtained at the beginning of this first stage describe/explain. needs to be even more thoroughly covered by The” individual lessons/ collective lessons” resorting to the aforementioned instrument in are actually an indicator of the extent to which order to identify the tacit and explicit the individual skills/competences are lessons/observations and compare them to the integrated at group/organizational level. An intercultural communication competence example of explicit collective lessons is the related performance criteria assessing an one derived from the manner of applying individual’s/group’s behavior in a given coalition/alliance codes and procedures and context. The ensuing results will then be their direct/visible results (e.g. performance filtered by resorting to two interdependent evaluation procedures, selection methods, criteria: he frequency of the lessons’ etc.). An example of a tacit lesson is the work occurrence within the same context for a given group culture that is not as visible and period of time and their direct/indirect identifiable as the lessons generated by the impact on overall mission accomplishment. correct/faulty application of some formal As a result of applying the frequency and procedures/regulations. impact filters two types of information In conclusion, regardless of the type of emerge: on one hand the specific ones that are lesson/lesson learned category, I would like to relevant only at individual, contextual level remind and emphasize once more the need for and do not require any further action and, on an integrated instrument in the intercultural the other hand, the ones impacting not only the field to be employed in the collection, individual, but also work group, the dissemination and institutionalization of these community, the organization and hence of lessons. In this respect, the model to be collective value. The latter are the ones that presented in the next chapter of this paper is a describe the general principles-based lessons first step towards the drafting of such a tool. category. However, for them to be termed as Moreover, as the model will show, not any such, they must first undergo the frequency piece of information is a “lesson learned” and and impact filtering process in order to assess that should be a basic working principle in their impact their on the alliance’s/coalition’s approaching the analysis of performance and, indirectly, on the Romanian lessons/observations in the intercultural field defense establishment. Once the general and, subsequently, as case may be, their principles-based lessons are identified, their institutionalization as lessons learned. transformation into lessons learned may begin by initiating their institutionalization process 4. A MODEL FOR THE COLLECTION at macro-organizational level. In this respect, AND ANALYSIS OF LESSONS Fig. 1 displays the four stages that have IDENTIFIED IN THE INTERCULTURAL already been briefly described. FIELD Concerning the necessary actions needed for the completion of the first stage, I must Based on the taxonomy previously emphasize that the identification of the presented, the model for the collection and lessons/observation characteristic of a context analysis of lessons identified in the needs to be an integrated effort undertaken intercultural field should consist of four 74

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? both prior to the mission, during its unfolding and upon its closure.

Stage I: Context related Time length: lessons • prior, • during Explicit • upon Tacit mission lessons closure lessons

Filters: frequency, impact

Collective lessons Stage II Individual Time length: lessons • during • upon mission closure Filters: frequency, impact

Stage III Time length: General • during principles based lessons • upon mission closure

Stage IV Institutionalization Time length: process • Upon mission closure • During future missions Lessons learned

Fig. 1. The stages of transforming lessons identified into lessons learned in the intercultural field

Therefore, even though there is a tight context-related lessons, namely towards the interdependency between the context-related analysis and evaluation of the cultural aspects lessons, the tacit and the explicit ones, the describing the geographical areas where the moment they come into focus does not multinational mission(s) is to take place. In coincide. Thus, prior to the mission, the efforts this respect, both the analysis and the must be directed towards the identification of assessment processes require the elaboration 75

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? of a set general measurement criteria derived generation of lessons in the intercultural filed from the parameters describing the for the Romanian defense establishment, the intercultural communication competence absence of the means through which the concept. At the same time, the assessment of lessons identified/learned by those who have the individual and/or group profile of the already been deployed can be human resources to be deployed should be shared/transferred to the military to be undertaken and should follow the same deployed (e.g. coaching, mentoring) (apart criteria. The observations derived from the two form the empirical “word-of-mouth” means); analyses will then lead to the identification of the high cost incurred by the dispatch of thee differences between the mission theoreticians in the intercultural field to the requirements and the competence level of the theater of operation in order to extract the participating human resource. necessary information and to make informed The novelty of this paper compared to proposals; the impossibility of training a current approaches in the field resides in the number of practitioners that could take over proposal it makes to integrate the set of the instruments (i.e. structured and semi- instruments used in the assessment of the structured interviews, as well as the cultural environment where the mission is to observation method) from the theoreticians take place (a process which undoubtedly is and apply them accordingly due to the high conducted during the mission preparation level of specialization required by these. phase but which could also benefit from Concerning the frequency criterion improvement initiatives), as well as in the employed in the analysis of the tacit and drawing of the earmarked human resource’s explicit lessons, it is difficult to suggest how profile in terms of the existing and possibly often a lesson should be recorded before it is needed intercultural communication assessed as relevant solely at individual level competence dimensions/variables. Secondly, or, on the contrary, at collective level. In this the paper emphasizes the idea that the same respect, I must underline that there is not a type of instruments needs to be employed in tight correlation between the frequency and the assessment of both the context-related impact criteria. Thus, even though a lesson lessons identified prior to mission unfolding may be reported quite often, its impact may be and of those general-principles based lessons quite high on an individual/group. Therefore, a derived from other similar/previous contexts. decision making algorithm needs to be For this reason a clear-cut description of the developed. As for the transformation of intercultural communication competence collective lessons into general principles-based concept is needed and in this respect the lessons the same observations are valid, with researchers in the field should unite their the addition that the impact level is of concern efforts in a project specifically aimed at the to not only to team/group where the lesson is military field. recorded, but also to the overall mission of the As for the tacit/explicit lessons, they can be alliance/coalition. generated during or upon mission completion and play an extremely important role in 5. CONCLUSIONS describing the collective lessons that can afterwards be assessed as general principles- The process of transforming based lessons and ultimately as lessons lessons/observations in the intercultural field learned. However, there is a number of into lessons learned is a complex and slow one constraints that limit the efforts of deriving the involving an integrating overview at the level two types of lessons for the mission of the coalition/alliance to which the completion moment and theory are as follows: Romanian defense establishment contributes the absence of a decision concerning the troops. As a result, I believe that the general integration of the efforts directed towards the principles-based lessons should be of interest 76

THE INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENCE ACQUIRED IN MILITARY OPERATIONS. ANOTHER PASSAGE TO I(NDIA)? at national level and, as far as the intercultural Military Challenge. Brussels: NATO field is concerned, should be used as a Strategic Commanders. replacement (both as a term and as a concept) 8. ***. (1999). Manpower Policies and for what is commonly understood as lessons Procedures AAP 16 (C). Brussels: NATO learned. As for the lessons learned per se, the Office of Information and Press. latter can be resorted to at national level upon 9. ***. (2010). ACO/ACT–Public Affairs the institutionalization of the general Handbook. Brussels: NATO Office of principles-based ones, but mostly at Information and Press. ii, 129/147 alliance/coalition level in order to meet the 10. ***. (2009). Planul strategic al interoperability standard. Ministerului Apărării Naţionale 2010-2013 [online]. The Ministry of National 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Defense. URL: http://www.mapn.gov.ro/ despre_mapn/informatii_generale/docume The author takes full responsibility for the nte/plan_2009.pdf. [last retrieved on contents of this paper. The ideas presented are 01.11.2011]. based on the research undertaken between 11. ***. (2009). Handbook 09-22: 2009-2011 for the doctoral degree. In this Commander’s Guide to Operational respect, my sincere appreciation is extended to Records and Data Collection. Fort my PhD thesis advisor LtGEN professor PhD Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Marin ILIE for his unrelentless support, advice Lessons Learned. and feedback on the ideas and arguments 12. ***. (2006). FM 3-24 MCWP 3-33.5 presented in this paper Counterinsurgency. Washington, DC: Headquarters Department of the Navy. BIBLIOGRAPHY 13. ***. (2010). NATO Lessons Learned Handbook. Lisbon: Joint Analysis and 1. Codreanu, A. (2012) From Theory to Lessons Learned Centre. Practice in the Intercultural Field. An 14. ***. (2009). Bi-Strategic Command (Bi- assessment Model for the Intercultural SC) Directive 80-6 Lessons Learned. Communication Competence Concept, Brussels: NATO Office of Information and Review of the Air Force, Vol. X, No. Press. 1(20). 91-96. 15. ***. (2011). Allied Command Operations 2. Gannon, J., M., Karen L. Newman The (ACO) Directive 80-1 Lessons Learned. Blackwell Handbook of Cross Cultural Lisbon: Joint Analysis and Lessons Management. Blackwell Publishing. Learned Center. 3. Rentsch, R. J, Allison Guderson, Gerald F. 16. ***. (2007). Joint Analysis Handbook. Goodwin, Allison Abbe (2007). Lisbon: Joint Analysis and Lessons Conceptualizing Multicultural Perspective Learned Center. Taking Skills. Arlington, VA: United 17. ***. (2007). Allied Doctrine for Joint States Army Research Institute for the Operations, AJP-3 (A). Brussels: NATO Behavioral and Social Sciences. Office of Information and Press. 4. * * *. (2001). NATO Handbook. Brussels: 18. ***. (2006). SMG-51. Concepţia privind NATO Office of Information and Press. lecţiile învăţate în Armata României. 5. * * *. (2008). AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Bucharest: General Staff. Terms and Definitions. Brussels: NATO 19. ***. (2007). SMG-118 Metodologia Office of Information and Press. privind elaborarea lecţiilor învăţate în 6. ***. (2009). Intercultural dialogue on Armata României. Bucharest: General campus. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Staff. 7. ***. (2004). NATO’s Strategic Commanders- Strategic Vision: The 77

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I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

DOUBLESPEAK OR MILITARY SLANG – PROOF OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND?

Daniela NAGY

Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov

Abstract: Cultural background holds responsibility for the type of communication it generates. Communication represents all intrinsic connections between the goals and the means employed by a transmitter of a message. Within a specific cultural space, created by a society and relevant for the value system of a community, communication displays a variety of behaviors: it can, on the one hand enhance the relationship between an individual and language; on the other hand, it can alter their relationship, and, ultimately, communication can annul any connection between the two. In a binary system characterized by acquisition and innateness, the cultural trait displays its multiple meanings, whereas the two characteristics initiate a reciprocal determination. As culture is a guarantee of the functionality of a behavior, the triumph of an organization, such as the military one, depends on communication, largely. Within military environments, and by expansion, within military communities, language, in general, and discourse, in particular, displays peculiar manifestations dictated by a series of external and internal factors. These factors contribute to a successful or distorted communication. Among the external factors, we can include global or local social, economic and political realities. Internal factors incorporate interpersonal relationships, organizational structures’ policies and shared values. The aim of the present paper is to illustrate how the cultural background is reflected by doublespeak and military slang. A case study will further confirm the initial assumption that cultural background influences language.

Keywords: language, communication, culture, community discourse, doublespeak, slang

1. INTRODUCTION understand and to be understood” (Saussure, 1959:77). Considering language to be a social Language and society are two inseparable product, equally a form and a non-substance, phenomena as they are not mutually exclusive. the eminent Swiss professor stresses the Different social settings require different necessity of analyzing the relationships linguistic codes for their expression. As far as between the constitutive elements of language. culture’s relationships with language and The second equation, pertaining to the French discourse are concerned, we shall start by linguist Émile Benveniste is based on the same mentioning two major structuralist directions, Saussurean distinction between language and which provide definitions for language and speech, yet it claims that language is perceived speech. A first ‘equation’ was subjected to as a whole of structures belonging equally to a debate after the 1916’s publication of community and to the individual, whereas Ferdinand de Saussure’s Course in General speech is developed within a language. Linguistics: language = speech – speaking According to Benveniste, language is (1), more accurately: “Avoiding sterile word produced by a culture that, in its turn, is definitions, within the total phenomenon conditioned by the speech incorporated within represented by speech we first singled out two language: "Culture is defined as a very parts: language and speaking. Language is complex pattern of representations, organized speech less speaking. It is the whole set of by a code of relationships and values linguistic habits which allow an individual to traditions, religion, laws, politics, ethics, arts-

DOUBLESPEAK OR MILITARY SLANG – PROOF OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND? everything which man, no matter where he is Among the external factors, we can include born, will be steeped in within his deepest global or local social, economic and political consciousness and which will direct his realities. Internal factors incorporate behavior in all forms of his activity; what is interpersonal relationships, organizational this then if not a universe of symbols structures’ policies and shared values. The integrated into a specific structure which conceptual clarification of language versus language reveals and transmits?” cultural background of a community/society (Benveniste, 1971:26). Benveniste considers should sustain the more applicative aspects of that man assimilates culture, perpetuates it and discursive materialization of speeches in transmits it through language, while discourse relation with the military environment. is incorporated within speech, in an equation Consequently, we will further attempt to re-written by Caune (2000:28) as language = illustrate two particular instances in which logos (discourse + sense) (2). Without cultural background is revealed by means of subscribing to the already mentioned language: doublespeak and military slang. Saussurean structuralism, the French researcher Patrick Charaudeau comes closer to 2. DOUBLESPEAK equation (1), yet his perspective requires clarification. Starting from interrogations According to the Oxford Advanced regarding social identity and/or cultural Learner’s Dictionary, 7th edition, identity of an individual, Patrick Charaudeau doublespeak (also doubletalk) is “language sets discourse in the proximity of the that is intended to make people believe presupposed identity role of language. The something that is not true, or that can be simple consideration of language as a understood in two different ways” (2005:458). depository and transmitter of culture values The word doublespeak was first mentioned dissatisfies Charaudeau, since language in the early 1950s. It was often incorrectly relationships with identity imply an analysis of attributed to George Orwell and his dystopian the use- of -language relationships with novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The truth is that identity. From this viewpoint, any attempt of the word does never appear in that novel. explaining cultural values by appealing to Nevertheless, Orwell did invent Newspeak, language is insufficient. Consequently, Oldspeak, duckspeak (speaking from the Charaudeau (2001:343) sets another equation, throat without thinking 'like a duck') and discourse = language + speech (3), through doublethink (holding "...simultaneously two which he proves that the only institution opinions which cancelled out, knowing them capable of transmitting cultural values is to be contradictory and believing in both of discourse. Moreover, he strengthens his proof them..."). Doublespeak may be considered, in by mentioning that no one changes one’s Orwell's lexicography, as the B vocabulary of culture when speaking in a foreign language Newspeak, words "deliberately constructed for because speaking a language does not equal political purposes: words, that is to say, which belonging to a culture. Rather, cultural habits not only had in every case a political materialize speech acts. This concept leads to a implication, but were intended to impose a redefinition of communities: we should speak desirable mental attitude upon the person using of discourse communities rather than speech them." communities. The connection between the military and Within military environments, and by politics resides in the subordination of the expansion, within military communities, armed forces to a state’s government, language, in general, and discourse, in parliament and president. Hence, the ‘military’ particular, displays peculiar manifestations community follows state policies that reflect dictated by a series of external and internal its role within the larger social and cultural factors. These factors contribute to a context. The military language, pertaining to successful or distorted communication. specialized scientific languages, displays a 80

DOUBLESPEAK OR MILITARY SLANG – PROOF OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND? denotative feature, aiming at high clarity and acceptance of the term ‘hero’), “brave lack of redundance, for an efficient defender of native land” (by means of communication. In opposition to this reality, indoctrination, not by military force) or “our the political language bears a connotative load, onward march” (towards communist because its main purpose is to persuade and/or ideologies) come to prove the attitude of manipulate. From ‘manipulation’ to ‘lies’ the servile followers of a worthless dictator. distance is not far. “The massive use of Metonymy, on the other side, impregnates in euphemisms is one of the most criticized language similar relationships between the features of the political language, to the extent significant and the signified: “The Great in which political discourse can easily slide Father”, “The Liberator”, “The Hero”. A into lying. Euphemism consists of a deliberate special mentioning of a military reality was replacement, by the locator, of a linguistic provided by the word diribau (originally phrase holding negative meaning or derubau), formed by clipping of De(utschland) connotation with another phrase, either - Ru(mänien) - Bau(ern), in reference to a neutral or positive, so as the occurrence of a German-Romanian constructions company. negative effect might be avoided” (Zafiu: The meaning of the word, according to Anca 2007). By means of euphemisms, perceived as and George Volceanov’s Dictionary of conversational strategy, both comforting the Romanian Slang and Colloquial Expressions interlocutor and the self-protection of the (1998) was: 1. “disciplinary battallion”; 2. locator are acquired. Military and political “forced labor”. Both meanings hold sense: realities in Romania, during the communist during communist era, military personnel oppression could never illustrate better the opposing the communist ideology were forced Orwellian slogans attributed to the Ministry of into ‘labor camps’. Truth (Minitrue): “War is peace”; “Freedom is After the fall of communism, military slavery”; “Ignorance is strength”. Such language was not cured from doublespeak instances of doublespeak,, in reference to the symptoms. The difference was set by the military, may be interpreted as “We shall fight relationships of language with the Romanian the class enemy” (propaganda against any cultural background. Added to these, capitalistic values = enemy of the working Romania’s armed forces being integrated class, the verb ‘fight’, normally associated within multinational or international military with a military engagement holding organizations, the language displayed a metaphorical meaning); “Freedom of opinion ‘multinational’ behavior: the national signified is slavery” (military virtues had to be in often resembled or even coincided with other absolute agreement with authoritarian nations’ signified. Accordingly, the previous leadership); “Lack of education is strength” “wooden language” of the military was (the more illiterate a military leader was, the replaced by a “freedom of speech”, where greater was his possibility to be promoted, due parody, irony and sarcasm appear to be to the fact that his ignorance ensured characteristics of the conative function of the unconditioned subordination to the “Supreme language. Doublespeak, achieved through a Leader” = dictator). The most common variety of stylistic devices, still deceits the stylistic devices through which “wooden receiver, although the speaker may be language” (Zafiu: 2007, p.43) displayed its cognizant of military concepts. Euphemisms power-related connotations during the such as ‘militant’ (= terrorist), ‘cold war’ totalitarian regime are metaphor, metonymy (=operations other than war), ‘classified- and word clipping. Metaphors used during unclassified military documents’ (=secret), communist years are mainly clichés, ‘smart bomb’ (=advanced technology used for associated with the idea of ‘patriotism’ and missiles) ‘collateral damage’ (=civilian sending to the importance and unsurpassed casualties), ‘capital punishment’ (=death qualities of the ‘supreme leader’. Thus, sentence) and euphemistic metonymies – “dignified hero” (not in the military 81

DOUBLESPEAK OR MILITARY SLANG – PROOF OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND?

‘John Wayne’/ ‘Rambo’/ ‘G.I. Joe/ Jane’ included in soldiers’ training and education. (=soldiers) illustrate military cultural biases. Discipline implies that the military A reverse phenomenon initiated by the so organization’s members may be forced to put -called ‘military-flavored’ doublespeak aside their individual interests, in favor of appears to be the infiltration of military-related collective targets. Lack of motivation or words and phrase into ‘civilian’ discourse recognition of personal values, a sense of community. The specialized military terms frustration caused by professional hardships or show a great mobility as they adapt to new a lesser implication in the rigid context of the contexts easily, within both the military and professionalized army may result in language the general, an unexpected situation by ‘come ‘coding’ that aims at not being understood by as a bombshell’ or someone’s unawareness as superiors or at obtaining a group’s recognition ‘off-guard’. In all instance, cultural as a distinct member. Again, cultural background prevails. This prevalence backgrounds in which language used by strengthens once more Charaudeau’s soldiers is achieved determine the variety of hypothesis that culture creates language. slang occurrences. During the communist years, military slang used to be the perfect 3. MILITARY SLANG embodiment of the force by which the military community communicated itself: a community Should doublespeak hold a degree of based on power relationships, in which social manifested formality, provided by the power values were often distorted and denaturized. relation it entails, military slang manifests a The level of education of the component wide range of informality, from neutral members of the community or its scarce references to sexist, racist or vulgar presence was another factor contributing to connotation. The Oxford Dictionary definition military slang. The connotative function of the of slang is “very informal words and language was never more powerful than under expressions that are more common in spoken the oppressive management of communists. language, especially used by a particular group Different from doublespeak, the military slang of people, for example children, criminals, does not deceit; it simply denies access to soldiers, etc.“ (Oxford Advanced Learner’s intruders. Sarcasm, irony and derogation are Dictionary, 7th edition: 2005:1433). but some of the manners in which slang Additionally, by reiterating the assumption of manifest itself. Metaphor, metonymy and the cultural background generating language and derived acronymic usages of professional communication between a community’s jargons are the most common stylistic devices members being possible through language, we associated with slang. Military ranks, during should have a look at the military environment conscription time were not always a proof of in itself. On a regular basis, the armed forces one’s superiority or inferiority. ‘APV’ are deployed to military bases and garrisons, (Romanian acronym for “armata pe viata” = separated from the civilian segment of society. employed in the armed forces), “Colonel calcat For the army’s functional necessities, de tanc” (“colonel run over by a tank”, in community is more powerfully recognized, to reference to the military insignia of a Master the detriment of its individuals. “Within Chief Sergeant (Non-commissioned military culture, an individual becomes an officer)composed of three wide stripes, as instrument serving the group’s needs. It is compared to a genuine colonel’s insignia expected from a soldier to give up his freedom consisting of three thin stripes). Conscription and, should the case be, sacrifice his life for caused a lot of trouble to either regular soldiers the benefit of a collective goal to which he may or reduced-service ones (TR: Romanian not adhere” (Zulean: 2005) page 12. “termen redus”, reduced service granted to Moreover, morale and group cohesion soldiers who had already been admitted to represent major ingredients for a soldier’s universities). Countdown of days to spend in motivation in combat, as well as they are the military was often referred to as AMR 82

DOUBLESPEAK OR MILITARY SLANG – PROOF OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND?

(Romanian “au mai ramas” for the similar Brother” does not refers to Orwell’s English meaning of “(ten days)… and a wake communist party, but to a show where up”. Similarly, "72s and 96s" carried out the competitors are secluded from society and connotation of “acquainted time given to a required to simulate normal behavior as in real military member for liberty on holidays or life. The military meaning of “Big Brother” is special occasions and based on hours” of either “commanding officer”, or senior common for both Romanian and foreign ranks. military environments. Reference to members In conclusion, it is obvious that the of the military community by means of existence of different cultural habits is ‘genitalia words’ used to be and still is a replicated by military pejorative uses of terms depreciatory way to show disrespect or denial and concepts and that any change in the of authority. Items of clothing as part of the cultural backgrounds may give birth to or compulsorily to be worn attire used to include annul other meanings. a multitude of slang references in the past, due to the fact that the fabric the military uniform 4. CASE STUDY was made of was either uncomfortable or created the impression of intended Starting from the hypothesis that cultural depersonalization of individuals. Military background of a specific military community base-life, reflected by sleeping conditions, affects language and speech, we conducted a dining facilities or food supplied led to such survey on a sample of 112- second –year- slangy terms as “prison or inlife” – derivative cadets of the Air force Academy. The from the jail occupants, called “inmates”, composition of the research sample was: 14 bunk-beds were ironically defined as “canned female students and 98 male students, aged beds”, sleeping bags were “farting bags”, the between 20 and 26 years old. Out of the 112 mess hall, a term already bearing pejorative students, 48 had graduated from military high- meaning, turned into “pigstry”, while food schools, 6 female graduates and 42 male served there was “swine food”. The years that graduates. There were eight distinct followed communism had different impacts on specialization categories including fighter the evolution of military slang. Conscription pilots, helicopter pilots for Police force and was abolished and the existence of a Naval force, staff officers subordinated to the professionalized army, based on volunteering Ministry of National Defense, and the has diminished or even eradicated some of the Ministry of Administration and Interior, radar consecrated slang terms in reference to the officers, electronic warfare officers, artillery military. Parody of contemporary events, and anti-air defense, trained to serve with the social or cultural now is a trait of military Land Forces, and surface-to-air missiles. The language. For example, unprofessional or survey was conducted on specialized groups, immoral behavior in subordinates-superiors in turn and it was conceived as an unstructured relationships is now illustrated by metonymic questionnaire, with open -ended questions. replacement of a social phenomenon with the Respondents were asked to indicate, under the very author of the abnormal behavior. For protection of anonymity, as many generalization sake, there are instances where euphemisms and slang terms they could relate a Romanian extremely wide spread or to the seven indicated topics: “personal common name turns into a significant of a apartinand fortelor armate”(=personnel class. Another observable fact is that of employed by the armed forces); “categorii de parodying, for the sake of mockery of forte” (=branches); “echipament / dotare – televised shows’ names, while attributing them apreciere generala” (=equipment/logistics – military connotations. “Dancing for a leave” general characterization); “viata in armata” (= comes from a popular entertainment show life in the military); “relatii umane in cadrul “Dancing for You”, in which dancers compete mediului militar” (=human relationships for raising funds to be used for charity. “Big within the military environment); “acronime / 83

DOUBLESPEAK OR MILITARY SLANG – PROOF OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND? abrevieri folosite (desfasurati acronimarea)” though their ‘air-taxies’ were often nicknamed (= acronyms/abbreviations in use – unfold the “flying coffins”, “flying jars”, missile guys meaning); “expresii colocviale folosite in mock at “the fat lady” (100mm caliber canon), scopul *indulcirii* realitatilor negative” (= electronic warfare cadets deal with “crackers’ colloquialisms intentionally used to ‘sweeten’ (jamming systems). As for place where negative realities). Each of the above instruction, military or academic, takes place a mentioned topics were further detailed into range of acronyms were provided. So, the Air more precise component parts (i.e. “personnel” force Academy was given the nickname of consisted of civilians, military instructors, Academy of Harry Potter, due to sound senior ranks, junior ranks, officers, non- resemblance between “Henri” and Harry, but commissioned officers/ warrant officers, also a parody of flight activities (on sticks and human typologies, presence of women in the brooms, and not aboard planes), the boot camp military (both military and civilian women). is the very “green hell” (combination between As far as language of the questionnaire is the physical place where instruction takes concerned, it was Romanian, considering that place and the hardships of camp activities. answers were supposed to indicate whether Personal uniforms, believed to depersonalize culture affects language. Out of 112 people, were judged through each individual’s questionnaires, only 54 were completed perceptions related to them. For 24 of the thoroughly. The remaining 58 respondents cadets, uniforms were a manner to conceal the invoked lack of any knowledge about slang natural behavior of military students, a sort of terms or euphemisms with regard to specific ‘bluefication’ or ‘kaki- zation’ of young spirits topics/sub-topics. The category that generated (uniformization). When it comes to the mess the most euphemisms and slangy terms was hall and dining conditions, plus/ minus the “equipment/logistics – general quality of food delivered, almost all characterization”. Should we judge based on respondent mentioned some funny, ironic, yet specialized theories, we may deduce that suggestive references to food: ‘sponge’ economic (and political) drawbacks weight (=thickened with flour omelet); ‘camp-boot quite heavily on professional accomplishment sole” (thick and usually medium cooked beef), of young cadets. Personal weapons plus the “festive beans” (another type, though the same necessary ammunition include (or lack!) name dish of beans). references: “Natasha” for the former Soviet A second positioned topic that supplied originating AK-47 but also in response to the derogatory terms was that of human idea that a man in the military marries his relationships within the military environment. weapon , while rounds of ammunition are Most of the acronyms cadets have invented or referred to as ‘drops’. When reference goes to re-invented (see “PIFA(N)” (Romanian AK-47’s performance, the weapons turns into “prostia infinita a fortelor armate” = the infinit the “bitch”, probably in association with the supidity of the armed forces); in the past, the noise it produce, its ugly appearance but bitter term used to denominate newly recruits ‘bite’ (= deadly effect). The fact that almost all (probably an association of “pufan”=fluffy, of the respondents indicated this referential and its transformation into ‘pifan’). SGS, names for the weapon makes us believe that literally meaning “student /sergeant on guard” either second –year- cadets ‘borrowed’ the (Romanian: student/sergent gradat de serviciu) terms from senior officers and senior students changed meaning into “slave on guard”. or they all discovered the similarities and then Metonymy has again been used as a stylistic shared them. Anyway, it is certain that these device for replacing a person by a concept, derogatory names were coined in the military usually a pejorative one. Thus, the most severe community and not outside it. In turn, all and disrespectful officers and non- surrounding realities pertaining to logistics commissioned officers risk to give their names underwent criticism. Pilots complained of to a mockery category. Surprisingly enough ZMT (= “zbori mai tarziu” : fly later on ) even very few mentioning of denatured 84

DOUBLESPEAK OR MILITARY SLANG – PROOF OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND? relationships male – female military personnel BIBLIOGRAPHY were indicated, but the terms did not carry sexual, vulgar connotation, but rather 1. Benveniste, Émile (1971). Problems in indignation for women’s being treated in a General Lingustics. University of Miami ’softer manner’. The very analysis of all items Press, Library of Congress Catalog Card resulting from the questionnaire administration No. 77-102692. could constitute the basis for future papers. For 2. Bidu-Vrănceanu, Angela, 1978: the time being, what has been mentioned so far „Observaţii privind metodele de cercetare offers a clear picture of the Saussurean a lexicului socialpolitic”. In Bidu- dichotomous pair langue-parole and its Vrănceanu, Angela, Lectura dicţionarelor. relationship with the cultural background. Bucharest: Metropol. 3. Caune, Jean. [1998] (2000). Cultură şi 5. CONCLUSION comunicare. Convergenţe teoretice şi moduri de mediere. Bucharest: Cartea As far as the speedy evolution of slang and Românească. euphemisms is concerned, it is noticeable that 4. Charaudeau, Patrick. (2001). Langue, their massive spread is possible due to a discours et indentité culturelle. Revue de lessening of culture and civilization, more didactologie des langues-cultures, 3-4, specifically due to an existent, insidious and nº123. proud subculture within the multiple channels 5. de Saussure, Ferdinand. (1959). Course in through which slang is transmitted. Slang General Linguistics. New York: users take pleasure in their speaking Philosophical Lybrary. differently from their ancestors, since 6. Orwell , George. (2000) . Nineteen Eighty- discontinuity and anti-tradition tend to replace Four. Penguin Student Edition: Penguin the favorite concepts of long forgotten Literature Education. intellectuals. The reason generally lies in a 7. Volceanov Anca , Volceanov George. lack of communication between social groups, (1998). Dictionar de argou si expressii the absence of any other alternatives or in the familiare ale limbii romane. Bucharest: impossibility of holding a clear option. Livpress. On the other hand, as long as sociology 8. Zafiu, Rodica. (2007). Limbaj si Politic? does not offer clear explanations, it would be Bucharest: Bucharest University Press. interesting to observe the slang-user: 9. Zulean, Marian.(2005). Diferenţe culturale superficial, roughly educated, acculturated, dintre armată şi societatea Românească. gregarious, adhering to a different scale of Bucharest: National Defense University values, occasionally displaying some rebellion Press. against the ‘wooden language’, or hatred for 10. ***. (2005). Oxford Advance Learner’s not being able to detach from his own past. Dictionary, 7th edition. Oxford: Oxford Thus, slang becomes a type of release from University Press. constraints, a new form of freedom, or even protest.

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

ROMANIAN MANAGERS' ATTITUDES AND THE DYNAMICS OF SECURITY

Ella Magdalena CIUPERCĂ

“Mihai Viteazul” Romanian Academy of Intelligence, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: As the world has changed into a more global, interdependent and complex one, providing community and national security has become a more complicated issue. The only effective way to ensure it is to shift the traditional thinking paradigm, when authorities used to be the only responsible factor, into one characterized by the fact that ordinary people should be involved in solving such situations. Because one of the key categories of every society is the entrepreneur, both in terms of their job but also in terms of the impact they have on how their employees use to interpret their environment, in this study I choose to analyze the managers' perceptions regarding security and intelligence specific issues. Thus, from 15 March to 15 November 2011, I interviewed 35 managers to identify their main concerns regarding their community and also for its security, the way they perceive vulnerabilities and to measure the extend of their community involvement in protecting its members. I will also try to provide some explanations for the highlighted items. Moreover I will try to optimize the identified issues through developing a set of proposals, whose implementation would enable a better functioning of the community as a whole and which could become factors for the community welfare and progress.

Keywords: community, communication, business environment, security culture

1. INTRODUCTION some problems of society. The emergence of "corporate social responsibility" was favored Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has by the social pact between the community and become a priority in today's world, primarily businesses which is primarily based on mutual because of the way society has evolved. This trust, cooperation and mutual dependence is why its basic characteristics have been (Wartick and Cochran, 1985). Although I do deeply modified. While globalization means not express a total agreement with the idea that interdependence of individuals, communities, the economic environment has the ability to ideas, the widespread connectivity of all solve the major social problems of humanity societal segments around the world resulted in (poverty, conflict, population explosion etc.), I a reduction of the role of the state in economy, align to the modern belief that companies have trade liberalization, international financial significant resources that is appropriate to be transactions, appearance of the transnational used inside the communities of belonging. corporations. In accordance with the modern approaches, 2. RESPONSIBILITY AND CORPORATE company is equated with a citizen and the SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY same way he enjoys rights and obligations, each company acquires corporate citizenship Individual and collective responsibilities (corporate citizenship) and therefore has, in were considered "the price of greatness" by turn, benefits and responsibilities. In this Winston Churchill. The metamorphosis of the context, such involvement of the firms is society towards the ideology of liberalism and considered to be an effective way of clearing individualism may be an explanation for the the logistical inability of the state to solve fact that the interest has shifted from ROMANIAN MANAGERS' ATTITUDES AND THE DYNAMICS OF SECURITY individualistic conception to collective or with stakeholders and their roles in relation to social sphere in the last century. the common good" (Basu and Palazzo, 2008). Generally, there is a perception that the In accordance with the Nobel Prize winner, most serious problems of humanity, like Gary Becker (1997), those who advocate CSR hunger, conflict, population explosion, cannot may consider both profits and expectations of be solved by singular individuals. When the communities in which they operate making discussing them regular people do not feel a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis that responsible. Still in the same way the includes psychological, relational, and individual's lack of response makes him partly vocational or any other type of profits or costs. responsible for the wrong result, the collective The difficulty to differentiate positive from inaction of a group of people should make negative effects of CSR explains largely why them responsible for the evil they should have studies on the relationship between CSR and prevent it. M. Weber (1914) and H.D. Lewis financial performance are contradictory and (1948) rejected the idea that there is a inconclusive. Recent studies have identified a collective responsibility of the group. Weber strong correlation of these variables (Waddock insisted on the impossibility of one group to and Graves, 1997), no correlation enunciate intentions prior to action and (McWilliams and Siegel, 2000) or a negative therefore collective responsibility is not correlation (Wright and Ferris, 1997). For logical. This idea is continued by HD Lewis, example, Margolis and Walsh (2003) have associating the idea of methodological monitored more than 95 studies and found that individualism with the moral contradiction to 42% indicated no correlation. Also it was associate an individual with blaming empirically demonstrated that the CSR individuals for the actions of others. "The activities of companies are not sufficiently values belong to the individual and the well known (Sen, Bhattacharya and Korschun, individual is the only bearer of moral 2006). responsibility.", "No one is morally guilty In time the corporate social responsibility except for those behaviors which he himself has proven positive effects on socio-economic considers to be wrong", "Collective field of the individual actor engaged in certain responsibility is ... barbaric." (Lewis, 1948, 3- activities and also inside the community at 6). large. For example, in countries that encourage Related to collective responsibility, the cooperation and trust between the actors and present-days introduced the concept (and that emphasize the human and social capital is associated obligations) of corporate social the highest wealth (Waddock and Graves, responsibility. In a very generous sense, CSR 1997). is a strategy of action by which companies can interact with the community in working to 3. CSR AND ROMANIAN EXPERIENCE solve the problems facing it. Still it can be frustrating for managers accustomed to tools The concern of the Romanian business such as balance sheet and quality control environment for proliferation of CSR standards, to work with terms such as initiatives is notable. Government statistics environmental management, corporate show that the investments of companies in philanthropy, management shareholders, labor CSR activities were over 10 million euros rights, community development, socially every year. However, most of the money were responsible investment, sustainable spent for donations or sponsorships, on social development etc. assistance, support for associations of The fact that managers assume a charitable funding, for scientific research progressive social role in the community is projects, education or environmental reflected in definitions such as "CSR is the protection. In the same time, Romania process through which managers in an organized in 2006 the first CSR conference in organization think and discuss their relations Eastern Europe where participants stressed 87

ROMANIAN MANAGERS' ATTITUDES AND THE DYNAMICS OF SECURITY that CSR leads to improved reputation, conducted a survey-based sociological increased customer and employee satisfaction, interview during April-December 2011. The increase visibility and market differentiation, subjects are managers of representative which ultimately will increase sales and companies in their community, so that they profits. Unfortunately, social responsibility should have been able to allocate money for programs are not sufficiently reflected in the corporate social responsibility activities and specialized media. Lack of effective public also they should be aware of such issue. The communication of CSR activities of chosen sample is a "chain" type one, meaning companies may be a reason to justify inertia that each subject was asked to recommend competition and the lack of enthusiasm to get another entrepreneur willing to carry that involved in such activities. discussion with the researcher. The Romanian economic environment is The hypothesis of the research was that involved in CSR activities, but not as a both these aspects are problematic for the response to the market pressure or to the surveyed population - corporate social public, but rather, as the consequences of responsibility because its pronounced novelty implementing CSR strategies of the parent and security issues (of business and of the business. Like any loan, it initially took the community) because of a certain inertia of form of a CSR fashion and not of an urgent thinking and of mentality specific of the need. IT industry, telecommunications, socialist era when security was concerned in commerce, pharmaceutical industry have a the collective mind about the political police, name in the shere of CSR activities in the field the citizen oppression, censorship and of education. Thus, Western Union, a banking restrictions on individual rights and liberties. company funded, many grants of NGOs in the The sample consists of 35 managers (7 field of education. Also, MasterCard Europe women and 28 men) aged 30-60 years, supports a program to teach their employees carrying out activities in different areas and specific courses for high school students. In having different social statuses according their 2005, Connex (Vodafone) has initiated level of education, the specific of their "Connex scholarships for high school", in company, their professional evolution etc. partnership with World Vision Romania to The questions focused on several aspects support the secondary education of the who can be interpreted in correlation and that students coming from rural areas. Orange has allow us to identify the patterns of managerial funded FameLab competition, an initiative of action in areas of interest. Thus, managers British Council to encourage young scientist were questioned regarding the extent to which to develop their communication skills. In turn, their company provides satisfaction in terms of Microsoft Romania has funded Community the obtained profit. Responses were varied: and Diversity program, Microsoft some managers are satisfied with their income, Conferences, initiated by the Foundation while others face the problems of the „Third Europe” in order to foster multicultural economic crisis: openness, citizenship and community solidarity through dialogue between the public "...we were the first area affected by the crisis. and the protagonists of contemporary public Later it was found that this area was the most life. affected by the crisis - I mean a depreciation of 80%, even more than the Great Depression of 30's. And even if I managed to keep the 4. ROMANIAN MANAGERS' company profit, profit is not PERCEPTION ON CSR AND SECURITY satisfactory."(SA). EXPERTISE Being asked about the way they manage to In order to identify the perceptions of meet community needs, managers have Romanian managers on corporate social different approaches to problems. Although responsibility and security expertise, we 88

ROMANIAN MANAGERS' ATTITUDES AND THE DYNAMICS OF SECURITY most of them understand that the question implemented several clean technologies for refers to the way each company contributes on processing the biomass, energy crops, the its own to the community welfare, other wind energy, solar energy and hydropower, all responses shows that managers are completely them to increase the quality of life."(SA) unaware of the issue of involving in "Regarding the CSR we had action and we community welfare: will continue to the extent that time and resources allow us. Every year we have "When you have a certain number of projects with orphanages, homes for the employees it feels like you work for them... elderly where we donated a number of this number of employees is a help to the products to assist those children and old community, and also the collected taxes people to have a better life. We also had a which are quite consistent."(DPC) number of corporate projects with local resonance - we involved in a campaign to But most of the interviewed managers prevent drug use among young people, we consider sponsorship and philanthropy as part helped the winner of chemistry contests of such activities. Often, CSR activities are giving them scholarships and trying confined to the two percent set by the law: desperately to prevent them to leave the country because they are very intelligent „The sum is not defined, but take account of people. "(AC) those 2% regulated by the Tax Code and we have to spend them as otherwise we have to "Yes, there is charity like actions when pay a lot of taxes on such funds. But the law company is donating money for social cases do not encourages sponsorship and put some or donates time by reading stories to children limits – you can spend those money only if with health problems... And there is also the you have a profit, otherwise it is not possible.” now called social responsibility that is also (MH) being supported by environmental protection activities, or by donating time again, pro bono Only when there is a sustained vision and training programs and seminars for school, also a constant, stable organization it is high school, students... in principle, to education. We chose education, somewhat possible to refer in a programmatic manner to subjective... being involved in public relations the concept of CSR: and publicity it would have been nice to have the possibility to learn in any way when we "...Since 2007 we have been involved in needed. Now we develop programs, e.g. environmental issues, we became the first Internet addressing ethics or communication company member of the largest markets for programs for representatives of public environmental products in the world... With institutions in order to widespread recipes, our partners we have put into service the first working methods that are more advanced than wind park, the first solar park and now we what exists now in public institutions, but we mainly deal with renewable energy. We and consider this is a better chose than to support the City Hall tried to make an integrated athletes or sports events or to reward recycling waste project. So that we can ensure performance in sports or music or art. "(MN) a better environment for people living in Bucharest, but also energy efficiency by "Now we have a project to provide providing a factory to process it and to scholarships for young students without transfer clean energy, without any nuisance at opportunities. I also had a project for all. We are also involved in a forestation and modernization of the toilets of the I. County reforestation projects with European support, Hospital on the floor 7 and 8, to provide some working on several large projects... compared help for autistic children at F, organized a to what has been done so far, because from charity ball and donated all the money" (GI). our point of view they are small. We are currently working on a reforestation project of "We send all the money to the children as 2500 ha and we want to plant trees on about school is my priority – we give them money 20,000 ha in the next 2 years. We also 89

ROMANIAN MANAGERS' ATTITUDES AND THE DYNAMICS OF SECURITY

to learn, send them to Bucharest... in order to houses to orphanages, hospitals, anything...” raise the educational level a bit because that's (BR) the basis for any country" (FA) "For education, culture... to raise a little the Except for a few example above the minimum level of training. I would buy managers' answers to this question have a computers ... And then I would buy tickets to common dimension: the lack of a strategic and the opera and theater. I did so also at my coherent vision for this type of community daughter's school. First they said they did not involvement, although managers are sensitive like them and now they are asking me to buy them again..."(RR). to the problems of people, are aware that they have much more resources than average and "Half of them (money) to education because provide help according to specific issues: opportunities you will have in the future are directly proportional to the investment you "I didn't have such projects, nor have I make in education. And I think the other half received any invitation to develop such will go to the children with disabilities. "(VG) projects. In the years when there was a better profit I provided some rewards and social Unfortunately, managers do not consider grants for social cases. Generally, I heard of that security may be a priority of their someone, get information if it was a social community and of their own life and business. case; when it was a reward for meritorious This is a paradoxical approach while everyone activity I really enjoyed. On the other hand, I tried to give some support to low income understands that a major crisis, o conflict or elderly people, possibly those who have no even a war may be a very serious danger. income. "(NS) "We work in a financial field where concrete, Still managers justify their efforts in a very real money are few, but it is a pile of sensitive convincing manner whatever the type or extent data and in most of the time we did not realize the effects that these data can occur. Because of activities designed to help the community: you can feel, taste or smell them. Immateriality of information is a problem of "... as long as I do something in this place and how they are perceived. Security is very make profit here it is normal to give back important. Money cannot produce such an even a bit of my profits."(SI) effect on business. The level of security of business in Romania is dependent on Being asked about the priority domains to technology, but we refuse to use it. We know which they would give additional funding, what should be done, but there is often a very managers indicate mainly the same fields: high resistance to do that. "(VG). population health and healthcare system, education and welfare: Still managers do not use any security expertise and some time they even do not "I wanted a few years ago to buy 2-3 consider such an expertise is important or apartments and there to accommodate those necessary: children who are expelled from orphanage at 18 years old... But my enthusiasm has passed. "We have no security expert. Such tasks are Now I know I would not do anything unless covered by directors who also have other someone knocked on the door. I did it for responsibilities. In my factories there are high myself not for them. I felt good and I had a risks of explosion and fire, pollution, so all big satisfaction. About two years ago a these risks are systematically assessed. We woman told me: "Do you know how much is have plans even more stringent than the my child walking now!" I did not! "Seven army"(BI) years ago you gave me money and I operated him in Basarabia." (DPC) "I don’t think they have anything like this, I "Healthcare system seems to do be the most have never heard anyone to have such an important problem, starting from elderly 90

ROMANIAN MANAGERS' ATTITUDES AND THE DYNAMICS OF SECURITY

employee and as long as they don’t have them highly interested in protecting its data. I think it means they do not need them. I didn’t even they have such initiatives, but these are not read about anything like this!” (CI) connected to the Romanian reality. I hardly think they have ignored this area before. Top 5. A POSSIBLE CONNECTION: countries in the security of information should SECURITY CULTURE AND be involved and also universities and research CORPORATE SOCIAL institutes, to be set up a kind of MBA on RESPONSIBILITY security with modules delivered in areas where such system is powerful."(VG)

The discussion regarding corporate social "I think the Ministry of Labor through the responsibility should not neglect any factor or institution it has. But it should start from a variable that can help the improvement of qualification or some courses to train and community living conditions and people's qualify such experts; it should be introduced quality of life. As proved in the literature, in Romanian Classification of Occupation. No security is one of them. Therefore, the way it should be started by Police or components of CSR should include those Romanian Intelligence Service – it shouldn’t activities designed to strengthen the security be something imposed... so my opinion is that culture, the implementation of preventive people should became aware by themselves... measures and the establishment of mental and take them from other structures, people who have retired from there..."(BR) patterns of action for situations associated with individual, business, community or national. "The EU is spending a lot of money for Despite this syllogism, managers are training, education, literacy of people. But oriented, as mentioned previously, towards money do not have the right direction and those areas they consider to be of maximum they consider we are educated. But it should priority (health, education, children with be clearly told that it is no use to talk about disabilities, lonely elderly etc.). With no individual security if we don’t care about intention to dispute the importance of national security. For example in agriculture improving the conditions specific to these field, foreigners buy everything – the Caliph areas, security is an issue that should find its of Qatar wants to lease 1500 ha and it is a rightful place among the present-day priorities. matter of national security for them as that will provide food security for the next 50 Still it would be naive to believe that people years – but we are glad because of the coming will identify by themselves such correlations of investors..." (BD) between the living standards and security culture, although some of the managers noted While most of the subjects gave different that: solution to solve the mentioned security perception, there are also ideas like: "But, of course, physical misery generates moral misery and moral misery generates "I do not think anyone should promote them. I physical misery. The presence of security am convinced that when a manager has to culture generates a better life, but only helps secure something he will do this. It is not to this as they are some other variables."(BR) necessary for someone to tell him!"(DPC)

For a better awareness of these issues it 6. CONCLUSIONS & would be useful to set up and promote a ACKNOWLEDGMENT national program to widespread such knowledge. To base such an initiative subjects Being a new concept implemented in were asked what authorities would have a Romanian entrepreneurial field, Romanian greater impact in this direction: managers are primarily concerned with "I think it should have multiple sources - from avoiding exploitation of children, the health of the Ministry of Education, and then there their workers, environmental protection, safety should be some EU aid because they are 91

ROMANIAN MANAGERS' ATTITUDES AND THE DYNAMICS OF SECURITY at work, helthcare system. In managers’ view, 2. Becker,G.S. (1997). Capitalul uman. the main impediments to the implementation Bucureşti: Editura ALL. of CSR is the lack of an adequate legal 3. Lewis, H.D. (1948). Collective framework, costs and lack of visible results of Responsibility. Philosophy, 24, 3-18. CSR and its main benefit lies in improving the image and reputation of companies, promoting 4. Margolis, J.D., Walsh, J.P. (2003). Misery community solidarity, extending corporate life loves companies: Rethinking social and increasing employee loyalty. initiatives by business. Administrative Instead of a conclusion of my own I will Science Quarterly, 48, 268-305. appeal to the words of one of the interviewed 5. McWilliams, A., Siegel, D. (2000). managers: Corporate social responsibility and financial performance: Correlation or "Looking back, it is clear that the destruction misspecification? Strategic Management of the security culture was a terrible thing. In Journal, 21 (5), 603-609. foreign countries the process of strengthening 6. Sen, S., Bhattacharya, C. B., Korschun, D. safety culture would be more likely. The main (2006). The role of corporate social reason why I am not involving in something responsibility in strengthening multiple like this is the perception of the community – stakeholder relationships: A field it is much better to say that you are fighting for experiment. Journal of the Academy of the environment, for children. So the very lack Marketing Science, 34, 158-166. of security culture block these actions. It's a 7. Waddock, S., Graves, S. (1997). The vicious circle."(SA) corporate social performance-financial performance link. Strategic Management This work was supported by CNCSIS- Journal, 18, 303-319. UEFISCSU, project number PN II-RU 8. Wartick, S. L., Cochran, P. L. (1985). The 64/2010. evolution of the corporate social performance model. Academy of Management Review , 4, 758-769. BIBLIOGRAPHY 9. Weber, M. [1914](1978). Economy and Society, vol. 1, Berkeley: University of

1. Basu, K., Palazzo, G. (2008). Corporate California Press. social responsibility: A process model of 10. Wright, P., Ferris, S. (1997). Agency sensemaking. Academy of Management conflict and corporate strategy: The effect Review, 33, 122-136. of divestment on corporate value. Strategic Management Journal, 18, 77-83.

I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’12 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Brasov, 14-16 June 2012 asceduhenri coanda d

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA

Iulian VEGHEŞ, Vera ULARU

Faculty of Journalism, University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: In this paper I will present how online communication has influenced public relations. Because of online communication, organizational communication had to adapt to new technologies and new communicative medium. At the same time I present a model dedicated to analyzing organizational online communication derived from specificities of online communication..

Keywords: public relations, online public relations, communication flows.

“There is a revolution taking place all around us. Those who believe the information age is just about technology are missing the point. This revolution is about communications.” Larry Weber

1. INTRODUCTION the Internet to communicate to their relevant target audience. The Internet is the mass communication channel the general public had the fastest 2. ONLINE PUBLIC RELATIONS: access to since its occurrence and which has STATUS been adopted by them accordingly. The large number of users has led to a continuous The authors of most papers written about evolution and development of this global this new way of corporate communication network of computers, this virtual world. The limit themselves to describing the emerging Internet brings along outstanding business means of communication, that is to say, the opportunities and meets the necessary new online media. They list several conditions for both individuals and recommendations about how we should organizations have the possibility of a mass communicate, see netiquette, blogtiquette, but, communication almost impossible to imagine unfortunately, the scientific background is before, for costs which are significantly lower overlooked most of the time. Some authors than of the other media. The Internet exceeded attempted to capture the differences occurred the threshold of 2,100,000,000 (Internet World in mass communication between the Stats, http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats. traditional communication channels and the htm) users in 2011 (approx. 30.3% of the ones available on the Internet, and use this world’s population), so that almost every differentiation as starting point for sketching individual organization can find and target its the newly emerged means of communication. own online target audiences. Increasingly The significant changes in the more companies have become aware of this communication possibilities and in the fact and strive or contemplate communicating occurrence of the practical possibility for an with them through the online communication organization to communicate directly with its channels. A significant number of companies audiences made the famous US PR have their own websites now and make use of practitioner, Don Middleberg, conclude that “no industry has been affected more

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA permanently and positively by the digital possible description to the communication revolution than public relations” (Don relationship which ought to exist within the Middleberg, 2001). online communication. Petter Alexander Although PR specialists have already Gustavsen and Elspeth Tilley (2003:10) had a started to use the Internet more and more as a look at the interactivity of the websites and communication media, thus gaining concluded that only 25% of sites under review experience in this area, they still are in need of place big or very big emphasize on this a “consistent and complete concept” Zerfass component part of communication. and Fietkau assert (Zerfass, Fietkau, 1999:6). The idea of engaging into a dialogue with Speaking about the influence of the the audience is further supported also by Internet on business undertakings, Lord Cooley (1999) who thinks that communicating Chadlington, Chairman of the Board of on the Internet does not mean only to reach International Public Relations, Plc, used to say your target audience, but also to engage into in one of his presentations that all the dialogue therewith. In his research on the organizations could communicate globally online communication carried-out by The US using the Internet to reach their relevant Fortune 500 companies, Cooley highlights that audiences with gushing easiness (Chadlington, the interactive capacity of the Internet is used Lord, 1999:6). only in part and seldom, at the same time Another supporting argument for using the (Colley, 1999). Internet as communication tools was the The interactive nature of communication is possibility of communicating easily with the a key element in the online public relations, press, by way of various media, from emails to Robert Marston (2003:8) believes. Underlining the websites where many organizations posted the importance of this element, Zerfass and their press releases or various pieces of news Fietkau (1999) define the online public about their current operation. A study online relations as interactive public relations. media agency “News aktuell“ (part of DPA) One of the most important empiric revealed that 57 % of the journalists spend researches on online public relations carried- more than two hours every day browsing the out in Germany belongs to Martin Eichholz, Internet on work purposes (Luenenbuerger- who analyzes the online corporate Reidenbach, Petersen/Wagensonner, 2000:14) communication for the first 100 companies in The empiric studies of newsaktuell proved terms of revenues in Germany. This study how important the information available on the shows that “The main target of the online PR Internet is for journalists (Luenenbuerger- activities is to foster the image of the Reidenbach, Petersen, Wagensonner, 2000: organization – 96%, followed by the concern 14). “Media in Cyberspace” study (Don for improving communication – 82%, as well Middleberg, 1999) showed that more than as supporting the communication processes– 90% of the editors (that is to say leaders of 82%“ (Eichloz, 1998:53). opinion) use the Internet for research, although The fact that one cannot simply ignore the the perceived reliability of the Internet is communication abilities of the Internet was overturned by the one of the traditional media visible also in the famous case of the Intel (Schweiger, 2000:50). “Journalisten 2000” processor which returned a computation error (Kamenz, Jahn, 2000:24-25) study further at the fifth digit after coma. Although the supported a genuine interest for initial decision was no action, following the communication over the Internet among numerous reactions triggered by the journalists (in terms of both interactions and knowledge of this error on the Internet, the content) with organizations of concern. company eventually decided to call back the Kent and Taylor (2002) speak about the processors form the market and replace them. unique opportunity the Internet offers In this context, the increasing interest organizations to listen to their audiences. They towards the online communication activities, refer to the interactivity over the Internet as the as flagged in the studies carried-out by “dialogic relationship” to give the best Thomas L. Harris, describing the client 94

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA expectations from the PR companies, is challenges made most of the theoreticians explainable. Thus, if back in 1998 only a low elude giving an accurate definition. 8% of the organizations declared they were Although well-know authors, such as for interested in the PR companies being capable instance Shel Holtz, Don Middleberg, James of making a contribution to the communication L. Horton, Matt Haig or Gregory Sherwin and on the Internet, in 2003 this figure went up to Emily Avilla did get involved in defining the 44%, which is a more than significant increase concept, these attempts are rather solitary. (Harris, 2002 and Harris, 2003). Most of the approaches have generally limited to describing the communication tools 3. ONLINE PUBLIC RELATIONS – available in this field. Nevertheless, there are THEORETICAL APPROACH some attempts of giving a definition to this new area. Stefan Wehmeier (2001:1-2) said, in one of Dieter Herbst pleads that “online public the summaries of the status of the theoretical relations represent communication through background available in the field, that big gaps technical channels with the target groups in were found in the scientific research of the and via the Internet.” (Herbst, 2001:25). This ePR, starting from the very absence of a definition reappears in Oenicke’s work definition of this field in practice. Is it a new (1996:63), while Zerfass and Fietkau state area? Is it just another development of the that: “The public networks of computers used traditional public relations? Doesn’t it bring as media and although having, on one hand, along anything new, but a new environment? mass communication features, allow, on the There are many questions answers have been other hand, for a two-way direct and private searched for, but not always in a very communication. This seeming antagonism is successful manner. explained by the interactivity phenomenon” The bulk of the current papers in the field (Zerfass, Fietkau, 1999:39). of online public relations are concerned with Stefan Wehmeier speaks about an the practical side, presenting/describing the integrated communication and attempts to possibility of embedding the new technologies explain the current shortcomings in the into the internal and external corporate definition of the terms by integrating several communication (Fuchs, Moehrle, Hartwin, communication activities – advertising, Schmidt-Manwede and Zerfass, Fietkau). marketing, public relations (both internal and The knowledge in this field relies on some external) and journalism – into the online empiric studies and very few theoretical communication. For this reason, Wehmeier analyses, which have been built scientifically proposes calling the entire online consistent, but quite concise and only partially communication activity as “online relations” researched. The online public relations are said (Wehmeier, 2001:12). to be unsystematically and insufficiently Felix Friedlaender (1999:84) thinks that: researched. Stefan Wehmeier (2001:1) used to “Online PR is a component part of the public write in one of his works about public relations relations, aimed at building relations with the on the Internet that they “remain an undefined relevant target audiences by way of and using domain”. Martin Eichlotz (1998:53) shares this the Internet-specific communication tools and, opinion and calls the online PR an consequently, of specific means and “unresearched subject”. Defining the term measures”. appears as a difficult task to accomplish The specifics of the online public relations because of the fact that the theoretical aspects root in the features of the online of mass communication should be materially communication: interactivity, the multimedia altered and completed, respectively, so that the nature of the message, as well as the global online mass communication becomes part and scope of the mass communication (Veghes, parcel of an overarching theoretical Grigore, 2003:31). At the same time, today’s construction of communication. These organizations have the possibility of

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA communicating directly with the target (1998) approached the implementation and audiences. results of applying the new technologies in The communication tools (website, email, empiric researches. discussion groups, forums, chat, Intranet, Extranet, etc.) of the ePR (online public 4. CHANGES IN THE PR ACTIVITIES relations) have been tackled by various WORK-FLOW DUE TO THE LARGE- experts. Among them we list: Shell Holtz SCALE USE OF THE INTERNET (1999), Matt Haig (2000), James Horton (2001), Dieter Herbst (2001), Frank Hortz 4.1 Communication flow in public (1999), Gregory Shelwin, Emily Avila and relations prior to occurrence and spreading of Mattejcek Karina (1997). Felix Friedlaender the Internet: (1999), Martin Eicholz (1997), Ulla K. Bunz

Target audiences

target audience 1

PR Department Communication through target audience 2 organization third parties media target audience 3

target audience n

Fig.1. Communication flow in public relations

Communication flow in online public relations:

Target audiences

target audience 1 direct communication - eg: target audience 2 PR Department website, newsletters, social organization di communication through third target audience 3 parties - eg: online mass media & blogs target audience n

Fig.2. Communication flow in online public relations

5. MODEL PROPOSED IN THE multimedia, we propose below a model for the ANALYSIS OF THE ONLINE analysis of the online corporate CORPORATE COMMUNICATION communication. 5.1. Online communication models. Building on the main features of the online Online communication was historically subject communication: interactivity, digitalization, to various attempts of classification. They real-time, hyperlink capacity, real-time and regarded either the synchronicity of the 96

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA communication or the actors involved in organization which published on the Internet communication or the type of confidence a the online version of its presentation leaflet certain type of communication it would and targeted neither any use of interactivity generated among the audience. whatsoever (to create the technical premises A. One to many. It is the standard for a two-way communication with the communication model (the classic mass potential online audience) nor setting the communication theory was built on) in which premises to facilitate updating information in a a sender conveys his/her message to a mass of short time (by developing a dynamic website recipients through a communication channel. able to ease this endeavor). This model is still encountered including in the B. Many-to-many. This new online public relations for two reasons: communication model, emerged together with limitations of the channel used (for instance, the birth of the Internet, was first mentioned email) or the use of the online media in a by Morris, Ogan (1996:2) back in 1996, when similar manner with the traditional mass the Internet had approximately 25 million communication channels (due to ignorance or users (about 1% of the number of users in comfort). An example could be the static 2012) in one of the first attempts to bring some website (difficult to update – demanding structure and framing into the online intervention of the technical staff even for the communication. slightest change – eg. web programming) of an

Table 1. Types of communication Type of communication synchronous asynchronous one to one Yes Yes one to few Yes Yes one to many/many to one Yes Yes many to many No Yes

This classification is pretty accurate, but, today, for example in both video/audio probably given the relatively recent coming communication in chats/video-conferences, as out of the Internet at the time of its well as in network gaming. development, it led the authors into thinking As the delimitation from few is relative (as that many to many communication on the there is not clear criterion to distinguish Internet could only be asynchronous. Many to between few and many), in my opinion, an many communication can be also synchronous accurate classification would look as follows:

Table 2. Types of communication: an accurate classification Type of communication synchronous asynchronous one to one Yes Yes one to many/many to one Yes Yes many to many Yes Yes

C. One of many amorphous actor of communication. The This model of communication is sender of the message, which is encountered particularly in the social media, simultaneously also a recipient, is only one of where the sender is no longer considered and the many senders/recipients involved in the treated as an institution, that is to say an communication process and for the

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA communication actor to be accepted in the talk at the same time and express their existing communication group, he/she has to opinions. This is synchronous communication. behave like a group member, submit In this context, unlike many of the himself/herself to the rules of communication classifications attempted on this topic – the shared by all. This means adaptation to the online synchronous communication is discourse of the group in question and represented by 3 types of audio/video acting/communicating/interacting at the same communication – (in chats/online conferences) level and in the same manner with the other and video games – which allow several communication actors. participants act visibly (in fact, sent messages) This way of communicating within a for the other participants, at the same time. group, as a simple member of such Asynchronous communication in which communication group (for instance of group the actors involved issue messages in turn on a social network) is a new communication towards the other actors. For instance, we shall model, that is to say the so-called “one-of- first hear/see the message of one sender and many” model. This model is technically and as then of another one, etc. manner of sending/receiving the message, a From this perspective, communication sub-model of the many-to-many model, but, based on text/image/link sharing in social since we deal with specific changes of networks, discussion forums, blogs, content approach, discourse and interactivity – and, and ecommerce websites, email, FTP – stand given that we shall tackle this model as part of for examples of asynchronous online mass the corporate communication through social communication. networks - we shall treat this sub-model 5.3 Direct/Indirect (through third individually. parties) Communication. Direct 5.2 Synchronous/Asynchronous Com- communication means direct sending of the munication. Morris & Ogan (1996, pg. 42) message between the sender and recipient refer but vaguely to the idea of (audience) without using another synchronous/asynchronous – an approach we recipient/sender to resend the message to can find later on in the work of many eventually reach the audience. This is one of researchers. Generally, they consider that if the the key benefits brought along by online time between the issuance of two messages by communication in corporate communication, different senders within communication is thus allowing direct sending of the messages short, then we can speak of a synchronous to the target audiences. communication. What does short time mean? Indirect (through third parties) How long should be the time between the communication represents sending of the issuance of the two messages by the two information from the sender to the recipient senders for the communication to be (audience) via an intermediate communicator. asynchronous? As this relativity and lack of The intermediate communicator takes-over the explanation of the terms do not support a solid information, adapts it and sends it further to classification and construction, I propose the audience. below a more accurate approach of the A conclusive example of direct synchronous and asynchronous communication is the piece of news published communication. on Nikon website (www.nikon.com) about the In order to explain, we shall first talk about launch of a new professional photo camera, what does asynchronous communication which thus reaches directly the audience mean: it is that type of communication which interested and who accesses the nikon.com allows the actors involved in the website. communication process issue messages One of the ways whereby this information simultaneously. As the parallel in oral can be communicated indirectly to audiences communication – when a group of people can is represented by the traditional distribution of the press releases to the media agencies, 98

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA which, if found of relevance and interest for 5. Eichholz, Martin. (1998). PR im Internet: their own audiences, are processes and further Der Status Quo in Deutschland: sent to the audiences. In this case, the Ergebnisse einer empirischen Studie. In information undergoes changes and reaches Krzeminski, Zerfaß, Interaktive Unterneh- the target audiences truncated to a certain menskommunikation: Internet, Intranet, extent. Another way of indirect Datenbanken, Online-Dienste und communication (specific to the online) is the Business-TV als Bausteine erfolgreicher bloggers taking-over the information about the Öffentlichkeitsarbeit. Frankfurt am Main. release of the new photo camera from the 53-71. nikon.com website and conveying it further to 6. Friedländer, Felix. (1999). Online-Medien their audiences (which include some of the als neues Instrument der audiences targeted also by Nikon Öffentlichkeitsar-beit. Münster. communication). 7. Fröhlich, Romy. (2002). Die It thus becomes obvious that, in respect of Digitalisierung der PR – Forschungs- sending the information as unaltered as stand, Erkenntnisinteresse und Praxis- possible, the organizations should favor direct Beitrag der Kommunikationswissenschaft. sending of information, because they can thus [online]. Juli 2002. URL: www.prguide.de control better how and what audiences the 8. Fuchs, Peter, Möhrle, Hartwig, Schmidt- information sent by the issuing organization Marwede, Ulrich. (1998). Public Relations researches. im Online-Zeitalter. PR-Guide.de. Februar. 6. CONCLUSIONS 9. Fuchs, Peter, Möhrle, Hartwin, Schmidt- Marwede, Ulrich. (1998). PR im Netz. Application of the aforementioned methods Online-Relations für Kommunikations- allows us to look at the online corporate profis. Ein Handbuch für die Praxis. communication from multiple angles, which Frankfurt am Main. further accommodates a more comprehensive 10. Gustavsen, Petter Alexander, Tilley, description of the phenomenon from a cultural, Elspeth. (2003). Public relations functional and historical perspective to an communication through corporate equal extent. websites: Towards an understanding of the role of interactivity. PRism. No.1. BIBLIOGRAPHY 11. Haig, Matt. (2000). The Essential Guide to Public Relations on the Internet. 1. Bunz, K. Ulla. (1998). Internet-Nutzung London. durch PR-Praktiker: Ein internationaler 12. Han, Liying. (2001). Interaction between Vergleich. PR-Forum. No. 4. 220-224. companies and their publics: A content 2. Chadlington, Lord. (1999). Globalization, analysis of Fortune 500 companies' Web the Internet and the Future of Public Sites. Chicago. Relations. Speech presented at 19th 13. Harris, Thomas. (2002). 2002 Public Vernon C. Schranz Distinguished Relations Client Survey. Culver: Impulse Lectureship in Public Relations, Muncie, Reasearch Corporation. Ball State University, 1999. 14. Harris, Thomas. (2003). 2003 Public 3. Cooley, Tracy. (1999). Interactive Relations Client Survey. Culver: Impulse Communication: Public Relations on the Reasearch Corporation. Web. Public Relations Quarterly. 44. 41- 15. Herbst, Dieter. (2001). Internet-PR. 42. Berlin. 4. Defleur, Melvin, Ball-Roleach, Sandra. 16. Holtz, Shel. (1999). Public Relations on (1989). Theories of Mass Communication, the Net. New York. New York.

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17. Horton, L. James. (2001). Online Public 30. Oenicke, Jens. (1996). Online-Marketing: Relations - A Handbook for Practitioners. kommerzielle Kommunikation im Westport. interaktiven Zeitalter. Stuttgart. 18. Hortz, Frank. (1999). Guerilla-PR – 31. Ryan, Michael. (1999). Practitioners and Wirksame Öffentlichkeitsarbeit im the World Wide Web: Involvement in Internet. Kilchberg. Web Sites is Crucial. Public Relations 19. Internet World Stats. (2011). Number of Quarterly. Fall. 29-31. Internet Users. [online]. URL: www. 32. Sherwin, Gregory, Avila, Emily. (1997). internetworldstats.com. Connecting Online – Creating a 20. Kent, Michael, Taylor, Maureen. (2003). Successful Image on the Internet. Oregon. Maximizing Media Relations: A Web Site 33. Springston, Jeffrey K. (2001). Public Checklist. Public Relations Quarterly. Relations and New Media Technology: Spring. The Impact of the Internet. Handbook Of 21. Kent, Michael L., Taylor, Maureen. Public Relations. London. 603-614. (2002). Toward a dialogic theory of public 34. UCLA Center for Communications relations. Public Relations Review. Policy. (2003). Surveying the Digital 22. Krzeminski, Michael, Zerfaß, Ansgar. Future: How the PC and Internet Are (1998). Interaktive Unternehmenskom- Changing the World. Studie. munikation: Internet, Intranet, Daten- 35. Veghes-Ruff, Iulian, Grigore, Bogdan. banken, Online-Dienste und Business-TV (2003). Relatiile publice si publicitatea als Bausteine erfolgreicher Öffentlichkeit- online. Iasi. sarbeit. Frankfurt am Main. 36. Weaver, Warreen, Shannon, Claude E. 23. Krzeminski, Michael. (1998). Interak- [1949] (1963). The Mathematical Theory tivität und Vernetzung. Zur Rolle neuer of Communication Urbana, Illinois: Medien in der Unternehmenskom- University of Illinois Press. munikation. . In Krzeminski, Zerfaß, 37. Wehmeier, Stefan, Richter, A. (2001). Interaktive Unternehmenskommunikation: Online-Kommunikation von Organisatio- Internet, Intranet, Datenbanken, Online- nen im Mediensektor. PR-Guide.de. Dienste und Business-TV als Bausteine 38. Wehmeier, Stefan. (2001). Online-PR: erfolgreicher Öffentlichkeitsarbeit. Frank- neues Instrument, neue Methode, neues furt am Main. 13-28. Verfahren, neue Disziplin. PR-Guide.de. 24. Marston, Robert. (2003). Online Public Dezember. Relations. 39. Wehner, Josef. (2001). Interaktive Medien 25. Matejcek, Karina. (2001). Newsletter und - Ende der Massenkommunikation?, Mailinglisten. Marketing per E-mail. Zeitschrift für Soziologie. Jg. 26, Heft 2. Frankfurt. 96-114. 26. Middleberg, Don. (1999). Media in 40. Wenzel, Sarah. (2000). Zielgruppen- Cyberspace. New York. orientierte Online-Kommunikation: Die 27. Middleberg, Don. (2001). Winning PR in ProfNet-Studie „Journalisten 2000“. PR- the Wired World. New York. Guide.de. Juli. 28. Morris, Merrill, Ogan, Christine. (1996). 41. Zerfaß, Ansgar / Fietkau, Karen: The Internet as a Mass Medium. Journal Interaktive Öffentlichkeitsarbeit, of Communication. 46(1). Erlangen, 1999. 29. Lünenbürger - Reidenbach, Wolfgang, 42. Zerfaß, Ansgar: Öffentlichkeitsarbeit mit Petersen, Jens, Wagensonner, Thomas. interaktiven Medien: Grundlagen und (1996). Media Studie 2000 - Journalisten Anwendungen, in Krzeminski/Zerfaß online, eine Umfrage von News aktuell (Hrsg.), Frankfurt am Main, 1998, pg. 29- und Forsa. 52.

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THE GEO-ECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION. IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGETIC SECURITY ENSURANCE IN THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION

Veronica MIHALACHE

"Mihai Viteazul" National Academy of Intelligence, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The present paper has as a main objective the analysis of the importance and the catalyst which gives the basis of the multi-side co-operation within SCO, in a broader context emphasizing the geo-political changes and tendencies which have modified the international security environment after the Cold War and the keen interest in the competition for the geo-economic supremacy in the Euroasian area. The present academic debates emphasize the idea of competition in order to acquire access and give proper value to the energetic resources, the global dimension of the issue being given by the unprecedented taken proportions. Therefore, we will explain the potential and the geo-economic relevance of the Eurasian area for its actors’ interests (members or non-members) of SCO, which have developed their capability of co-operation within a very select "energy club", taking into account the possible implications for energetic security ensurance in the Wider Black Sea Region.

Keywords: multi-side co-operation, strategic partnership, geo-economic space, "energy club"

1. FROM MILITARY-POLITICAL from which, ultimately, the great powers have COMPETITION TO PARTNERSHIPS resorted to" (Maliţa, 2007:190-191). FOR STRATEGIC EQUALITY The mutations that have arisen as a follow-up of the disappearance of the bipolar The post Cold War evolution of the world have favored the transition from political-strategic situation has favored the military-political competition for strategic radical transformation of the geopolitical equality to the gathering of the world’s configuration of central and eastern European countries, especially great powers, to strategic area, after the demise of the Warsaw Treaty partnerships, in order to avoid the and the shaping of a scanty security space, confrontation among themselves in the thus determining a new face of the security competition of markets and resources. In the environment. The Cold War meant conflict, opinion of two Romanian military specialists, confrontation and competition. It started with the major objectives of these partnerships are the confrontation of the two superpowers – "the prevention of war and the ensuring of USA and USSR – continuing with that of security environment which will allow, on one their military blocks, "it is mirrored by the side, the management of crises and conflicts clashing of intermediaries from the Third and the stopping of their expanding and, on the World or their own interventions, it is other side, the realization of some associations expressed through ideological struggles and regarding the access (privileged or unchained) propaganda, it is an economic competition, to resources, finances and markets" (Mure an, where the concept of capitalist market slams Văduva, 2005:26). If we were to judge in against totalitarian rule of the socialist camp terms of paradigm of modern security, it economies, and, finally, it scars populations would be concluded that the change from the and whole generations with the seal of fear security strategy paradigm "us against and uncertainty, threatening a nuclear war, everybody", typical for the Cold War, to the

THE GEO-ECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION. IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGETIC SECURITY ENSURANCE IN THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION security strategy paradigm "granting peaceful stage of multi-polarity, is able to resist cohabitation based on generally accepted possible confrontations. principles" has occurred (Udrescu, 2010:101- Following a more careful analysis, we have 111). To this model of security, which has opted to characterize the relationship of been imposing itself since the beginning of the strategic partnership between Russia and 21st century, it is subordinated/included the China as a pragmatic relationship controlled current construction between state entities, by a tactical opportunism, born from a real and once rivals, special both by their delicate perceived necessity, rather than from a natural position in the global architecture, as well as belief. At least for now, this tactical the configuration and the materialization of opportunism is an evidence beyond all doubt, their cooperation in the fields of politics, which in the current context, represents the society, culture and military. The engine of logical answer both to the security and this endeavor is represented by the strategic economic challenges of Central Asia, as well partnership between Russia and China which as strategic imperatives of each country. On is based not only on huge spaces and vast the other hand, it will not come out as a populations, but also on millenary histories surprise that the strategic partnership between and exceptional traditions, on civilizations that Russia and China be transformed into a have created and still create values, life styles competition, to tend towards an even and, especially, on the fact that they are increasing transparent rivalry, especially in reorienting themselves on a strategic space Central Asia, because both of them are guided based on resources. by the vital national interests clearly defined The two different civilizations, great by their own external policies, or, in Russia's nuclear powers and permanent members of the case, on the base of a powerful enough feeling UN Security Council, find themselves in towards its historical mission. Basically, the competition regarding supremacy in the huge manifestation and the materialization of these Eurasian space that still cannot find its rhythm vital national interests may represent the and balance, thus being "a space that separates circumstances of a future competition and a pillar that does not pull together, but (Munteanu, 2006). Taking all this into apart" (Udrescu, 2010:77). Considering the account, the geopolitical confrontation evolution of their relationship, from tensions between Russia and China is not imminent to ambiguity and cooperation, one may (Lo, 2008:114). For now, both of them have to advance the hypotheses according to which the gain from the stability and security of Central economic strengthening of China, of Russia, Asia and will continue to cooperate with other and recently, of India, in this immense area states in the region, acting against Islamic represents, on one hand a modern frontier terrorism, of separatism and of extremist process and, on the other hand, the creation of policies, against the appearance of other powerful turning points on which an eventual security arrangement, against the pressure of strong Asian entity be based upon (Bădăluţă, the West, which desires a greater 2006:38-43; Mircea, 2006). From this point of democratization and respect for human rights view, the strategic partnership between Russia in this geographical area. and China, of the "axis of convenience" (Lo, 2008), as one the most respected annalists of 2. THE SHANGHAI COOPERATION this matter names it - is, at the same time, a ORGANIZATION: GENERAL pragmatic one, as well as a perspective one, in PRESENTATION the sense that, through this system of relationships, the two desire to actively In the context of an international participate in the building of a stabile and environment of security that is dynamic and flexible security environment, which, in the fluid, the mutations and tendencies that are 102

THE GEO-ECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION. IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGETIC SECURITY ENSURANCE IN THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION beginning to shape at the start of the XXI appearance and settling of various instability century almost come as no surprise at all. The sources in the region, such as regime changes, interactions and/or power oppositions between poor governing, weak legislation etc. Also in a actors of the international stage generate great short period of time, SCO, as an international geopolitical changes, thus determining diverse security organization has been capable to evolutions and political-strategic polarities in create its own intelligence organism – the new world order. Along these lines we can Antiterrorist Regional Structure, whose talk about the inception and evolution of the leadership, data bases, exercises and military Shanghai Cooperation Organization, applications prove the fact that the intelligence international intergovernmental organization activity, as well as policies and promoted that is made up of states that are different one strategies up until now by the organization from the other by unequal profile concerning have been relying on some fundamental policy, economy, military, social and religious, principles of modern intelligence: knowledge, the regime in power being more or less prevention and cooperation, therefore, an democratic and also by their involvement in intelligence of integrated security. In the last the competition for hegemony. Member states years, the issue of depletion of the energy such as Iran, Mongolia, India and Pakistan and resources and that of energy security has been dialogue members such as Sri Lanka and dominating agendas of global stage actors. The Belarus have joined them. competition for energy resources in One of the main goals in creating the SCO contemporary world still remains as an is to handle the threats that member states of important source of crisis and conflicts, with a the organization are facing, including crucial role in polarizing and/or catalyzing terrorism, extremism and separatism, but also forces, as long as the demand is rising faster ensuring the stability and regional security in than the offer, and major energy reserves are Asia and not aggression against a certain state, located in areas characterized often by alliance of coalition. Without under or profound lack of equilibrium in policy and overestimating the dimension of security that economy. USA, EU, China and Russia are all is characteristic to this type of multilateral in competition as well as in cooperation in the regional cooperation, the creation of the process of access, control and exploiting these Organization in 2001 is in favor of settling the resources. By taking a recently shared idea – new system of international security. 2009, by Romanian military experts, Teodor The institutionalizing of this organization Frunzeti, Mihai Manolache and Lucian seems to be still fragile, where as the Stăncilă, center of gravity of global production structures, the institutions, functioning is gradually moving towards southern spaces, procedures and the decision making process Central Asia, Caucasus, thus making up the are forming as they go, especially due to interests of energy consuming states. The internal policy that promotes the lack of focusing of attention on these areas often leads transparency, determining some analysts to to quarrels between energy consuming characterize it as an obscure group. This competitors. The global transportation grid is description is not backed-up by arguments, daily facing all sorts of projects and considering that we are talking about a space modifications that are intended to ease the in which we find a fair share of the world’s requirements. resources and depict a substantial growth in the interests of its strong states. Evermore, in a 3. GEO-ECONOMIC SPACES IN short time frame, we are witnessing a EXPANSION multiplying of cooperation sectors within the SCO, unseen in other security groups until Academic debates concerning security now, although there are sufficient premises of highlight more and more the building 103

THE GEO-ECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION. IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGETIC SECURITY ENSURANCE IN THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION tendencies of the new world order by stating Central Asian. Here, the energetic geography and consecrating new centers of power from of the world "is being thought", "the moving the security environment that have as force" in sketching the strategies of states and priorities the reorganizing of the global in defining condition of peace, war and market on energy-economy blocks of instability" (Maior, 2009:114). Also, here we alliances, their complete liberalization, the are faced with the "interference of regional modifying of the oil-quota system and the centers of power (Russia, China, an ascending pining-down of reference prices on the European Union), an actor with global global market etc. tendencies (USA), as well as non-state actors, The theory according to which ”geopolitics from Al-Qaeda to financial multinationals and is geo-economy”, is revalidated in the context great companies with global interests" (Maior, of a global economic crisis, poor budgetary 2009:114), the stake being the same, that of planning and the impossibility to estimate with competition for energy resources. a minimum of certainty which will be the Geo-economics interests of SCO member financial resources available on a medium states are stated and, mainly focused on the term impose a new approach in the system of Caucasus space, the Central Asian, not long international relationship. Today’s geopolitics ago found under the control of the ex-USSR, rivalries increasingly tied to the control and now representing the close vicinity of the transport of energy resources towards great Russian Federation. They are highly unstable consumers, the global dimension of the areas, but important when it comes to geo- problem being given by the unprecedented economy and geostrategic, due to their oil and grandeur of demand of these resources. natural gas reserves. By amplifying the interdependency grade of countries regarding the maximizing of 4. "THE ENERGY CLUB" – "OIL energy resources, there appear new and DIPLOMACY" TOOL complex issues regarding the necessity of ensuring the access of all states to them, so as In creating a new type of structure for the their economic growth is sustained. Quite the regional security on the base of mutual trust, contrary, the loss of access to these resources equality in rights and without double may have unpredictable consequences, from standards, leaders of the SCO are aspiring to economic losses with immeasurable internal the democratization of international effects to modifications in international relationships, the marching towards a model of rankings that may throw the world off-balance. no confrontation which will exclude the Even more important is this effect as mentality of the Cold War times and will developed economies depend on energy position itself on ideological differences. As resources everywhere on the globe, and the an alliance that is open towards multilateral limited character and the spectrum of their cooperation and having as principles depletion is becoming more and more obvious. partnership, non-alignment, mutual trust, That is why, geopolitics and geostrategies respect and equality of cultural diversity, SCO desire, in essence, access, free circulation, but becomes, in our opinion, an organization that also taking advantageous positions or placing evolving in real-time, demonstrating strength the competition in difficulty. and dynamics in the shaping and implementing The most important spaces, geo-economic, of proposed projects. All levels of cooperation geopolitical and geostrategic thinking, where are equally important to the SCO, thus main actors of the international stage, in issues becoming a model doveted by other similar such as energy and security, are in cooperating security arrangements. relationships as well as competitive ones. The As far as the creation of the energetic club areas are Middle and Near East, Caucasus and is concerned, it seems that it is a long term 104

THE GEO-ECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION. IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGETIC SECURITY ENSURANCE IN THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION plan - of extraction, transport and export energy stock exchange of the Shanghai policies towards Eurasia, which is comprised Organization." What started out as a forum of of more than half of the conventional energetic Anti-American rhetoric is considered today by resources of the world. some analysts either a "NATO of the East", or The concept of "energetic club" suggested an elite club for petroleum giants. by Vladimir Putin, in December 2006, The energetic club may be defined as a represents an idea turned into reality on the geoeconomic combination (Luzinian, SCO agenda, tracing the path from a simple, 2009:100-109) among various groups: that of but bold, political declaration to its energy producers/suppliers (Russia, institutionalization, alongside with other Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan) and that of organisms from within it. Specialists argue on energy consumers/importers (China, the possible dimensions the Club would reach Kirgizstan and Tajikistan). If we were to by creating energetic patterns, and namely: extend the analysis at the SCO observers, we global (a long term perspective), may talk about an axis of energy producers regional/Eurasian (at the level of the SCO (Russia-Kazahstan-Uzbekistan-Iran) and a members) and national (at the level of each of energy consumers axis (China-Kargastan- the SCO member country). For now, only the Tadjikistan-India-Pakistan-Mongolia). In this regional dimension is satisfied, considering context, the Organization would become a that all other dimensions are compared to self-sufficient energy system with global and hard-to-achieve projects (for example, the regional opportunities, thinks Serghei difficult dialogue between Russia and the Luzianin, if in the equation we would European Union regarding the Energy Charta). introduce an axis of energy transporters The concept assumes an energetic (Luzinian, 2009:100-109), similar to the cooperation not only between SCO states, but OPEC. also between themselves and their observers: Concluding, we are facing difficult goals, Iran, India, Pakistan and Mongolia. In such a given the inequality of the SCO countries context, the Club would become a more economically speaking, as well as the flexible version, with a huge geoeconomic divergent interests that generate competition potential, if the Kazakhstan president's, for supremacy amongst producers and energy Nursultan Nazarbaiev, proposal were to suppliers. Basically, everyone is looking to materialize to create an Asian Energetic impose their national interests, both to become Market, and the announcement of the Iranian a major carbohydrate supplier on the global president, Mahmud Ahmadinejad, according to market, but also to have direct access to who, his country could host the meetings of sources and their transport routes. Hard fact is the responsible ministers and new exploitation, that the presence in this energetic club has not extraction, transport and refining possibilities excluded the strategic preoccupation of great of the carbohydrates. actors of being competitors, to obtain control "The pipe transportation system in the SCO over some of the biggest energetic resources of space, which links Russia, Kazakhstan, Central the planet and, implicitly, over their price. We Asia and China, make up the necessary base are considering the most important players of for creating a single energy market of the the SCO, The Russian Federation and the SCO", states the Kazakhstan leader at the People's Republic of China. same reunion (2007). "Kazakhstan - adds On one side, Russia's energy strategy Nazarbaev - has elaborated the project for the (Ivanov), approved on 23 May 2003, Asian energetic strategy which assumes the underlines the necessity of strengthening founding of an unique energetic agency, while Russia's position on the global energy market, actual commercial operations will be made on the maximization of efficiency in exports in the energetic resources market by means of the the Russian energy sector, the ensuring of 105

THE GEO-ECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION. IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGETIC SECURITY ENSURANCE IN THE WIDER BLACK SEA REGION access of Russian companies in equal transforms, however, the region in a conditions to external markets, technology and particularly weak point from what security is finance. On the other hand, as great energy concerned. This aspect is much more put in the consumer, China will promote energetic spot under the conditions in which the development, saving policies, energy security transforming of the Black Sea in a border and external cooperation. China has engaged between huge conglomerates of power in promoting a new model of economic growth transforms it a space targeted by competition, based on low entries, low energy consumption, of clashing efforts to win influence. In other minimum pollution and high efficiency. words, the Black Sea space is becoming a In this context, it is highly probable that the buffer zone between extremely important energy geopolitics may play a primordial role powers in the system – NATO, EU, Russia, and deeply modify the landscape of China, and Middle East. As "a geopolitical international alliances, anticipating a dynamic, space of synergistic and decompensation", this fluid world.. region might be suited for the building of inter-civilization links that are meant to last, 5. CONCLUSIONS which are to represent the bases of the extension of cooperation by implementing Possible Implications for Energetic useful and efficient politics and strategies in Security Ensurance in the Wider Black Sea the involved parties. Region. In Romania’s vision, the region of the Black Sea is a connector of primordial BIBLIOGRAPHY importance of the Euro-Atlantic community (as security provider and energy consumer) to 1. Alexandrescu, G. (2007). Managementul the strategic area of the Middle East – Caspian diferenţelor în realizarea securităţii la Sea – Central Asia (as energy supplier and Marea Neagră. Bucharest: National security consumer), aspect that has been stated Defense University Publishing House. in a chapter in Romania’s National Security 2. Bădăluţă, M. (2006). Moscova – Beijing – Strategy (2006), with the purpose of New Delhi: un triunghi strategic. Lumea. consolidating a climate of security and no. 6. 38-43. cooperation in the Black Sea region, as well as 3. Brzezinski, Z. (2000). Marea tablă de şah. the elaboration of a Euro-Atlantic strategy for Supremaţia americană şi imperativele the Black Sea and the Caucasus region. sale geostrategice. Bucharest: Due to its position, the current relevance of Encyclopaedic Universe Publishing the Extended Region of the Black Sea is House. maximized, through the expanding of NATO 4. Ezzati, E. (2009). Geopolitica în secolul and that of the EU, but also "made XXI. Bucureşti: Editura Top Form vulnerable", through the diversity of 5. Lo, B. (2008). Axis of Convenience. economic, political and strategic interests that Moscow, Beijing, and the New are present in this space, thus high-lighting the Geopolitics. London: Chatham House. complexity of dynamic relationships 6. Luzianin, S. (2009). SCO 2009: manifested here. An important pillar in the Development Problems. Russia in global equation of reconfiguration the Euro-Asian affairs. Vol. 7, no.2. 100-109. space from the perspective of development 7. Maior, G.C. (2009). Incertitudine: gândire potential, the Black Sea is an area of great strategică şi relaţii internaţionale în geostrategic interest for international actors. secolul XXI. Bucharest: RAO. Tracking external interests, in the current 8. Maliţa, M. (2007). Tablouri din războiul context of insufficient political, social, rece. Memorii ale unui diplomat român. economic and civilization development Bucharest: C.H. Beck. 106

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Culture & Communities

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LANGUAGE POLICY IN ISRAEL IN THE 21ST CENTURY: THE CASE OF ARABIC IN PUBLIC SPACE

Asher SHAFRIR

Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Abstract: The focus in the present paper is on Arabic Language use on road signs in Israel in 21st century. Legally, both Hebrew and Arabic have a status as official language, based on Article 82 of the Palestine Order in Council, 1922 of Mandatory Palestine. This order was incorporated into Israeli legislation in 1948. The equal legal status of the two languages is merely theoretical. In 2008 was proposed a bill in Israeli Parliament to remove Arabic's status as an official language.The public space as a focus of attention in language policy as well as in language use is a relatively new area of attention, and refers to specific language objects as road signs and street names. It uses as an arena for conducting battles for national identity, recognition, and self-expression. The use of Arabic in the public space on the road signs was not provided until the Supreme Court in 2002 ruled that Arabic must also be included on signs in cities where a significant number of Arabs live. In the years since that ruling changes in practice of language are harder to account for. The linguistic landscape remained mostly Hebrew and English. Anti-Arabic vandalism has appeared in mixed cities, such as Akko and Jerusalem. In 2009 the Israeli media revealed that nationalist groups have been spraying over Arabic names on road signs. On the other hand the Palestinian Authority project to place non-Hebrew road signs throughout the West Bank. In 2009 the Israeli transport minister suggested to change the orthography of city names on road signs so that they are transliterations of the Hebrew name. In 2011 the Supreme Court held a hearing on a motion for contempt of court and implementation of the court's ruling from 2002.

Keywords: linguistic landscape, language policy, minority, Arabic, road signs, Israel, Hebrew

1. INTRODUCTION standards of languages and the people and groups they represent. The public space as a Language Policy, in its most basic sense, focus of attention in language policy as well in refers to the actions taken by a state to regulate language use is a relatively new area of the status of the languages spoken in its attention, as most research on language use territory. Beyond this descriptive level, this tends to focus primarily on speakers and not area of study is concerned with the processes on their environments (Shohamy, 2006). The and mechanisms which influence language definition given by Landry and Bourhis (1997) policy decisions and their implementation. is the following: This includes, for instance, the role that ideologies and orientations towards languages The language of public road signs, advertising and their users play in the creation and billboards, street names, place names, implementation of language policies, or the commercial shop signs, and public signs on ways in which language policies are used to government buildings combines to form the maintain, promote or establish the linguistic landscape of a given territory, region, or urban agglomeration. sociopolitical position of majority and minority linguistic groups. "Language in the Thus they are concerned with the use of public space" refers to all language items that language in its written form in the public are displayed to transmit symbolic messages as sphere. It refers to language that is visible in a to the legitimacy, relevance, priority and specified area (Bourhis, Landry, 2002). The

LANGUAGE POLICY IN ISRAEL IN THE 21ST CENTURY: THE CASE OF ARABIC IN PUBLIC SPACE study of the linguistic landscape is a relatively campus in the Bedouin city of Rahat. Arabic is new development. It enjoys a growing interest supported by daily TV and radio broadcasting, in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics. daily newspapers and periodicals. Arabic is the Of the endless and unlimited number of teaching language of the Arabic educational language items to be found in the public space, system from kindergarten to teachers' colleges. this paper will focus on one type of Moreover, in the Hebrew-speaking school mechanism displayed in the public space: system Arabic is an optional third language. linguistic landscape. In this paper will be On the other hand, Hebrew is obligatory from examined one specific language object that the third grade on in Arabic-speaking schools. mark the public sphere: the case of road signs The high competence which Arab students in first decade of 21st century. generally achieve in Hebrew – the wide majority of Arabs under forty know Hebrew 2. THE STATUS OF ARABIC well – contrasts with the feeble dedication of LANGUAGE IN ISRAEL many Israeli Jews to the learning of Arabic in the Hebrew educational system (Ben-Raphael, Arabic is the mother tongue of the 1994). The determinant factor of inter-group heterogeneous Arab minority, which make up interaction is the dominant culture, which some 24 percent of Israel's population (about legitimizes a linguistic and cultural pluralistic 1,8 million in 2010). Although defined model of majority-minority relations. Within collectively as Arab citizens of Israel, they this context Arabic is by no means held in high include a number of different, primarily respect by the majority, which tends to Arabic-speaking groups, each with distinct downgrade its value. The underprivileged characteristics (Shafrir, 2011). Legally, both status of Arabs in Israel and other factors Hebrew and Arabic have a status as official explain why Arabic is most often left out of language. The fundamental document to the Jews cultural repertoire – even though it is establish the official status of the languages diffused by schools. On the other hand, the goes back to the period of Mandatory minority which is dependent on the language Palestine. Article 82 of the Palestine Order in majority is determined to acquire it. The price Council, 1922 under the subtitle "official it pays for this enrichment is the downgrading languages". The state of Israel has never of the social value of its own language (Ben- enacted a statute which clearly establishes its Raphael, 1994). official languages. The main change to Article Article 82 of the Palestine Order in 82 was enacted by the Israeli Parliament in Council-1922 appears under the title "official Section 15B of the Law and Government languages". It demands bilingual conduct in Ordinance-1948, which eliminates English as Hebrew and in Arabic in three areas: (1) The an official language, leaving two official central authority (as far as the authorities are languages – Arabic and Hebrew. This order concerned and as far as the possibility to dictates the comprehensive Hebrew-Arabic conduct their business in any one of these bilingual conduct of state authorities. In languages); (2) Official announcements of the practice, Arabic's public position in Israel is local authority; and (3) Accessibility to the marginal, and Hebrew enjoys almost absolute public service of the central authority, courts dominance in Israeli public spheres. (Yitzhaki, included. The demand for equal use in both its 2008). official languages is justified by the claim that The Arabic is much less employed in this is the legitimate interpretation of the official documents and dealings than Hebrew, agreement. In other words, this approach but the presence of Arabic in Israel grants a strict and unambiguous interpretation nevertheless real. In all universities one finds of the accord, according to which Hebrew and departments of Arabic. In April 2012 was Arabic – both being under the same title of announced the establishment of a university "official languages" – are entitled to equal use 112

LANGUAGE POLICY IN ISRAEL IN THE 21ST CENTURY: THE CASE OF ARABIC IN PUBLIC SPACE by the authorities in the (very broad) areas A person will not publish a notice or present a defined. Moreover, any conduct that does not sign unless licensed by the head of the local implement this principle is a blatant flouting of authority and according to the conditions of the rule of law. We will now exemplify this the license unless the notice or sign are (1) claim with the aid of several legal cases in written in Hebrew, or (2) written partly in a foreign tongue and the Hebrew takes up at which the matter of Arabic's official status least two thirds of the top part of the spread constituted the basis of the petitioner's demand and the Hebrew fonts are bigger than those of for the equal use of Hebrew and Arabic by the the foreign language. authorities (Yitzhaki, 2008). The citation is of para 2(a) of a bylaw in 3. DE JURE Upper Nazareth (Advertisements and Notices) 1964. The paragraph, however, was revoked The uncertainly about official status has by the Supreme Court in the early 1990s. been highlighted by three cases brought to the (Saban & Amana, 2002). Israeli Supreme Court at the beginning of last The most familiar legal case in this context decade. In the first, a group of Arabic- is that of Adalah v. the Municipality of Tel- speaking inhabitants of Haifa sought to require Aviv which dealt with the language of signs in the city authorities to add Arabic to signposts Jewish-Arab mixed cities (HC 4112/99). In its that are at present painted in Hebrew and petition to the Supreme Court, the petitioners English. In the second, the Ministry of Public requested that the Court require the respondent Works was asked to add Arabic to highway municipalities, all of which contain an Arab- signs. Decisions on these cases would have minority population, to ensure that municipal helped clarify just what the policy means. The signs be written in Arabic, and not only in fact that the accounts of the trials made no Hebrew. The petitioners argued that the mention of official status is noteworthy. The current practice, in which most of the signs are first case was resolved without a formal only in Hebrew, unlawfully discriminates decision of the court by an agreement on the against and affronts the dignity of the Arab part of the municipality to add trilingual signs minority, and breaches the statutory provision over the next few years. In the second case, the declaring Arabic, along with Hebrew, an court ruled that the signs were to be permitted official language of the State of Israel. on the basis that citizens were entitled to free The respondent municipalities joined by expression, in the language of their choice. In the Attorney General, argued that there was no the second, the Ministry agreed to make the statutory requirement that all municipal signs change. The court has so far thus avoided any be written also in Arabic; the decision whether need to rule on the official status of the Arabic to include Arabic was left to their discretion. language. In the third, a local Arab developer In exercising proper discretion, which takes asked to require the city authorities in Upper into account, inter alia, the public’s needs and Nazareth to permit him to display advertising the special status of the Hebrew language in posters written only in Arabic, rather than Israel, the conclusion that must be drawn is enforcing a municipal code requiring that two- that bilingual signs are necessary on main thirds of a poster be in Hebrew. For a long thoroughfares and intersections, on warning period the Jewish local authorities and some and safety signs throughout the city, at public mixed local authorities declared linguistic institutions, and also on streets in restrictions upon private notices in the public predominately Arab-populated neighborhoods. domain. Usually, the bylaws carried the There is no general requirement of bilingual following instruction, a veritable graphic signs, they contended, in all areas of the instruction of the hegemony of Hebrew: respondent municipalities.

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By majority decision (Chief Justice Aharon 4. DE FACTO Barak and Justice Dalia Dorner), the Supreme Court accepted the petition, and required the An ongoing graffiti war that has respondent municipalities to ensure that transformed Israel’s road signs into ideological municipal signs in their communities be in battlefields began in 2002 after the Supreme both Hebrew and Arabic. In his argumentation Court ruling. In the years since that order, anti- Chief Justice Barak introduced for the first Arabic vandalism has appeared in mixed time a crucial distinction between a "homeland cities, such as Acre, as well as on highway (native) minority" and "immigrant groups" and signs throughout the country — but it is said to it included – for the first time – a recognition be most prominent in Jerusalem. There much desired by the Arab-Palestinian minority residents have grown used to the Arabic of its distinctness as a "native minority". translations of “Jehosaphat Street” or “Slow” Chief Justice Barak held that: (1) From the being blotted out by black spray paint or date of the decision henceforth, new signs or covered up in ultra-nationalist bumper stickers. signs that have replaced worn signs must be Arabic signs give them the feeling of bi- written in Arabic; (2) Old signs on main nationalism, that the Jews have no exclusive thoroughfares, at municipal institutions, and in monopoly on the town. neighborhoods with a significant Arab Road signs in Israel are presently written in population will be changed to dual-language Hebrew, English, and Arabic, and feature the signs within two years from the day of the names used by each language. Jerusalem, for judgment; (3) The other signs in the example, is identified as “Yerushalaim” in respondent municipalities will be replaced by Hebrew, "Jerusalem" in English and “Al dual-language signs within four years from the Quds” in Arabic; Nazareth, the city of Jesus's day of the judgment. Justice Heshin dissented childhood, is "al Nasra" in Arabic and Natzrat and held that the petition should be dismissed. in Hebrew. In addition, a wide variety of He argued that it is not possible to find any English and Arabic spellings can be found existing legal source to require the respondent throughout the country, which Ministry municipalities to add Arabic text on all signs officials say “reflect the vast changes and within their jurisdiction. development in Israel's highways.” Caesarea, Almost ten years have passed since the for example, appears as Caesarea, Qesarya, court's ruling and more than six since the outer Qesariyya and Ceysaria. time range specified in the decision for The transport minister announced in July compliance. However, the Municipality of 2009 that signs on all major roads in Israel, Upper Nazareth has yet to comply with it. In East Jerusalem and possibly parts of the West April 2011, Israeli Supreme Court Justice Bank would be “standardized”, converting Edmund Levy leveled scathing criticism at the English and Arabic place names into straight lack of compliance with rulings handed down transliterations of the Hebrew name. In the by the Supreme Court in the road signs case on works for over a year, the new signs would a motion for contempt of court submitted by still feature Hebrew, English and Arabic, but Adalah and the Association for Civil Rights in rely exclusively on Hebrew transliteration. In Israel (ACRI) against the Municipality of all three languages, for instance, Jerusalem Upper Nazareth. The municipality has refused will be Yerushalayim, Natzrat for Nazareth, to place Arabic lettering on street signs within Kesariya for Caesarea, and Yafo for Jaffa. the jurisdictional borders of the city. During Areas in the occupied West Bank where Israel the hearing, the justices stated that the exercises civil control would keep their Arabic Municipality of Upper Nazareth was in clear road signs, so Nablus would not become the contempt of court and must implement the Hebrew Shechem. court's ruling from 2002 immediately.

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Israeli Arabs said it is an attempt to erase hypothesized that the linguistic landscape the Arabic language and heritage which should be explainable in terms of power predates the modern Israel. (Cook, 2009). relations between dominant and subordinate The United States is funding a Palestinian groups. Further those identity markers of Authority project to place non-Hebrew road communities would imprint themselves signs throughout West Bank. The PA plans to strongly on the linguistic landscape and implement it in exclusively Israeli-controlled finally, that different languages vary in areas as well. The project was announced in attractiveness to different audiences. It is in September 2009 by PA transportation minister. this perspective that they speak of linguistic It is the first of its kind since Jordan lost landscape in terms of symbolic construction of control of the area after the 1967 Six Day War. the public space. (Gorter, 2006) All roads and localities will appear in Arabic Linguistic landscape items are not and English on the new signs; Hebrew will not faithfully representative of the linguistic appear (Fendel, 2009). repertoire typical of Israel's ethno linguistic In August 2011 a Tel Aviv University diversity, but rather of those linguistic student got 40 faculty members to sign a resources that individuals and institutions petition demanding that Arabic be added to make use of in the public sphere. It is in this signs on campus. He wrote: "Adding Arabic to perspective that we speak of Linguistic signs will promote equality between Jews and landscape in terms of symbolic construction of Arabs within the university community by the public space which we explain by context- expressing mutual respect and conveying a dependent differential impacts of three message of acceptance and tolerance to different factors – rational considerations hundreds of students, workers and Arabic- focusing on the signs' expected attractiveness speaking citizens who visit our campus every to the public and clients; aspirations of actors day." (Khoury, 2011). to give expression to their identity through their choice of patterns that, in one way or 5. SUMMARY another, represent their presentation of self to the public; and power relations that eventually A paper by Ben Rafael, Shohamy, Amara exist behind choices of patterns where and Trumper-Hecht (2004) compares patterns sociopolitical forces share relevant of linguistic landscape in a number of Israeli incompatible interests. cities and small towns, and in East Jerusalem. Of the eight localities, some are homogeneous BIBLIOGRAPHY and others mixed in terms of the groups that were studied. The study focuses on the degree 1. Adala et al., Municipality of Tel Aviv et al. of visibility on private and public signs of the (2002). HC 4112/99 High Court of Justice. three major languages: Hebrew, Arabic and 2. Durk, G. (2006). Introduction: The study English. There are different patterns in the of the linguistic landscape as a new various communities: Hebrew/English signs approach to multilingualism. International prevail in Jewish communities; Arabic/Hebrew Journal of Multilingualism. 3(1). 1-6. in Israeli-Palestinian communities and 3. Ben-Rafael, E., Shohamy, M., Amara, M. Arabic/English in East Jerusalem. H., & Trumper-Hecht, N. (2006). Further analysis also gives expression to Linguistic landscape as a symbolic differences between public (top-down) and construction of the public space: The case private (bottom-up) signs. Taken together the of Israel. International Journal of linguistic landscape is not a true reflection of Multilingualism. 3(1), 7-30. the diversity of Israel’s languages. Three 4. Ben-Rafael, Eliezer. (1994). Language, sociological perspectives are used to develop a identity and social division: The case of number of research questions. It is Israel. Oxford: Clarendon Press 115

LANGUAGE POLICY IN ISRAEL IN THE 21ST CENTURY: THE CASE OF ARABIC IN PUBLIC SPACE

5. Bourhis, R.Y., & Landry, R. (2002) La loi 9. Landry, R., & Bourhis, R. (1997). 101 et l’amėnagement du paysage Linguistic landscape and ethnolinguistic linguistique du Quėbec. In P. Bouchard & vitality. Journal of Language and Social R.Y. Bourhis (eds), L’amėnagement Psychology. 16(1). 23-49. linguistique au Quėbec: 25 D’application 10. Saban, I., & Amara, M. (2002). The status de la charte de la Langue Française (pp. of Arabic in Israel: Reflexions on the 107-132). Quėbec: Publications du power of law to produce social change. Quėbec. Israel Law Review.36(2), 5-39. 6. Cook, J. (2009, July 17-19. Wiping Arabic 11. Shafrir, A. (2011). Hebrew language status names off the map: Israeli road signs. and corpus planning. Retrieved from Counterpunch. Retrieved from www. www.afahe.ro/afases/AFAQSES_2011/soc countrpunch.org. io/SHAFRIR_2. 7. Fendel, H. (2009, September 4). US aid for 12. Shohamy, E. (2006). Language policy: road sign plan – towards a PA state. Arutz Hidden agendas and new policies. Sheva. Retrieved from www. Abingdon: Routledge. israelnationalnews.com. 13. Spolsky, B. (2004). Language Policy. 8. Khouri, J. (2008, November 11). TAU Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. student signs up 40 lecturers to petition for 14. Yitzhaki, D. (2008). Minority languages Arabic signs on campus. Haaretz. and language policy: The case of Arabic in Retrieved from www.haaretz.com. Israel. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press

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THE CLASH BETWEEN TWO WORLDS: PAST, TRADITION, MYTHS VS. PRESENT, MODERNITY, HOPES

Oana-Andreea PÎRNUŢĂ, Anca BĂDULESCU

Faculty of Letters, „Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania

Abstract: The present paper highlights the clash between two different worlds and cultures presented by Louise Erdrich in ‘The Antilope Wife’. Rooted in the Native American myth, the novel is set in contemporary Minneapolis. The plot shifts between the Civil War time and the late 1990s as well as between tradition and modernity or between myths and reality. ‘The Antilope Wife’ is an amazing family saga, an excellent portrait of three generations of a Native American family, and at the same time, a mysterious and breathtaking network of traditions, myths, loss and longing. This particular split between communities, languages and identities is best illustrated by the Ojibwa word ‘daashkikaa’, that is ‘splitting apart’, which turns into a traditional concept of paramount importance in the novel. Thus, the double world split into two, torn between past and present, is very well represented by Erdrich’s characters. The two protagonists, Rozin and Richard, seem to have bridged the gap between two worlds: that of Native American traditions and beliefs versus the seemingly ordered and more logical world of Minneapolis. Nevertheless, a strange event breaks the fragile balance between the two poles, and forces them to confront, and eventually accept their past as an inextricable part of themselves. In the process, the characters are hurt and wounded, suffer painful losses or even lose their lives. ‘The Antilope Wife’ can be perceived as a myth of the rebirth of the Native American culture and the revitalization of the Ojibwa cultural group.

Keywords: clash, Native Americans, culture, literature, community, myth, tradition, reality, modernity

1. INTRODUCTION 2. THE CLASH BETWEEN TWO WORLDS Louise Erdrich is a representative of the second wave of the Native American The present paper aims at highlighting the Renaissance dealing in her novel entitled The clash between two different worlds, cultures, Antelope Wife with the issue of identity as well languages, identities. as with complex family relationships against The Ojibwa word daashkikaa turns into a the background of the Ojibwa culture (Pîrnuţă recurrent motif throughout the novel, its & Bădulescu, 2011:22). Erdrich’s fiction meaning being ‘split apart’ or ‘cracked apart’. consists of patterned designs derived from the Thus, the double world split into two, torn Ojibwa culture inherited from her mother and between past and present, is very well having German influences which come from represented by Erdrich’s characters. The two her father. The Antelope Wife is an amazing protagonists, Rozin and Richard, seem to have family saga, an excellent portrait of three bridged the gap between the two worlds: that generations of a Native American family and of Native American traditions and beliefs at the same time a mysterious and breathtaking versus the seemingly ordered and more logical network of tradition, myth, loss and longing. world of Minneapolis. The plot shifts between the Civil War time The clash between the two previously and the late 1990s as well as between tradition mentioned worlds can be illustrated at several and modernity or myth and reality. levels: language and names; miracles, myths

THE CLASH BETWEEN TWO WORLDS: PAST, TRADITION, MYTHS VS. PRESENT, MODERNITY, HOPES and traditions; clothing and food; scenery and equivalent of okay, manomin meaning wild environment. rice, chimooks referring to white people, 2.1. Language and Names. At the manidominenz signifying bead or ‘little spirit linguistic level, it is worth to mention seed’ or the Ojibwa ogitchidaa-ikwe hinting to Erdrich’s use of Native American terms and Any strong woman or ‘soldier woman’ concepts but also proper names. (Beidler, 2003:63-67). Thus, every part of the novel bears a Concerning proper names, there are usually number expressed both in English and in the given both in Ojibwa/Ojibwemowin and in Ojibwa language: Part One – Bayzhig, Part English/ Zhaaganaashimowin: for instance, Two – Neej, Part Three – Niswey, Part Four – OZHAWASHKWAMASHKODEYKWAY for Neewin. Blue Prairie Woman, Apijigo Bakaday for So Another recurrent term is windigo, which Hungry, Midassbaupayikway for Ten Stripe means mythological spirit: ‘I’ve been watching Woman, Bungeenaboop for Almost Soup, this girl. Maybe she’s a windigo. No, said her Gakahbekong for Mineeapolis or Mishimin mother. She’s only that hungry. Nothing Odaynang for Apple Town standing for the wrong with her’ (Erdrich, 2002:55). According same Minneapolis. to Peter G. Beidler, windigo can be associated Also, a dog named Sorrow is ‘the dog with a winter cannibal monster or a starvation nursed on human milk [that] grew up coyote winter beast, a spirit of excess (Beidler, gray and clever, a light-boned, loping bitch 2003:67). who followed Blue Prairie Woman Makuk can be considered another Ojibwa everywhere’ (Erdrich, 2002:15); thus, the word which appears several times in the novel: name is translated word by word from Ojibwa ‘Blue Prairie Woman picks with swift grace just like in the case of Other Side of the Earth and fills a new-made makuk’ (Erdrich, named for ‘the place toward which she 2002:18); ‘[She] slices its stiff moan in half traveled’ (Erdrich, 2002:14). and collects in the berry-filled makuk its In opposition to these names, there are gurgle of dark blood’ (Erdrich, 2002:19). others which are obviously belonging to the Thus, makuk stands for a birchbark container, white American world: Roy, Mary, Klaus, box or basket. Frank, Cally, Deanna. If the first generation Tikinagun and powwow are also used bears Native American names (Blue Prairie recurrently in the discourse as both represent Woman), for the second a combination important elements within the Native between Ojibwa and English is characteristic American culture. The Ojibwa word tikinagun (Klaus Shawano) while the third generation is means cradle board: ‘Deep in the past during a dominated by English names (Cally Roy). spectacular cruel raid upon an isolated Ojibwa 2.2 Miracles, Myths, Traditions. In the village mistaken for hostile during the scare very beginning of the novel a miracle happens over the starving Sioux, a dog bearing upon its when in dispair Scranton Roy manages to feed back a frame-board tikinagun enclosing a child the baby miraculously: ‘She seized him. in moss, velvet, embroideries of beads, was Inhaled him. Her suck was fierce. His whole frightened into the vast carcass of the world body was astonished, most of all the west of the Otter Tail River’ (Erdrich, 2002:4). inoffensive nipple he’d never noticed or Powwow refers to any gathering of Native appreciated until, in spite of the pain, it served Americans of any cultural group; they meet to to gain him peace’ (Erdrich, 2002:6). dance, sing as well as socialize. The dog named Almost Soup, condemned Other recurrent words are the following to death because of his white fur (the Native ones: ninimoshe standing for ‘my sweetheart’ Americans sacrificed white dogs and ate their or ‘my love’, animosh for dog, anokee for flesh), only survives by dog magic: ‘You will work, indis meaning belly button, mashkimood end up puppy soup if you’re born a pure white referring to any bag or sack, howah being the dog on the reservation, unless you’re one who 118

THE CLASH BETWEEN TWO WORLDS: PAST, TRADITION, MYTHS VS. PRESENT, MODERNITY, HOPES is extra clever, like me. I survived into my old I remember every detail of it, me, because the age through dog magic’ (Erdrich, 2002:75). turtle hung near my crib, then off my belt, and Also, a whole chapter is written from the was my very first play toy. I was supposed to perspective of this outstanding creature. have it on me all my life, bury it with me on Another miracle can be considered the reservation land, but one day I came in from communication of the humans with animals as playing and my indis was gone. I thought in the case of So Hungry with a deer who nothing of it, at first and for many years, but practically becomes her husband: ‘He loves slowly over time the absence … it will tell’ me, she thought. He loves me and I love him (Erdrich, 2002:101). The turtle is considered to back. Right down to the ground. Who he is. offer protection to those who possess and No different. Of course, too bad that he’s a cherish it. deer’ (Erdrich, 2002:56). Ojibwa people are also safeguarded by Likewise, when Blue Prairie Woman dies, their choice of names they are given at their she sings a song and faces west while her long birth. Every change in naming is considered to lost daughter looks towards the same direction be a turning point in their life - a change of and sings the same song as if aware of her destiny: ‘I named my girls Cally and Deanna. mother’s death: ‘passionate, surprised, she dies Bad choice. I broke more continuity, and they when her chest fills, kicking and drumming suffered for it, too. Should have kept the her heels on the hollow earth. At last she is protection. Should have kept the names that still, gazing west. That is the direction her gave the protection. Should have kept the old daughter sits facing all the next day and the ways just as much as I could, and the tradition next’ (Erdrich, 2002:19). that guarded us’ (Erdrich, 2002: 35). Concerning the Native American myths On the contrary, Klaus Shawano is selling and traditions, Ojibwa people obviously traditional items to strangers seeming to ignore believe in the looming appearance of a black their sacredness: ‘Sometimes they’re buying dog when the end of life is close: ‘We all baby moccasins, little beaded ones the size of know the great black dog. That is, death. He your big toe. Or the fad is cheap neckerchiefs, smells like iron cold. Sparks fly from his fur. bolo slides, jingles. I can sell out before noon He is the one who drags the creaking cart if I misjudge my stock, while someone else set made of sticks’ (Erdrich, 2002:82). up next to me who took on a truckload is The Ojibwa culture can be easily identified raking the money in with both hands. At those with beading, sewing and weaving, terms times, all I can do is watch. But that day, I had which also have very rich connotations: ‘We the turtles’ (Erdrich, 2002:22). dogs know what the women are really doing Frank is working as a baker in a when they are beading. They are sewing us all Minneapolis bakery doing his best to gain into a pattern, into life beneath their hands. We enough money for his family, in the same way are the beads on the waxed string, pricked up Richard Whiteheart is going to the office by their sharp needles. We are the tiny pieces everyday and Rozin accompanies her of the huge design that they are making – the daughters to the schoolbus. Cecille, the soul of the world’ (Erdrich, 2002:83). nonconformist sister of Frank, owns her kung Ojibwa women spend crucial and even fu studio: ‘she runs her kung fu studio right sacred moments in their lives while sewing next to the bakery shop’ (Erdrich, 2002:110). and weaving thus creating patterns of life and 2.3 Clothing and Food. First generation influencing the destinies of their children: ‘my Ojibwa representatives wear traditional clothes mother sewed my birth cord, with dry sage and made of hides, decorated with beads and sweet grass, into a turtle holder of soft white pieces of jewelry and embroideries: ’their buckskin. She beaded that little turtle using dance clothes are simple – tanned hide dresses, precious old cobalts and yellows and bone jewelry, white doeskin down the front Cheyenne pinks and greens in a careful design. and two white doeskin panels behind. Classy, 119

THE CLASH BETWEEN TWO WORLDS: PAST, TRADITION, MYTHS VS. PRESENT, MODERNITY, HOPES elegant, they set a new standard of simplicity’ mother’s house, a long piece of wire which he (Erdrich, 2002:23). cleverly twisted into a beater of some sort. He On the contrary, the newer genrations have began to work things over…’ (Erdrich, lost their habit of wearing Ojibwa clothing. 2002:135). Ironically enough, he fails. For instance, Cecille wears very fashionable 2.4 Scenery and Environment. ‘Deep in clothes, dyes her hair and does not look like an the past during a spectacular cruel raid upon an Indian: ‘through this, and peroxide, she has isolated Ojibwa village’ (2002:3), the Native made herself a bicep blond Indian with tiny Americans knew how to live in the middle of hips and sculptured legs that she shows off by nature to find shelter and peace. The major wearing the shortest shorts’ (Erdrich, activities of their life were closely linked to the 2002:110). cycles and changes of nature which was Another example is Richard Whiteheart, considered to be Mother’s Womb. ‘an urban Indian’, who has forgotten all about In opposition to this, modern Indians are tradition and culture when in dispair he caught and lost in the intricate network of becomes homeless and an alcoholic: civilization, like in a prison: ‘Bismarck, North ‘Georgetown Hoyas sweatshirt from the Dakota, center of the universe. Locus of space Salvation Army with its sleeves chopped off and time for me and my Ninimoshe. We turn and the bulldog faded. Shorts sagging in, take a room at the motel’s end. I lead her in underneath a watermelon-tight paunch. Shorts first and I close the door behind and then she held up with rope. Flapping tennies and no turns to me – suddenly, she knows she is socks’ (Erdrich, 2002:122). caught’(Erdrich, 2002:30). Traditional Ojibwa food consisted mainly of turtle meat, different kinds of grains and 3. CONCLUSIONS leaves: ‘On a cool day in spring in the bud- popping moon the elders held a pitiful feast – To conclude, it is not difficult to notice that only nothing seems pitiful to survivors. In the Ojibwa culture is gradually fading away. weak sunlight they chewed spring-risen mud- Although there are numberless traces of this turtle meat, roasted coot, gopher, the ancient and very interesting culture, it seems remaining sweet grains of manomin, acorns, that there is no future or hope for those who puckoons from a squirrel’s cache, and the have not known how to adapt to the new ways fresh spears of dandelion’ (Erdrich, 2002:13). of life. Further research will reveal other new Herbs and plants are of great importance to issues in this field as there still are unknown Native Americans who know both their aspects which are to be deciphered. curative and poisonous effects: ‘us Ojibwas have a few teas we brew for very special BIBLIOGRAPHY occasions. This is one. A sleep tea, a love tea’ (Erdrich, 2002:29). 1. Beidler, Peter B. (2003). ‘“In the Old In opposition, urban Indians of the third Language”: A Glossary of Ojibwe Words, generations, like for instance Cecille, prefer to Phrases, and Sentences in Louise Erdrich’s have processed food like pastry, pies: ‘Cecille Novels’ in American Indian Culture and at the table with the coffee and the pies’ Research Journal 27:3. 53-70. (Erdrich, 2002:208). 2. Erdrich, Louise. (2002). The Antelope Frank Shawano wastes a lot of effort Wife. London: Flamingo. throughout his life to recreate the Blitzkuchen 3. Pîrnuţă, O.-A. & Bădulescu, A. (2011). An once baked by a German prisoner: ‘the Outline of Native American Literature. prisoner pounded almonds to a fine paste Brasov: Transilvania University Press of between two lake rocks. Took the eggs, just Brasov. the yellows in a little tin cup. There was, in my

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SECTARIANISM IN SCOTLAND AND IN GLASGOW: THE PRESENT AND THE PAST

Federico ZANNONI

Department of Education, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

Abstract: In popular understanding, the word “sectarianism” in Scotland describes the religious conflict and prejudice between Catholics and Protestants and it is directly connected with the events in Northern Ireland, but it doesn’t involve the mainstream of Protestant and Catholic churches. Steve Bruce defines sectarianism «a widespread and shared culture of improperly treating people in terms of their religion» (Brice et al, 2004: 4). Sectarianism has its origins in the wide fluxes of Irish people to Scotland in the middle of Nineteenth century and it developed big social conflicts in the past. “Divided city” is a very popular novel by Theresa Breslin: it describes Glasgow as a city in which clashes and prejudices between Irish Catholics and Scottish Protestants still happen in daily life, often connected with the football teams of Glasgow Celtic (mostly supported by people with Irish background) and Glasgow Rangers (mostly supported by people with Scottish background). Focusing also on the divide between Catholic schools and Protestant schools, the article aims to reflect on the effective presence of sectarian attitudes and manifestations in Scottish society and on the possible solutions to face them. The paper is based on a literature review about the past and the present situation, and on the data collected during a qualitative research that the author has done in Glasgow in April/May/June 2011 with the supervision of Stephen McKinney, Senior Lecturer at the University of Glasgow, Faculty of Education. During the research, social officers, police officers, leaders of religious association, researchers and activists had been met and interviewed.

Keywords: Scotland, sectarianism, community, faith schools, interreligious conflict, social conflict.

1. INTRODUCTION said Graham, trying to tough it out. “I’m gonna give you a kicking anyway”, the older Graham was walking in the East End of boy decided» (Breslin, 2006:37). Divided city Glasgow, when he met a older boy that is the title of a very popular novel by Theresa stopped and asked him: «What are you doing Breslin. As the author said during a interview here? You don’t belong here. You have got a in June 2011, «it was written in response to Protestant face». These words really impressed requests by young people in Glasgow asking him, «it hadn’t occurred to him that Catholics me to write a novel about football rivalry might think that Protestants looked different between Celtic and Rangers» (Zannoni, from them. His knew that some protestants Breslin, 2011). The themes inside the book regarded Catholics as a separate race. He and the whole subject of ethnic and religious hadn’t realized it worked the other way. His clashes in Glasgow and in Scotland are quite Uncle Maxwell believed absolutely that wider than a football rivalry, as Theresa Catholics had definite physical characteristics Breslin said and as we are trying to develop in that were not the same as Protestants. […] this article: «I wrote Divided city true to life as Graham looked at the boy challenging him. If experienced by people living in certain anything, this boy’s head was considerably circumstances. A book title has to be arresting bigger than Graham’s own. “You are a Hun”, and succinct and this one not only refers to the boy said, blocking the pavement. “Naw”, Glasgow but probably every other city in the

SECTARIANISM IN SCOTLAND AND IN GLASGOW: THE PRESENT AND THE PAST

world in that among large groupings of people and the opportunity in the industries, in the from different social, cultural, economic, and mines or in the fields turned mobility into ethnic backgrounds there will be tensions and permanent migration. Together with Catholics, divisions» (Zannoni, Breslin, 2011). Starting many Protestants came from Ulster and settled from a historical excursus, we are going to above all in the western and central industrial analyze the presence of sectarian attitudes and Lowlands; many of them were Orangemen manifestations and their effects on the who bought with them a culture of anti- contemporary Scottish society. Catholicism, and found some benefits attending the local Orange lodge and the local 2. SECTARIANISM IN SCOTLAND church. Ulster migrants found a communal identity with the Scottish people, and the main 2.1 Defining sectarianism in Scotland. In agency for the transmission and consolidation popular understanding, the word sectarianism of this identity was the Loyal Orange Order, describes the religious conflict and prejudice founded in Armagh in 1795 to defend between Catholics and Protestants in Scotland Protestants against the aggressive actions by and it is directly connected with the events in the Catholic secret societies. The organisation Northern Ireland, but it doesn’t involve the was based on a hierarchical structure of lodges mainstream of Protestant and Catholic and the inter/intra-cohesion was enhanced by churches. Steve Bruce defines sectarianism «a an elaborate system of grips, passwords and widespread and shared culture of improperly signs which developed a sense of collective treating people in terms of their religion» brotherhood. In a few time the Order became (Bruce et al, 2004:4). Stephen McKinney hugely popular and many new lodges spread (2008: 336) suggests taking the “working” across Ulster and in Scotland, above all in the definition constructed by Liechty and Clegg areas where Irish Protestants were more (2001:102-103) for their research about numerous. Because of their lacking industrial sectarianism in Northern Ireland: skills, their ill education and their poor «Sectarianism is a system of attitudes, actions, conditions, Irish immigrants entered at the beliefs and structures, at personal, communal bottom of the Scottish labour market. As Steve and institutional levels, which always involves Bruce (2004:12) writes, «the arrival of the religion, and typically involves a negative Irish in Scotland coincided with the great wave mixing of religion and politics. Sectarianism of urban expansion and industrialisation. The arises as a distorted expression of positive long-term result of industrial growth was human needs, especially for belonging, massively increased prosperity, but the early identity and the free expression of difference stages were often extremely unpleasant. Those and is expressed in destructive patterns of native Scots who found their conditions relating: hardening the boundaries between uncongenial could observe that the Irish and groups; overlooking others; belittling, the problems of industrialisation arrived at the dehumanising, or demonising others; same time and some blamed the former for the justifying or collaborating in the domination of latter». In the early 1850s some anti-Catholic others; physically or verbally intimidating or organisations such as the Scottish Reformation attacking others». Stephen McKinney disagree Society and the Scottish Protestant Association with Steve Bruce and prove that sectarianism were founded and journals such as The is still pervasive in Scottish society, maybe in Scottish Protestant and The Bulwark hosted the attitudes more than in the concrete violent anti-Catholic claims. As Devine (1999: 292) manifestations. reports, «these groups were not simply 2.2 Sectarianism in the past. There had defenders of the ‘true’ religion but also saw always been seasonal traffic between the themselves as protectors of the Protestant north-east of Ireland and Scotland, but in the Scottish nation from invasion by an ‘inferior’ middle of the nineteenth century the economic race who, they claimed, threatened to bring hardship in Ireland, the potato famine of 1849 disease, crime and degradation in their wake». 122

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Although not all the Irish were Catholic This position reflected the beliefs of a and not all were poor, the first immigrants put marginal militant Protestant fringe, while most themselves in a community clearly demarcated of the political and intellectual elites rejected by their shared religion and as self-sufficient them. Due to the economic depression, the as they could do, sustained by the Church and mass unemployment and the increase of by an array of ancillary organisations that Scottish emigration, the period between the provided social welfare, church-approved First and the Second World War has been social and sporting activities, to build and described as the most intense phase of celebrate a shared identity. According to sectarian bitterness in Scotland, during which Gallagher (1987:19), «the Irish side of the the Irish Catholics became the easiest ghetto frontier may even have been patrolled scapegoats for Scotland’s calamities; on more vigorously from the inside then the summer 1935, violence was so pervasive that outside». Catholics organized all night vigils to protect Some important protagonists of the chapels from vandalism. Victorian era, such as James Begg, John Hope Many Irish Catholics struggled the Second and Jacob Primmer, engaged in anti-Catholic War side by side with the Scottish Protestants public speeches and mobilizations, but the and showed brave loyalty to the British flag. It clergy and civil elites didn’t support anti- had been the beginning of the process of the Catholicism and it started to become steadily decreasing of sectarian violence and of the less popular. The Protestant ruling class rising of social mobility opportunities for the wished the Catholic community to improve its Irish Catholics. A new age of ecumenical conditions and it didn’t oppose Catholic activity began in the 1960 and some schooling. At the beginning, poor funding was significant reconciliatory action between the the main problem of Catholic schools because Church of Scotland and the Church of Rome they were funded by the government in a small marked the erosion of institutional part, and by the Churches, families and sectarianism. association in a bigger part. Churches elites 2.3 Sectarianism in the present. On understood that Catholic schools could no Sunday 6 March 2011, the Guardian reported longer survive outside the public educational about wild west-style brawls in Glasgow’s system and, in 1918, they signed the Education pubs, officers injured, fans arrested, aggression Act. Catholic schools entered into the state on streets and a rise of domestic violence by system and the Church maintained powers and 81% after the football match between Celtic autonomy in teaching recruitment and and Rangers. Because of the great fear that the religious degrees. This kind of more sectarian violence of the past could once again competitive Catholic school became very rear its head in a city that is riven by religious important to the growth of a Catholic middle prejudice and football divide, Scotland’s first class. Meanwhile, immigration slowed and a minister, Alex Salmond, called an emergency new generation of Catholic born in Scotland summit in Edinburgh to discuss the problems grew steadily. In 1923 the Church and nation Scottish Football Association was committee submitted a report entitled The established in 1873 and from the 1870s and the Menace of the Irish Race to our Scottish 1880s football developed a mass following and Nationality that argued that Irish Catholic became the working man’s game par migrants and their descendants «cannot be excellence. Football wasn’t simply a sport, it assimilated and absorbed into the Scottish also become a powerful focus of national race. They remain a people by themselves, identity and an empathically working class segregated by reason of their race, their game that reflected religious, community and customs, their traditions and above all by their ethnic differences, promoting local identities. loyalty to their Church, and are gradually and Glasgow Celtic was the main team of the Irish inevitably dividing Scotland, racially, socially Catholic immigrants. It was founded on and ecclesiastically» (Burrowes, 2003:143). November 1887 as a charitable organization to 123

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raise money to help the poor of the East End, different areas Rangers pubs adorned with but «at the same time it kept young Catholics Union Jacks and Celtic pubs which display the together in their leisure time, free from the tri-colour, and people can be attacked if they temptations of Protestants and Protestantism» go into a pub wearing the wrong colours. (Murray, 1984:41). The other big team of the Analyzing sectarian happenings, we always city, the Glasgow Rangers, quickly emerged as have to consider the importance of the context, the team of the Scottish and Protestant pride, and most of the times we have to consider the and sectarian bitterness started to be present working class context. A number of young between the supporters of the two teams: working class men support football teams, use «Celtic and Rangers had become the standard- a rude and violent language, are used to bearers of their two communities and their brutality, drink too much, take drugs, carry confrontations on the football field a noisy weapons and respond to minor insults with outlet for the bitter sectarian tensions of the vicious attacks. Many of these young men west of Scotland» (Devine, 1999:362). Fan don’t know the meanings of their sectarian violence and sectarian attitudes have expressions; a growing secularization along characterised the following decades and persist the new generations has almost cancelled the today. Common signs of the interweaving religious influences, so their attitudes have to between football, religion and immigration can be included inside their wider range of be found in the flags and in some of the antisocial behaviors and inside a pervasive sectarian songs that most of supporters know, culture of prejudice (against every kind of as the titles No Pope of Rome and The Boys of foreigners and minority groups) in Glasgow. the Old Brigade suggest. During the last Steve Bruce (2004:172) argues that there is decades Celtic and Rangers clubs have made little evidence of discrimination against big efforts to modernize themselves and to Catholics and notes that although churchgoing overcome the sectarian and local attitudes, but Catholics follow their own moral choices, they the stadium is still one of the main theatres don’t form a coherent subculture: «We find were sectarian attitudes, expressions and little evidence either that Scots Catholics are manifestations take place, even if not the only now objectively distinctive or that many Scots one. Sectarian manifestations can be treat them as if they were. There is no major categorized at individual, group, institutional ‘descended-from-Irish-Catholics’ language, and cultural level. Even if it possibly occurred cuisine, dress style, residential preference or in the past decades, institutional sectarianism leisure activity. Descendants of Irish catholic in the working places or led by police or migrants are much more likely than other municipalities is actually very unusual. At Scots to practice Irish dancing or to belong to individual, interpersonal and group level, we the Ancient Order of Hibernians, but very few can find patterns such as the use of a sectarian people do either. Even religion has lost most language, jokes and little asides in everyday of its force as a source of difference as the life, chants and songs in pubs and at the Catholic Church has followed the Protestant stadium, graffiti and vandalism on the streets, churches in rapid decline». Steve Bruce intimidations, discriminations, verbal and concludes that Sectarianism in Scotland is physical violence between people from quickly declining and its manifestations are different groups or inside families, where often limited to the contexts of some football sectarian values are transmitted along matches. Michael Rosie (2004) takes a generations. A qualitative study conducted by different position and considers sectarianism Ross Deuchar and Chris Holligan in winter in modern Scotland as a manifestation of 2008 confirms that there are in Glasgow bigotry and prejudice: even if it’s not hidden territories in terms of football and that systematic and it doesn’t materially affect the a sizeable minority of Glaswegians may avoid life chances of entire religious groups, it particular areas of the city due to the religion remains a serious social problem, hence the or their football affiliation. There are in debate. 124

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2.4 Focus on faith schools: finding from think that we are in the modern age, in a qualitative research. According govern- Scotland the Education Act was signed in mental data, Scotland has 377 state-funded 1918 and it has never been resented, and now faith schools: 373 Catholic, one Jewish and we are in 2011, people have to stay together, I three Episcopalian. In total, there are in think that it’s wrong to discriminate people Scotland 2.722 public schools. Since the because of the religion. But the Catholics don’t Education Act of 1918 is still working without want to change». Every year, in July, the any changes, the debate on the presence of Orange lodges organise a big march through faith school in the public system is often in the the Glasgow city centre, to celebrate the pages of the newspapers and in the middle of Protestant pride; during the march, police has the political agenda. In May 2011, through to work hard to guarantee the public security. meetings, focus groups and interviews in Formed in 1990, as Scotland’s national parishes, educational services, associations, ecumenical instrument, Action of Churches administrations and universities, we have Together in Scotland (ACTS) brings together collected the point of views of different people nine Christian denominations; on the website, who, in their daily work, have to face the we can read that «it encourages and resources themes of sectarianism and faith schools in encounters between them in which each Scotland. «My personal view is that I don’t participant learns from the other, where think it’s a good idea to have two different difference is explored and respected and where schools. It doesn’t help because it’s a kind of division is healed». Its General Secretary separation, I suppose it’s not healthy». This is focuses on the religious identity: «Catholic the point of view of the current bishop of the schools in Scotland is a false argument against Scottish Episcopal Church in Glasgow, a the religious identity. There are Catholic minority denomination in the city, which has schools in every country in the world where less influence and a smaller number of fold. «I you are allowed to have schools, the only ones think that Catholic schools help people to that don’t allow Catholic schools tend to be express their culture, or a particular faith. They totalitarian. I think that unfortunately people aren’t against the other faiths, they don’t see the schools as a cause of sectarianism or a suggest anti-religious actions. Catholicism continuation of sectarianism: I don’t recognize gives identity». These are the words of the that. There are other questions going on there, manager of the Harp Community Project in other issues, about fear of difference. Despite Glasgow; it’s the point of view of a Catholic Catholic teaching in Catholic schools, most of and Irish young man, that works on the themes the children don’t go to church, but most of the of the Irish pride to support and to improve the children have a concept of what Christian condition of life of the Irish community in the values are». Catholic teaching is considered as city. At the opposite side, we have the straight a privileged way to achieve a better opinions of a member of the executive board understanding of the major values of the whole of the Grand Orange Lodge of Scotland: «We universe of Christianity: it should be the have serious rooted bigotry or sectarianism in starting point to dialogue with the other big Scotland, and we must tackle it through faiths, Islam at first. Religion is seen as the education. The problem that we have in field for the inclusion, as a place where people Scotland is that we separate young people at from different traditions and cultures can meet the age of five. We think it’s wrong. Children each other and build friendship and common go together to pre-schools and nursery schools understanding. The Ecumenical Officer of at three and four years old, and then they Glasgow Churches Together is sceptical: become five and “sorry, you are going in «Catholic schools aren’t ready for the different schools”. We feel that’s wrong. And dialogue. I would like to promote the dialogue we feel that everyone in Scotland should be between the Catholics and the others, but in educated in a state school system. We don’t Catholic schools this kind of dialogue is not so see the need for two separate schools. I just common. Several times I have tried to involve 125

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Catholic schools to organise interfaith events manifestations and fields. It’s important to and meetings, but they haven’t been so promote dialogue and opportunity for collaborative. We have to change people exchanges of experiences and cooperation mentality. It’s easier in the schools to talk between the different faith/ethnic/football about the big faiths in the world, about groups, above all with children and teenagers. Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, than to talk about The rule of the schools is very important and it the different denominations inside must be supported by some integration on the Christianity. It’s difficult to build a clear Education Act and by the development of understanding that such denominations live projects in partnership with the police, the together in the same big family». municipality and the cultural associations. In Sense Over Sectarianism is a partnership this direction, many activities still exist. with funding from the Scottish Executive to give grants to individuals and community BIBLIOGRAPHY groups setting up projects that challenge sectarianism and bigotry. The Social Inclusion 1. Breslin, T. (2006). Divided city. London: Officer that leads this program suggests that Corgi. the theme of sectarianism and religious divides 2. Bruce, S., Glendinning, T., Paterson, I., has to be faced in a wide range of contexts and Rosie, M. (2004). Sectarianism in by many agents. Schools play an important Scotland. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University role, but they can’t have the whole solution: Press «Catholic schools are inside the Education 3. Burrowes, J. (2003). Irish: the Remarkable Act, and until the law changes they will Saga of a Nation and a City. Edinburgh: continue to exist. Lots of people point Catholic Mainstream. schools, and lots of people point at the 4. Deuchar, R., Holligan, C. (2008). football, and blame the schools and football Territoriality and Sectarianism in for perpetuating sectarianism. My argument is Glasgow: A Qualitative Study. Glasgow: that what people do it to distance themselves University of Strathclyde. from the argument and not take responsibilities 5. Devine, T. M. (1999). The Scottish nation on things. I think that it’s really easy to blame 1700-2000. London: The Penguin Press. on something outside, rather than to take 6. Gallagher, T. (1987). Glasgow: The Uneasy responsibilities in the society». Peace. Manchester: Manchester UP 7. Liechty, J., Clegg, C. (2001). Moving 3. CONCLUSIONS beyond sectarianism. Dublin: The Columba Press. The debate on sectarianism in Scotland is 8. McKinney, S. (2008). Immigrants and complex and the different researches assume religious conflict. In M. A. Peters, A. different views considering how much Britton, H. Blee, Global Citizenship sectarian attitudes are pervasive in modern Education. Philosophy, Theory and Scotland. As times have gone on, the world Pedagogy. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. has changed and nowadays we have to 9. McVeigh, T. (2011). Divisions in Glasgow consider the sectarian themes in the biggest go well beyond football. The Guardian. dimension of a global world, in which people Sunday 6 March. have to be and to feel at same time as 10. Murray, B. (1984). The Old Firm. Glaswegians, Scottish, British, European and Edinburgh: J. Donald Publishers global citizens. Pursuing the aim to build and 11. Rosie, M. (2004). Sectarian Myth in consolidate the profile of the new global Scotland: Of Bitter Memory and Bigotry. citizen, it is necessary to have the cooperation Basingstoke: Palgrave of different agencies and institutions to tackle 12. Zannoni, F., Breslin, T. (2011). Interview sectarianism at its different levels, with Theresa Breslin. Glasgow: not edited.

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LINGUISTICALLY INTERCONNECTING CULTURES

Bledar TOSKA

University of Vlora ‘Ismail Qemali’, Vlora, Albania

Abstract: This paper focuses on a few aspects of language use which reflect the culture of a speech community. More specifically it discusses the role and function of connectors, as text connecting devices, particularly two important connective hyponyms, particles and interjections. Given their intercultural pragmatic values, these linguistic devices are compared in English and Albanian so as to display both their diversity and similarity in the respective cultures. The comparative analyses will attempt to show that the cultural diversity and similarity are reflected in language use by redefining the intercultural context.

Keywords: (inter)connectivity, connectors, particles, interjections, culture, cultural aspects

1. INTRODUCTION following two. For instance, it is still a common phenomenon in the Albanian The interrelationship between language speaking community to show tokens of and culture has been highlighted in a large friendliness to people they meet by asking a number of studies, including linguistics, number of question to them in regard to their sociolinguistics, translation, language work, health, family life and so on. This acquisition etc. Risager (2006:1) states that linguistic practice is certainly inherited from a “this has led to intensified research into how past cultural background, from the communist cultural differences express themselves and are period, and seems to continue even nowadays, created via various forms of linguistic practice although, I should admit not as frequently as it and discourse, how culturally different used to. To a westerner such cultural context is conceptual systems and world views are not reflected in language use or vice-versa. contained in the semantics and pragmatics Another typical case in Albanian would be the systems of the various languages … .” In this rare use of the vocatives Sir or Madam (Zotëri regard, cultural context of language use in or Zonjë) in front of names of people you do speech communities becomes particularly not know when you address to them directly relevant to the nature of language and to the (unless you are in formal or official situations). community in which it is used. Even more On the contrary, this language practice is emphatic is the triangle of language, culture frequently found in Romanian with the and speech community in the following vocatives Domnule or Doamna, as far as I Senft’s statement. “Language has to be seen know. This is again culturally inherited from first of all as a cultural achievement and as a the past in the Albanian speech community. cultural tool. Language is a mirror of the These two very simple examples of linguistic culture of its speech community” (Senft, practice served to show somehow that “… 2009:6). One good example of this is in linguistic practice is always cultural … it is in Canada, where French-speaking natives of itself a form of cultural (meaningful) practice, Quebec attempt to maintain their cultural and because it is embedded in a larger cultural identity in front of the English-speaking (meaningful) context on which it leaves its majority. Other examples include the own mark” (Risager, 2006:3).

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2. LINGUISTIC (INTER)CONNECTIVITY word class which is used to express meaning or complementary emotional nuances for a The following section discusses briefly the word, a phrase or an entire sentence.” nature, role and function of connectors in Similarly, Kole (1969) classifies particles as a realizing connectivity and interconnectivity in lexical and semantic category which typically linguistic practices. Connectors make up an expresses modality, emotion and open linguistic class which consists of various expressiveness. However, modern studies forms of grammatical classes (such as suggest that particles could be better seen as conjunctions or adverbials), lexical items (such connectors which enable textual and as performative verbs) or different linguistic metatextual (inter)connectivity. For instance, items/constructions (such as particles or Aijmer (2002:2) observes that “discourse interjections). They are not part of the sentence particles have been grammaticalized which has proposition and are normally semantically and resulted in a class of words with unique syntactically detached to the sentence in which formal, functional and pragmatic properties. they are used. Connectors function both in the Nevertheless neither sentence grammar nor local and global level of the text / discourse logical semantics has had much to say about and display not only semantic (linguistic) them. They are difficult to analysed textual/discoursive features or values but also grammatically and their literal meanings are pragmatic (extralinguistic) ones. “overridden” by pragmatic functions involving As such, they are regarded to be one of the the speaker’s relationship to the hearer, to the most important connective devices which utterance or the whole text.” enable textuality and commonly secure textual Thus, particles could be seen as linguistic cohesion and coherence. de Beaugrande items which potentially interconnect (1980) observes that cohesion includes metatextual aspects to linguistic practices or “sequential connectivity” in text, which is the speaker to the utterance, as it was quoted enabled, among other devices, through above. By metatextual aspects I refer to all connectors. Thus, one way of connecting those features that interact with texts in a given different sequences of a text is through linguistic context. Such could be, speaker’s connectors. On the other hand, coherence intentionality, attitude, statement pragmatic includes knowledge, the “conceptual force, social and cultural identity or cultural connectivity” of which is (re)constructed and values etc. Unlike some other connective perceived within the text. Thus, coherence hyponyms, particles of a certain language are comprises logic connections, “knowledge of closely connected to the culture of that how events, actions, objects, and situations are language. So, there is no wonder that particles organized; and the striving for continuity in are used frequently in our daily verbal human experience” (de Beaugrande 1980). interactions and that their role and function are This last one is particularly important in often considered irreplaceable. Wierzbicka understanding the role and function of two (2003:341) underlines the fact that very few important connective hyponyms, interjections linguistic aspects can better reflect the culture and particles, since, as it will be discussed in of a speech community than particles and that the next section of this paper, they enable on very few occasions could one find connectivity between linguistic aspects of equivalents for them from one language to the language practice, but more often than not, other. between metalinguistic ones, which include The problematic matter of the equivalence worldview perceptions and interpretations. of particles can be noticed at a macrolinguistic level, namely from language to language, such 3. “INTERJECTING” PARTICLES as the example of the particle ore in Albanian (used conventionally to attract attention to the Some scholars like Agalliu et al. (1995: hearer in relation to the forthcoming 413) state that “a particle is an uninflected conversation), which has no English 128

LINGUISTICALLY INTERCONNECTING CULTURES equivalent. Or it can even be noticed at the every native English speaker is aware of the microlinguistic level, namely from region to fact, but they still use it unconsciously to region of the same country. For instance, the reflect their “inherited cultural and personal same particle ore is used in a very informal world”. To some extent, the Albanian way in the area where I live to greet someone equivalents for man would be ua or ou, but one knows very well. Otherwise, its use in these interjections are only used to express other situations would sound harsh or impolite. speaker’s surprise to a linguistic event. This simple example is one sign of the cultural To conclude this section, particles and aspect that is included in its pragmatic use, interjections enable interconnectivity between but, above all, in its enabling interconnectivity textual sequences and metatextual concepts, between speaker, hearer, their relation to the such as cultural aspects, which are partially cultural background, text or discourse etc. demonstrated through their pragmatic values Like particles, (Agalliu et al., 1995: 427) and distribution in texts. As such they are open interjections have also been seen as linguistic to interpretations, pragmatic effects and items which are used to express speaker’s cultural reflections. Language practice in perceptions, feelings, preferences etc. general and particles and interjections in Similarly, this perspective avoids their role particular are “…to be conceived as an integral and function in relation to text and the part of culture and society and of the interconnectivity between it and additional psyche…” (Risager, 2006:3). metextual aspects, especially cultural ones. Moreover, as Schiffrin (1987:73) observes, the 4. COMPARATIVE ANALYSES use of interjections is based more on their distribution within the text rather than on their In this short section I will attempt to semantic meaning or grammatical status. This contrast some common particles and fact becomes particularly relevant if one interjections between Albanian and English in considers the fact that interjections, like many order to gain a better understanding of them. particles, are polysemantic and polyfunctional. There are basically three main phenomena Thus, interjections interconnect sequences of to be noticed when particles are compared in texts, depending on their position used in it, both languages. Firstly, some particles find and conceptions in relation to parts of text. their equivalents in the other language. For However, unlike particles, interjections instance, the particle nejse in the first example (Fischer, 2000:14-16) signal the spontaneous below has its functional equivalent particle expression of the speaker’s cognitive state. anyway in English, as illustrated in the second Still, interjections interconnect metatextual example. aspects which interact with texts in a given linguistic context, because, as Schourup (1) Nejse, të mos zgjatemi. (1982:13-14) highlights, they are related to the speaker’s internal state, represent reflections of (2) Oh, I doubt if they’d mind. Particularly the one’s personal world (cognitive aspects) and dead ones. Anyway, what’s the big deal? mostly depend on the text interpretation in which they are used. Other common and important particles For instance, the interjection man in with pragmatic equivalence are tani-now, English is speaker-oriented and is normally pastaj-then, sigurisht-sure etc. They are all used to express surprise in relation to an event, very similar to each other and are used much situation, emotional state or linguistic practice. or less the same way in both languages. I Its fulfillment of the (meta)textual believe that they constitute or represent those interconnectivity is typical of the Anglophone universal cultural aspects which can be people, since it reflects gender stereotypes as expressed through linguistic practices. part of their past culture, which are still Secondly, there are certain particles that do reflected nowadays in English. Probably, not find counterparts from Albanian to English, 129

LINGUISTICALLY INTERCONNECTING CULTURES but are represented with different word demek in English. However, its pragmatic classes, although they still fall within the meaning is somehow included in the verb category of connectors. For instance, the pretended! But still the sentence in English, particle ndoshta in Albanian in example (3) for some reason, lacks “the original cultural below has its functional counterpart maybe in aspect”. English, as illustrated in example (4). Some other common particles which seem to be cultural specific in Albanian are ama, (3) Ndoshta, nuk e di. desh, gjoja, madje or çne and in English you see, you know, I mean or right. It is also worth (4) Maybe one day the search for the perfect mentioning the fact that most of them are sentence will end with one of yours. polysemantic and their use and perception or interpretation highly depends on the kind of The difference in regard to the word connectivity that they realize in language classes in these cases might not even be practice. For instance, the particle you know in relevant to the fact that these items have the example (8) enables connectivity between the same function in the text. This seems to be a sentence, its propositional content and the sign of slight linguistic diversities within the speaker’s uncertainty of his speech linguistic universality. Other examples would continuation. be mbase or kushedi in Albanian and perhaps in English, which happen to be synonymous to (8) I thought I’d, you know, have a chat with the abovementioned particles. you. Thirdly, there are certainly some particles in both languages which either do not (9) Wear the white dress, you know, the one find a close equivalent in the other language or with all the black embroidery. do not exist at all in one or the other. For instance, it is not easy to find an English While you know in example (9) interrupts equivalent for the particle ore in example (5). the textual sequence only to realize And it is still even more difficult to find a connectivity between it and the speaker’s counterpart in Albanian for well in example attempt to clarify the intended referential object. (6) below. With interjections similarities and differences are slightly different. It is not the (5) Ore, a dëgjon ç’të thonë? aim of this section, neither of this paper, to analyze and to bring here cultural background (6) Well, I think that it’s time that they admit explanations such as was the case with the that. interjection man discussed in the third section. Nevertheless, it is arguably the case to strongly These two particles constitute those believe that, like particles, interjections are linguistic practice cases which are regarded to closely related to the culture of the speech be culturally specific. And sometimes it could community in which they are used as part of be very hard to even paraphrase a particle or linguistic practices. explain the reason for using it in certain a A large number of interjections seem to be context. The particle demek in Albanian in universally conventionalized, and they example (7) is one of these cases. sometimes resemble international words, such as kilometer, alcohol or bank. Some examples (7) Bënte, demek, sikur s`dinte gjë. are ah, aha, eh, oh etc., which can either be associated with the proceeding part of the text The sentence can be translated as (S)he or alone, as a free sentence. In both cases their pretended as if (s)he didn’t know anything. It use is motivated by metalinguistic factors such appears difficult to find an equivalent for as pain, surprise, complaint, dislike etc. 130

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Some other interjections have counterparts linguistically particular and the linguistically in the other language. They mainly express universal. Something similar applies to the greetings, as for instance mirëmëngjesi – good cultural forms and relations: some are specific, morning, gratitude, such as the example some are more or less widespread, and some faleminderit – thank you or wishes as udha e must be assumed to be universal…”. mbarë – have a nice trip or bon voyage (although this last one is not very English). BIBLIOGRAPHY But even in these cases one can find cultural differences. For instance, the Albanian 1. Agalliu, F. et al., (1995). Gramatika e interjection të / ju bëftë mirë has no Gjuhës Shqipe I Morfologjia. Tiranë: counterpart in English, apart from the French Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së one bon appétit, which is used sometimes in Shqipërisë, Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i English. Certainly, I do not want to believe Letërsisë. that in the English speaking community people 2. Aijmer, K. (2002). English Discourse do not usually wish someone enjoyment of the Particles: Evidence from a Corpus. meal they are about to eat! Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing I am inclined to believe, however, that Co. cross-linguistic studies would provide us with 3. de Beaugrande, R. (1980). Text, much more insight into cultural aspects Discourse and Process. Source. [online]. represented in language practices. Available:http://www.beaugrande.com/ Furthermore, these studies should not only be TDPCHAPTERONE.htm restricted to contrasting particles and interjections, but should also take into 4. Fischer, K. (2000). From Cognitive consideration and analyze other aspects of Semantics to Lexical Pragmatics: The language use, which carry cultural aspects and Functional Polysemy of Discourse which enable the interconnection of cultures. Particles. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 5. Kole, J. (1969). Pjesëzat si Kategori 5. CONCLUSIONS Leksiko-Semantike në Shqipen e Sotme. Studime Filologjike. Nr. 3. My own definition or perhaps redefinition 6. Risager, K. (2006). Language and Culture: of interconnecting different cultures and Global Flows and Local Complexity. cultural backgrounds through language Buffalo: Multilingual Matters Ltd. practices is not only the discovery of 7. Schiffrin, D. (1987). Discourse Markers similarities or differences between or among Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. them, but also the reconception of cultural 8. Schourup, L. (1982). Common Discourse transmission and its perception in or through Particles in English Conversation. Source. language use. Such was the case with our short [online]. contrastive analyses of particles and Available:http://linguistics.osu.edu/researc interjections in Albanian and English. h/publications/workingpapers Thus, in order to linguistically interconnect 9. Senft, G. (2009). Introduction. In Senft, G., cultures one has to consider that, as Risager Ostman, J., Verschueren, J. Culture and (2006:4) observes, “… the difference between Language Use. Amsterdam: John languages are relative. In every language … Benjamins Publishing Company. there are items that are specific to precisely 10. Wierzbicka, A. (2003). Cross-Cultural this language, other items that it shares with Pragmatics: The Semantics of Human certain other languages, and some that are Interaction. New York: Mounton de assumed to be universal… All languages are Gruyter thus, to varying degrees, bearers of both the

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CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, COMMUNITY: WHAT’S IN A NAME?

Armela PANAJOTI

University of Vlora ‘Ismail Qemali’, Vlora, Albania

Abstract: This paper focuses on the importance of teaching cultural courses in the foreign language learning environment. More precisely the analysis introduced here is drawn from my personal experience of teaching the course of Culture and Civilization of English-speaking Countries to MA students who are going to become teachers of English. No matter how common and simplistic the discussion may sound, still using data drawn from discussions, surveys and interviews with my students, I intend to point out that such courses help in reshaping and redefining students’ perception and conception of culture, community and cultural communication, especially when these issues are embedded within a comparative approach that contrasts the native culture with the English-speaking cultures.

Keywords: culture, cultural courses, community, cross-cultural communication

1. INTRODUCTION Departments of Foreign Languages in Albanian universities. Despite the recognized Peter Medgyes (1996) emphasizes the importance culture has in the education of crucial role teacher education has on training foreign language teachers, there is still a either native or non-native speakers to become continuous discussion as to the role it plays in English teachers. In calling for a quest of the the teacher education curricula. The reasons “ideal teacher” he considers several aspects of behind this stand in the simple fact that culture teaching prospective English teachers mainly itself is an elusive and evolving concept, from his own experience and finally which reflects the continuous social, recognizes the need to give special priority to economic, demographic, technological and language training among and above other other developments taking place in our things. While this is still the case in many society. Therefore, while on the one hand, it is teacher education programmes offered in beneficial to integrate cultural courses in Albanian universities, I would like to focus my teacher education programmes, it is, on the attention on another issue, the importance of other hand, necessary to continuously review reviewing cultural courses in teacher education these courses. programmes. I would like to take a more expanded view The role of culture in language teaching of this matter by revisiting the concept of has been acknowledged by several authors. culture and other related concepts such as The nineties were a decade of revived interest communication and community, an intention in culture and the introduction of cultural which I evoke in the Shakespearean question elements in the foreign language teaching in the title of this paper - “what’s in a name?”. context (cf. Kramsch, 1993; Lange, 1998; What I am concerned with is to see how Atkinson, 1999). Thus, increased awareness of students themselves view the concepts of cultural influences upon language and culture, communication and community, what language instruction has reformed many associations they make with them, how foreign language teaching programmes ever instruction and knowledge received in the since. Various cultural courses have been cultural courses help in shaping their introduced in many programmes offered by definitions, ideas and attitudes towards them

CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, COMMUNITY: WHAT’S IN A NAME? and how they influence their education as More than twenty years from the fall of future teachers. Today’s society is in an communism many things have changed in ongoing process of change and all related Albania but not only. A lot of concepts, things concepts undergo the same process of change. and ideas have been reconsidered and Therefore, it is important that these changes reformulated, new elements have been are investigated and considered when introduced, older ones have been removed. introducing new academic programmes. While The exchange of cultures, the erasure of other factors contribute to the formation of borders and boundaries has given way to a such concepts such as socio-economic, globalized world in which all cultures religious, demographic and many more, I have negotiate. The reconsideration of culture decided not to consider these, but to focus affects other aspects related with it such as closely on what students benefit from their cultural communication. There is so much teacher education programme. being said about intercultural communication I will draw on my experience of teaching nowadays. The rapid advance of technology the course of Culture and Civilization of has created new spaces for communication and English-speaking Countries, a course designed for reformatting our ideas about culture or for students who become teachers of English1. community. My intention is to look into the relation Given all these changes it is no surprise between the students’ concepts of culture, that those who deal with matters of education community and communication and the still keep the discussion on culture on. What knowledge received in this course, whether do we really have in mind when we talk about these concepts have been reshaped by it, as culture? The distinctions so far made about well as to consider any possible shifts in these culture have generally led to two directions: concepts from their traditional definitions. whether to consider discussing culture with The study is based on data drawn from capital C or small c (Adaskou and Britten, discussions, surveys and interviews with my 1990; Kramsch, 1991). Often defined as high- students. The paper discusses first the concept brow culture, culture with capital C, embodied of culture, some perceptions and attitudes to in the fine arts has always been present in consider with regard to English and English language teaching. Apart from the culture, if there is such a thing any longer, then representation of “the culture’s greatest it focuses on the study carried out with the MA achievements”, Lange (1998:3) believes that students who prepare to become English another reason for this “emphasis on high teachers and analyzes their view of concepts culture” is that it “lends greater intellectual such as culture, cross-cultural communication status to the language and literature and community. In the end some conclusions department, elevating it above the ranks of follow as recommendations for curriculum language teaching institutes.” Low-brow designers. culture instead, which “implies what members of a language community do, feel, talk, think, 2. WHICH CULTURE? and dream about, within the framework of their system of values, attitudes, and mind- sets” (Medgyes, 1996: 186) is more the object 1 This is a specialist Master’s degree course in foreign of study for social sciences, but it is that which language teachering. Our students who have a BA “is hard to disentangle from language” degree in English specialize to become teachers of (Medgyes, 1996: 186). English and Italian. Thus, they study two foreign Although there seems to be a tension languages in this programme, with English as major and Italian as minor. Among other courses they also take between these two ways of seeing and defining two courses on culture, one on the culture and culture, which Lange (1998: 3) deems to civilization of English-speaking countries and another define as “emotional”, still there are other on the Italian culture. My research was limited to the issues which interfere with the teaching of first course because at the time when research was English. In the context when English, a conducted they had taken only the first course. 133

CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, COMMUNITY: WHAT’S IN A NAME? language spoken by people all over the world, answer questions, nine multiple-choice native and non-native, is being more and more questions), which required information about discussed in terms of a lingua franca rather the course of Culture and Civilization of than in terms of a foreign language, its cultural English-speaking Countries students have claims grow controversial as well. At a time taken in the teacher education curriculum; the when we speak of Englishes rather English, third contained nine items (two Lickert-scale “the traditional link between English as a questions and seven multiple-choice questions) foreign language and British (or American) about cross-cultural communication3 and the culture in the sense of national culture has also last contained eight items (four short-answer changed” (Niżegorodcew, 2011: 10). All of questions, four multiple-choice questions) these seem to have contributed to “render[ing] about how students define and feel about the English language itself culture-free” community. My population of interest was as I (Medgyes, 1999: 187). suggested previously students of English Given the situation, when dissociating the taking the specialist Master’s degree in foreign English language from the target culture is language teaching. My sample consisted of 28 proposed (cf. Niżegorodcew, 2011: 10) and the students out of 50 students who are actually European Commission is encouraging the studying in this programme. learning of two second/foreign languages2 In order not to influence their opinions instead of one (Niżegorodcew, 2011: 11), the about the course of Culture and Civilization of question of which culture to teach becomes English-speaking Countries, I decided to ask even more complex. Considering also that our them to complete the first questionnaire first, students are very much education-dependent which asked general questions about culture. for the formation of most of their ideas, the Another reason for doing this was that I question deserves great attention. But how do wanted to see how their ideas about culture students themselves feel about it? Which had changed after having taken this course. I culture do they prefer to be taught? should emphasize here that the topics discussed during this course covered various 3. THE STUDY aspects of the English-speaking world, included both perspectives of culture, also To answer most of the questions that came discussed the issue of Englishes, the place of up I decided to conduct a research. Although I the United Kingdom within the European could sense some ideas students had about Union, Britain’s colonial past as well as the these concepts during my class discussions, present relations between Britain and its from the assignments they had to do, or the former colonies, or Britain and America. What opinions received from spontaneous interviews is more, the discussions were often embedded with them, I decided to look into the matter within a comparative perspective with the further by conducting a survey. I believed that native culture, that is, aspects such as in such a way, with me not interfering and education, art, music, cinema, or lifestyle were their identity kept safe, they would feel free to often contrasted. While teaching the course, I express their thoughts as they wished. I felt some hesitation on the part of the students prepared four questionnaires: the first to discuss a lot of things, which I presumed contained seventeen items (twelve short- stemmed mainly from lack of knowledge. answer questions and five multiple-choice Therefore, I decided to give them a lot of questions), which asked general questions assignments and to keep them active as much about students’ perceptions of culture; the as I could. second contained thirteen items (four short-

3 All the questionnaires except for questionnaire three 2 This recommendation has been considered in the were prepared by me. Questionnaire three was adopted preparation of our teacher education curriculum. Our from http://www.scribd.com/doc/17900388/Question students major in English and minor in Italian. naire. 134

CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, COMMUNITY: WHAT’S IN A NAME?

4. CULTURE: WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO ancient civilization they like most. I tend to YOU? believe that their choices are dictated by their language choice in the case of English and But what view of culture do these students Italian and geographical closeness in the case have now? Has it somehow developed after of Italian and Roman. Some of the reasons having taken this course? I must admit that they provided for their choices do confirm my two things impressed me after having belief. They find, for instance, English culture conducted the survey. First, the students’ view widespread, famous, attractive and rich and of culture is still traditional, in the sense that many more. they view culture as the highest form of Students recognized the need to learn more expression of a country’s traditions and values, about their own culture. While most answered as “the best that has been thought and said in ‘yes’ to the question ‘Do you think you know the world” to put it in Mathew Arnold’s words much about your own culture?’, others ([1869]1971:6). As such culture in their view suggested that they know enough, but there is is culture with a big c and is identified with still more to learn. Very few students art, literature and music. respondeded ‘no’ to this question. Second, their view of culture is strongly Students also displayed great tolerance and influenced by their education. It is no surprise positive reception to other cultures as well as that these students associate culture with curiosity and desire to learn about them. In language and identify a strong relation most cases they answered ‘yes’ questions such between the two. The first question I asked in as ‘Do you ever read about other cultures in the questionnaire was: “Which of the books, magazines, on the Internet or other following counts as culture?” and offered them sources? Why, why not?’, ‘Would you like to the following options: Literature, Music, Art, live in another country? Why, why not?’, Cinema, Food, Fashion, Language, ‘Would you ever consider marrying or dating Community and Other (for any other activity someone from another culture?’. which for them counted as culture). To my The second questionnaire asked students surprise language rated first, with art and questions about the course itself. The literature following. I asked them other questions aimed at understanding how much questions about certain cultural activities such the course had aided in shaping their idea of as ‘Reading books, magazines etc; Watching culture and how useful they found it for their films; Listening to music; Shopping; Going to future career. Although students recognized the cinema; Writing poems, making music; the role the course had had on their knowledge Cooking; Going out for a coffee; Signing in of English and in their preparation as foreign your facebook account; Learning a foreign language teachers, there is still more to be language’ and asked them to indicate in a done in this respect. For instance, to the grading scale (1-5) which one(s) they liked question ‘Do you think it has contributed to most doing and which one(s) they found most your understanding of concepts like cultural useful doing. ‘Reading books, magazines’ and awareness, cultural communication, culture ‘Learning a foreign language’ rated first in encounters, community and other culture- both cases. related concepts?’ eleven students responded Their knowledge of culture and their ‘to some extent’. cultural preferences seem to be dictated not only by linguistic competence but also by 5. CROSS-CULTURAL geographical affinities. Thus, to questions such COMMUNICATION as ‘What other culture do you admire most? Why?’ or ‘Which of the following ancient The third questionnaire contained civilizations and cultures do you like most?’ questions which concerned students’ they would rank first English culture and then perception of cross-cultural communication. Italian culture, and Roman civilization as the They aimed at understanding how students 135

CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, COMMUNITY: WHAT’S IN A NAME? cope in a cross-cultural environment and more continuously (re)defining these concepts is particularly in a communicative situation. important. Some questions focused on misunderstanding, The problem then lies in how coherent the especially on finding out whether these, when curricula offered in our departments are with taken place, happened for language-bound or the newly spawned definitions. Although culture-bound reasons. In most students’ view cultural courses are introduced everywhere in misunderstanding was verbal, and they our curricula, still the question remains as to definitely appreciated culture and cultural how relevant is the content of these courses knowledge for a better cross-cultural with the contemporary formulations and communication. Most of them displayed alterations of these concepts. awareness of the fact that language and culture To understand this, a survey was conducted are the most important tools for proper in order to find out how students who receive understanding between people of different cultural instruction feel about culture-related cultural backgrounds. issues. What resulted from the data analysis was a traditional view of culture, in most cases 6. COMMUNITY: WHAT’S IT ABOUT? unaffected by the rapid advances of technology, discussions about the status of the The students seemed more at a loss about English language or multiculturalism. the concept of community. When asked to Although it is true that a lot of factors define community most would hesitate and not contribute to one’s understanding of culture, answer the question at all and those who did such as socio-economic, ethnic, geographical, answer it would relate the concept of religious and so on, it is above all worth community to language affinity, cultural considering the type of instruction received in similarities and environment. On the whole, cultural courses. their view of community would be rather The results obtained here suggested that broad. Although the advance of technology, students’ understanding and attitude towards the Internet, the globalization of the world these issues are largely education-related. have affected this concept by defining it in all Despite my attempts to offer them a possible ways, our students’ view still remains comprehensive view of the English-speaking rather traditional. Despite the fact that some world in the course of Culture and Civilization questions provoked them to elaborate the of English-speaking Countries by touching concept of community by relating it more to upon present-day arguments and by the social and technological changes, these did embedding them in a comparative perspective not interfere with their view. Although in most with the native culture, there is still more to be cases they recognized that this concept is done in this direction. relative, still their definition of community Students’ association of their views with was limited to cultural belonging on the whole what they have learned at school suggests that and their own community is limited to their it is our task to consider all these issues when friends, school friends or very close friends. designing new curricula. One course is not enough to satisfy students’ worldview. What is 7. CONCLUSIONS more, we should find ways to develop these courses in a more renovated format that would In this paper I tried to argue how concepts contribute to a greater understanding of culture like culture, communication and community, for a greater number of students. Although as socially projected concepts and bound to students take courses like American Culture or change and evolve in this constantly shifting British Culture in the BA degree programmes, and moving society, need to be continuously still these are courses which emphasize the revised. Given the importance they have on the traditional division of the English language education of the young, in our case of and culture into British and American and do prospective English teachers, the question of not contribute much to their understanding of 136

CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, COMMUNITY: WHAT’S IN A NAME? the status of English as a lingua franca. Research in Cross-Cultural Perspective, Courses on intercultural communication 217-240. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. should also be included. It is our task as 5. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture educators to discuss these things, possibly in language teaching. Oxford, England: undertake some action research to introduce Oxford University Press. the right missing ingredients into the content. 6. Lange D. L. (1998). The Teaching of After all, “what’s in a name?”, - that which Culture in Foreign Language Courses. you put into it. Washington DC: Centre for Applied Linguistics. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ BIBLIOGRAPHY PDFS/ED433726.pdf 7. Medgyes, P. (1996). “Language Training: 1. Adaskou, K., D. Britten and B. Fahsi. A Neglected Area in Teacher Education.” (1990). “Design Decisions on the Cultural In G. Braine Non-Native Educators in Content of a Secondary English Course English Language Teaching, 177-195. for Morocco.” ELT Journal 44(1), 3-10. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum 2. Arnold, M. [1869], (1971). Culture and Associates. Anarchy, edited by J. Dover Wilson. 8. Niżegorodcew, Anna. (2011). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. “Understanding culture through a lingua 3. Atkinson, D. (1999). TESOL and culture. franca.” In J. Arabski and A. Wojtaszek TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), pp. 625-654. (eds), Aspects of Culture in Second doi:10.2307/3587880, http://dx.doi.org/ Language Acquisition and Foreign 10.2307/3587880 Language Learning, 7-20. London and 4. Kramsch, C. (1991). “Culture in Language New York: Springer. Learning: A View from the United 9. Questionnaire: Misunderstandings in States.” In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg & C. Cross-cultural Communication. http:// Kramsch (eds), Foreign Language www.scribd.com/doc/17900388/Question naire. Accessed April 20, 2010.

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FROM VOLTAIRE TO CIORAN

Virgil BORCAN

Faculty of Letters, „Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania

Abstract: The history of French-Romanian cultural relations is tri-centenarian and biunivocal. It covers all levels of post-Illuminist intellectual preoccupation (literature, historiography, human and physical geography, arts, linguistics, fundamental scientific research, journalism, etc), without generating a vassalage relationship, as asserted by a common pre-conceived idea. "The small Paris" and the “Orient's Belgium” have also considerably influenced French culture, from Ronsard to Emil Cioran, and continue to do so. Diachronically, the most objective witness of this reciprocal infusing is the history of translations, which have considerably contributed to the crystallization of the modern Romanian language and literature, on the one hand, and to general social progress, on the other. A concrete and relevant example, therefore, of communication and communion.

Keywords: French-Romanian cultural relations, literature, communication, communion

1. INTRODUCTION during the same period. The first performance of a play in Bucharest, in 1802, staged a Although the Romanian language – with French play, which was performed in French the corresponding dialects – is structurally at the “Cişmeaua roşe” in Bucharest, under the very close to Iberic idioms (we are talking patronage of Ralu Caragea, the daughter of the about the lateral area theory in linguistics Fanariot ruler, whose name is rather geography), the historical relation that we have remembered in connection with a plague favoured, at least from the pre-modern period epidemic. It is a well documented fact that the onwards, was the one with France. The important Byzantine families that were French-Romanian cultural relations have been sending rulers for Romanian provinces were direct and intense for at least 300 years, id est impregnated with French culture, many of the since the Encyclopaedia times (in spite of the future princes being born in Paris and having a common preconceived idea, that places them French nurse. mainly in the 19th century). Still, this does not imply a tender In Romanian historiography, still uniformity of some permanent cordial incompletely freed from victimising relations. On the contrary, as France had to mechanisms such as the “bouc émissaire”, the play a difficult diplomatic-military card in period from 1711-1821 (the battle of Stănileşti Bosfor and Gurile Dunării and was obliged, to the Revolution of Tudor Vladimirescu) is given the historical antagonism, to act against known as the “Fanariot period”, which is English influence (as Germany did not count regarded as diabolic because of corruption, at sea). It has almost permanently developed exploitation, excessive taxation, and defiant an affable relation with the Sublime Porte. The luxury of the social elite etc. To a certain – French ambassador attended the martyrdom of pretty high – extent, this is how things really Constantin Brancoveanu and his sons, as one worked. attends a show at the Comédie Française, from Nevertheless, it is not less true that the first which resulted a pretty well-written massive infusions of French language and memoralist-cynical page. In 1812, as civilisation in Romanian territory took place Napoleon Bonaparte had other priorities, he

FROM VOLTAIRE TO CIORAN rejected the secret detachment of Moldavian if not all of them are called Panait Istrati, boyars, and Bessarabia passes under the Eliade, Enescu, Brâncuşi, Traian Vuia, Ottoman rule. And the examples could go on. Coandă, Babeş or Ionesco. Not less relevant is But this is not the essential part. the list of translators, absolutely impossible to exhaust. Starting with the Văcărescu brothers 2. FRENCH-ROMANIAN and Ion Heliade Rădulescu, continuing with RELATIONSHIPS Eminescu, Caragiale, Şt. O. Iosif, Duiliu Zamfirescu, Odobescu, Coşbuc or Sadoveanu, On the other hand, the French-Romanian a massive amount of translating into and from relations are biunivocal, which means French was done. Among the privileged permanent active communication between the authors, we mention Voltaire, Racine, Hexagon and the Romanian Kingdom, and not Lamartine, Corneille, and Victor Hugo. a unidirectional vassalage relation. At the Here is an eloquent example, not really at dawn of the Renaissance, Pierre Ronsard random, regarding the spread and depth of claims to descend, even if only within a these intercultural synapses: François Villon’s fabulous genealogy, from the Wallachian Ban famous line “Mais où sont les neiges d' Mărăcine (Fr.ronce = mărăcine). The Bibescu, antan?” knows no less than 13 translation Văcărescu, Rosetti, Cantacuzino, variants in the Romanian language, which I Brâncoveanu, Brătianu families leave deep allow myself to render here be it only for the traces in French culture. Having studied in sheer euphonious pleasure: Paris, the bonjouristes from the Provinces and 1. ’’Dar zăpada celui an?’’ (Zoe the 1848 revolutionaries think ‘à la française’ Verbiceanu, 1940) and, obviously, express themselves as such; 2. ’’Dar unde-s marile ninsori?’’ (Dan after all, “Chant de la Roumanie” is a piece of Botta, 1957) French, or at least francophone ‘avant la 3. ’’Dar unde sunt zăpezile de an?’’ lettre’, literature. (Lucian Blaga, 1957) The French influence is most substantially 4. ’’Dar unde-i neaua de mai an?’’ (R. visible at the linguistic level. Neologic Vulpescu, 1958) borrowings, the idea itself of neologism (with 5. ’’Dar unde-i neaua de odinioară?’’ a prevalent role in the de-hellenisation of the (Francisc Păcurariu, 1974) Romanian modern language) originate in 6. ’’Dar unde sunt/ zăpezile de altădată?’’ France. (Neculai Chirică, 1975) The literary structures of the Romanian 7. ’’Cea zăpadă/ De-astă iarnă unde-o language mould onto the French matrix, given fi?’’ (A. Alexianu, 1980) that 15-20% of the fundamental Romanian 8. ’’Ci unde-i neaua fostu-i an?’’ (Şt. vocabulary is of French origin. Until late after Aug. Doinaş, 1988) the Second World War, French becomes here a 9. ’’Dar unde-i neaua din cel an?’’ (Dan language of resistance, of expression (it is not Dănilă) accidental that Romania is a full member of 10. ’’Ci unde-i neaua de mai ieri?’’ Francophonie) and of transition (the majority (Şerban Foarţă, 2003) of the Romanians in occupied Bessarabia learn 11. ’’Ci unde-i neaua iernii, azi?’’ (idem, the Latin alphabet through the French var.) language). The aesthetic categories, the 12. ’’Ci unde-i neaua de mai an?’’ (idem, literary toposes and the history of the modern var.) Romanian literature itself, are infused by (and 13. ’’Dar unde-s iernile de-atunci?’’ (Radu infuse in their turn) the gaulois spirit, from Cârneci, 2005) Michelet translating Mioriţa (La Brebis) to the And if it comes to enumerating: Jules last great French stylist, Cioran. A parallel list Michelet, Paul Bataillard, Edgar Quinet, of literary-artistical French-Romanian Ulysses de Marsillac, Ubicini, and C. personalities is easy and useful to draw, even Rosenthal – is a sample from the long list of 139

FROM VOLTAIRE TO CIORAN personalities who, starting mainly with “the example, of intercultural communication and century of the 3 revolutions”, warmly communion of ideals. welcomed Romanian students in Paris. BIBLIOGRAPHY 3. CONCLUSIONS 1. Brăescu, I. (1980). Perspective şi To conclude, the history of French- confluenţe literare româno-franceze. Romanian relations and reciprocal influences Bucureşti: Univers. is tricentenarian and biunivocal. The two 2. Călinescu, G. (1988). Istoria literaturii national, linguistic and cultural entities are in a române de la origini pînă în prezent. dynamic relation of communicating vessels. Bucureşti: Minerva.. On the one hand, the francophonie of 3. Dupuy, R. (2001). La Politique du peuple. Romanians justifies the epithets of “small Paris: Albin Michel.. Paris" and “Orient's Belgium”, the modern 4. Mermet, G. (2004). Francoscopie. Pour Romanian language and literature being comprendre les Français. Paris: Larousse. decisively imprinted by the French mark. At 5. Michelet, J. (1973). Istoria Franţei. the same time, Romanian cultural and political Bucureşti: Minerva.. personages play at least a constant, if not 6. Ralea, M. (1962). Cele două Franţe. progressive, role in the intellectual paradigm Bucureşti: EPL. of France. One happy, even providential 7. Tréan, C. (2006). La Francophonie, Le Cavalier Bleu Ed.

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REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS

Oana-Andreea PÎRNUŢĂ, Anca SUMĂNARU

Faculty of Letters, „Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania

Abstract: The present paper aims at demonstrating how the concept of taboo has evolved and its meaning has changed since it was first introduced in the English language. According to the present-day tendency, taboo represents a custom that emphasizes that one must avoid a particular activity or subject, either because it is considered to be offensive or due to the fact that one’s religion does not allow it. The paper lays focus on the frequent use of the term taboo, which springs from the fact that each and every culture is defined by a certain set of prohibitions, depending on the period of time, the way of thinking or the religious beliefs. Thus, taboo has turned into a recurrent issue having a spectacular effect upon the literary field. Taboos have been absorbed, explored and used in a wide range of literary (con)texts all over the world. One of the most representative figures in modern literature, who has written against the ideology of his time, is D.H. Lawrence who redefined and transformed taboos by including and converting them into art, by making them seem as normal human behaviours. Furthermore, his revolutionary exploration of new territories made it possible for the representation of human experiences to advance towards modernity. This paper also brings into the spotlight the outcome of Lawrence’s daring act of writing about the unspeakable and the unpalatable issues, the Victorian age conceding its place to the modern era.

Keywords: taboo, prohibition, culture, ban, rule, sexuality, unspeakable

1. INTRODUCTION developed around physical exposure the use of violence must remain a taboo in our society/ In order to better understand how taboos mass noun - a practice that is prohibited or have entered the literary field, it is important restricted in this way: speaking about sex is a to define and describe this term. The concept taboo in his country/ adjective - prohibited or of taboo represents a custom that emphasizes restricted by social custom: sex was a taboo the fact that one must avoid a particular subject, designated as sacred and prohibited: activity or subject, either because it is the burial ground was seen as a taboo place/ considered to be offensive or because one’s verb (taboos, tabooing, tabooed)[with object] religion does not allow it. According to the place under a taboo: traditional societies taboo Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, taboos are female handling of food during this period` `the prohibition of an action or the use of (2003:1687).Wundt describes taboo as the an object based on ritualistic distinctions oldest set of rules of the humans (Freud, of them either as being sacred and 2001:22). This term is considered to be older consecrated or as being dangerous, than the gods, appearing before any religion. unclean, and accursed’.The Longman The origin of this term is Polynesian and it Dictionary offers a more complete achieved widespread currency after the visit of definition of taboo:`noun (plural taboos) - Captain James Cook to Tonga, in 1771. He a social or religious custom prohibiting or was the one who introduced the word in the forbidding discussion of a particular practice English language calling the chiefs in Tonga, or forbidding association with a particular who were not allowed to behave as person, place, or thing: many taboos have commoners, taboo people. He also stated that

REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS if anything is forbidden to eat, drink or touch, 2. DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE that thing is also called taboo: `Not one of TERM TABOO them would sit down, expressing my surprise at this, they were all taboo, as they said; which The first observers did not know whether word has a very comprehensive meaning; but, this term referred to something sacred or in general, signifies that a thing is forbidden. defiled. This is not strange because the concept Why they were laid under such restraints, at is an ambivalent one, and can mean both. The present, was not explained` (Horlacher, 19th century anthropologists, such as James Glomb, Heiler, 2010:5). What is certain Frazer, perceived the taboo as a sign of regarding this concept is the fact that it irrationality. He argued that only a primitive primarily referred to a ritual prohibition man can believe in a supernatural world, full against contact with an object, an animal or a of dangers. According to Sir Franz Steiner person. Therefore, in its original, Polynesian (quoted in Horlacher, Glomb, Heiler, 2010:6), context, the word taboo was linked with the primitive societies do not perceive the idea of mana, term which defines the religious difference between what belongs to the gods power, force of some people or objects. and what belongs to the world, between Certain persons or objects are thought of as physical evil and spiritual evil, between the being possessors of a kind of special substance unclean or polluted and the sacred or the holy. which renders them untouchable. On the one The savage sets them all under a single notion, hand, they may be considered pure; on the danger, which corresponds to a single feeling other hand, the impurity is the one which and that is fear. Frazer can be perceived as imposes a barrier between that certain being the one who creates an anthropological object/person and the rest of the world. What tradition by relating taboo with the danger of is worth mentioning is the fact that the noun contagion or pollution. Frazer paved the path and verb related to this term are English for Sigmund Freud’s theories upon primitive innovations, first recorded in Cook’s book, in societies. The father of psychoanalysis argues its original meaning taboo being an adjective. that the multitude of fears and prohibitions in The majority of the commentators argue which the savage lives is parallel with the that nowadays there is no consensus on what world of the neurotic. Furthermore, only what taboos constitute. This term has come into is desired is forbidden by the people, therefore common usage in Europe although in its they are always in an ambivalent position original meaning it was not precisely an exact towards their prohibitions. This is a term. On the one hand, taboo has diminished particularity of the incest prohibition, which its terminological precision, and on the other Freud labelled the incest taboo: the mother is a hand, it has increased its semantic scope. The prohibited sexual partner because she is the phenomena and manifestations of taboo target of an intense desire (Freud, 2001:31-35). require an approach from the perspective of It does not matter whether taboo is related different disciplines, such as: anthropology, to moral values or to the magical world or ethnology, psychoanalysis, sociology, whether its dimension in psychoanalytical, religious studies, literary studies, cultural sociological or anthropological studies is more studies, etc. The goal of this concept’s important. To reach a logical explanation of theorization with the help of numerous this term requires taking into account `the disciplines springs up from the fact that taboo classification of objects and the cosmological has proved to be central in understanding how ideas that exist in particular societies` cultures are formed. At a first glance, taboos (Horlacher, Glomb & Heiler, 2010:7). play a different role depending on the type of According to Edmund Leach (quoted in society, cultural area, and period of time. In Horlacher, Glomb & Heiler, 2010:8), the fact, this concept appears to be characterised concept of taboo includes all kinds of social by constants in anthropology and prohibitions, no matter what their nature is. psychoanalysis. What stands at the basis of this theory is the 142

REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS fact that taboo is perceived as a difference- There are some books which have been maker, as a social discriminatory tool. censored because at a certain moment they Furthermore, it is considered to be a term were considered to be obscene. Literature was which reduces ambiguities and leads to a on the one hand suppressed on sexual grounds. successful communication process. Boccaccio’s Decameron was banned in 1873 Taboos differ from period to period and for containing obscene, filthy and from culture to culture. The violation of a inappropriate material. This book does not taboo does not only create tensions triggering belong to Modernism, but it was rediscovered mechanisms of exclusion from a certain group, and also banned in modern times. Voltaire’s culture, society, but it also attracts punishment. Candide was another piece of literature which Society does not see with good eyes the was considered to contain obscene scenes and transgression of boundaries set by fixed laws, that is why it was banned in the United States norms and conventions. Hardly do we realise in 1930. Of course, this is not an isolated that the present day wide recognition and example. There were also other books which spreading in most of the languages of the had the same fate: for instance, Daniel Defoe’s world of taboo is certainly due to the Moll Flanders, banned in the United States for numerous social prejudices that each and every obscene and unappropriate material because of society has. Moreover, other reasons for this the main character who had been married to amazing spread are that each and every culture her brother, committing incest. The case with is restrained by religious laws and also that we Defoe’s adventurous character is a more have no other word to describe socio-religious complex one because of the fact that the author prohibitions. Taboos evolve and change and makes a clear concession about the style of the the fact that most western societies are more narration even from the Preface of the book. relaxed about sexual transgressions than they He prefers the conventional language, strictly were in the 19th century, for example, is a linked to morality to insert taboos regarding proof of this spectacular evolution. Taboos in sexual pleasures: `However, tho’ he took these literature imply the category of subjects, freedoms with me, it did not go to that, which words, activities, etc. which includes they call the last Favour` (Defoe, 1994:26). profanities, sexual terms, racial epithets, Therefore, a structure of modesty is imposed vulgar remarks, and other insults. All these by editorial intervention. This modest language subjects have been present throughout all is also to be found in other scenes, such as the human existence, being included in literature, ones in which Moll steals, when she makes an from the beginning of writing up to now, and abortion and in many others which emphasise therefore involved in the life of every reader. the character’s wicked behaviour. Marry Shelley’s Frankenstein is another novel which 3. CENSORSHIP AND TABOO IN was banned in South Africa for indecent MODERN WORLD LITERATURE material because of the overt way in which the human body was described. Gustave The trespassing of conventions gave birth Flaubert’s Madame Bovary suffered the same to the laws of censorship. Censorship refers to treatment and was rejected for sexual scenes the suppression of speech or other public and for offences against public moral because communication which may be considered of the adulterous affairs that Emma had. Lewis harmful, dangerous, sensitive or inconvenient Caroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland to society, culture, government or other was banned in the United States for being institutions of control. The reading public was obscene and also was Bram Stoker’s Dracula, pushed away from pieces of literature which because of the sexual scenes and due to its have proved to be valuable after all, even if at general subject, as well: `All three had a certain point they have been excluded brilliant, white teeth that shone like pearls because they were considered inadequate for against the ruby of their voluptuous lips. There the development and flourishing of culture. was something about them that made me 143

REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS uneasy, some longing and at the same time 4. TABOO-BREAKERS IN THE deadly fear.I felt in my heart a wicked, burning ENGLISH LITERARY MODERNISM desire that they would kiss me with those red lips` (Stoker, 1994:51). On the other hand, One of the 20th century authors who books were also suppressed on social grounds. maintained the continuity of taboo in literature Some literary works have been banned and was E. M. Forster. In his novel, Maurice, the challenged due to racial characterization, main character is a homosexual. The word language, drug use, sexual orientation or other homosexuality appears only twice in the text, social differences. Mark Twain's The being uttered by Mr. Lasker Jones, Maurice’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The psychiatrist. Mr. Lasker is hired to ‘cure’ Adventures of Tom Sawyer were banned in the Maurice from homosexuality, what the former past for being obscene due to the language and perceives as being a congenital defect. To a portrayal of the Black race. The books do not certain extent, this novel `is such a creation, a conform to the social, racial or sexual plea for the acceptance of homosexual desire standards of their censors. as a “natural” condition` (Harned, 2002:49). When speaking about censoring or Realizing that the therapy is failing, Mr. banning, Modernism was not mouldable Lasker suggests the main character to move to either. In 1961, the U.S. Supreme Court heard a more flexible country than England, such as arguments about whether D. H. Lawrence's France or Italy, where homosexuality was not Lady Chatterley's Lover was indecent or not. considered a crime anymore. Maurice is one of By 1969, the book had been required college the works in which the theme of sexuality reading. Another important book, Mrs. appears almost natural. The novels in this Dalloway, by Virginia Woolf, was banned period have the tendency to follow this course because of some allusions to homosexuality, and to highlight subjects which were not referring to the relationships between Clarissa supposed to be explored. As it was mentioned and Sally and between Septimus and Evans. before, the theme of homosexuality is also Many 19th and early 20th century books were present in Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway. banned simply because they discussed or Clarissa Dalloway is strongly attracted to alluded to ideas, such as: prostitution, Sally, her friend, and considers the happiest pregnancy before marriage and adultery. moment of her life the one in which the two James Joyce’s Ulysses was another example. shared a kiss. Although she does not recognise A 1920 literary magazine serialised an excerpt her feelings as proof of homosexuality, she from Ulysses and this excerpt scandalised the feels about women `as men feel` (1996:36). members of a group called the New York This is also the case of other two characters in Society for the Suppression of Vice. They were this novel, Septimus and Evans. Septimus is shocked by the novel's masturbation scene and haunted by his friend’s image and refuses the decided to set a barrier against the U.S. idea of a heterosexual relationship, ignoring publication of the full work. The novel was Rezia. He and Evans `had to be together, share reviewed in 1921 by a trial court and was with each other, fight with each other, quarrel considered to be pornographic. Thus, it was with each other’ (1996:47). banned under the accusation of having broken Another taboo-breaker, the Irish writer obscenity laws. Many have believed that James Joyce, is one of the first, among the Ulysses was banned in Ireland, but this never most important figures of the 20th century, happened. Twelve years later, in 1934, the who uses scenes with sexual implication, such novel was allowed to be published. In 1957, as the one in which Stephen Dedalus, in The the U.S. Supreme Court changed its definition Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, of obscenity. While many formerly banned confesses to the priest and says that he has books gained more and more acceptance, new been acting sinfully with himself and with works have freely included sexual details. others (referring to women) or the one in which Leopold Bloom is masturbating in the 144

REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS bathroom, in Ulysses, and also uses bad words and that is why he can be considered a road- in print. One of the main characters in Ulysses, opener for the mentality that we, the modern Molly Bloom says: Ò Lord, I wanted to shout people, have today. all sorts of things fuck or shit or anything at 5.1. The Purity of Speech. Even though all` (Joyce, 1992:894), or Ì know every turn in his novels have been rejected, excluded and him I’ll tighten my bottom well and let out a condemned, we cannot consider them as being few smutty words smellrump or lick my shit or pornographic novels. According to Stephen the first mad thing comes into my head` Marcus’s study upon sexuality and (Joyce, 1992:930). Robert Graves, in his Lars pornography in the writings of Victorian Porsena work where he declines and rejects English writers (1964), pornography English swearing, perceives a `record of a represents carnal intercourse lacking feelings novelist James Joyce` (1927:71), whose and emotions. Therefore, it is obvious that Ulysses `could be studied as a complete pornography does not fit in the novels of D.H. manual of contemporary obscenity` (1927:89). Lawrence. For example, in Lady Chatterley’s What Graves observes is, in fact, the reason Lover, the most representative novel when we why Joyce’s novel was banned: ìt is a deadly talk about the purity of speech, the relationship serious work in which obscenity is anatomized between the protagonists, Connie and Mellors, as it has never been anatomized before` is depicted as being the product of a passionate (1927:90). Another example, which confirms love, a kind of love which can do without sex the fact that in Ulysses taboo words are used, and still remain untouchable and strong: `But is that of Leopold Bloom when he refers to the not now, not yet! Now is the time to be chaste, Dead Sea and to `…the oldest people. it is so good to be chaste, like a river of cool Wandered far away over all the earth, captivity water in myself. I love the chastity now that to captivity, multiplying, dying, being born flows between us. It is like fresh water and everywhere. It lay there now. Now it could rain` (Lawrence, 2006:301). What love bear no more. Dead: an old woman's: the grey represents in this novel is a sacred, serious and sunken cunt of the world` (Joyce, 1992:60-61). major theme explored both with conventional The word cunt is used here by Joyce and unconventional instruments of the figuratively rather than literally. While Joyce language. Connie is certainly the successor of uses the word only once in Ulysses, D. H. Madame Bovary and Anna Karenina, but only Lawrence uses it in a more direct sense and on to a certain point. Instead of condemning his numerous occasions in the novel Lady heroine to death, as Flaubert and Tolstoy do, Chatterley's Lover. Mellors, the gamekeeper Lawrence shows her the way to a fulfilled and and Lady Constance’s lover, tries to delicately enriched life. explain the meaning of this word to Hilda, Therefore, Lady Chatterley’s Lover is an Constance’s sister, and says: Ìf your sister erotic rather than a pornographic novel, and it there comes ter me for a bit o' cunt an' portrays the sexual relation between two tenderness, she knows what she's after` mature people as something natural, normal, as (2006:245). D. H. Lawrence is also one of the a generator of pleasure, not as the reservoir of representative figures among the taboo- shame and dishonour. Moreover, the author is breakers and his work definitely needs an trying to stress the fact that a sexual attentive and in-depth analysis from this point relationship cannot be detached or separated of view. from feelings and emotions. This is exactly what Alastair Nirven remarks in D.H. 5. D.H. LAWRENCE - A TABOO Lawrence. The Novels. where he states that BREAKER Lawrence had the clear aim of emphasising the importance and magnificence of feelings in One of the purposes of D.H. Lawrence’s any human relationship. This argumentation is fiction is to raise awareness upon the necessity justified by the choice made by Lawrence to speak openly, honestly and freely about sex 145

REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS when choosing the novel’s original title, industrialised and mechanized society he was Tenderness. living in, through the union of man with One of Lawrence’s ambitions is to purify woman, of man with man and of man with and reintroduce the taboo words he uses (cunt, nature. This is the main reason why themes, fuck, etc.) in everyday language and to express which were considered taboos in Lawrence’s through this language feelings and emotions age and which highly contrasted with the pertaining to the intimacy of the individual. previous era, the Victorian period, appear and This is possibly the reason why Steven Marcus are developed in his fiction. It is quite (1964) considers Lady Chatterley’s Lover as a impossible to imagine how shocking sexual pornographic novel. One of the aspects, which scenes used to be in the modernist fiction he brings into discussion, is that regarding the when living in the era of Sex and the City. use of euphemisms and taboo words. D.H. What we nowadays perceive as normal, usual Lawrence avoids euphemisms in a conscious and common, was considered in the early 19th way, his intentions being to recover the century as outrageous, unthinkable and possibility of speaking and thinking freely and unspeakable. One of Lawrence’s early novels, openly about sex. He certainly uses taboo The Rainbow, explored new territories that words to achieve his goal, to wipe the entire made possible for the representation of human ambiguous aura related to sex issues and to experiences to advance towards modernity. exclude the fear regarding our own body. The frankness of this novel regards the life of Unfortunately, these words have gained such the body in its most recognisable, common and negative connotations and have been used as earthbound form. The Rainbow is the swear words and insults for so long, that expression of how the Victorian period Lawrence’s effort to recuperate their original, conceded its place to the modern era, its author primitive meaning was unsuccessful. daring to write about the unspeakable: `No It seems that Lawrence is absolutely aspect of human life changed more in the convinced of the need to approach themes, transition from Victorian England to modern such as love and sex, by ignoring social England than the way Englishmen thought conventions and the codes of morality specific about sex` (Hynes, 1968:171). to a certain class. The author tries to use Lawrence was brave enough to introduce language as a means of explaining and sexuality in The Rainbow, a novel regarding expressing the mystery which lies beyond the family relationships. Of course, Women in most beautiful feeling man can feel, that is Love, the sequel of The Rainbow, also contains love, and physical experiences, such as the intense, passionate scenes which hint at finality of sexual intercourse. It is quite clear sexuality: `So, under the bridge, they came to a that what Lawrence tries to achieve, not only standstill, and he lifted her upon his breast. His by using forbidden four-letter words, but also body vibrated taut and powerless as he closed vernacular language (in Mellors’s case) in his upon her and crushed her, breathless and dazed fiction, is a purified speech, a speech which and destroyed, crushed her upon his breast. should bring the reader closer to the Ah, it was terrible, and perfect. Under this characters’ feelings, emotions and sensations. bridge, the colliers pressed their lovers to their This is one of the main reasons why Lady breast. And now, under the bridge, the master Chatterley’s Lover became Lawrence’s most of them all pressed her to himself! […] She famous and recognised novel. The fact that was almost unconscious. So the colliers’ readers can identify with the characters and lovers would stand with their backs to the their emotions is an engine that converts any walls, holding their sweethearts and kissing novel into a successful one. them as she was being kissed` (Lawrence, 5.2. Untouchable Themes and 1996:377-378). Expressing carnal, Modernism. D.H. Lawrence continually physiological desire was also considered searched the means to overcome the shameful, scandalous and shocking, but alienation, which was typical to the Lawrence once again did not step back and 146

REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS described it as it was: a natural instinct which who pertain to different social classes. Cross- was not foreign to humans. class relationships were unacceptable in the Women’s independence is another English society at the end of the Victorian sensitive topic which is approached by period. The strict rules imposed by Lawrence. The literature in the Victorian Victorianism were still kept even after the period prepared the beginning of the assertion death of the queen. As we have previously of women in the English society. The starting pointed out, D.H. Lawrence did not settle for point was certainly the fact that women began any of the rules or conventions imposed by to write and to emphasise in their writings society. Furthermore, he chose to unite what were the difficulties they had to face characters from different social strata in order because of strict Victorian social norms and to demonstrate that people can love and relate conventions. It is commonly known that despite social discrepancies. This aspect is women in those times had few employment highlighted both in Sons and Lovers, where opportunities and were dependent on the men Mrs. Morel was of a higher class than Mr. in their families or on the men who hired them. Morel, and in Lady Chatterley’s Lover, where The novels of the Brontë sisters, first Constance falls in love with the gamekeeper. published under pseudonyms, are the ones Women in Love, a true modern which can be seen as the first expressions of masterpiece, is the novel which daringly early feminism. What they bring into the explores homosexuality through one of its spotlight is the struggle of the female protagonists, Rupert Birkin. His search for protagonists to gain independence, autonomy equilibrium between the love for a woman and and self-sufficiency. that for a man has given birth to contradictory The turn of the century underlines the interpretations. Lawrence intends to explore interest that D.H. Lawrence shows in another kind of love and this is obvious in the continuing the work that the Brontë sisters words that Birkin utters to Ursula at the very started. The fascination towards femininity is end of the novel: `Having you, I can live my easily noticeable in his novels, where he life without anybody else, any other sheer emphasises that the role of women is not just intimacy. But to make it complete, really restricted to marriage and looking after the happy, I wanted eternal union with another children. This is, of course, a sign of man, too: another kind of love` (Lawrence, modernism in his novels. Marriage is no 1996:542). Also, what Lawrence wants to longer a common interest among the modern point out is the obsessive relationship between female characters in D.H. Lawrence’s fiction. the mother and the son. The so-called What many of these women seek is happiness, Oedipus’ complex was firstly introduced by sexuality, passion, financial independence and Sigmund Freud in his studies about the self-reliance. One might think that the unconscious. Freud states that this complex Edwardian author complicated the existence of appears in the childhood years. According to his characters by engaging them in modern him, in the mind of the child a hidden desire pursuits, instead of settling them down. I arises: to reject and exclude the parent of the believe that this attempt of enlarging the same sex and to possess and passionately love sphere of women’s rights was both a step the parent of the opposite sex. forward in the emancipation process of women The pattern of this desire is easily and a boost in what was to become the open- noticeable in D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and mindedness that we are referring to today. In Lovers. There is no doubt that this novel is an Sons and Lovers and Women in Love, autobiographical one, many of the issues Lawrence creates female characters who are described and debated here being present in strong-willed and independent, such as Clara, the life of the author himself. The close Ursula or Gudrun. relationship which Lawrence had with his Another rule which is totally ignored is that mother is represented brilliantly in the novel. of the prohibited relationships between people Lydia, Lawrence’s mother was the prototype 147

REDEFINING TABOOS IN MODERN LITERARY (CON)TEXTS of the overprotective, loving, possessing, BIBLIOGRAPHY ambitious mother. Lydia became the model for an extraordinary character present in Sons and 1. Defoe, D. (1994) Moll Flanders. London: Lovers, Gertrude Morel. Even from the first Penguin Books Ltd.. pages of the novel, it becomes obvious that the 2. Freud, S. (2001). Totem and Taboo. mother-sons relationship is a special, unique London: Routledge. one. Gertrude Morel’s love for her sons 3. Graves, R. (1927). Lars Porsena, or The trespasses the usual limits of parental love. Future of Swearing and Improper Paul is the main character of the book and it is Language. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, his evolution that emphasises how influential a Trubner & Co. mother can be in her child’s process of taking 4. Harned, J. (2002). ‘Becoming Gay in E.M. decisions. Forster's “Maurice”’ in Papers on Language & Literature. Volume: 29. 6. CONCLUSIONS Issue: 1. Illinois. Gale Group. 5. Horlacher, S., Glomb, S., & Heiler, L. All in all, as we have pointed out, the (2010). Taboo and transgression in British concept of taboo has a debatable nature. Its literature from the Renaissance to the meaning has changed in time and it became present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.. what we understand by it at present. Taboos 6. Hynes, Samuel. (1968). The Edwardian have always been present in literature no Turn of Mind. Princeton: Princeton matter the time period and the works, which University Press. have trespassed the boundaries set by different 7. Joyce, J. (1992). Ulysses. Oxford: Oxford cultures, have been banned and rejected by the University Press. society. Many of the representative figures 8. Lawrence, D. H. (1996). Women in Love. among the 20th century English modernist London: Penguin Books Ltd. writers were not seen with good eyes because 9. Lawrence, D. H. (2006). Lady Chatterley’s of their resistance against the ideologies and Lover. London: Penguin Books Ltd. the stereotypical thinking of their age. D. H. 10. Marcus, S. (1964). The Other Victorians: Lawrence is considered to be one of the most A Study of Sexuality and Pornography in controversial writers in the history of Mid-Nineteen-Century England. New literature. The proof of this fact lies in the York: BAsic Books. numerous taboos he has broken, which have 11. Nirven. A. (1978). D. H. Lawrence: The been highlighted in this paper: relationships Novels. Cambridge: Cambridge University between people of different social classes, Press. openness to sexual issues, women as 12. Pîrnuţă, O.-A. & Bădulescu, A. (2009). An independent people, homosexuality and the Outline of Early XXth Century English obsessive relationship between mother and Literature. Brasov: Transilvania son. Although D. H. Lawrence’s novels have University Press. been rejected, banned and judged by the 13. Stoker, B. (1994). Dracula. London: society, his purity of speech and his way of Penguin Books Ltd. describing normal human behaviours triggered 14. Woolf, Virginia. (1996). Mrs. Dalloway. the success that his works have nowadays. London: Penguin Books. This success is also granted by the daring and 15. *** Encyclopedia Britannica. [online]. courageous nature of the writer who fought for URL:http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke what he believed in. d/topic/579821/taboo..

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LANGUAGE UNITY, CULTURAL DIVERSITY. A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE ON BRITISH MILITARY TERMINOLOGY CORPUS

Cosmina DRĂGHICI

Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper intends to constitute a new step in studying British English, language spoken within the military environment. To better understand how the English language evolved, and especially the English military terms, we have to take an inner look, so as to find out more about the English and their identity. The approach of identifying the evolution of military terminology is difficult because language plays a decisive role in influencing culture, and culture shapes language. From this inter-conditioning results, on the one hand, the failure to account for the entire restoration of the whole, taking into consideration two dynamic variables. However, analyzing inter-conditioning in depth, we find, on the one hand, that language represents the basis of culture (at the dawn of culture and language, for a population living warlike times, it is natural that military terminology to fundamentally influence the development of culture), on the other hand, language is a form of culture expression, ensuring its spread, flow, transfer of signs and cultural codes. This second, auto referential or meta-communicative dimension, is somewhat aware of what is happening in the depths of language and culture. To study, for example, the linguistic etymology of military terms would mean to consider only a rather insignificant part, a static one, despite the diachronic perspective, in terms of terminology. To study the linguistic terminology means to plunge into the study of culture, parallel to the study of language, in order to penetrate deep into the denotative meanings, into connotations and myths resulting from here. The study of linguistic terminology overlaps the study of linguistic architecture.

Keywords: British military terminology, diachronic perspective, linguistics

1. INTRODUCTION of military personnel. These language differences can cause confusion which may The present paper may contribute to a lead to misunderstanding of task fulfillment better understanding of how language and, implicitly, to death. Furthermore, another functions in different geographic combat areas, question should be brought into discussion especially in U.K. and the U.S.A. and can be when dealing with the relevance of the topic also a good tool of better learning and approached in this research paper, i.e. whether understanding the English for military the socio-cultural and socio-historical purposes. Why do we really care about development of a society may influence the etymology of English military words and evolution of more numerous and differentiated terminology? Practice has proved that the joint military terms relating to activities that are activities of military communication through deemed central to functioning of the society. It international languages is not the best, the surely does and this issue is to be further language of all military regulations and tackled. In this respect, a good example that is guidelines being the only one understood by worth mentioning is that of agrarian societies all soldiers in a certain theatre of operations, in that would develop many terms that become our case, the American English. But the more specific and differentiated relating to the English usages differ from one country to soil, weather and farming conditions. For another due to different linguistic backgrounds example the Inuit people (a group of culturally

LANGUAGE UNITY, CULTURAL DIVERSITY. A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE ON BRITISH MILITARY TERMINOLOGY CORPUS similar indigenous people inhabiting the Arctic nuances of language and terminology that regions o Greenland, Canada, the United practiced users of the terminology find States and Russia, also called Eskimo by the “obvious”. Furthermore, after all these issues Americans) have more than 20 different terms are dealt with, certain solutions will be for “snow” because of the importance of provided. frozen precipitation to their survival and Through the issues tackled, this paper culture. By this logic, the relative importance intends to constitute a new step in studying of military activity and warfare would predict and learning British and American English, or suggest the differentiation and variety of languages spoken within the military terms relating to armaments, combat and environment, with respect to the different military strategy. A farming society may only socio-cultural backgrounds and to the have terms for a fireman as a “gun”, where the worldwide military personnel that needs to object is used only for hunting and extreme learn and use it properly. To better understand situations of self-defense. In contrast, a how the English language evolved, and militaristic society would more likely have especially the English military terms, we have developed terms for side arms, rifles, to take an inner look, so as to find out more carabines, repeating or semi-automatic about the English and their identity. The best weapons, etc. These differentiated terms may way to start such a study is the historical simply be termed “guns” in a society to which approach to studying the English language. sophisticated weaponry is less central. Cultural Another reason to start the research on the intersection and trade will result in awareness military English terms historically is because and some knowledge of the different types of the irregularities of the English language today weapons, in the above example. However, the are remains of earlier, quite regular patterns full range of terminology may or may not be that can be easily explained diachronically. engrafted into the second language. The object may be seen as different, but may not be 2. TERMINOLOGY AS A SCIENTIFIC “named” or referred to as different because the DISCIPLINE cultural significance does not attach the same importance to differentiation. Terminology is the discipline concerned In a crude example, a command may be with the study and compilation of specialized given: “take the point!” In a non-militaristic terms. In recent decades it has been developed, context, this might be interpreted as to grasp with full consideration of its principles, bases an understanding of something communicated. and methodology. Terminology began to take In a sophisticated militaristic context, it would shape in the 1930s and nowadays it has a real readily be understood as a direction to assume scientific approach (Cabre, 1999:1). According the lead position in an assault team effort. This to The Longman Dictionary of English merely illustrates how military term may or Language and Culture a term is defined as: a may not be “obvious” to someone who has word or expression that has a particular acquired the language of reference as a second meaning or is used in a particular activity, job, language, depending upon the cultural and profession. A military term, thus, background and linguistic context of the designates any word related to the military person. domain. Therefore, we should go back at look at Terms are special category of words how the differentiation in terminology denoting scientific and technical notions, developed may provide basis for connected with man’s activity in different understanding why different terms are used. It specialized domains of science and technique, may also signal how and why personnel in in our case, in the military field. Their totality joint operations who come from a different is defined as terminology. Terminology deals linguistic background may not grasp the with the study of terms, their meaning, 150

LANGUAGE UNITY, CULTURAL DIVERSITY. A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE ON BRITISH MILITARY TERMINOLOGY CORPUS evolution and usage. In linguistics, the example, the major means of defense has definition of “military term” and “military always been the task of the Navy. With such a terminology” falls under the same parameters, rich military heritage, great captains of war the scientific concept of “term” and abound in every period. The physical skills “terminology”, being almost identical. The and abilities of Alfred or Richard I are military term is the same word (or compared with the skilful touch of tacticians combination of words) that names a concept of like Marlborough and Wellington. From Tudor an object, process or action of the professional times Britain’s admirals and captains ruled the field, that is, from the military one. Thus, high seas, suffering few reverses. Rank, military terminology means all the military discipline, pay, regimental structure, tactics terms from one language or all languages. The and weaponry belong to the military system military term is a symbol of a concept and its and, together with them; uniforms have concept represents the concept of fulfilled many functions in the past. They have terminological meaning. Military terms differ provided protection and a means of substantially from a word usually expressed as identification in the very heat of battle. At sea it denotes a specific notion that does not lose the canvas bell bottoms of the ordinary seamen the lexical-semantic integrity, regardless the were simple and functional, while in the army processes of expressing the content of that perhaps uniforms also reflected glamour, pride notion. However, according to the structural and decoration. viewpoint, the military term should be a The evolution of English language may be single, independent nominal unit, unalterable understood as a result of different historical in this respect. When it comes to evolution we factors and influences that led inevitably to the usually refer to history and any history can be development of language, with certain written only by making use of language. The quantitative and qualitative changes (from other way round, language itself represents a grammatical ones to changes in meaning). deposit of history. Thus, to study the evolution British military terminology linguistic of a language implies, first of all, a research of approach in parallel with the American its evolution, its characteristics, the way in military terminology is determined by the which it has enriched its vocabulary and the desire to make a presentation and description factors that influenced it. of multidimensional military terminology The language of the military in general and systems, the British and American languages, of warfare in particular, has greatly impacted in terms of structuralism, semantics and the English language. In recent years, etymology, without neglecting the historical numerous dictionaries have been compiled in context in which the terms have emerged and the attempt to determine and record the often evolved. ephemeral vocabulary associated with specific wars—not only weapons terminology and 3. A DIACHRONIC APPROACH TO THE technical jargon, but also the slang that ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND ENGLISH inevitably characterizes every warzone. MILITARY TERMINOLOGY In order to study the evolution of English language and implicitly of its military terms, The diachronic analysis of language (or of we have to go back to its origins. The military its functional block) is the analysis of language is very productive and in a transformations and changes to which continuous change when it comes to particular language is subject to. Furthermore, as Coşeriu terms used in a specific country. Thus, war and considers (1996:69-70), the diachronic violence have both played a major part in analysis involves the analysis of "making", of shaping the destiny of Britain. Although no continuously creating language, as change invader succeeded in invading the British Isles does not lie within the natural order of since 1066, this did not immunize them. For transformations, according to fixed laws, but 151

LANGUAGE UNITY, CULTURAL DIVERSITY. A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE ON BRITISH MILITARY TERMINOLOGY CORPUS along with the creative freedom, of know but the language opportunities, what conventional transformation: may be developed, what potentially can be said. From such a perspective, understanding “We have, in addition, within the culture the diachronic development of English in sciences, a particular power that no natural general, and of military terminology in science has and which they do not need. particular, should be considered in accordance Namely, we can see how freedom and people with the possibilities of this terminology change laws of their own activities. And this development and, possibly, of convergences does not exist in nature sciences. Therefore into an idiom or into a specialized language, culture sciences are much deeper and much harder than nature sciences. Because here we unanimously acquired within a political and have two options, not one: we have law military alliance. It`s equally necessary to enforcement in the particular case, as in natural view language as a living being, in the process laws and enforcement of freedom norms of its becoming, because language requires applied to laws change”. continuous adaptation to its use which, in turn, means continuous adaptation to the life The diachronic perspective aims at situations of a dynamic community. In terms establishing the ways and conditions under of knowledge it is important to note that there which linguistic transformations could take are at least three levels (different ones) to place. Given the previous view, that linguistic achieve it: doxa, or unreliable and subjective “transformation” means “making” language, opinion, téchne, or science action (doing under the creative freedom of community something that needs to be justified), members, the diachronic perspective involves respectively episteme, i.e., science justified by analyzing the conditions under which experience and study. Normally, language linguistic freedom made possible the renewal study involves placing it at the level of téchne, of language. In terms of needs (social ones) of in Coşeriu`s terms (cited Saramandu, the linguistic community members, the 1996:14), i.e., to know how to do (to speak) diachronic perspective aims at how language which leads Coseriu`s post-Saussure adapts to the speakers` needs of expression, at perspective closer to pragmatism. In such a the conditions of acceptance and dissemination direction we can speak of language as social through appeal to freedom of expression, to institution, which corresponds to the norm in integration of linguistic creation into the Hjelmslev's terms, that is, it can be imposed as community cultural tradition. Therefore, the a commitment rather than compulsion, both diachronic perspective should not be being forms of obligation in terms of linguistic understood as an analysis perspective in the conventions. Therefore, the diachronic spirit of the laws of nature, possibly to be perspective does not imply only the level of researched through purely quantitative linguistic facts already accomplished at the methods, but as the reconstruction of an entire level of English in the United Kingdom and language-culture dynamics through the North America but also the level of open motivation attempt or justification of changes, structures and of distinctions made within of identifying the reason that led to change, language that imply an agreement with the reasoning that includes the conditions, above mentioned facts. Our perspective can be circumstances, context and that cannot be useful, within terminology limits inclusively to confused with the cause. distinguish, in a subtle manner, the elements The diachronic perspective approach in our that concern particular aspects of general study is fundamental, because, naturally, a linguistics of dialectological, socio-linguistic language is learned not to use signs and the nature, of language stylistics, etc. This relations between signs properly but to foundation, resonates with Coșeriu`s actually create into that particular language. perspective, according to which plans Therefore, we don`t not learn what we already subjected to analysis would be language in 152

LANGUAGE UNITY, CULTURAL DIVERSITY. A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE ON BRITISH MILITARY TERMINOLOGY CORPUS general, language and speech, which would stages: innovation and adoption. If innovation give an account of how Anglo-Saxon military can be regarded as individual phenomenon, terminology was able to develop into such a from a linguistic perspective it is rather an differentiated manner: innovation at the Convention level and requires a strict relationship with the spread of As the difference between the three plans: innovation effects. Therefore, we speak of a language in general, language and speech – to chain of events that causes linguistic change, which the linguistic speech, language and based on innovation (to mean that any major linguistics and the linguistic discourse or text work that decisively influences the further correspond to – in the same way, in addition to development of literature and thus the studying homogeneity discipline (e.g. language speech community in question) structural grammar, lexicology general structural or structural description), we must continued with the spread of its effects, with have disciplines that study the variety, this selection of phenomena worthy of other dimension of language. And then, we consideration and with the adoption within the have the discipline that studies the variety of limits of language habituses. Generally, in space, that is well built, dialectology at all linguistic terms, the study of linguistic change levels; then sociolinguistics, that should involves comparison with a common initial distinguish the difference between social and phase, often etymologically reconstructed, cultural classes; and stylistic language, that without documents proving the presence of studies these diaphasic differences in all areas certain elements of terminology / language of language, but very much in the vocabulary, within the language areal in question, common where we often need this indexing of words, phase which involves reporting to a period of i.e.: it is related to the search level, to a certain language style, and so on and so forth. common living, in terms of language and not (Coșeriu, apud Saramandu, 1996:24-25). necessarily in terms of community. The language development is relevant parallel Intending to study variations in Anglo- different linguistic communities, i.e., the same Saxon military terminology in particular (the language there are already separate English in general), as compared to what communities, the differences are minor, and functional language represents, which is a rather the kind of diatopic, diastratic or unitary, syntopic (i.e. which does not differ in possibly diaphasic analysis. The parallel nature space), synstratic (not socio-cultural language development is relevant within differences), respectively symphasic (which is different linguistic communities, i.e., the same done in a single style of language), we take language may exist in already separated into account the fact that linguistic variations communities, the differences being minor, and in the Anglo-Saxon military terminology can rather of a diastratic or possibly diaphasic type be made towards a hypothetical structure of analysis. There is also the perspective terminology derived from functional language, according to which linguistic change, as a i.e. as compared to the terminological structure phenomenon in its own right that requires a within a single dialect, language level and sharp change in language at some point, does style of a single language. not exist anymore. But this perspective The diachronic analysis needs to be involves understanding each and every completed by the diatopic, diaphasic and linguistic fact as a continuous reality. In this diastratic analysis so as to provide a case, linguistic change aims at a rather organic multidimensional perception of a phenomenon understanding of continuous transformation of that requires a simple change of some terms in the linguistic system by continuous partial time (belonging to military corpus) according replacements. These facts already existed and to purely chronological criteria. In other were rebuilt in the same direction, along with words, our analysis refers to linguistic change facts that are replaced without the change of that involves considering at least two distinct the entire system to be majorly influenced. 153

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Therefore, we talk about organic continuity, on the one hand, that language is the culture language can be analyzed as a body equal to (at the dawn of culture and language, for a itself, while terminology, focusing on population living under war time, it is natural specialized language features, requires the for military terminology to have other way of understanding of linguistic fundamentally influenced the development of change, namely, in the sense of language culture), on the other hand language is a form change as achievement in leaps. In other of culture expression, ensuring its words, the analysis of Anglo-Saxon military transmission, flow, transfer of cultural signs terminology mechanism can be achieved in and codes. This second self-referential digital manner, studying the syncopated dimension, or metacommunication, is change of terminology structures, in the somehow aware of what happens in the depths attempt to restore a route of transformations, of language and culture. or in analytical manner, through language as an organic structure, able to realize what BIBLIOGRAPHY continuous change means, continuous dynamics, the phenomenon of language 1. Bailey, Richard W. (1991). Images of occurrence, of originating into the fact that English: A Cultural History of the something always turns into language, namely, Language. Ann Arbor: University of that it is done through change and continuity. Michigan Press. Therefore, language dynamics can be seen 2. Baldi, Philip (ed.) (1991). Patterns of as real, on the one hand, related to the Change, Change of Patterns: Linguistic dynamics changes within some classical Change and Reconstruction Methodology. terminology structures or, can be regarded as The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter. an illusion of change, when dynamism is not 3. Bradley, Henry (1955). The Making of directed by certain vectors, by certain English. London: Macmillan. tendencies, language itself representing an 4. Cabre, M. Teresa (1999). Terminology- objectifying, something abstract, while the Theory, Methods and Applications. vectors of change are only language speakers. Ams terdam: John Benjamins Publishing The strict linguistic analysis of English Co. terminology mutations in the field of language 5. Coșeriu, Eugeniu. (2004). Teoria is unable to meet the requirements of limbajului și lingvistică generală. Cinci completeness of research of such a manner, the studii. Bucharest: Enciclopaedic study of community history, cultural history, Publishing House. of individuals and groups of individuals 6. Hock, Hans Henrich (1996). Language becoming being equally essential, which History, Language Change, Language represents the foundation of the linguistic Relationship: An Introduction to Historical community in question. and Interpretative Linguistics. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 7. Kageura, Kyo. (2002). The Dynamics of 5. CONCLUSIONS Terminology. A Descriptive Theory of Term Formation and Terminological The identification of military terminology Growth. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. development is difficult because language has 8. Saramandu, Nicolae. (1996). Lingvistica a major role in influencing culture, and culture integrală (interviu cu Eugeniu Coșeriu shapes language. From this interconditioning, realizat de Nicolae Saramandui). the impossibility to recover the whole results, Bucharest: The Romanian Cultural taking into account two entire dynamic Foundation Publishing House. variables. But, analyzing it in depth, we find,

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VOLUNTEERING – DISCURSIVE DEVICES OF FRAMING A EUROPEAN AND NATIONAL COMMUNITY

Camelia-Mihaela CMECIU

Romanian Academy, Iaşi Branch, Romania

Abstract: European Years have been considered a solution to the studies which framed Europeanization as a threat. The European Year of Volunteering (EYV) is a means of building a community at a macro and micro-level. The European community that this paper focuses on does not refer to the official entity formed by a contract between the member states, it rather pinpoints diverse discursive embodiments of a united Europe. The national community will be interpreted in terms of the virtual community created through the blog posts of the project Let’s Do It, Romania! in 2011.

Keywords: European Years, discursive communities, visual communities, virtual communities

1. INTRODUCTION individual responsibilities; (3) promoting cohesion, emphasizing the benefits for all Since 1983, the European Parliament and societies; (4) establishing commitment for the Council have provided a solution to the concrete action at all levels of governance. discourse of exclusion (Wodak, 2007) that Among all the European issues, these two central European institutions have volunteering is the theme which best embodies been related to. The discursive solution found this concept of macro/ European and micro/ implied the choice of a common annual issue national communities since it implies what which should be dealt with by the European Xavier de Souza Briggs (2003: 246) labels as organizations, national governments and “community building”, namely “a variety of organizations. This shift from a discourse of intentional efforts to organize and strengthen exclusion to a discourse of inclusion has mainly social connections or to build common values focused on unity at the macro-level through a and norms that promote collective goals (or shared issue and on diversity at the micro-level both) – that is, to build more community (an through the national (non)verbal framings of interim goal) as a way of achieving some set of the respective issue. Starting from the data desired outcomes”. provided by Eurobarometers and Eurostats, the selection of a theme has been closely related to 2. CREATING DISCURSIVE the social agenda (for example, EY of COMMUNITIES intercultural dialogue – 2008, EY of creativity and innovation – 2009, EY for combating The concept of “community” has been poverty and social exclusion – 2010, EY of approached as a shift, mainly caused by volunteering – 2011). The macro and micro industrialization, from Gemeinschaft/ communities that the European organizations community based on personal interactions and want to shape rely on four guiding principles kinships (Tönnies, 1887) to Gesellschaft/ (Eurostat, 2010: 5-6): (1) a recognition of rights association based in legalistic and impersonal for all people to live in dignity and take part in relationships or from a mechanical solidarity to society; (2) a shared responsibility and an organic solidarity (Durkheim, 1893). Despite participation, emphasizing both collective and this sense of alienation that community has

VOLUNTEERING – DISCURSIVE DEVICES OF FRAMING A EUROPEAN AND NATIONAL COMMUNITY been associated with, the sociologist Z. Bauman between member states, the blog posts and (2001:1-2) provides a positive perspective, comments for the Let’s Do It, Romania! highlighting the feelings of comfort and safety campaign shape the discursive devices for a that a community offers to individuals: “warm virtual community having the following place, a cosy and comfortable place... In a features (Herring, 2004:355): active, self- community, we all understand each other well, sustaining participation; shared history, we may trust what we hear, we are safe most of purpose, culture, norms, and values; solidarity, the time…”. This positive connotation is also reciprocity; means of conflict resolution; self- emphasized by Margo Gorman (2003: 256) in awareness of group as an entity distinct from the Encyclopedia of Community: “In everyday other groups; emergence of roles, governance, English speech in northern Europe, community rituals. connotes locality, familiarity, and common binding interests”. The sharing of the same 3. FRAMING VOLUNTEERING values actually foregrounds “a sense of collective identity” (Stürmer, 2003: 240) which According to Robert Entman, to frame is involves a pronominal shift from “I-ness” to “to select some aspects of a perceived reality what Stefan Stürmer labels as “we-ness” which and make them more salient in a is the mental basis of community volunteerism. communicating context, in such a way as to This feeling of “we-ness” that volunteering promote a particular problem definition, causal focuses on “(…) increases citizens’ willingness interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or to engage on behalf of their local community” treatment recommendation for the item (Stürmer, 2003: 241). described” (Entman, 1993: 52, italics in The willing commitment in the benefit of original). Unlike agenda-setting theories which one’s community should be discursively focus on the impact of mass media content on embedded at the verbal and visual level. the public agenda, framing theories also Starting from G. Kress and Th. van Leeuwen’s highlight the role that other social actors except (2006: 24) definition of discourses as “socially mass media plays in the selection and constructed knowledges of (some aspect) of organization of the social reality according to reality”, I will analyse a double embodiment of their interests and/ or to others’ benefits. In the volunteering: promoting process that framing implies, the - volunteering as type/ the macro-level (the social actors use different verbal and non-verbal European communication toolbox – official discursive devices which, in the end, will shape poster and leaflet); some meaningful clusters which impose strong - volunteering as token/ the micro-level relations among central concepts and some (the 84 blog posts for the national campaign other peripheral concepts (Hertog, McLeod, Let’s Do It, Romania! in 2011). 2001:140). Shannon Bichard’s (2006) five- The two types of empirical data dimensional framework (time, space, tone, (communication toolbox and blogs) show that topic, mechanisms) to conceptualize frames at a discursive level, the abstract concept of will constitute the starting point of the community takes the form of a visual framework that I will use in the discursive community and of an online community. These analysis of volunteering. Even if Bichard discursive communities embody a virtual designated her framework to evaluate political community whose main features are (van Dijk, blogs, the devices discursively embedded in her 1999/ 2006: 166): a loose affiliation, dispersed approach can be applied to any category of space, heterogeneous identities and partial blogs and to any type of text. I consider that plural culture. Whereas the European two adjustments should be made to these five communication toolbox provides the guidelines frames: of an identification through a homogeneous - on the one hand, topics, as carriers of visual inclusion thus shortening the distance additional content meaning, should not be 156

VOLUNTEERING – DISCURSIVE DEVICES OF FRAMING A EUROPEAN AND NATIONAL COMMUNITY considered a frame in itself but rather as issues RQ2: Which mechanisms were used to which are framed through space, time, and tone. frame volunteering at the macro and at the Thus I consider that topics are actually what micro level? Hertog and McLeod (2001) identify as clusters RQ3: Which is the frequency of the time formed of central and peripheral concepts. and space frames used for volunteering as type - on the other hand, mechanisms are verbal and for volunteering as token? and non-verbal discursive devices which frame The coding procedure focused on dividing both topics/ issues/ clusters and the other three each verbal and visual text in units of analysis, frames identified by Bichard, namely space, identifying some statements, keywords or time, tone. images related to volunteering. The coding was The framework that I propose for the performed by two independent coders and the content analysis of volunteering is shaped on inter-coder reliability was 0.88 (pi value). the identification of three topics (actions, 3.1. Framing volunteering as type. participants, beneficiaries) related to Annually on the site of each European Year, volunteering which are framed at a twofold there is a communication toolbox which level: includes the visual guidelines and the official - the verbal mechanisms: VeM – promotional materials that each organization of catchphrases (C) and depictions (D), these two the member states has to comply to if its frames belong to Gamson, Lasch, 1983) and the activities embed the respective EY issue. The visual mechanisms: ViM – iconic images (Ic), official poster and leaflet of the EYV shape the indexical images (In) and symbolic images (S); generic verbal and visual representation of - two frames: time (past, present, future) volunteering. and space (individual, community, regional, Table 1 illustrates the way in which the societal, and European). three topics (actions, participants and The research questions that this study on beneficiaries) on volunteering as type are volunteering addresses are the following: framed on a double level: a) through the time RQ1: Which is the salience of the topics on and space frames; b) through verbal and visual volunteering as type and as token? mechanisms.

Table 1. Framing topics on volunteering as type

The first research question (RQ1) focuses Commission. As it can be observed, on the salience of the topics on volunteering as participants (81%) are the most salient topic, type, namely on the volunteering verbally and followed by actions (25%) and by beneficiaries visually represented by the European (8%). This dominance of participants is due to 157

VOLUNTEERING – DISCURSIVE DEVICES OF FRAMING A EUROPEAN AND NATIONAL COMMUNITY the salience of visual mechanisms, namely of and within this frame, a salience of present the iconic images (59 visual instances framing instances of volunteering verbally depicted as a volunteers). The official EYV poster and leaflet celebration of the volunteers’ commitment and visually included the heads of possible as a challenge for the passive citizens. Despite volunteers. The different attributes (gender, this frequency, two main aspects should be age, race) may constitute identification traits for highlighted: (1) the past instance is framed every European citizen and instances of through iconic images relying on volunteers’ diversity, equality and commitment (9 men + 9 experiences; (2) the European space is framed women). The EYV poster and leaflet are through three main actions (tour, stories, and available at http://europa.eu/volunteering/ conferences) that were to be taking place in all en/press-media/campaign-toolbox. 27 EU member states. Thus volunteering as The second research question (RQ2) type was discursively framed as a bridge focused on a quantitative analysis of the between past (verbal and visual testimonies of mechanisms used to frame volunteering at the one’s involvement) and future. macro-level. The verbal mechanisms (N=46) 3.2. Framing volunteering as token. Let’s included 24 instances for actions (52%), 16 Do It, Romania! is part of the community Let’s instances for participants (35%), and 6 Do It, World!, a project started in Estonia in instances for beneficiaries (13%), whereas the 2008. Considered the greatest project of social visual mechanisms (N=69) included 1 instance involvement once achieved in Romania and for actions (1%), 66 instances for participants having as main objective, the cleaning-up of the (96%), and 2 instances for beneficiaries (3%). entire country in one day, Let’s Do It, Romania! As it can be observed, the visual mechanisms won the Golden Award for Excellence (for the prevail and this is mainly due to the choice of non-governmental category) at the Romanian two visual texts (poster and leaflet). The iconic PR Awards in 2010 (http://www.praward.ro/pr- images of possible volunteers (N=59) is based award/editia-2010.html). on an analogy with reality, thus using the The practices of informing, connecting, discursive strategy of examples. Even if the involving, and mobilizing that this project relies symbolical images are not as salient as iconic on are mainly due to the use of Web 1.0 images, they constitute those European visual (http://www.letsdoitromania.ro) and Web 2.0 markers (logo and color) which must be used (blogs, Facebook, Youtube etc.). The analysis on every promotional material issued by of the volunteering as token will focus on the national organizations which carry on their blog posts (N=84) in 2011 published on the activities under the auspices of a European website of Let’s Do It, Romania! The choice for Year. The iconic images of three differently this social media tool lies on two main reasons colored holding arms and of four differently that were found on the literature on blogging: a) colored balloons rising up turn into symbolical the shift from Web 1.0, known as “The Read images of unity (power of working together, of Only Web”, to Web 2.0, known as “The Read helping) and diversity (people belonging to Write Web” (O’Reilly, 2005), thus the citizens different communities). turning from passive consumers into active The last research question (RQ3) shows the designers of web content; b) the advantages of frequency of the time and space frames used for blogging (Kent, 2008): the direct and intimate volunteering as type. These two frames are communication with publics, in-depth important for the issue of volunteering since information, identification with publics, they discursively embed the different types of influencing individuals and publics, sharing spaces where volunteers may get involved and personal experiences, knowledge management. at the same time, they set the directions for Table 2 illustrates the way in which future actions. As it can be observed in Table volunteering as token (Let’s Do It, Romania!) 1, there is a dominance of time frames (88%) was framed.

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Table 2. Framing topics on volunteering as token

The hierarchy of the topics framing discursive device is depictions (N=407 Romanian volunteering as token (RQ1) is the instances), descriptions of the past and future following: participants (42%), actions (38%), actions of cleaning-up and garbage-mapping in and beneficiaries (20%). As it can be observed Romania. As it can be observed in Table 2, there is not a great difference between there are some similarities in the framing of the participants and actions since actions always three topics as depictions are concerned: the imply some explicit or implicit agents. The blog depictions of actions at the level of the past posts mainly framed either stories, volunteers’ time frame (N=53) and at the level of personal experiences during the cleaning-up community space (N=29) and of regional space processes or calls to action, mobilizing (N=23) coincide, on the one hand, with the volunteers for future actions. The salience of depictions of participants at the level of past past and future actions of cleaning Romania can time frame (N=50) and at the level of also be observed at the level of the time frame community space (N=29), and on the other (64%): the past is assigned 318 instances and hand, with the depictions of beneficiaries at the the future is assigned 241 instances. One of the level of past time frame (N=50) and at the level most important actions that are mentioned in of community space (N=28) and of regional the blog posts is the mapping of the garbage. At space (N=27). One particular aspect should be the visual level, this mapping was framed mentioned related to the framing of community through maps with red points. These maps, as space: whereas for actions and beneficiaries this indexical images (N=9) of filthy Romanian frame focused on the particular places where counties/ regions, were coded as belonging to the cleaning-up and garbage-mapping were the topic of (present) beneficiaries. carried on, for beneficiaries this frame focused The salience of the mechanisms framing on different clusters of volunteers who took part volunteering as token (Let’s Do It, Romania!) is in this project (schools, kindergarden, the following: verbal mechanisms (N=519 organizations, public figures etc.). Even if instances) and visual mechanisms (N=410 catchphrases (N=112) were not as numerous as instances). The verbal resources prevail since depictions, they were framed as belonging to blog posts are mainly designed as pages for the official slogan (Let’s Do It, Romania!) and sharing ideas and experiences. Within the to other slogans of different actions whose verbal mechanisms, the most dominant verbal content is based on intertextuality (Let’s

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Bike It!, Many hands make light mapping/ took place/ will take place, the former frame Unde-s mul i, cartarea cre te). They belong has a twofold embodiment: on the one hand, either to the societal space (N=15, the community as particular places (forests, streets mentioning of the word “Romania” in the etc.) where actions are carried on, and on the slogan) or to the regional space (N=11, the hand, community as clusters of participants, the mentioning of different Romanian towns and actions are carried on but by collectivities cities). belonging to different social backgrounds. Within the visual mechanisms (N=410), iconic images (N=368) constitute the most 4. TABOO-BREAKERS IN THE salient resource, followed by symbolical images ENGLISH LITERARY MODERNISM (N=34) and indexical images (N=18). Iconic images especially focused on the past time The “we-ness” beyond volunteering, the frame prevail since they depict volunteers’ 2011 European Year issue, has been framed at experiences, namely denotative images which the macro-level, as a type of a collection of should not be interpreted as copies of reality but faces to which each of us can identify, and at rather as the installing of the conscience of the micro-level, as a token of shared “l’avoir-été-là” (Barthes, 1964: 47). Whereas experiences and calls-to-action embedded in the garbage maps were coded as indexical blog posts which may constitute signs of active images, the symbolical images mainly included participation. The visual and virtual the pictorial metaphors (Forceville, 1996) communities discursively shaped can also be embedded in the advertisements for the future quantified by the 5,281 Facebook likes that the actions of Let’s Do It, Romania! For example, Let’s Do It, Romania! blog posts received in one March blog post and some April blog posts 2011. included what Ch. Forceville labels as MP1, namely pictorial metaphors with one pictorially 5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT present term, where the secondary subject (source concept) which should have been This paper was made within The perceived in the visual composition is totally Knowledge Based Society Project supported by replaced by the primary subject (target concept) the Sectoral Operational Programme Human but it projects some qualities onto the perceived Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed element. The April blog posts focused on a shift from the European Social Fund and by the from the isotopy of a field full of garbage Romanian Government under the contract (source concept) into a field full of painted eggs number POSDRU/89/1.5/S/56815. (target concept), thus reminding of Easter. The same visual change can be noticed in the BIBLIOGRAPHY advertisement for the action (Let’s Bike It is pedaling for Earth Hour): the source concept 1. Barthes, R. (1964). Rhétorique de l'image. (the filament of a light bulb) is changed with a Communications. 4, 40-52. bike (the target concept). 2. Bauman, Z. (2001). Community: Seeking As I have mentioned above the time frame safety in an insecure world. Cambridge: (64%) is more frequent in the framing of Polity. volunteering as token (RQ3) since the blog 3. Bichard, S. L. (2006). Building blogs: A posts include stories (past time frame) and calls multi-dimensional analysis of distribution to action (future time frame). It is interesting to of frames in the 2004 presidential candidate observe the salience of community (N=270 Web sites. Journalism and Mass instances) and regional (N=70 instances) space Communication Quarterly. 83(2), 329–345. frames. Whereas the latter frame refers to 4. Briggs, de S. X. (2003). Community Romanian counties (beneficiaries) where building. In K. Christensen & D. Levison, actions of cleaning-up and garbage mapping Encyclopedia of community. From the 160

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village to the virtual world. Thousand Oaks, Gandy, & A.E. Grant, Framing public life: New York, New Delphi: Sage, 246-250. Perspective on media and our 5. Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward understanding of the social world. clarification of a fractured paradigm. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Journal of Communication. 43(4), 51-58. Associates, 139-162. 6. Gamson, W. & Lasch, K.E. (1983). The 11. Kent, M.L. (2008). Critical analysis of political culture of social welfare policy. In blogging in public relations. Public S.E. Spiro & E. Yuchtman-Yaar, Relations Review. 34(1), 32-40. Evaluating the welfare state: social and 12. Kress, G., Van Leeuwen, T. (2006). political perspective.New York: Academic. Reading images: the grammar of visual 7. Gorman, M. (2003). Community de- design. 2nd edition. London, New York: velopment in Europe. In K. Christensen & Routledge. D. Levison, Encyclopedia of community. 13. O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0? From the village to the virtual world. Design patterns and business models for the Thousand Oaks, New York, New Delhi: next generation of software. [online]. Sage, 256-261. Available at http://www.oreillynet.com/ 8. Forceville, Ch. (1996). Pictorial metaphor in lpt/a/6228. advertising. London & New York: 14. Stürmer, S. (2003). Community action. In Routledge. K. Christensen, D. Levison, Encyclopedia 9. Herring, S. (2004). Computer-mediated of community. From the village to the discourse analysis: An approach to virtual world. Thousand Oaks, New York, researching online behaviour. In S. A. New Delphi: Sage, 238-241. Barab, R. Kling & J. H. Gray. Designing 15. van Dijk, J. (2006). The network society. for virtual communities in the service of London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage learning. New York: Cambridge University 16. Wodak, R. (2007). Discourses in European Press, 338–376. Union organizations: Aspects of access, 10. Hertog, J.K., McLeod, D. M. (2001). A participation, and exclusion. Text and Talk. multiperspectival approach to framing 27 (5/6), 655-680. analysis: A field guide. In S.D. Reese, O.H.

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WHO IS AFRAID OF THE GREEKS? WHAT SECOND GENERATION IMMIGRANTS WHO STUDY IN GREEK UNIVERSITIES BELIEVE ABOUT GREEKS AND THE WAY IN WHICH THEY TREAT THEM

Argyris KYRIDIS*, Besmira MUCAJ**, Christos ZAGKOS***, Elias MICHAILIDIS*, Prokopis PANDIS***, Ifigenia VAMVAKIDOU**, Kostas TSIOUMIS*

*Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, **University of Western Macedonia, Florina, ***Centre for Educational Policy Research, Greece

Abstract: Over the last two decades Greece has accepted large numbers of immigrants and from a traditional country that outflow migration due to its geopolitical thesis transformed in a country that receives hundreds of immigrants daily. That phenomenon led to various reactions, reflections and numerous discussions and consultations within the Greek public sphere. Two of the main issues raised are the social inclusion and the cultural diversity of the newcomers in a homogenous society like Greece. Besides, plethora of studies has shown that the massive presence of immigrants transform the demographic composition and the institutional structures of host societies. But what defines the long-term consequences of migration inflows is mainly the integration process of the second generation immigrants. This study examines the attitudes and the opinions of the second generation immigrants attending Greek universities for the Greeks, their treatment by the official state, the process of integration in the Greek society, the country's immigration policy, etc. The survey was conducted between 2009 and 2011 and as a methodological tool was used a questionnaire with a 5grade scale (Cronbach's Alpha = 0,761)..

Keywords: immigrants, Greek universities, adaptation

1. INTRODUCTION Greece stopped collecting data on emigration from Greece in 1977 (National Statistical Migration is considered by many social Service of Greece and Lianos, 2003). scientists as one of the most important However, immigration to Greece is not as a phenomena of our time. Apart from the direct recent phenomenon as many people might consequences on the size and structure of a think. For example, migrants from Pakistan country’s population, both for the origin and appeared for the first time in the Greek labour the host country, there are numerous other market, after a bilateral agreement was struck effects of migration, either positive or between Greece and Pakistan during the 1970s negative, in the short-run or in the long-run, (Tonchev, 2007). Immigration to Greece was that need to be carefully investigated. For limited until the late 1980s, at which point example, migration flows seem to affect developments in neighbouring countries led to directly each economy’s output and a dramatic increase in the number of people unemployment rate, as well as, the political, willing and able to cross borders to settle in social and cultural conditions of both Greece. The collapse of the communist countries. (Cholezas, Tsakloglou, 2008). regimes, the deterioration of the international Historically, Greece has been a country of economic situation and religious emigration rather than immigration. (King, fundamentalism, led to dramatically increasing Fielding, Black 1997). Emigration trends from flows of foreigners from Eastern and Central Greece started diminishing in the mid-1970s. Europe and the Third World. Immigrants cross In fact, the National Statistical Service of the national borders with or without legal

WHO IS AFRAID OF THE GREEKS? WHAT SECOND GENERATION IMMIGRANTS WHO STUDY IN GREEK UNIVERSITIES BELIEVE ABOUT GREEKS AND THE WAY IN WHICH THEY TREAT THEM

documents and settle either temporarily or on a out by the General Secretariat of Repatriated long-term basis in national territories Co-Ethnics in 2000, numbered 155,319 people (Petronoti, Triantafyllidou, 2003). (General Secretariat of Repatriated Co- Ethnics, 2000), the actual number of migrants Table 1. Foreign population in Greece (2001 in Greece in 2001 increases to approximately Census) 900,000 (Triantafyllidou, Maroufof & Country of origin population % Nikolova, 2009). Albania 438,036 57.5% The repercussions of immigration on the Bulgaria 35,104 4.6% economy and on the Greek society, constituted Georgia 22,875 3.0% a subject of discussion and research. Romania 21,994 2.9% According to Robolis (2005), 13.0% of all US 18,14 2.4% employees in Greece are immigrants, while Russia 17,535 2.3% according to the Labour Force Surveys they Cyprus 17,426 2.3% have increased their share in the labour force Ukraine 13,616 1.8% from 3.7% in 1998 to almost 7.0% in 2004 UK 13,196 1.7% (Kontis et al., 2006). Most of the jobs Poland 12,831 1.7% performed by immigrants are low-skilled, involving manual work, well below their level Germany 11,806 1.5% of education and typical qualifications. To this Pakistan 11,13 1.5% extend, it has been realised that immigrants Australia 8,767 1.2% supply and extend the activities of the Turkey 7,881 1.0% country’s third economy -undocumented Armenia 7,742 1.0% economy- (Fakiolas, 1999), they offer their Egypt 7,448 1.0% workforce with wages perceptibly lower than India 7,216 0.9% the equivalent of the natives (Kule at all, 1999, Iraq 6,936 0.9% Lianos et al, 1996), they are distinguished by a Philippines 6,478 0.8% particularly flexible labour profile and Canada 6,049 0.8% therefore, they are necessary for the Italy 5,825 0.8% improvement of the competitiveness of small Syria 5,552 0.7% to medium-sized enterprises (Karasavvoglou, Moldova 5,176 0.7% 2001), they present a high degree of Other 53,432 7.0% geographic and professional mobility Total 762,191 100.0% (Tzortzopoulou, 1999), they improve the Source: National Statistical Service of Greece, demographic picture of Greek society, they 2001 Census finance the insurance system of the country to a great degree and thus, at least for a short According to the census of the National term, they ensure its unhindered operation Statistical Service of Greece (ESYE), that took (Karasavvoglou et.al., 2008). On the other place in 20011, there were 762,191 foreign hand, there is according to Lianos et al (2004) residents in Greece. Of those, 750,000 were hard evidence that immigration has increased citizens from outside the EU-15 countries. If criminality to a very substantial extent in the we also include the population of repatriated categories of serious crimes. It is also Greeks from the former Soviet Union who mentioned that the integration of immigrants migrated to Greece predominantly during the into the body of the Greek society is 1990s, which, according to a census carried proceeding very slowly and finally that there is much talk about evident racism and

1 xenophobia in Greece with all its negative The results of the last Census held on 2011 are not yet consequences for both immigrants and Greeks. published from National Statistical Service of Greece. 163

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Sarris and Zografakis (1999) showed already assimilation of immigrants from the host in the late 1990s that immigrants brought society, namely the unconditional assimilation about a 1.5 per cent growth in the Gross into behavior and action, social and ideological National Product (GNP), and that they had orientations. In this case it is the imposition of contributed to lowering prices by 2 per cent, coercive power relations that exist, so the which meant that Greek products were immigrant can be accepted socially. The becoming more competitive for export. They challenge is not also the marginalization of calculated that about 50,000 natives had lost immigrants because of their cultural and their jobs because of incoming immigrant linguistic diversity. The main challenge of labour, and that wages had been lowered by 6 Greek society today is the organic integration per cent in total. They also, however, showed of the immigrants into a host society that that two categories of Greek households, those accepts cultural, social, religious and linguistic with unskilled native workers and people with diversity (Kyridis et.al. 2011). average or low incomes in urban areas (accounting for 37 per cent of the total 2. THE RESEARCH population) were in competition with or might have suffered from the impact of immigrants 2.1 Scope, methodology and sample. on the economy and the labour market. All Given the fact that the main bulk of immigrant other categories of the native population, in students studding today in Greek Universities urban regions as well as rural ones benefited are probably the first children of the second from immigrant work. The results of a generation immigrants in Greece, this research research of the National Centre for Social makes an attempt to investigate the Research (2007) do not cause particular characteristics of that generation. In particular surprise, presenting Greeks as one of the most this research focuses on the immigrants’ xenophobic and racist populations in the EU. student population attending the first Moreover, roughly 53% of the Greek university year and later. The data were population considers that when the foreigners collected from immigrant students mainly in commit any offence, independent with the Florina, Volos, and Thessaloniki. The duration weight (fault or felony), evacuation is of this research expands from 2009 to 2011. necessary. Also, 22,1% argue that the The research data were taken from second economic immigrants “take our jobs”, while generation immigrant students. The research the 78,6% of Greeks assume that the focuses on this particular population since it foreigners contribute in the reduction of wage consists of children that were either born in and daily labour cost. Xenophobia of Greeks is Greece or were brought there in an early age. also proved by the fact that they believe The sample consists of 168 people which were (59,5%) it seems useful citizens which students at or have graduated from a higher emanate from poorer countries of EU should education institute. In particular there were enter the country. Feelings of racism and examined the following issues: xenophobia are also clear from the fact that • The Cultural and social adaptation of Greek citizens believe that economic second generation immigrants. To what degree immigrants and foreigners in general, have accepted and adopted the customs and deteriorate the national economy, even if it is values of the host country. Whether they prefer sure that they support a lot of sectors that to socialize with Greeks or with their Greeks do not have as a first choice to deal compatriots, while trying detecting their with, such as agriculture and auxiliary general stance against Greek reality and way domestic work. of living. The challenge in a multicultural and multilingual society is not the absolute 164

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• The desire for permanent stay through to be answered by a fixed answer on the basis the immigrants’ children expectations and of Likert's five-point scale (1: Strongly aspirations for the future. Disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Neither Disagree • What is their opinion on the Greek nor Agree, 4:Agree, 5: Strongly Agree). The institutions concerned with immigration? - questions with negative implications were What would they like to change in the ways of reversed in order to derive positive immigration reception, in the educational implications. The questionnaire includes 31 system, are they satisfied with social welfare? sentence-statements which investigate the • Which are their suggestions? Where above mentioned issues. The corpus of data would they like to raise their children? was analyzed on the basis of Factor Analysis, • How the Greeks treat them? which is widely applied in Social Sciences. The fact that for the selection of our data Factor Analysis was employed with a view to the random sampling method was used entails investigating the social subjects'/ students' serious disadvantages. Thus, the drawn response motif which enables interpreting a conclusions shouldn’t be generalized since are complex set of variables, reducing them to a valid only for populations having similar smaller number, each of which is equivalent to characteristics to those of the research’s a greater number of the initial ones. In sample. addition, Factor Analysis enables identifying In this piece of research we have selected the variables, which are typical of each factor the questionnaire as a research tool for the (factorial axis) and conducive to its following reasons: a) The questionnaire development. Finally, the specific analysis attracts the interest of the people questioned facilitates the identification of the groups of more easily and increases their participation in students, in terms of their attitudes/views to the research procedure (Anderson, 1990, the phenomenon of immigration. The internal Javeau, 1988), b) The necessity of using a consistency of the questionnaire (that is, large sample of subjects (Davidson, 1970), c) whether the questionnaire statements The questionnaire is suitable for the collection investigate the same situation, and in of information, such as perceptions and particular, the students' stance towards the opinions, which cannot be easily observed immigrants) was estimated in terms of alpha (Verma & Mallick, 1999,Fraise & Piaget, reliability. Alpha coefficient (Crondach's a) is 1970) and d) The questionnaire is a research the means of all the probable dichotomy tool that provides the opportunity for reliability values for the questionnaire and was continuous trials and interventions, in order to applied because it is not dependent on the be constructed in the best possible way statement layout (a=0,761). (Javeau, 1988) The questions/ statements had

Table 2. Demographic characteristics of the sample Gender n % Male 66 39,3 Female 102 60,7 Fathers’ profession n % Mothers’ profession n % Freelancer/Scientist 22 13,5 Freelancer/Scientist 6 3,6 Private sector servant 11 6,7 Civil servant 17 10,1 Freelancer/Technician 96 58,9 Private sector servant 0 0 Trader 6 3,7 Trader 16 9,5 Worker 28 17,2 Worker 72 42,9 Farmer 0 0 Farmer 5 3,0 165

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Domestic duties 36 21,4 Fathers’ education n % Mothers’ education n % Elementary school Elementary school 11 6,5 0 0 graduate graduate Secondary school graduate 69 42,3 Secondary school 91 54,2 graduate Technological institution 46 28,2 Technological institution 12 7,1 degree degree University degree 48 29,4 University degree 37 22,0 Postgraduate degree 0 0 Postgraduate degree 17 10,1 Country of origin n % Western Europe 17 10,1 Balkan Countries 25 14,9 Albania 97 57,7 Former USSR countries 19 11,3 Turkey 10 6,0 Age of migration n % 1-5 y.o. 90 53,6 6-10 y.o 40 23,8 11-15 y.o. 38 22,6 Age n % 18-22 y.o. 69 41,1 >23y.o. 99 58,9 Reasons of migration n % Economical 139 82,7 Family unity 11 6,5 War 18 10,7 Residence n % Metropolitan Urban Area 100 59,5 Urban area 23 13,7 Town 33 19,6 Rural area 12 7,1 Field of studies n % Science and Maths 5 3,0 Humanities 97 57,7 Technology 12 7,1 Social sciences 15 8,9 Year of studies n % 1 22 13,1 2 29 17,3 3 24 14,3 4 22 13,1 5 71 42,3

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3. RESEARCH OF THE RESULTS

Table 3. Statistical analysis of the questionnaire Statement Mean SD My reception by the Greeks was perfect 2,88 1,268 In Greece, I have more possibilities for economic and social 3,68 ,850 development than I would have in my country I have equal opportunities in all areas with my fellow citizens 2,07 1,267 I would like to be taught the language of my parents’ country in school 3,54 1,126 I have the same opportunities of accessing higher education with my 4,09 1,142 fellow Greek citizens The Greek citizens respect my diversity 1,86 ,911 The Greeks treat me as second-class citizen 3,11 ,925 Greeks easily integrate me to their companionships 3,94 ,887 I prefer to associate with my fellow compatriots 2,93 1,148 The Greeks treat me with suspicion 2,96 ,895 The living conditions in Greece for a migrant are better than I have 2,48 1,243 expected In Western Europe countries living is better for migrants 4,04 ,984 I wish one day to permanently return to my parents’ homeland 3,42 1,325 I would like my children to be taught in schools, the language of our 3,79 1,168 country of origin I want my kids to have Greek national consciousness 1,92 1,224 I consider that the Greeks are racists 3,61 1,099 My attendance in higher education made me more easily accepted by 3,79 ,953 my Greek fellow citizens I consider the Greek migration policy correct 3,55 1,098 In Greece, my origin constitutes an obstacle to finding a job 3,35 1,296 Greece has the appropriate infrastructure as an immigrant’s entrance 1,11 ,310 country I have no complaints from social welfare towards immigrants 3,32 1,296 There are racist voices in the Greek Parliament 3,82 1,146 Immigrants contribute to the country’s economy 4,67 ,471 Societies’ multiculturalism has only positive elements to contribute 3,88 1,022 The crime rate increase is due to massive immigrants’ entrance in the 2,54 1,276 country Total Score 3,0254 ,21437

The analysis of the methodological tool we perfect”; immigrants in 26.7% neither agree used led to seven main thematic categories nor disagree, 23.3% disagree, 20% agree while regarding themes like the effects of the rest of the sample either totally disagrees immigration in Greece, the socioeconomic with 16.7% or totally agrees with 13.3%. factors of immigration, the treatments of In statement 7, “the Greek citizens respect immigrants by the Greek citizens etc. The my diversity”, most of the answers are neither thematic categories are as follows: agree nor disagree with 50%, then with 20% 3.1 Treatment by Greeks. Answering agree and 13.3% disagree, whereas a 13.3% statement 1, “my reception by the Greeks was totally disagrees, and a 3.3% totally agrees. 167

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“The Greeks treated as a second-class Greek citizens” (statement 6) immigrants citizen” (statement 9) gives a 50% neither answer in an equal 43.3%, I totally agree and I agree nor disagree answers, followed by a agree, while very few (6.7%) disagree and 23.3% which agree, a 13.3% that disagree, totally disagree (6.7%). and few saying that they totally disagree with “The Greek citizens respect my diversity” 6.7%, and totally agree with 6,7%. (statement 8), is answered by 40% with I In statement 10, “Greeks easily integrate totally disagree and by another 40% with I me to their companionships”, immigrants disagree. Few of the immigrant students answer in a 56.7% that they agree, in a 23.3% (16.7%) are ambivalent and even less (3.3%) that they totally agree, a considerable number totally agree. 13.3% chooses, here too, not to give a In statements “I consider the Greek definitive answer, and few say that they just migration policy correct” (statement 20) and disagree (3.3%) or that they totally disagree “Greece has the appropriate infrastructure as (3.3%). an immigrant’s entrance country” (statement “The Greeks treat me with suspicion” 24), immigrants answer I totally disagree in an (statement 12), is answered by the most 83.3% and a 90% respectively, some say I without taking a clear stance with 46.7% while disagree in a 13.3% and a 10% while just a the rest disagree with 26.7%, agree with 3.3% neither agrees nor disagrees in 16.7%, totally agree with 6.7% and totally question/statement 20. disagree with 3.3%. 46.7% totally disagrees in statement “I In statement 18, “I consider that the Greeks have no complaints from social welfare are racists” the majority again prefers to be towards immigrants” (statement 25), and the neutral with 33.3%, whereas 26.7% totally rest of sample either disagrees with 13.3% or agrees or just agrees. neither agrees nor disagrees with 16.7%, 3.2 Effects of immigration in Greece. agrees with 13.3% and totally disagrees with Answering to the statement 29 “immigrants 10%. contribute to the country’s economy”, a vast 3.4 Socioeconomic factors. Most of the 66.7% totally agrees and a 33.3% just agrees immigrants totally disagree (50%) with the while worth mentioning is the fact that there statement “I have equal opportunities in all no other chosen answers. areas with my fellow citizens” (statement 3) The immigrants, answering statement 30, while a 16.7% just disagrees. A 13.3% remains “societies’ multiculturalism has only positive neutral, a 16.7% agrees and a 3.3% totally elements to contribute”, agree in a 40%, totally agrees. agree in a 30%, some are ambivalent (neither “My attendance in higher education made agree nor disagree) in a 20%, few disagree me more easily accepted by my Greek fellow (6.7%), and even fewer totally disagree citizens” (statement 19). At this point, most of (3.3%). the respondents, answer that they agree “The crime rate increase is due to massive (36.7%), 26.7% remains neutral while with immigrants’ entrance in the country” 10% we have those who disagree and we do (statement 31) is answered by a 56.7% of the not find immigrants that totally disagree. respondents negatively, a 30% stating that they Concerning the statement “immigrants in disagree and a 26.7% that they totally Greece experience job finding problems” disagree. From the rest 43.3% most agree (statement 21), the highest percentage 40% (23.3%) some neither agree nor disagree neither agrees nor disagrees, followed by a (13.3%) and finally some totally agree (6.7%). 26.7% which totally agree. More than less 3.3 Greek migration policy-state. In (20%) are those who agree while a 10% statement “I have the same opportunities of disagrees and only a 3.3% totally disagrees. accessing higher education with my fellow 168

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33.3% of the immigrants has neutral the immigrants” (statement 23).Most of the position concerning the statement “In Greece, immigrants (40%) agree with the statement, my origin constitutes an obstacle to finding a some (20%) are unsure, a 16.7% totally agrees, job” (statement 22), a 30% agrees, a 16.7% an equal 16.7% totally disagrees and few just disagrees, and fro the rest a 10% totally disagree (6.7%). disagrees while a another 10% totally agrees. In statement 27, “There are racist voices in 3.5 Multiculturalism - integration the Greek Parliament”, immigrants in an 83.3 measures. Statements 4, “I would like to be % answer that they totally agree, very few taught the history of my parents’ country in (13.3%) agree and only a 3.3% neither agrees school” and 5 “I would like to be taught the nor disagrees. language of my parents’ country in school” While in statement 28, “the Greek Left has show that most of the immigrants with a right views on managing the immigration 33.3% and a 26.7% respectively agree, with a issues”, most seem to totally agree (33.3%) or 30% and a 23.3% respectively totally agree agree (33.3%), a 23.3% neither agrees nor and a major percentage with 26.7% and 36.7% disagrees together with a 6.7% and a 3.3% respectively neither agrees nor disagrees. For totally disagreeing or disagreeing respectively. both statements 6.7% of the immigrants 3.7 Greece as a reception country. The disagree while some totally disagree with majority of immigrants (50%) seems to agree 3.3% and 6.7% respectively. with statement 2 “In Greece, I have more The majority of immigrants (46.7%), possibilities for economic and social concerning statement 11 “I prefer to associate development than I would have in my with my fellow compatriots”, neither agree nor country”, some, a lot less, totally agree disagree. A 16.7% agrees, a 10% totally (13.3%), a considerable percentage (30%) agrees, a 16.7% totally disagrees and a 10% neither agrees nor disagrees, and very few just disagrees. either disagree (3.3%) or totally disagree “I wish one day to permanently return to (3.3%). my parents’ homeland”, statement 15 gives us “The living conditions in Greece for a a majority of positive answers with 46.7% migrant are better than I have expected” from which 30% are I totally agree and 16.7% (statement 13). Most of the immigrants are not I agree, than we have a 33.3% that neither so sure for the conditions that they have found agree nor disagree which are followed by in Greece, thus they answer that they neither negative answers with the 13.3% totally agree nor disagree (36.7%). 30% of them disagreeing and the 6.7% just disagreeing. totally disagrees and 16.7% disagrees. Here we A 33.3% of the immigrants totally agree add a 10% of those who totally agree and a with statement 16 “I would like my children to 6.7% of those who just agree. be taught in schools, the language of our A 43.3% of immigrants totally agrees that country of origin”, 30% agrees, 23.3% neither “In Western Europe countries living is better agrees nor disagrees, while the rest 6.7% for migrants” (statement 14). A 23.3% agrees, disagrees and the 6.6% totally disagrees. a 26.7% remains neutral and 6.7% just With the statement “I want my kids to have disagrees. Greek national consciousness” (statement 17) “Access in Greece should be free for we can see the vast majority with 53.3% everyone” is a statement (26) that most cannot totally disagreeing, a 20% disagreeing, a answer decisively, thus choosing neither agree 13.3% staying neutral while some (6.7%) nor disagree in a 30%. 26.7% agrees with the agree and same percentage to totally agree. statement, 20% totally agree, more than less 3.6 Politic parties and immigration. “The (16.7%) totally disagree and 6.7% just new Government will take better measures for disagree.

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2. DISCUSSION efficient learning in secondary and higher education. Moreover, during the last decade, Greece has experienced a sharp rise in Greek authorities and citizens have made some immigration since the early 1990s as a result hesitant steps towards immigrant incorporation of social, economic and political changes in in Greek society – e.g. the inclusion of former communist countries following the immigrant families in state housing- (Gropas collapse of the Soviet Union. The first were & Triandafyllidou, 2005). Concluding, we mostly illegal and were mainly looking for a must note that despite the tentative progress job. Greece needed a cheap labour force in achieved in recent years in the immigration order to contain costs and price increases to policy of the country, many steps have to be accommodate her effort to meet the criteria set done in order the second generation in order to participate in the European immigrants to be equally integrated into the Monetary Union and immigrants, especially Greek society, and definitely the strengthening the illegal ones, provided it, since they were in of extreme racist voices, as happened in the no position to negotiate wages or working 6th of May 2012 national elections, does not conditions. They would perform any job, as help in this direction. long as it allowed them to stay in the country, even with bad living conditions or the fear of BIBLIOGRAPHY getting deported, if arrested (Cholezas & Tsakloglou, 2008). However, the things are 1. Anderson G. (1990). Fundamentals of quite different for the second generation Educational Research. Bristol: Falmer immigrants. Nowdays the children of the Press. immigrants who crossed the Greek borders 2. Cholezas, I. & Tsakloglou, P. (2008). The about 3 decades ago were born and raised in Economic Impact of Immigration in Greece. They became partakers of the Greek Greece: Taking Stock of the Existing culture and they consider themselves as an Evidence. Discussion Paper No. 3754. integral part of the Greek society. Those Bonn: IZA. students are the future lawyers, physicians and 3. Fakiolas, R. (1999). Socio-Economic architects of Greece. Our research however, Effects of Immigration in Greece. Journal indicates that even though second generation of European Social Policy, 9(3): 211-229. immigrants attending Greek universities, a fact 4. Fraise, P. & Piaget, J. (1970). Traite de demonstrating their successful schooling at all Psychologie Expérimentale. Paris: PUF. levels of formal education in Greece, still feel 5. Gropas, R. & Triandafyllidou, A. (2005). "foreigners" and “strangers” in Greece. On the Migration in Greece at a glance. Athens: other hand it is totally true that today Greek ELIAMEP. society finds itself significantly transformed 6. Javeau, C. (1988). L'enquete par and still undergoing a transition period. The Questionnaire. Manuel a l'usage du country is facing the economic and cultural Praticien. Bruxelles: Universite de tensions of globalisation, EU enlargement and Bruxelles. economic crisis, and at the same time has 7. Karasavvoglou, A. (2001). The Role of become host to nearly a million immigrants in Migration in the European Labour Market less than a decade. In such really difficult and especially in the Labor Relations and circumstances for the country few the Case of Greece in Chletsos, M. and minor steps in the right direction have been Naxakis H. (Ed.), Migrants and Migration made. The national education system has – Economical, Political and Social undergone important changes but still strives Aspects, pp. 195-218, Athens: Patakis. (in to find a new orientation towards Greek). multiculturalism alongside more effective and 170

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8. Karasavvoglou, A., Alexiou, S. and 17. National Centre for Social Research (ed.) Zoumboulidis, V. (2008). Immigration in (2007), Politics, Society, Citizens, Athens Greece: The Immigrants’ Intentions of (in Greek). Returning to their Land of Origin - The 18. Petronoti, M. & Trindafyllidou, A. (2003). Case of the Region of Kavala/North Recent immigration flows to Greece. Greece. International Research Journal of Athens: National Centre for Social Finance and Economics Issue 19, 77-88. Research. 9. King, R., Fielding, A. &Black, R. (1997). 19. Robolis, S. 2005. Economy, Labour The International Migration Turnout in Market and Immigration in Greece. In 10. Southern Europe King, R. and Black, R. Migration. (eds), Southern Europe and the New 20. Policy and Immigrants’ Rights, ed. A. Immigrations. Brighton: Sussex Academic Kapsalis and P. Linardos-Rylmon, 29-43. Press. 21. Athens: Labour Institute Study No.22, 11. Kontis, A., Zografakis, S. & Mitrakos, Th. INE-ADEDY. (in Greek). (2006). The Economic Impact of 22. Sarris, A.H. & S. Zografakis, S. (1999). A Employing Immigrants During the Last Computable General Equilibrium Decade in GDP. http://www.imepo.gr/ Assessment of the Impact of Illegal documents /epiptoseisAEP.pdf) Immigration on the Greek Economy. 12. Kule, D., Mancellari, A., Papapanagos, H., Journal of Population Economics, 12. 155- Qirici, S. & Stanfey, P, (1999). The Causes 182. and Consequences of Albanian Emigration 23. Tonchev, P. (ed.) (2007), Asian Migrants during Transition: Evidence from Micro in Greece: Origin, Present and Data, presented at the International Perspectives, Institute of International Economics and Finance Society Economic Relations., Department of Asian Conference, Brunel University. Studies, January 2007 13. Kyridis, A., Vamvakidou, I., Zagkos, Ch., http://www.idec.gr/iier/new/asian_migrant Michailidis, E., Fotopoulos, N., Koutouzis, s_en.pdf (in Greek) (visited in 17/6/2007). M., Goulas, Ch. Who is afraid of the 24. Triantafyllidou, A., Maroufof, M. & immigrants? Greek university student’s Nikolova, M. (2009). Greece: Immigration attitudes against immigrants who live in towards Greece at the Eve of the 21st Greece. International Conference RCIC Century. A Critical Assessment. IDEA 2011, 199-209. Working Papers. 14. Lianos Th., Sarris A. & Katseli, L. (1996). 25. Tzortzopoulou, M. (1999). Immigrants’ Illegal Immigration on Local Labour Working Conditions: Trends – Markets: The Case of Northern Greece, Perspectives, Paper presented at the International Migration, 34, 3, 449-483. Conference ‘Immigrants in Greece - 15. Lianos, Th. (2003). Contemporary Labour Market and Policy Issues, EKKE, migration in Greece: Economic Athens, unpublished. enlargement, Athens, KEPE (in Greek). 26. Verma G.K. & Mallick K. (1999). 16. Lianos Th., Petralias, A. & Boussoulas, Researching Education. London: The Ch. (2004). Report on Immigration to Falmer Press. Greece(Pilot Study). European Migration Network.

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CREATIVE PROCESSES IN A CYBRID COMMUNITY

Jorge Luiz ANTONIO

Instituto de Estudos da Linguagem, Unicamp, Campinas, Brasil

Abstract: The development of communications technologies created a straight relationship between men and communication machines like collective computer which makes part of mostly people´s life, as if we became a kind of interface between the real and the virtual reality. As it does exist and influences our lives, it is important to think of the intercultural cybrid context in the creative processes (arts and literature, for example). Do we really live in a cybrid community, that is, a time in real world and another in virtual world? How frequently are we real or virtual participant? Does the convergence of new media really exist? Are we going to become avatars, like the characters of the film with the same title? This paper intends to study hybridism in cyberculture under the viewpoint of the cybrid community in arts and literature, using commented examples of collaborative and collective works made from an announcement in emails or sites, with participations of many people from many countries.

Keywords: cyberculture, cyberliterature, cybercommunity, cybrid community, creative processes, literature, poetry, arts, design and technologies, techno-art-poetry

1. FIRST CONCEPTS the concept of the cognitive use of space, Anders considers cyberspace as an extension The theme of this international conference of our mental space. Referring to the field of – redefining community in intercultural cyberspace design, he treats about the artists, context – is very opportune for us to think designers and engineers who work at the about the way we nowadays live in our boundaries of their professions. This is what countries and in relationship with other he denominates as anthropic cyberspace countries by many means of communication (Anders, 2001), a human-based relationship technologies which help us to pay attention to between space and information, space and other viewpoints. That is what we could really cyberspace. This concept is called as cybrids appreciate in the first edition annuals and what (Anders, 1997) and it was extended by other we do hope to find in this second edition of the theoreticians to the culture, art and poetry. event. For the purpose of this lecture we can The focus of my speech is some creative focus on the concept of cybrid community in processes in this redefined community, or in its relationships with arts, design and the community which definition is in progress technologies in general, and with poetry in and in process, especially the relationship particular, that is, the techno-art-poetry. between virtual and real community, that is, The creative processes involved in the what we call as cybrid community. techno-art-poetry is made in the anthropic It is important first to explain the word space or as cybrids, according to Anders “cybrid” as a word composed by the prefix (1997, 2001), for it is marked by a progressive “cy” from “cybernetics” plus the “suffix” oscillation of thought between materiality and “brid” from the word “hybrid”. The most abstraction. And it is not confined in the realm interesting and possible pioneer in using the of one discipline, similarly to the printed concept of the cybrids, according to my poetry linked only to the verbal sign that researches is Peter Anders (1997). Based on expresses visuality, movement, intertextuality,

CREATIVE PROCESSES IN A CYBRID COMMUNITY interactivity, and so on. It is made of verbal one-to-one (letters, telegraph, telephone, e- and non verbal signs and takes into account the mail), one-to-many (newspaper, movie, radio, creative processes of arts, design and makes a television, the reading of on line newspaper) e poetic use of the technologies as well. many-to-many (chats, newsgroups), according The concept of a cybrid community was to the communication theoreticians; the foreseen by McLuhan and Fiore, when they internet gathers the three types of said that “the new electronic interdependence communication. recreates the world in the image of a global Among these communication technologies, village” (McLuhan; Fiore, 1969, p. 41). The we have a machine, which produces language image included in that page was very clear to and simulates worlds by numbers, that is, understand the notion: creates virtual realities, redefines our community much better than other communication technologies as telephone, radio, fac-simile or fax, newspaper, etc. For Johnson (1997) the interface culture is the new technology which transforms the way we create and communicate and he studies under some elements: bitmapping, desktop, windows, links, text, and agents. The computer and its essential and additional components offer this interface culture which makes us to become a sort of cybrid human beings, for we become part of the cybrid world, and starts living in two communities at the same time and sometimes timeless, we are linked with many countries by the computer, but we are, at the same time, a real three-dimensional person Fig.1 The notion of global village (McLuhan; who lives in a city, has a family, a work, etc. Fiore, 1969:41) Theoretically many authors name this

phenomenon as intercultural digital context The Global Village can be understood as a (that is my point of view from the theme of kind of cybrid community for it is real, or this conference), anthropic cyberspace begins with a real situation, and it is (Anders, 2001), cybrids (Anders, 1997), simultaneously a mental space, similarly to the interface culture (Johnson, 1997), linked world concept of cybrids made by Anders. We are (Barabási, 2009), brave cybrid world linked to and are part of it. (Beiguelamn, 2004), visual technology We are in a digital community, but we also (Kromm; Bakewell, 2010), technological live in a real community where we establish culture (Moles, 1973), technopoly (Postman, relationships with other citizens of our 1994), etc. Books like Linked (Barabási, country. So we are member of a cybrid 2009), The Twitter Book (O´Reilly; Milstein, community. It is more than two worlds, but 2009), Web semantic (Koogan, 2005) and another one: the cybrid world where we live, YouTube (Burgess; Green, 2009), among between digital media and the real world, has others, emphasized the importance of one had its beginning when we started using all community which exists between kind of communication technology, like, for tridimensional and digital space: a cybrid example, the correspondence services that post community. That is, for the main purpose of offices do. this paper, a cybrid community where we live, Communication technology can be in which also circulates creative processes like understood as several types of machines with digital art and techno-art-poetry. This is what which we establish mediation among persons: we can denominate as cybrid community or 173

CREATIVE PROCESSES IN A CYBRID COMMUNITY the art of creating everywhere, as a space of The WWW represents this world and it is creative processes. formed by engineers of worlds, the artists of The three paragraphs by McLuhan are the future, as stated Pierre Levy in opportune for our focus: Cyberculture. To be connected is not only to be linked in a network, but has the sensation of Societies have always been shaped more by the being part of any kind of connection. Besides nature of the media by which men being in the WWW we should be part of our communicate than by the content of the physical society in all meanings. communication (McLuhan; Fiore, 1969:8). 2. COMMENTED EXAMPLES All media work us over completely. They are

so pervasive in their personal, political, economic, aesthetic, psychological, moral, Some examples should be commented for ethical, and social consequences that they they have been the motivation of this paper. leave no part of us untouched, unaffected, In the Mail Art (1960-nowadays) unaltered. The medium is the massage. Any movement the medium (the post office understanding of social and cultural change is technologies which intermediates the sending impossible without a knowledge of the way and the receiving documents and messages) media work as environments (McLuhan; Fiore, receives a creative intervention of artists, 1969:26). writers and poets and the technology itself became a medium of arts and their messages Media, by altering the environment, evoke in also. And all the terms and ways of work have us unique ratios of sense perceptions. The changed into art processes. extension of any one sense alters the way we think and act – the way we perceive the world Cent Mille Milliards de Poèmes, by (McLuhan; Fiore, 1969: 41). Raymond Queneau (French), a work of 1961, is from the OuLiPo group (Ouvroir de The medium is not only the massage or the Littérature Potentielle) (Workshop for message, as said McLuhan (1969), but also the Potential Literature), is the most famous place of art nowadays, therefore a community, examples of a potential poem, for “each line of since the beginning of the symbolic space of a sequence of ten sonnets can be interchanged interconnected computers, and, to a great with the corresponding line of another of the extent, become a virtual community of artists. sonnets. This configuration of lines and text We can establish that this virtual activity enables the reader to manipulate ten pages of started with Mail Art in 1960, but we need to text into one hundred trillion different poems take into account that the written (Funkhouser, 2007, p. 34). In order to read all correspondence between persons and these sonnets it would be necessary many institutions had been other predecessors of persons who would become a community of virtual community as well, when the readers, under a good planning for being computers didn´t exist, because the possible to read all possible combinations. A communications were mostly made by letters, person alone, reading 8 hours a day, would messages and notes. take more than 100 years to complete his task. Nowadays when we are alone we perform The same happens with the use of as if a crowd were with us in the silence of our computational programs which make this room, especially when we are connected in a reading possible by means of a special, as did PC, notebook, netbook, or tablet. It is better to Tybor Papp (Hungary) in 1994 (only available say we don’t live alone anymore, even being on a CD-ROM); Florian Cramer (Germany) in away from everybody, though we also need to 1996: ; Magnus equipment can put us in contact with the Bodin (Sweden) in 1997: ; among others. The but an intermediation can supply this absence. computational version would become, then, a 174

CREATIVE PROCESSES IN A CYBRID COMMUNITY cybrid community of readers and this group many years, is certainly one cybrid community would bring interesting results of this kind of of digital arts, poets and theoreticians of new research (or perhaps a deception, in the case of media arts and literature. not all of one hundred trillion poems is good Baila is a site created by Loss Pequeño enough). Glazier, Kellie James, Sadie Reid and Carrie Syckelmoore (USA), in 2005 - - which participated of dance spectacle. Noisgrande, coordinated by Fabio Oliveira Nunes (Brazil), of 2006, is another interesting cybrid art community and a magazine object. The title needs to be explained: “nóis” is a popular expression of “nós” (we) in Portuguese and “grande” is “great”. The important relationship is of “Noisgrande” (we are great) with “Noigrandres”, the Concrete Poetry Group from Sao Paulo, Brazil, of 1950´s (Haroldo de Campos, Augusto de Campos, Decio Pignatari, Ronaldo Azeredo and others). The plastic nut refers to “nós”, which also means “nut” in Portuguese. Then Fig.2 Raymond Queneau- Cent Mille Milliards de we have a plastic nut, a tridimensional object, Poèmes which is a magazine object, but, at the same time, is a digital magazine object, because the During the 1980´s, the multimedia artist mini-CD-ROM offers us the possibility of and digital-visual poet Silvestre Pestana accessing its contents and appreciate a tribute (Portugal) included the digital media to Ezra Pound. (projections, television screen, light) as part of his performances.

Fig.4 Noisgrande – Fabio Oliveira Nunes and others - 2006

Fig.3 Silvestre Pestana (Portugal) (Poet´s courtesy) Chris Funkhouser (USA) make a cybrid performance in Sao Paulo at PUC SP Newsgroups like Webartery (Canada) – (Pontifical Catholic University of Sao Paulo, www.webartery.com – (1996-nowadays), Brazil) in 2007, using three multimedia coordinated by Jim Andrews (Canada) for projectors. 175

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that is “ação com tabaco” (action with tobacco) and BarriGA (Belly), using a performance recorded in a webcam with an artist in Chile in 2008. Cell phones offer two kinds of messages: SMS (Send Message Service) and MMS (Multimedia Message Service); the first one has already a poetic intervention, which is the SMS Poetry, which started with a promotion made by the poets Peter Sanson and U. A. Fanthorpe (UK) in 2001 with a context in the newspaper The Guardian - www.guardian.co.uk (7500 inscriptions of 4700 cell phones). Fig.5 Chris Funkhouser – Cybrid Performance Many other examples should be listed and 2007 commented, in order to indicate that digital communication technologies would permit us Circuito Aberto de Performance em Rede to widen our artistic experience. (Open Circuit of Net Performance), coordinated by Daniel Lima Santiago (Brazil) 3. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS and performed by all participants on

December, 15th, 2008, is a signifying example According to the concepts we have listed in for our purpose. It is indeed a genuine cybrid this paper, it is important to pay attention to artist community. The title needs to be what happens around us, especially to take into clarified: “em rede” means “in net” or “in account that new creative processes are being network”, but “rede”, in Portuguese, has the constructed in the community we live. meaning of “hammock” or “woven fabrics”. In

North and Northeastern Brazil people sleeps in 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT their hammocks.

The main proposal of the project was to I would like to thank to all persons cited in make any kind of performance in any place this paper, for without their collaborations, my using a hammock at the same day, that is, on essay would be not possible. A special thank December, 15th, 2008. Many persons from to all of the organizers of this international many places (Brazil and outside) participated conference (scientific and organizing board) and sent their performance to Daniel Lima who accepted my paper in the name of Adrian Santiago at the same day. The presentation of Lesenciuc. this individual performance became a cybrid artist community when Daniel presented each BIBLIOGRAPHY participant in a kind of digital panel by means of software (Powerpoint). 1. Anders, Peter. (1997). Cybrids: Integrating Any digital or non digital technology can Cognitive and Physical Space in receive the intervention of an artist and/or a Architecture. ISEA Archives, EUA. 5-7. poet and have its pragmatic transformed by Disponível em: < http://www.isea- creative processes, being cybrid or not. The webarchive.org/content.jsp?id=32743>. webcam device, for example, would make us Acesso em: 7 jun. 2012. to perform with other artist in other country at 2. Andre, Marie-Luce (Col.). (1971). Art et the same time or not. Though the webcam is ordinateur. Paris : Casterman. not much used by artists, we have some 3. Barabasi, Albert-László. Linked examples of cybrid artistic community: José (Conectado). (2009). A nova ciência dos Roberto Sechi (Brazil) made two networks: Como tudo está conectado a videoperformances using a webcam in 2009, tudo e o que isso significa para os 176

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negócios, relações sociais e ciências. 21st Century. Oxford, Reino Unido; New Tradução: Jonas Pereira dos Santos. São York, EUA: Berg. Paulo: Leopardo. 15. Leary, Thimothy. (1999). Flashbacks: 4. Beiguelman, Gisele. (2003). O livro depois “Surfando no caos: A história pessoal e do livro. São Paulo: Peirópolis. Também cultura de uma era: uma autobiografia. disponível em: . Acesso em: 17 out. 2010. visuala. Bucureşti, Romênia: Antet. 5. Bodin, Magnus. (1997). Cent mille 17. Levy, Pierre. (1999). Cibercultura. milliards de poèmes. Versão Tradução: Carlos Irineu da Costa. 2.ed. computadorizada. Suécia. Disponível em: São Paulo: Ed. 34. . 18. McLuhan, Marshall, Fiore, Quentin. Acesso em: 6 set. 2004. (1969). The Medium is the Message: An 6. Bonabeau, Eric. (2003). Scale-Free Inventory of Effects. EUA: Penguin. Networks. Disponível em: 19. Manovich, Lev. (2001). The Language of . Acesso em: 8 jun. 2012. (2009). Artemídia e cultura digital. São 7. Breitman, Karin Koogan. (2005). Web Paulo: Musa, FAPESP. Semântica : A Internet do futuro. Rio de 21. Matuck, Artur, Antonio, Jorge Luiz (Org.). Janeiro: LTC. (2009). Artemídia e cultura digital. São 8. Burgess, Jean, Green, Joshua. (2009). Paulo: Musa, FAPESP. Youtube e a Revolução Digital: Como o 22. Moles, Abraham A. (1969). Teoria da maior fenômeno da cultura participativa informação e percepção estética. transformou a mídia e a sociedade. Tradução: Helena Parente Cunha. Rio de Tradução: Ricardo Giassetti. São Paulo: Janeiro: Tempo Brasileiro. Aleph. 23. Papp, Tybor. (1994). Cent milles milliards 9. Costa, Rogério da. (2002). A cultura de poémes. Alire, n. 6. Cd-rom. digital. São Paulo: Publifolha. 24. Plant, Sadie. (1999). Mulher digital: O 10. Cramer, Florian. (1996-2000). Cent milles feminino e as novas tecnologias. Tradução: milliards de poémes. Permutations, Ruy Jungman. Rio de Janeiro: Rosa dos Alemanha. Versão computadorizada. Tempos; Record. Disponível em: . Acesso em 13 out. 2004. Reinaldo Guarany. São Paulo: Nobel. 11. Funkhouser, C. T. (2007). Prehistoric 26. Queneau, Raymond. (1997). Cent mille Digital Poetry: An Archaeology of Forms, milliards de poèmes. Paris: Gallimard. 1959-1995. Tuscaloosa, Alabama, EUA: 27. Rohmer, Elisabeth (Col.). (1990). Art et The University of Alabama Press. ordinateur. Paris: Blusson. 12. Ianni, Octavio. (1996). Teoria da 28. Savazoni, Rodrigo; Cohn, Sérgio (Org.). globalização. 2.ed. Rio de Janeiro: (2009). Cultura digital.br. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira. Beco do Azougue Editorial. 13. Johnson, Steven. (1997). Interface culture: 29. Sechi, José Roberto. (2009). how new technology transforms the way Videoperformances 2. Rio Claro, SP: we create and communicate. New York, edição do autor. Cd-rom. EUA: Basic Books. 30. Sheridan, Jamy. (2001). Conjectures on the 14. Kromm, Jane, Bakewell, Susan Benforado Nature of (Cyber)Space. EUA, 2001. (Ed.). (2010). A History of Visual Culture: Disponível em:

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articles/conjectures.pdf>. Acesso em: 7 34. ***. (1990). Arte e computador. jun. 2012. Tradução: Pedro Barbosa. Porto: 31. Uribe, Ana Maria. (2012). Tipoeme şi Afrontamento. anipoeme: 1968-2001. Tradução: Adrian 35. ***. (2005). Link-se: arte / mídia / política Lesenciuc. Braşov, Romênia: Editura / cibercultura. São Paulo: Peirópolis. Arania. 36. ***. (1972). Objeto e comunicação. In 32. ***. (2004). Admirável mundo cíbrido. Baudrillard, Jean; Boudon, Pierre; Lier, In: Brasil, André; Falci, Carlos Henrie; Henri Van; Wahl, Eberhard. Semiologia Alzamora, Geane (Org.). Cultura em fluxo: dos Objetos: seleção de ensaios da revista novas mediações em rede. Belo Horizonte, "Communications". Tradução: Luiz Costa MG: Ed. PucMinas. 264-281.. Lima. Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes, 1972, p. 9-41. 33. ***. (2001). Anthropic Cyberspace: 37. ***. (2005). O cartaz. Tradução: Miriam Defining Electronic Space from First Garcia Mendes. 2.ed. São Paulo: Principles. Leonardo, MIT Press Journals, Perspectiva. EUA, v. 34, n. 5. p. 409-416, out. 38. ***. (1973). Rumos de uma cultura Disponível em: . Acesso em: 6 jun. 2012.

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ETHNIC IDENTITY OF THE CSANGOS ON THE SIRET VALLEY

Maria Cristina CHIRU

"Mihai Viteazul" National Academy of Intelligence, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Moldavian Csangos represent a minority group whose ethnic belonging is quite controversial. The issue is whether they are Romanians or Hungarians. This study tries to evaluate their ethnic identity and to outline the identity profile of the csangos on the Siret Valley. I have taken 57 interviews in several villages from Bacau County (Cleja, Galbeni, Faraoani etc). The questionnaire contained the following questions: What do you understand by the term “csangos”?; Do you accept this term? Why?; What’s your native language?; What language do you speak at home with your family and children?; Do you speak Hungarian? Where did you learn it?; Would you like your children to learn Hungarian?; Do you agree with Hungarian being introduced in schools and church?; What’s your nationality in your own opinion? The data have been analyzed following the monographic method developed by Dimitri Gusti (1968). Thus, I have studied the following aspects: geographic, historic, demographic, linguistic, ethnographic highlighting those relevant for the ethnic identity. I have analysed and explained the term “csangos” and I have emphasized the acceptance/ rejection aspect of the above mentioned term.

Keywords: ethnic identity, minority goup, Csángós, nationality

1. THE CONTEXT the beginning of trying to resolve this controversial issue. Rev. Dr. Iosif Petru M. Pal The right to preserve a culture, a native published in 1942, the work “Originea language, a distinct religion is supported by catolicilor din Moldova şi franciscanii, several international documents. The păstorii lor de veacuri“, and in 1946 the Moldavian Csángós represent a "minority volume “Problema iradierii românilor din group", almost unknown outside Romania and Transilvania în Principatele Române”, written Hungary. The research history on the Csángós by Petru Râmneanţu. Later on, Nicolae Iorga is long, full of events and often full of useless in his work România cum era până la 1918. II. searches. The Csángós have driven attention Moldova şi Dobrogea (1949, 9) concluded, in by their strange, "Hungarian", dialect, which relation to their traditional costume, that "they is still heard today in many villages of are not nearly as foreign as you might Moldavia. This dialect has caused suspect." A representative work is “Originea controversies that have not ended until today. ceangăilor din Moldova (1985); its author, According to some theories, the Csángós’s Dumitru Mărtinaş (1985, 36)”, “went up ancestors, of an unknown origin, could have against the widely accepted theses of the been assimilated into Hungarian in unknown bitterness and anger of someone who sees circumstances; more recently, it has been himself misunderstood even by his own alleged that the vast majority of Csángós have people, dismantling methodically ,sina era et been denationalized by the Romanians in studio, the false allegations, often made up out Moldavia. There has been an ongoing debate of dishonesty rather than ignorance, earnestly on the linguistic and ethnic characteristics of repeating his truth and, in the same time, the Csángós. arguing it little by little”. The Hungarian The publication of the first works researchers see the Csángós as a population of dedicated to the Csángós phenomenon marks Hungarian origin. On the other hand, the

Maria Cristina CHIRU

Csángós do not consider themselves meaning "to wander here and there "," to move Hungarian, but Catholics or Romanian away ". According to others, the word would Catholics by race and religion, as recorded mean "man of noble, high-born" (Coşa, 1996, also in “Descrierea Moldovei” (1716/1973) by 61). Generally, the term is used according to Dimitrie Cantemir. Being asked about their the researcher‘s preferance for one of the nationality, Cantemir’s "Hungarians" avoided variants, either the pejorative or the non- to say they are Hungarian, "they called pejorative meaning. themselves Catholics" (82), a tradition held up till today in Moldavia. 3. RESEARCH

2. METHODOLOGY V.M. Ungureanu (1986, 105) proposed only the use of the name "Romanian The overall aim of this article is to evaluate Catholics": "the vast majority of Catholic the ethnic identity of the Csángós population inhabitants of Moldavia consider and call of the Siret Valley, using historic, themselves Romanian Catholics. The nature of demographic and ethnographic arguments. The the term Csángó is here bookish and mostly study is an exploratory one; I conducted unknown ... Those who know it and I’m interviews in Csángós’ villages in Bacau thinking of Bacău’s inhabitants, reject it as the County; I looked for and annalyzed various most serious offense that one could bring social documents, I read different studies them, and in my opinion, this rejection is referring to this area. I conducted 43 semi - closely related to the degenerated sense directive interviews in several villages: Cleja, suggested by the etymology of that word." Galbeni, Pustiana, Fundu Răcăciuni, Gioseni Analyzing responses to the first two (Tamaşi) and Bacău. The data I obtained are questions, we can say that Csángós are answers to the following questions: Romanian Catholics in a rate of about 80 I interviewed people from all social percent. The 7-8 percent who still relate the categories, gathering information and opinions name Csángó to the ethnonym Hungarian about the speakers. Interviews have been are exclusively part of the Hungarian recorded and then wholly transcribed. I’ve population. Only 0.4 percent of the Csángós tried to capture those aspects that are relevant consider themselves as being something else, to ethnic identity. I was interested in speeches different from the Romanians and the about the ethnic identity of Csángós that Hungarians, without being able to define it. considered themselves to be Romanians. I Out of the total of 26 percent people who have found it necessary to explain what the consider themselves or are regarded by others term Csángós means: what specialists mean by as Csángós in Moldavia, 88.7 percent this term, both the Romanian and the consider that they are firstly Romanians and Hungarian ones, as well as local people. I 6.5 percent consider to be primarily also considered it important to emphasize the Hungarians; 1, 5 percent consider themselves phenomenon of acceptance / rejection of that primarily Csángós, the rest of 0.4 percent term. The linguists have delivered over time a consider themselves Germans and 2.9 percent series of assumptions about the meaning of the do not respond. In conclusion, Csángós term Csángós. In Romanian, Csángós is define themselves as being Romanians in a virtually meaningless, which proves that it proportion of about 89 percent. isn’t of Romanian origin (Mărtinaş, 1985, 35). Csángós have drawn people's attention to It is said that the word could have been themselves by a dialect that can be still heard derived from the word csángók, meaning today in some villages in Moldavia. It is well- "crossing", "mixed" or an botanical equivalent known that language is a powerful indicator of - "hybrids", considered less pejorative. identity. From the linguistic point of view Another hypothesis is that the name csángó there have been strong controversy regarding comes from the Hungarian verb csáng the origin of the local dialect that Csángós 180

Maria Cristina CHIRU speak. Csángó linguistic phenomenon Most of the subjects didn’t agree with an involves two conflicting aspects: the education in the Hungarian language, and Romanian origin based in Transylvania and those who agreed, meant only the introduction the Hungarian layout, as a result of the process of Hungarian language classes, seen as a of turning them into Szelcklers. Dumitru foreign language. "I do mind. Yes, because Mărtinaş (1985.60) emphasizes the importance this is not an international language. The of paying attention to both aspects as "paying Hungarian language is known only by attention to only one of the two aspects to the Hungarians from Transylvania and by the detriment of other, as happened in all past Hungarians from Hungary. We do not even research, the inevitable result was the failure to agree with the introduction of Hungarian fully elucidate the origin of Csángós, despite language classes in school. Our children have all the effort made by researchers. Only the learnt Romanian, and now attend school and to Hungarian aspect of the problem used to be be fooled. They should study international revealed while the Romanian origin was languages like: English, French .. " ignored or concealed, and that happened Regarding the religious service and, because certain interests , not related to a therefore, the language they would like it to be scientific approach, decided it ". officiated, the vast majority of respondents (98 Some of the interviewed subjects , when percent) would like the Romanian language to asked what language they usually use at be used in church. "I do not agree. Because I home, answered that they used both Csángós do not understand it. I do not want to go to the and Romanian. Others said they used only Mass and not to understand what the priest Romanian. ”Romanian, of course. But we says ... ". speak this Csángós too. We mix Romanian The fact that the ancestors of the present and Csángós words to better understand. As inhabitants of the Siret Valley are for the Romanian language...we are a bit Transylvanians is eloquently proved by the confused because we have not spoken it all the ethnographic features of area. Analyzing the time. We have spoken it only with our elements of material culture of Csángós children.I for one did not want them to speak population, you meet everywhere Romanian Csángós... they have picked it up from us...” characteristics: the way of organizing the The native language of Csángós is the household, the use of terms and names, Romanian language. ”Romanian. How decorative ornaments, all are Romanian. should I say Csángós is my native Transylvanian reverberations are evident both language? We picked up from our parents in the calendar customs, and within the family. but this is not a language… It does not On festivals, on New Year's Eve, at popular exist .Romanian is our native language. dancing, weddings and funerals, Csángós We are Romanian.” Very few of the subjects wear the Romanian popular costume, can speak Hungarian, but they don’t know to preserved from centuries from ancestors, with read or write. Many Catholics in Moldavia all its characteristics: the Dacian wrinkled have been in Hungary to work. Some of them neck shirt, belts, peasant sandals, long peasant have learned to speak the language in Covasna coats, sheepskin coats. We must emphasize, and Harghita counties. They don’t watch TV first of all, the unity and uniqueness given by in Hungarian, don’t listen or read news in the use of the same raw materials in Hungarian. Most of them do not know this manufacturing parts of the popular costume. language. We can add also a second element, the same In Csángós villages of the Siret Valley it cut in straight pieces. In the same time, the has been proposed they should introduce the ornamental elements in diamond shapes on Hungarian language in schools as a language Csángó popular costume pieces, as well as the of instruction and in churches as well. Thus, I styling of geometric patterns for elements asked the subjects whether they agreed with taken from nature are characteristic for the the Hungarian language in school and church. Romanian folk costume and ornamentation. 181

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4. CONCLUSIONS believe that ethnic identity is one of many identifying strategies. Ethnicity is only an While in the past, ethnic identity could option for identity and its meaning is very be regarded as self-defining of individuals, important for the individual. deriving from joining a specific group - which Hungarian researchers see the Csángós was given by birth: language, culture, history as a population of Hungarian origin. On the of relations between their group and other other hand, Csángós do not identify groups in the society, currently this meaning themselves with the Hungarians, but as cannot be fully accepted. Due to fast catholic or Romanian catholic by race and by modernization, evolution of technology and religion, as recorded by Dimitrie Cantemir in increased mobility, the individual can choose “Descrierea Moldovei” (1716/1973). Asked his own ethnic identification. Most people are about their nationality, Cantemir’s members of multiple groups, and their "Hungarians" avoided to say that they were membership is emphasized or minimized Hungarians, "they called themselves depending on the situation. Family legacy can Catholics" (82), a custom preserved until today be irrelevant to an individual belonging to an in Moldavia. ethnic minority if it’s more important for him, To understand the situation today, we psychologically speaking, to belong to the must take into consideration the approaches on majority culture. Also, there are situations the origin and evolution of these communities: when there is no correspondence (or there is the origin of Csángós and their ancestors, their some little correspondence) between the original homeland and native language. The identity which is psychologically important for study is organized and presented according to the individual and how it is perceived by the the objectives presented, each analyzed frame others. has been completed with ”local people, voice” The environment consists of social to the extent of the information obtained from relations on the one hand and, on the other interviews. I considered it necessary, before hand, of existential problems that relate to proceeding to a detailed presentation of each social, political, philosophical and frame, to explain what the term Csángó cosmological dilemmas. The meaning of means: what Romanian and Hungarian identity occurs when one makes clear some of specialists as well as local people understand these problems and learn how to place the by this term; I’ve considered it important to entire configuration of social relations and highlight the acceptance / rejection of this ontological questions. name. Objectives attributes are fundamental to Settled down by several steps in guide and regulate collective behavior, but Moldavia, the Csángós are of Transylvanian don't give a complete understanding of the origin, forced by circumstances to pass ethnic identity. Therefore, I think the through a process of forced Magyarization. subjective dimension is very important Before finally being liquidated as Romanian because it focuses on psychological aspects - ethnics, they were forced to pass the the individual identification (or lack of it) with Carpathians in Moldavia, where they could his own ethnic group. Thus, it is now possible preserve their language, customs, their entire to analyze all generations belonging to Romanian lifestyle, forming and developing a minorities whose lifestyle may be the same as strong and alert ethnic consciousness most people, but still maintain different demonstrating their membership of the degrees of identification with the original Romanian nation. group. Statistical data shows too the Romanian Ethnic identity is not fixed and does not ethnic origin of the Csángós. I do not know the represent a permanent commitment, an sources quoted by Hungarian experts .They unshakable one. It is not necessarily unique: point out in their work a large number of ethnic identities can coexist. In conclusion, we Csángó -Hungarians in this area: they mention 182

Maria Cristina CHIRU figures varying from 60,000 to 300,000 6. Comitele d'Hauterive (1902). Memoriu people. Documents provided by Romanian despre starea Moldovei la 1787 (Memoriu researchers, published in scientifical works asupra vechii şi actualei stări a Moldovei and official documents containing public prezentat lui Alexandru Vodă Ipsilante, figures are being completely ignored by the Domnul Moldovei la 1787). Bucureşti: Hungarian "experts". Summarizing grouped Ediţiunea Academiei Române. data on the grounds of nationality, native 7. Coşa, A. (1996). Consideraţii asupra language and religious denomination, we get originii şi evoluţiei fenomenului ceangău. to the conclusion their majority,... about Almanahul “Presa Bună”, 1996, 61-76. 235,000 people - said they were Romanian 8. Coşa, A. (2000). Comunităţi catolice din Catholics, while the total number of Hungarian Moldova: Cleja. Carpica, XXIX, Iaşi: Catholics does not exceed 5,000 people. Documentis. In terms of ethnographic, research results 9. Geza, B. (1962). Contribuţii la problema show that the "Csángós" are Romanian from originii ceangăilor. Studii şi articole de Transylvania. This fact is obvious in all events istorie, IV. Bucureşti: Societatea de and traditional customs. Houses are built in the Ştiinţe istorice şi filologice din R.P.R., 37- Romanian traditional type house, with all the 45. changes that have occurred over time. The 10. Giurescu, C. (1967). Târguri sau oraşe şi interior designs show the way of thinking and cetăţi moldovene din secolul al X-lea până of living specific to the Romanian people: the la mijlocul secolului al XVI-lea. selection of certain folk motifs, the preference Bucureşti.. for certain ornamental compositions. Catholic 11. Ichim, D. (1987). Zona etnografică peasants in Moldavia wear the same costumes Bacău. Bucureşti: Editura Sport-Turism. as their fellow Orthodox. This can also be seen 12. Iorga, N. (1940). România cum era până in areas with mixed population. This is the la 1918, II, Moldova şi Dobrogea. Romanian traditional costume inherited from Bucureşti. ancestors. And if the Catholics traditional 13. Lechinţan, P. (1995). Un document costume has drawn the attention, this necunoscut, din 1772: Ceangăii din zona happened because it was much better Bacăului sunt români emigraţi din preserved than in Orthodox communities and secuime. Românul, 27 martie - 2 aprilie. not by some features that differentiate them. 14. Lucaciu, C. şi Teodorescu, A. (1998). Despre ceangăii din Moldova şi originea BIBLIOGRAPHY lor. Bucureşti. 15. Mărtinaş, D. (1985). Originea ceangăilor 1. Cantemir, D. (1716/1976). Descrierea din Moldova. Bucureşti: Editura Ştiinţifică Moldovei. Bucureşti: Editura Minerva. şi Enciclopedică. 2. Caraman, P. (1990). Les portes 16. Merfea, M. (1996). Ceangăii despre ei monumentales de la Roumanie. înşişi. Monitorul de Bacău, din 13, 14, 15, Considération générale sur leur genese et 16, 17 februarie. leur signification. Sociétés européennes. 17. Meteş, Ş. (1977). Emigrări româneşti din Paris-Bucarest, 27-41. Transilvania în secolele XIII-XX. (ed. II). 3. Ciubotaru, I.H. (1998). Catolicii din Bucureşti: Editura R.S.R. Moldova – Universul culturii populare. 18. Micu, B. I. (1997). Încercări violente de Iaşi: Editura Presa Bună. maghiarizare a “ceangăilor” români 4. Ciubotaru, I.H. (2002). Catolicii din (1944-1997). Bucureşti: Bravo Press. Moldova – Universul culturii populare. 19. Mihăilescu, I., Abraham, D., Bădescu, I., Obiceiurile familiale şi calendaristice. Chelcea, S. (2002). Satele cu “ceangăi” Iaşi: Editura Presa Bună. din Moldova. CURS. 5. Chelcea, I. (1970). Portul cu coarne. 20. Nagy, J. (1958). Portul popular maghiar Muzeul Satului – Studii şi Cercetări. din Trascău. Bucureşti: ESPLA. 183

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21. Opreanu, S. (1927). Printre românii 28. Râmneanţu, P. (1946). Problema iradierii secuizaţi. Graiul românesc. I/1927. românilor din Transilvania în principatele 22. Pal, I.P. (1941). Originea catolicilor din române. Cluj. Moldova şi franciscanii, păstorii lor de 29. Secoşan, E. şi Petrescu, P. (1984). Portul veacuri. Săbăoani-Roman: Tipografia popular de sărbătoare din România. Serafica. Bucureşti: Editura Meridiane. 23. Pal, I.P. (1942). Originea catolicilor din 30. Stan, V. şi Weber, R. (1997). The Moldova şi franciscanii, păstorii lor de Moldavian Csango. International veacuri. Săbăoani-Roman: Tipografia Foundation for promoting studies and Serafica. knowledge of minority rights. 24. Pavel, E. (1976). Portul popular 31. Tánczos, V. (1998). Hungarians in moldovenesc. Iaşi: Editura Junimea. Moldavia. Institute for Central European 25. Pop, M. (1976). Obiceiuri tradiţionale Studies. Budapest: Teleki László româneşti. Bucureşti: Institutul de Foundation, nr.8, aprilie. Cercetări Etnologice şi Dialectologie. 32. Ungureanu, M.R. (1996). O hartă a 26. Popa-Lisseanu, G. (1932). Secuii şi comunităţilor catolice din Moldova. În secuizarea românilor. Bucureşti. Anuarul Institutului de Istorie “A. D. 27. Pozsony, F. (2002). Ceangăii din Xenopol”. Iaşi, tomul XXXIII, 342-52. Moldova. Cluj: Asociaţia Etnografică 33. Zaharia, D. (1997). Ceangăii – o ficţiune Kriza János. istorică. Comunicare, Sesiunea Ştiinţifică de la Sfântu Gheorghe.

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GLOCALIZATION – A NEW SYNTHESIS OF CONTRARIES? THE CULTURAL IDENTITIES PERCEIVED AS COMPOSITION EFFECT

Adrian LESENCIUC*, Grigore GEORGIU**

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, **Faculty of Communication and Public Relations, National School of Political Studies and Administration

Abstract: Social and human sciences face today, as yesterday, the challenge to explain the unity and diversity of cultures. This complex relationship between unity and diversity has been encoded over time in different formulas and equations, but its substance has remained relatively the same. In today’s world, guided by contradictory vectors, this relationship could be found into the tension between global flows and cultural identities. The concept of globalization, more commonly used in scientific discourses, is meant to express the coexistence and the interference of certain opposite elements and tendencies at different levels of social reality. Understanding these realities marked by unusual hybridizations requires a new mindset, a conjunctive paradigm, able to explain the combinatorial virtues of new languages and cultural creations. Given this context, under the pressure of globalization and intercultural communication, cultures change their internal structure and redefine their identity’s architecture. In a world of conjunctions, the cultural identities are viewed as a composition effect, as a result of combination between global and local.

Keywords: globalization, glocalization, grobalization, intercultural communication

1. INTRODUCTION. GLOBALIZATION perspective, as a progressive dynamic result, AS TYPE OF CULTURAL CHANGE of a process of internal spontaneous change, on the other hand, the result of induction, Globalization, wide phenomenon, not „while the host countries perceived it as a clearly defined, understood as a universal, pressure and less as a free choice” (Mamulea, internal and ascendant tendency towards the 2007:107). Therefore, globalization can be „concrete totality”, or as a tendency adapting perceived differently, having a general to the new meanings of the contemporary understanding and being the designed result of multicultural phenomenon (including an unfinished process (and from this correlative aspects such as the cultural specificity towards genus proximus differences homogeneousness), or as the expression of the perceptive occur: 1. that will end sometime, in expansion of commercial systems at a the universalist, consensual perception, where planetary scale (Bădescu, 2003:77-78), the cultural encounter would be represents not only a current term attached to unproblematic, and 2. That will never end, in the multicasual, complex process, relativist understanding, situation in which the imperceptible in its totality, as it is described cultural encounter is a temporal experiencing through our intentions, but also within the of otherness). The rigid term delimitation of limits of our research, a term that leads us to globalization would be impossible. Within the that meaning associated with cultural change. fluctuant limits of this weak definition, The globalization phenomenon can be seen globalization has known rough content from distinct perspectives. It represents, on the clusters, such as those that limit the forms of a one hand, according to the communication possible project ending, overlapping the global principle (principium communicationis) cultural rhetoric version: cultural mosaic,

GLOCALIZATION – A NEW SYNTHESIS OF CONTRARIES? THE CULTURAL IDENTITIES PERCEIVED AS COMPOSITION EFFECT consisting of a pastiche of denationalized localism vs. globalism, but that of overcoming styles and motifs, complemented by a range of the disjunctive paradigm through conjunctive values with origins in local cultures; cultural terms that a certain Stephane Lupasco have melting pot, being a unique and uniform trans- proposed, through Logica dinamică a and supralocal mixture; and cultural contradictoriului (1982) or a certain imperialism (whose particular form is Constantin Noica through Scrisori despre Americanization), a copy of a specific culture, logica lui Hermes (1986). In these terms, the globally spread (Mamulea, 2007:115-116). American analytical, procedural and inductive Within the reductive meaning of culture to spirit, precludes the possibility of going civilization, the latter being a largely written beyond the opposition. culture or a regrouping of cultures in The need to overcome the disjunctive Huntington terms (1993/1998), globalization paradigm has been conscious, but the may be regarded as a „universal civilization” impossibility of paradoxical thinking, within a project, of regrouping of cultures under the cultural environment – American one – same ideological roof of occidental origin, characterized by questioning the validity, by translatable up to identification – only from association with the praxis, the action, the this reductionist perspective, of Anglo-Saxon proof and the implicit (Stewart, Bennett, style – through a proper Occidentalized 1991:37) has lead to the need of functional „culture”, (understood within the limits of the model of practice. This model did not hesitate intelligible, Davos culture). This project of to appear: the micromarketing model. More, universal „civilizing” produces, under the the term that now characterizes the conjunctive mask of integrative action, the dislocation of paradigm of global spread, together with the blocks civilization (idea developed by local fortification didn`t hesitate to produce Huntington from Toynbee`s theses), leading to effects at the employment level within the diversification and move of emphasis from conjunctive logic: glocalism. Unfortunately, in global to local. American and quasi-occidental understanding, glocalization, introduced in 1991 in The 2. LOCALISM vs. GLOBALISM OR Oxford Dictionary of New Words, designating LOCALISM & GLOBALISM? „globalization of the local” together with „localization of global” and representing the Localism – ideology of opposition, in the simple mixonimic association („telescopic”, in meaning of many theorists, such as Levitt American contemporary trend) of the words (1983), Giddens (1990), Barber (1992), – is global and local, is maintained within the not a form of cultural change, but one of limits of a strict reference to the reference maintaining inertial within tradition limits. model: micromarketing model1, being Localism is the result of conservation, the principle of individuation being implied this 1 „The idea of glocalization in its business sense is time (principium individuationis), that is closely related to what in some contexts is called, in responsible for the ethnicity process. more straightforwardly economic terms, micromarketing: the tailoring and advertising of goods Understood in a conjunctive logic, and services on a global or near-global basis is globalization deals with those dynamic increasingly differentiated local and particular markets. processes between societies and cultures Almost needless to say, in the world of capitalistic allowing the local not to be denied by global, production for increasingly global markets the and, in turn, not to deny the global. Therefore, adaptation to local and other particular conditions is not simply a case of business responses to existing global the main problem is not that of understanding variety – to civilizational, regional, societal, ethnic, globalization as a developing process, not that gender and still other types of differentiated consumers of perception within strong, disjunctive terms – as if such variety of heterogeneity existed simply „in of ideologies that lead the phenomenon itself”. To a considerable extent micromarketing – or, in beyond the natural limits of its production: a more comprehensive phrase, glocalization – invloves the construction of increasingly differentiated 186

GLOCALIZATION – A NEW SYNTHESIS OF CONTRARIES? THE CULTURAL IDENTITIES PERCEIVED AS COMPOSITION EFFECT understood as denotative „one of the main globalization and cultural identity. In terms of marketing buzzwords of the beginning of the this criterion, we find two metaphor-images, nineties” (The Oxford Dictionary of New which are frequently used by theorists: images Words, apud Robertson, 1995:28). Therefore, of network (connections, remote interactions, glocalism, understood as its origin and in the Butterfly Effect) and images of amalgam promoting culture as the measure of a non- (interference, hybridization, cultural contradiction la (between global and local), as creolization, mix, mosaic, „salad bowl”, long as something related to the quotidian „multicultural bazaar”, the new Babel). (small markets, global TV networks that In the first case, the world appears as a promote the local spirit, McNeill`s poly- whole, a unique context, made of "multiplying ethnicity (2003), pan-Africanism, but also the synapses", by interdependencies, networks, „paradoxical” global organizations that fight synchronization, interconnections. It is a top for local rights, etc.) prove the non- view, "from the plane" when we see the world contradiction. In European understanding in wrapped in "nets, wires and knots", general and East-European/Romanian, in surrounded by the same atmosphere and particular, glocalism finds the reflexive subject to the same gravitational field. From environment proper to inculcate the idea of this position, of an observer located "outside", lack of opposition between identity and we see that the globalization and new media globalization. Obviously, glocalism can be one interconnected all corners of the world. For of the terms that takes into consideration the example, it is McLuhan`s perspective („global non-opposition reality of global-local village”), of Manuel Castells`s (2001) or of (complex at the reflexive level, requiring Thomas Friedman`s (2008), for whom the prolonged cultural training, of centuries or, revolution of the NTIC has "flattened" the even millenniums), similar to part-whole non- world and built a communication opposition. Within the cultural environment infrastructure (hard common online platform) where the whole partially lives, or even that can interact and communicate with develops through it, the acceptance of a global individuals, groups and organizations from world where local culture flourishes comes various parts of the world and different natural. In an area of pragmatic mediation of cultural orientations. each thought, glocalism is represented by The second image is the interior of those „slippages” in logic, existing in the globalization, which requires an analytical X- palpable reality and spreading, as distribution, ray of the effects that have produced these among the functioning principles of micro- changes in the internal structure of societies, markets and pan-Africanism. social relationships, daily structures, ways of life, value systems and attitudes in ways of 3. IMAGES OF THE INSIDE AND thinking, in symbolic practices and various OUTSDE forms of cultural expression. The inside image shows a heterogeneous world, inconsistent, The images we use to represent our irregular, diversified, varied, mosaic, with globalization can be grouped into two discrepancies, synchronization, gaps and categories, depending on the reference system glaring economic inequalities. Only in this in which we place ourselves: one external and internal image some areas of concern are one internal. It is a possible criterion is to find visible: the collapse of the social fabric and of some order in the nebulous theories about earlier forms of solidarity, relativization of borders between the public and private under consumers, the „invention” of „consumer traditions” (of the impact of media system (which has which tourism, arguably the biggest „industry” of the "colonized" the public sphere), cultural contemporary world, is undoubtely the most clear-cut identity crisis built in modern times, the example). To put it very simply, diversity sells.” hybridization of cultures, deterritorialization of (Robertson, 1995:28-29) 187

GLOCALIZATION – A NEW SYNTHESIS OF CONTRARIES? THE CULTURAL IDENTITIES PERCEIVED AS COMPOSITION EFFECT financial capital and the new wave of labor not even their need to impose different migration, erosion and fluidity of identities in geographical areas." the context of globalization and the virtual In this view, globalization involves two world of the Internet. These aspects of "mixed opposing processes: a) glocalization, worlds" strange synthesis of global and local, interference (hybridization, creolization) between modern and traditional, are between global and local, having as result of investigated with passion and application of redefining identities and maintaining various theoretical and applied research. differences; b) grobalization, tendency of So, the first image has emphasis on unity, domination and hegemony of state and non- the second on diversity. The first picture state entities, the "transnational expansion of shows us a unified integrated world, codes and common practice" of similar interconnected within various networks, institutions and organization models (at cohesive and focused on process of economic, political and educational level, etc.) convergence with global reach, which induce, „Grobalization” is associated with neo in some sections of societies, trans-cultural imperialist and neocolonial tendencies, with phenomena of mixing and uniformity. The mcdonalization and Americanization of ways second image shows a heterogeneous world, of life, with processes of cultural convergence diversified internally, marked by cultural and homogenization under the almighty differences, political, social, economic, ethnic pressure of consumer culture, and at the level and religious conflicts including geopolitical of economic policy with neoliberal theses on order and civilization, as Huntington claims minimal state, deregulation and the free together with many other theorists and market capacity of self-leveling. An effective analysts.. tool of cultural homogeneity is the planetary These different images coexist in our expansion of "cathedrals of consumption" minds and are alternatively or simultaneously (malls, restaurants fast-food, casinos-hotels, updated, when it comes to today's world. To Disneyland, the cruise-ship, etc.), which have understand today's world of contradictory as predictable effect the uniformity of configuration we must always combine within consumer attitudes and practices, the a conjunctive paradigm, the two images, to mitigation of cultural differences, the combine unity and diversity, and differences devaluation and deleting of local identities convergences, the whole and the parts, the (Ritzer, 2010: 33-39). global and the local. Given these hybridization To summarize, we can talk about some and mixtures of values and cultures, theorists similarities between the theoretical consider that the term "glocalization" is best to perspectives that use by preference what we define this "cultural amalgam" that anticipates called "external image" of globalization and the future of global and local synthesis. Ritzer's concept of "grobalization". The Obviously, the new context of external image leads us towards the cultural globalization provides an environment for convergence paradigm, where the relevant some major actors (states, transnational phenomena appear as timing, isomorphism and corporations, banks, trusts and media and homogenization. From this perspective, the cultural industries) to expand its sphere of emphasis is on ideas of integration and unity, influence and domination, with the intention of invoking common values, ideas and attitudes, achieving global hegemony. To express this universally claimed. But, at a deeper analysis, trend, George Ritzer (2010:33), author of the we discover that this paradigm, apparently thesis about "mcdonaldization of society", has generous, is used as a form of legitimating created a new term, the grobalization (from domination and geopolitical hegemony. the verb to grow, grow, increase). He refers to However, theorists who focus their "the imperialist ambitions of nations, analysis on "inside picture" of globalization corporations, organizations, etc. and desire, if operate with glocalization paradigm, being 188

GLOCALIZATION – A NEW SYNTHESIS OF CONTRARIES? THE CULTURAL IDENTITIES PERCEIVED AS COMPOSITION EFFECT sensitive to differences between societies and connections made between these. Remapping the differences within them (of historical, involves new rules of graphic configuration ethnic, religious, linguistic nature) and also to and the complexity of the phenomenon does the sensitive issue of cultural identities. not mean simple laws or simplified ways of Grobalization expresses the tendency towards expression, by appeal to logic code limits. uniformity while glocalization is a new form Within this relational and multicausal universe of the existence of differences and identities. that is in a transitional period from the internal To understand the globalization effects we organization point of view, globalization may should mix the two paradigms. be described as „functional coating”, as world physiology, context in which „the butterfly 4. THE NEW KEPLERIAN effect”, cut from chaos theories, can be the REVOLUTION. BUILDING THE adequate descriptive vehicle: GLOCAL PARADIGM Dans un monde global, chaque part dépend de Taking into account the cultural sciences, ses liaisons multiples avec les autres parts. the Copernican revolution, we should analyze C’est un monde solidaire, où un événement the orbital concepts, models and abstract local peut produire des modifications aux theories gravitating around an abstract point autres parts, et même au réseau entier. Ainsi, nous nous sommes habitués à regarder la from which a historical and cultural globalisation comme une sorte d’enveloppe determined path derives. The Keplerian du monde, une atmosphère qui entoure la Revolution, on the other hand, adaptable to planète et qui influence notre vie. (Georgiu, culture sciences (Moscovici, apud Georgiu, 2010:193) 1997:391), involves ordering (also meta- discursive) around at least two focuses. In The image of globalization is continuously terms of analysis under the Keplerian tutelage, sold in various conditions and with ideological not only the "escape" from history of costs included into the total cost. The Romanian culture is explained, throughout its descriptive order of the phenomenon is ahistorical process, but also that the important and, therefore, starting from the Copernican sense was sporadically and distinction internal / external image of unfruitfully accepted into the Romanian globalization proposed by Georgiu (2010), one culture. The shift towards glocal paradigm, can see that, on the one hand, the structure is characterized by the abolition of unique heterogeneous, inconsistent, uneven, viewpoints, of the center of gravity, with the diversified, discordant and out of sync, that restless interpretation, involves placing on the this structure provides a mosaic of reflections, wave of a Keplerian revolution. sometimes overlapping, and on the other hand, The cultural expansion on spatial a whole uniformly reducible to function and coordinates must be understood according to a traffic (information) is revealed, coagulated in set of new relationships types between the neural networks to describe a living, growing involved entities and with a new type of network. The glocalization should be, within organization of these relations within this perceptive context, the result of multifunctional networks. Networks, in simple overlapping the inside rigid construct with the analytical terms are just communication flows, outside neuronal one, in order to render a frozen and linear reproduced; characterized by correct, complete and objective image on the interactions, connections, interdependences, organic whole represented by society. In other create a unique context of reception in terms of words, Robertson`s American glocalization, spatial and temporal compression. In this trying to explain the paradoxical functionality context, globalization leads to a world of some structures, such as the small market, remapping according to traffic information is not so loaded by ideology, but blocked by coordinates, like the network nodes and the unidirectional, pragmatic perspective, 189

GLOCALIZATION – A NEW SYNTHESIS OF CONTRARIES? THE CULTURAL IDENTITIES PERCEIVED AS COMPOSITION EFFECT inadequate as a reading grid for such a by targeting shard of mirror that reflects the complex phenomenon. The corporate cultural reality of the changing world, subject ideological tendency found in Ritzer`s to globalization by its curvature and "the" construction (1993/2003), grobalization, spatial and temporal focus of the event in places us on the same perceptual level. Both relation to mirror accurately reported in the terms, glocalization and grobalization, are, focal length). Or, cultural convergence offers originally, poor in content, with a rigid another perspective on grobalism – a tendency epistemic core and loaded by „ideological manifested by the imperialism of seduction, task”, but their epistemic shell creates the but also another perspective on glocalism – a mosaic, in a fragmented world, made up of natural paradoxical organization of a complex entities with some degree of cultural opacity phenomenon, that, just by calling this type of and continuous analogical, in a world of establishment, within symbolic cover, of intercultural interference (and not paradoxical type, may lead to synchronicity, multicultural) a semantic richness and isomorphism and homogenization (as side emergence of developments of such degree effects of homeomerous meaning). Following that the putting off the ideology that created de de-ideologization and expanding field them can only lead to their inclusion among perspective, glocalization does not remain just the metaphors that "re-enchant" the world. At a name associated with paradoxical realities the level of epistemic core, as well as the manifested equally globally and locally: it entire conceptual apparatus that globalization becomes the paradigm of cultural visions operates with, glocalization and grobalization regrouping (apparent discrepancies) located in terms are binding (i.e. they are charged with relation to a whole dynamic, to a cultural negative "ideological task"). The escape from change to diffusionist shades. Glocalization is, this false opposition can be done, as Sfez in terms of "inner image" as Georgiu defines suggested (2002:10) only through critics. And it, the paradigm to provide further clues to critics of the phenomena can only come from stabilize fluctuations upon conclusion of the the pole of epistemic core, from the transitional period in which humanity entered. symbolically shell, culturally shaped. This is This stability can be "controlled" only by actually a drawback of lack of ideology: communication, and not by media networks undress the clothes of the operated idea does and the Internet in a manner that stifles rather not mean, in essence, putting off the cultural carcinogen the still alive body, but through flow of ideas that lead to convergent ideational homeopathic action, from homeomerous construct. Putting off ideology is therefore perspective, the part being made of a shard of putting off the cultural clothes. This is the way reality of a culture about to fragment. of action that remains the intention of melting Glocalization does not represent in these barriers of ideas and belief systems that confer, terms, a creolization, but a melting of barriers, from inside, the image reproduced in mosaic of differences through identity affirmation: of broken mirror that reflects the world and globalization. The drop of ideological path (...) les théoriciens qui focalisent leur analyse subtly attached to a rigid terminology sur „l’image de l’intérieur” de la increases the difference between distinct views mondialisation opèrent avec le paradigme de (similar perspective "inflationary universe" of glocalisation, étant réceptifs aux différences cosmology) and fragment more the localism entre les sociétés et leurs différences à l’intérieur (de nature historique, éthnique, within an aggressive localism, as response religieuse, linguistique, etc) et la reaction. The phenomenon convergence is problématique tellement sensible des possible only through cultural one (achieved identités culturelles. (Georgiu, 2010:195- through intercultural communication means), 196) despite the existent barriers and cultural relativism (for our image, possibly explained 190

GLOCALIZATION – A NEW SYNTHESIS OF CONTRARIES? THE CULTURAL IDENTITIES PERCEIVED AS COMPOSITION EFFECT

In this context where forces of associated with the previous paradigm globalization have set in motion, culture (unexplained paradoxical realities in terms of cannot avoid change, despite the manifested "Ptolemaic" globalism requiring the term inertial force. Two solutions are possible: the construction of "glocal"). opposition which will be completed with the deployment of culture conglomerate, that is closed dull, refractory, its dragging into the BIBLIOGRAPHY stream of radical transformation and dissolution even after the brutal forces that act, 1. Barber, Benjamin. (1992). Jihad vs. or acceptance of adaptation, i.e. the promotion McWorld. The Atlantic. 269 (3). 53-65. of identity, cultural affirmation in the global 2. Bădescu, Ilie. (2003). Globalizare, (ist), dynamic context. The issue of mondialism, integrare. In Ilie Bădescu, globalization (the glocalist accepted paradigm) Ioan Mihăilescu. Geopolitică, integrare, is limited to an issue of identity assertion that globalizare. Bucharest: Mica Valahie. can only be provided only if the cultural 3. Castells, Manuel. (2001). Information openness is manifested, that is, while the technology and global capitalism. In W. intercultural communication is a real vehicle Hutton, A. Giddens. (eds.) On the Edge. of interconnection and adaptation to Living with Global Capitalism. London: environment change. Vintage. 4. Friedman, Thomas. (2008). The Lexus and 5. CONCLUSIONS the Olive Tree. Understanding Globalization. New York: Farrar, Straus The abandonment of ideological concept of and Giroux. forestalling globalism, as opposed to virulent 5. Georgiu, Grigore. (1997). Naţiune. localism (in parallel with the existence of Cultură. Identitate. Bucharest: Editura glocal "oasis", within denotative meaning, Diogene. origin of the American phrase) and acceptance 6. Georgiu, Grigore. (2010). L’age de la of paradoxical thinking within glocal conjonction. Images de la mondialisation, paradigm, i.e. within the limits of conjunctive images de l’Europe. In Nicoleta Corbu, logic, is a true Keplerian revolution of our Elena Negrea, George Tudorie. times. Global society seems not to revolve Globalizationa and Changing Patterns in around consumerist structures that define the Public Sphere. Bucharest: globalization movement constellations of comunicare.ro. 191-208. values of civilization in the firmament of stock 7. Giddens, Anthony. (1990). The exchanges. It rotates in multiple planes, around Consequences of Modernity. Palo Alto, solid axiological systems, bombarded by CA: Stanford University Press. consumerism, through meteoric showers of 8. Huntington, Samuel P. (1998). Ciocnirea civilization values which, in contact with civilizaţiilor şi refacerea ordinii mondiale. ionized atmosphere of culture, became Bucharest: Antet.. instrumental in adapting society to the 9. Levitt, Theodore. (1983). The movements at a larger scale. Different globalization of markets. Harvard densities of the ionized atmosphere of each Business Review. 61 (3). 92-102. culture allow more or less the penetration of 10. Lupasco, Stephane. (1982). Logica meteoric objects and the change of local dinamică a contradictoriului. Bucharest: axiological relief due to the impact. The Political Publishing House. Keplerian revolution of glocalist movement 11. Mamulea, Mona. (2007). Dialectica not only explains the manner of organization închiderii şi deschiderii în cultura română of gravitational movement, of value systems, modernă. Bucharest: Romanian Academy but also reduces the number of epicycles Publishing House. 191

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12. Noica, Constantin. (1986). Scrisori despre Robertson, Global Modernities. Thousand logica lui Hermes. Bucureşti: Cartea Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. românească. 15. Sfez, Lucien. (2002a). O critică a 13. Ritzer, George. [1993] (2003). comunicării. Bucharest: comunicare.ro. McDonaldizarea societăţii. Bucureşti: 16. Stewart, Edward C., Bennett, Milton J. comunicare.ro. [1972] (1991). American Cultural 14. Robertson, Roland. [1995] (1997). Patterns. A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Glocalization: Time-Space and Revised Edition. Yarmouth, Maine: Homogeneity-Heterogeneity. În Mike Intercultural Press, Maine. Featherstone, Scott Lash şi Roland

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GLOBALIZATION – A SEMIOTIC APPROACH

Richardo NEDELA

“Mihai Viteazul” National Academy of Intelligence, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The key element that redefines the community in the present intercultural context is the one that actually reshapes the intercultural context itself – globalization. Globalization already represents the big picture which integrates every intercultural context, it is the global text which encompasses every partial context, local and regional. Yet, globalization is not a new concept: universalist tendencies, urges and visions can be traced down even on the eve of human civilization. From the civilizing expeditions, more or less mythical, born from the human spirit of knowledge and/or adventure, to the theoretical reflections of the first thinkers who posed the problem of universal, the human being has been concerned about more and more comprehensive wholes. What is now new with globalization is that it is really happening, that it is a reality more and more tangible, pregnant and obvious: it is a fact. But globalization is not only a physical reality - economic, financial, military and so on - it is also a (new) mental reality, a (new) semantic frame and a (new) cultural unity, as Umberto Eco defines it. And this reality, too – and all that belongs to it –, as all realities that populate the individual and collective mental, is conveyed by signs. Given these premises, this work seeks to address globalization from a semiotic perspective, which would comprise a componential (or semic) analysis and on the other hand a symbology, a symbol analysis of the imagery that globalization raises.

Keywords: globalization, semiotics, culture, imagery, symbol

1. FROM ECONOMIC TO SYMBOLIC world economy between the 15th and 19th centuries. The central thesis of those three The economic length of globalization is so volumes is that during this period a sole world obvious that it can truthfully pass as defining, economy developed, based on capitalism and intrinsic. Actually, globalization appears, an integrated society of world scale” (Jones, firstly, as the globalization of economic 2011:31). exchange and of everything that it implies: But regardless of the importance they have finance, work force production, intake. In his given to economics in their reflections upon book Globalization: Key Thinkers, Andrew globalization, not even a single theorist Jones observes that “most thinkers accept the reduced globalization to its economic fact that global economic integration was an dimension. The most general definition used important agent in globalization…” (Jones, by Andrew Jones is “the interconnection and 2011:22). increasing interrelationships between every As an example, the perspective of one of aspect of society” (Jones, 2011:10, our the first theorists of the phenomenon of emphasis). In turn, Anthony Giddens feels that globalization, Immanuel Wallerstein, who, globalization “can be found in every although has an interdisciplinary approach and dimension of contemporary life” (Jones, falls into a holistic tradition, in his writings 2011:11). Though it can be accepted that regarding the process of developing of world globalization was driven by the economic systems, The Modern World Systems, gives operator, it triggered a metamorphosis that preeminence to the economic factor, “tries to included every aspect of human life. theorize the development of a sole capitalist Therefore, despite “the debate continues

GLOBALIZATION – A SEMIOTIC APPROACH

(almost by itself) to remain centered upon the according to the extent, intensity, velocity and economic aspect [...] the opinion differences impact they have - which generates flows and are plenty regarding the importance of politics, networks of activity, interaction and exercise institutions, technology, or culture in of power on a transcontinental or interregional increasing the social interconnection. Theorists level”, the flow being “the movement of of globalization like Giddens or Held et al. physical artifacts, of people, of symbols, of consider that the process is driven by multiple goods and informations through space and transformation of human life, therefore it is time” (Jones, 2011: 100, our emphasis). hard to point a single determining key-factor” The known thinker Thomas Friedman, who (Jones, 2011:22). as well gives the importance due to the Of sociological orientation, Giddens sees economic dimension, considers that globalization as a “distanciation”, considering globalization represents “the triumph of the continuous transformation that it triggers liberalism and capitalism of the free market as upon space and time. Though appreciating, as the most efficient method of social seen, the importance of economic dimension, organization” (Friedman, apud Jones, he defines globalization as “the intensification 2011:167), notes that along with other defining of social world relations which link different elements of globalization, such as the places so that local events are influenced by integration or interconnection and the dynamic events occurring at many miles away and vice character, the fact that globalization system versa” (Giddens, 2000: 64). An important role has its “own dominant culture” and also its is being played in this process by the so called “own defining technologies: computerization, abstract systems: expertise systems and miniaturization, digitalization, satellite symbolic tokens. Those are “the major communications, optical fiber or internet” disembedding mechanisms of modernity” that (Jones, 2011:167). In fact, in the center of his involves the “‘lifting out’ of social relations vision about globalization is the information from local contexts of interaction and their and communication technology which lets restructuring across indefinite spans of time- individuals, not only companies, “ to extend to space” (Giddens, 2000:26). He considers that a global scale”: „the dynamic force in globalization promotes “cosmopolitism” Globalization 3.0 – the force that gives it its considering that in a world that is globalizing unique character – is the newfound power for “we are currently living in contact with people individuals to collaborate and compete with different beliefs and life styles”. This globally” (Friedman, 2006: 10), the ever caused and will continue to cause conflicts in accentuated accessibility flattening the world. the 21st century, once religious, nationalist and Listing the most influential thinking trends ethnic identity fundamentalists will seek regarding globalization, Andrew Jones notes refuge in “the renewed and purified tradition”, that “the vast majority of actual talks [his book as well as in violence” (Jones, 2011: 58). appeared in 2010] on the subject of In the definition proposed by Held et al. at globalization make no clear reference on the the end of the 90s, the economic was not even cultural aspects of the phenomenon (or at least mentioned, though it was clearly implied: “the not until now), and through his work growth, deepening and acceleration of global Appadurai points out this very problem” interconnections in every aspect of (Jones, 2011:266). Arjun Appadurai, social contemporary social life, from cultural to anthropologist of Indian origins, sees in criminal, from financial to spiritual” (Held et imagination, in “imagination as a social al., apud Jones, 2011: 94). Those theorists practice”, the defining element of the present forward a transformational view upon world: the imaginary is “no longer a mere globalization, whose extended definition is “a fantasy (opium for the masses whose real work process (or a set of processes) which engulf a is elsewhere), no longer simple escape (from a transformation in the spatial organization of world defined principally by more concrete social relations and transactions - evaluated purposes and structures), no longer elite 194

GLOBALIZATION – A SEMIOTIC APPROACH pastime, (thus not relevant to the lives of paraphrasing Tomlinson, everything that is ordinary people), and no longer mere significant can be symbolized. So would be contemplation (irrelevant for the new forms of “the instrumental symbolization”, which refers desire and subjectivity)”, but “an organized to a “great number of symbolization attached field of social practices, a form of work and a to economic practices, such as the technical form of negotiation between sites of agency language of the production process (i.e. (individuals) and globally defined fields of technical specifications of a car’s engine), or possibility”, so that imagination becomes of the market ( i.e. the daily announce stock “central to all forms of agency”, ”a social fact” prices). On the other hand, numerous symbolic and “the key component of the new world representations found in marketing are… very order” (Appadurai, 1996:31). Though cultural, even though, in the end they have an globalization “involves the use of a variety of instrumental role (economic). Advertising instruments of homogenization (armaments, texts, for example, even though part of what advertising techniques, language hegemonies Horkheimer and Adorno (1979) called, and clothing styles) that are absorbed into deprecatingly, “culture industry”, bound by the local political and cultural economies”, instrumental goals of capitalism, remain Appadurai affirms that “the globalization of significant cultural writings. The way in which culture is not the same as its homogenization”, advertising texts are used is often similar to the nation-states needing neither to open too one in which books and films are used. And much, nor to close too much for the cultural this is because they offer narrations (however global flows. Therefore the state becomes an suspect would it be, ideologically speaking) “arbitrageur of this repatriation of difference” about the way in which life can be lived, that occur in the form of goods, signs, slogans references to common notions about identity, and styles (Appadurai, 1996:42, our emphasis). appeals to one’s own view, images of some Another writer that looks upon “ideal” human relations, versions of human globalization through a cultural perspective is fulfillment, happiness etc.” (Horkheimer and John Tomlinson. For him, globalization and Adorno, 1979:32-33). But, as we speak of culture are in a reciprocity relation: “In the symbols linked with the phenomenon of middle of modern culture there is globalization, a semiotic approach becomes globalization, in the middle of globalization apposite. there are cultural practices” (Tomlinson, 2002: 9). Without diminishing the importance of the 2. FROM THE TOWER OF BABEL TO A economic factor in the globalization process, FLATTENED WORLD Tomlinson considers that “the main road towards understanding the globalization Before talking about sign systems which process does not translate into the economic support the ideational superstructure of analysis of the transnational capitalism” globalization, we will talk about the actual (Appadurai, 1996:30). But, culture is the signs of globalization. favorite ground of symbolic: “culture can be The first signs of globalization can be understood as a sphere of existence in which tracked down even from the mythical people build signification through the practices prehistoric times of mankind. The first of symbolic representation” and “if we speak globalization we can identify is a proto- of culture, we refer to the means through globalization, a propensity towards which people make sense of their life, globalization: is the “globalization” which has individually or collectively, through as a climax the building of the Tower of Babel. communicating between them” (Appadurai, It is the time when “the whole world had one 1996:32). Furthermore, symbolic systems are language and a common speech” (Genesis, not the exclusive attribute of the cultural 11:1), which made possible its construction. domain ,,but are visible, “interwoven” in the Significantly, what created the condition of economic or political domain, because, globalization was language, a semiotic system 195

GLOBALIZATION – A SEMIOTIC APPROACH by excellence, “the most important” sign as a being of ”farness”, and Blaga – a being of system (Saussure, 1995: 33). Through a lucky ”horizons”. The most archaic stance of this quibble, which made possible a vertical trait is his nomadism, of which the best known globalization, how we could call this first are those of the indo-European population. globalization project, it was the understanding, Expeditions, more or less mythical - such as mainly through language, that is a successful the famous travel of the Argonauts in search of communication, but more thorough and wide, The Golden Fleece, or those of the Vikings -, a trans-linguistic, an inter-subjective harmony also colonizations, starting with the Greeks, beyond words, resulting also from the fact that can also enter this deterritorialization field. the collapse, the failure of this first Here we can also mention the violent globalization, has its roots in the territorial expansion, wars of conquest which misunderstandings between people, in a dual led to the birth of every empire known to man, way: the confusion of tongues, the fact ”that which spread the culture and dominant they may not understand one another’s civilization on the conquested territory. speech” (Genesis, 11:7), and the animosities If we can talk of a history, an evolution of and conflicts between them. The mythological globalization, not even the idea of cause for which this mythical globalization globalization is new. “I am a citizen of the fails is also significant: human conceitedness, world”, said even in the 4th century B.C, the who wanted to “grow famous” and reach the first cosmopolite (kosmopolites, gr.), Diogenes heavens. The punitive response to this the Cynic - that “Mad Socrates”, as Plato primitive form of globalization, whose impulse characterised him -, being asked where he was is a weakness, a vice, neither a value nor a from (Laertios, 1963: 312). If Diogene might virtue, is how we already mentioned “the be accused of emphasis, we cannot say the confusion of tongues”: globalization in nuce is same about the stoic Marcus Aurelius, who, countered through language diversity firstly several centuries later will have made the same and subsequently through behaviour diversity, statement “All things are woven together and and finally through otherness disagreement. the common bond is sacred, and scarcely one One of the lessons which we could learn from thing is foreign to another, for they have been this embryonic form of globalization is that the arranged together in their places and together mere juxtaposition of human diversities cannot make the same ordered Universe. For there is create a proper frame for globalization. We one Universe out of all, one God through all, can acknowledge of the evidence of this truth one substance and one law, one common even now when “the confusion of tongues”, Reason of all intelligent creatures and one interpenetration or simply the adjacency of truth. Take note of the link between everything diverse cultures which are a source of tension, in the world! We should not say ‘I am friction and even violence. In this frame - of Athenian’ or ‘I am Roman’, but ‘I am a citizen multiculturalism - globalization seems to be of the world’”. Therefore when Erasmus of even nowadays a failure, as some of the most Rotterdam, near 1500, will have said, as well: important European political leaders declare. “I am a citizen of the world”, we could say Not even deterritorialization - a central that there is already a conscience of the human concept of contemporary globalization - is a spirit’s universality, of humanity equally new concept. We find antecedents of it or shared between all people. other related concepts: “delocalization” and Then deterritorialization and early “dis-location”, since the beginning of globalization can be found even in religious mankind. Man seems by nature a being misionarism and proselytism and obviously in inclined to deterritorialization, a being that is those socio-political and military-religious not content with staying in one place, in the campaigns that were the crusades. Religious same environment, bringing always with had always had a universalist, globalizing himself the cultural heritage. This inclination aspiration, with a global or transnational trait. is so natural that Baudelaire could define man For instance, Catholicism, as the name 196

GLOBALIZATION – A SEMIOTIC APPROACH implies, “proposes a more universal abolishment of economic, national, cultural alternative, or even a global vision of an and ethnic borders. On this sui generis axis of international society, rather than the one mobility-imobility or the static-dynamic axis represented by the westphalic system” (G. we could place the adjacent meanings of Shani, cited in Haynes, 2010:312). But the dislocation and disembedding. actual globalization - real, effective - does not C. Homogeneity. The most contested have anything sacred within it: it is exclusively meaning of globalization is the one situated on the result of profane causes - economic the homogeneity-heterogeneity axis. Because markets, financial, jobs etc. on this axis the problematic clashes occur: But one of the most significant, from a identity-difference, oneness-otherness, semiotic point of view, is the communications peculiar-generic, (uni)cultural-multicultural, one. It is, actually one of the first that appeared national-trans/inter-national, uniqueness- in recent history at the beginning of the 60s, diversity, unity-plurality. This is the axis with when the known theorist Marshall McLuhan, the most opposing, the most radical terms, and referring to the stage reached by the which creates another, of tolerance- communications industries, wrote that: “Time intolerance, so that there could be reached a has ceased, ’space’ is vanished. We now live general, or a main axis of globalization-anti- in a global village... a simultaneous globalization, and, finally, the violence. happening” (McLuhan, 1964:63). This specific If semiotics is by itself a theory or subject flavour of actual globalization – simultaneity - with globalist tendencies (McLuhan, 1964:20), is being taken into consideration by because it states that anything can be used as a Friedman’s famous metaphor: “the world is sign, with the globalization concept it finds for flat”. itself one of the most challenging analysis subject. 3. COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS OF GLOBALIZATION 4. THE IMGAGERY AND SYMBOLOGY OF GLOBALIZATION As we could see even from this short presentation of thinking trends regarding If every piece of thought reality can be globalization, globalization is a term that signified, then globalization is thought as a raised many interpretations. But, all agree sign system too, of which the most important upon some meanings which build this “cultural are symbols. In fact globalization’s unit” (Eco, 2008: 102), as Umberto Eco calls vulnerability comes from the fact that it has the meaning. only a few signs/symbols to sustain it in an A. Connectivity. A first meaning of ideatic or semiotic way. In other words there is globalization is the one regarding to the a cleavage, and a lag between economic and category of relation, of connection, spatial or semiotic: economic is (way) ahead of semiotic. temporal: globalization takes connectivity to a There are few symbols of globalization and global scale. Globalization is, before even those that prevail are more often negative everything, a global network, which creates a valued. For instance, the national character is global proximity, in the order of spatiality, and strongly symbolized, and that means every a global simultaneity, in the order of national signs (flags, clothes etc.), while the temporality. The connectivity paradigms are global character is far less or not represented. the World Wide Web and the Internet, which We consider that this weakness of both imply the meaning “network”. globalization is caused by the fact that, even B. Deterritorialization. Without trying to though universalist statements are made, there establish an order of causality between are not any global, or globally shared values. connectivity and deterritorialization, we can The symbol of freedom, for example, seems say that both are from the semantic nucleus of attached to a certain culture, the Western one, globalization. Globalization means the and particularly - which created even more 197

GLOBALIZATION – A SEMIOTIC APPROACH idiosyncrasies - the American culture. The vulnerability is of axiological order: globalization symbolism seems rather fundamentally due to the lack of global attached, for now, to an imagery of evil: consensus upon values, to which symbols dollars - global coin, fast-food - global food would attach naturally. Symbols cannot be etc. There are not strong enough symbols even empty, abstract, foreign; they have to be for regionalization, let alone for globalization! credible, in order to coagulate people’s faith. For example, just having finished They live through this: through faith, trough consolidating the concept of “europeanism”, people’s trust (in them). the crisis emerged. Neither the 12 starred European Union’s flag, nor the European BIBLIOGRAPHY institutions, do not seem enough to crystallize an European conscience. It is presumable that 1. de Saussure, F. [1967], (1995). Cours de it would take a while until everyone or more of linguistique générale. Paris: Grande them would say about themselves that they are Bibliothèque Payot. “citizens of the world”, and not Europeans, 2. Diogene Laertios. (1963). Despre vieţile şi Asians, Americans or Czechs, Australians, doctrinele filozofilor. Bucharest: Editura Chinese, Brazilians etc. Academiei Republicii Populare Române. Another set of symbols associated with 3. Eco, U. (2008). O teorie a semioticii. globalization is represented by different Bucharest: Trei Publishing House. anniversaries stated by the UN or other 4. Friedman, T. [2005], (2006). The World is international organizations, such as “Earth Flat: Ghe Globalized World in the Twenty- Day”, “World Wetlands Day”, “World No First Century. London: Penguin Books. Tobacco Day” , “World Cancer Day” , “World 5. Giddens, A. (2000). Consecinţele Poetry Day” etc. It is to be seen how modernităţii. Bucharest: Univers. significant, how consistent, how mobilizing 6. Jones, A. (2011). Globalizarea: and how wide such symbols can be, teoreticieni fundamentali. Cluj-Napoca: considering the arbitrariness which seems to CA Publishing. accompany them, despite their indisputable 7. McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding relevance, being rather imposed, foreign, media. New York: Mentor. outside of the individual conscience. We can 8. Shani, G. (2010). Transnational religious see how much hostility a world celebration, actors and international relations, in J. such as Valentine’s Day, can sometimes Haynes (ed.). Routledge Handbook of create! Because the strength of the symbol lies Religion and Politics. London and New actually in the lack of arbitrariness, in its York: Routledge. motivation, in the fact that there is a link, more 9. http://bible.org/seriespage/unity-unbelief- or less obvious and/or necessary, between genesis-111-9, accessed on 10.15.2012 signified and signifier. 10. http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/05/uk -britain-radicalisation- 5. CONCLUSIONS idUKTRE71401G20110205, accessed on 06.05.2012 From a semiotic perspective, globalization 11. http://www.scribd.com/doc/77153064/App proves to be a concept, if not contradictory, at adurai-Modernity-at-Large-Cultural- least tense between sometimes antagonistic Dimensions-of-Globalization, accessed on meanings. On the other hand, the symbolism 01.05.2012 of globalization seems, at least for now, in 12. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe- inferiority, in disadvantage, including or 11559451, accessed on 06.05.2012 especially on an affective-emotional level, 13. http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosop opposite to a traditional local symbolism hy-Marcus-Aurelius.htm, accessed on (territorial, national etc.). We think that this 30.04.2012.

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CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND THE CONFLICT OF PRINCIPLES

Corina MATEI

”Spiru Haret” University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Considering the impact that cultural relativism is supposed to have in the future on many communities evolving under the apparently new form of acculturation – that is, globalization – my intention in this paper is to focus on its possible social and ideological consequences. It is well known that, as a research methodological principle, cultural relativism emerged from field anthropological studies, in times when the discipline called cultural anthropology was turning into a social science. After that, in many other (more or less) theoretical contexts we were assisting the development of a real relativism culture. Nowadays, things seem to reveal a different trend, maybe a conservative one, and that is a relevant phenomenon to be philosophically analyzed and debated, given its significant implications even on the shape of our future civilization.

Keywords: cultural anthropology, acculturation, cultural relativism, diversity

More urgent than anytime has become our duty to learn to discover, in the Other and in his different nature, what is that thing binding us, that we have in common. In our increasingly crowded world there are very different cultures, religions, customs and values. It would be an illusion for one to believe that only a rational system of advantages – a sort of global economy religion, to say so – could fix the common human living on this planet which is becoming more and more crowded. [...] Science of Man, in its whole diversity, is becoming a moral and philosophical task for all of us. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Moştenirea Europei

1. IN THE BEGINNING... former ethno-centric and thus prejudicial approach assuming that Western culture is the By its fundamental concept of otherness, standard, were we to value any other culture. cultural anthropology, the science of Man, As the American anthropologist Clifford was articulated as a social science studying Geertz summarizes (Geertz, 2000:63-65), other cultures – that is, other than the cultural relativism was and still is simply anthropologist’s own culture. So, at the claiming that peoples of different cultures live beginning of XXth century (starting, as I in different worlds. The implications of this: believe, with the works of the American there’s no common criterion for valuing and researcher Franz Boas), this new approach of a judging these worlds, there’s no possible great diversity of cultures all over the world hierarchy of them. Thus, according to Geertz, generated a new methodological principle: there are two main trends which the science of cultural relativism; it has been created and Man brought in our contemporary thought by used in field research as the only reasonable promoting cultural relativism: one is the and neutral way to aknowledge and gather data repositioning of horizons and the other is the concerning very different cultures, unlike the de-centering of perspectives. (Geertz, 2000:65)

CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND THE CONFLICT OF PRINCIPLES

In addition to that, it made possible the Williams), the author offers a lot of theoretical development of many trends and branches in arguments against this principle, although anthropological studies, bringing significant there are other scholars who defend it1, in results in revealing the unknown, by means of spite of its obvious flows, most of them being participative observation and empathetical logical ones. But what it seems surprising is integration in any foreign community, setting that, despite them, the ideology which this aside their community’s standards. Almost principle emerged today tends to impose it everytime, the data offered by anthropologists anyway. were unveiling to “civilised” people new and As I believe, the future flows of cultural surprising faces of Man, unusual customs and relativism as a principle of perceiving other practices, strange beliefs, rituals, cults – in cultures and communities appear when it fact, a foreign side of Man depicted by a field comes to apply it to the globalization discipline comprising the entire human phenomenon, viewed by the Romanian geography and history of our planet. Many researcher Mona Mamulea as a type of times their testimonies were shocking, and acculturation (Mamulea, 2007:123-135). The that’s why Geertz is calling anthropologists concept of acculturation was outlined in the “merchants of astonishment”, but this is an past century, under the urge of treating assumed, professionally handled astonishment, problems of colonisation and imperialist in order to open minds, to emphasize the politics. The Social Science Research Council Difference, and to make anyone to admit there in USA received in 1936 a Memorandum for is no center and no edge of the world. Here is the Study of Acculturation written by three this researcher’s creed: ”We have, with no influential scholars: Robert Redfield, Ralph little success, sought to keep the world off Linton and Melville Herskowitz. They said: balance; pulling out rugs, upsetting tea tables, “Acculturation refers to the kind of setting off firecrackers. It has been the office phenomena emerging from the fact that groups of others to reassure; ours to unsettle. [...] we of individuals of different origin cultures come hawk the anomalous, peddle the strange. to interfere continuously, directly, thus Merchants of astonishment.” (Geertz, 2000:63) resulting changes of original cultural model of one group, or of each of them.” (apud 2. ...AND MAYBE IN THE END Mamulea, 2007:123) As they see, there are three possible ways of this process: first is Of course, this anthropological principle of acceptance, the second is adaptation, but the cultural relativism was imported in many other third, the conflictual one, is reaction, meaning more or less theoretical domains, from the social movement of counter-acculturation, axiology to politics, from humanist ideology to because of unexpected consequences after the philosophy, and, while playing the vanguard initial acceptance of cultural changes, or role in lots of debates, it has itself been widely because of the foreign culture’s oppressive debated, sustainded, attacked, altered, attitude. (Mamulea, 2007:124) speculated etc. Given all these, my opinion is that the In one of his books dedicated to this topic, traditional anthropological respect for cultural the Romanian author Andrei Marga sets two diversity, for the irreducible plurality of characteristic assertions comprising its point: cultures all over the world, each one having its - cultural facts always have a genesis value and its specific, beyond any comparison context, and thus, they have also a non- or hierarchy, is now fading under the pressure transferable context-related significance; - any sort of conceived Weltanschauung 1 Even in contemporary press debates we can read is only one perspective among the others, so opinions like the French philosopher’s André Comte- no Weltanschauung could possibly be superior Sponville: “all evaluations request some reference to all the others. (Marga, A., 2007:93) As criteria, norms, and values which could only exist inside other philosophers do (J. Rachels, B. a certain civilization.” (Comte-Sponville, “Noter l’Autre est absurde”, in Le Monde, 24.02/2012:20). 200

CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND THE CONFLICT OF PRINCIPLES of another principle; one can accept without powerful, as it deals with matters of living hesitation the righteousness of the cultural together in harmony, or at least in a correct relativism as long as we are referring to remote and sane social environment. According to the cultures which are different or even strange to philosopher Antony Flew, the golden rule is us, to our values, norms and customs, but teaching us to behave towards others the way which don’t interfere with ours. It is the we would like them to behave towards us. spiritual acceptance from the beginnings of (Flew, 1999:289). No matter if one is a anthropology, with all its exotic testimonies relativist or not, one will have to admit that that were culturally interesting to “civilised” this is a principle of human interaction which peoples. I agree with Geertz, the defender of sets the foundation of any functional morals, relativism, that if we wanted not to be without which the clash of civilizations, as astonished, shocked, altered, if we wanted well as of communities, couldn’t be avoided. only “home truths”, we should have stayed at This principle of living together implies also, home; but the actual problem is that, while as a less demanding form, the moral principle staying at home and accepting the relativism that one’s liberty extends to the limits where it as a cultural and even esthetic principle, we doesn’t affect the liberty of others. As I assist nowadays to the phenomenon of believe, just as in Maslow’s hierarchy of acculturation in many forms, including the one human needs, there is also a hierarchy of a of negative reaction, as a consequence of society’s moral principles, settled by their immigration and of social movements that importance for its preservation; given this ethnic minorities are proceeding in their context, the potential conflict of the two Western host cultures. The main issue is this: mentioned principles, the relativist one versus what will happen in the future with these host the golden rule, will result in the prevailing of cultures facing more and more powerful the latter, because it is a conservative, survival movements of minorities’ identity code, rooted in humans’ experience of living emancipation, of imposing their foreign values together than any other one. and rules – from religious ones to clothing ones – on the cultures that adopted them? As BIBLIOGRAPHY an objective factor, their increasing influence is given by their demographical growth. So, it 1. Flew, Antony. (1999). Dicţionar de seems that the noble anthropological principle filosofie şi logică. Bucharest: Humanitas. is canceled by the change of cultural distances 2. Geertz, Clifford. (2000). Available Light. and positions: as long as two different cultures New Jersey: Princeton University Press. interfere to each other inside one of them, we 3. Mamulea, Mona, (2007). Dialectica finally have common ground for comparison închiderii şi deschiderii în cultura română and hierarchy. And the basic criterion for modernă. Bucharest: Editura Academiei judging whether some foreign values and Române. norms are acceptable or not in the host culture 4. Marga, Andrei, (2007). Relativism and Its is the golden rule – a moral principle more Consequences. Relativismul şi consecinţele ancient than the relativist one and more sale. Cluj: Presa Universitară Clujeană.

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Intercultural Education

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TOLERANCE – FUNDAMENTAL VALUE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION

Diana ILIŞOI

“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Bra ov, Romania

Abstract: Justice, freedom, equality and tolerance are values that axiological determine the well going of intercultural education and of any educational process, within a democratic society. The European Union’s motto appeals to “unity through diversity”. This logo imposes an explicit awareness with regard to tolerance. Specifically, it implies knowledge of, acceptance and respect for cultural diversity and the infinite diversity of human beings. The philosophy of tolerance identifies and promotes the respect for human dignity, the principle of equality of people, regardless of race, religion, nationality, and its major aim is to replace power relationships with dialogue relationships. Thus, there appears a new perspective of the relationship I – the other, a relationship implying Identity versus Alterity. Based on beliefs, tolerance materializes into attitudes that permit others to behave, think and feel in a different manner. Events occurring throughout the contemporary world, together with the depreciation of human condition, make possible for tolerance to become the antidote for the humankind torn by antagonistic behaviors, tensions and excesses. Furthermore, tolerance could constitute the premise for the human condition’s rehabilitation. Which is the tolerance threshold in a society where democracy is still fragile and vulnerable? To what extent does cultivation of freedoms and citizens’ rights activate the paradox of tolerance, as it was stated by Herbert Marcuse? The present study aims at identifying the occurrence of tolerant attitudes, of openness toward dialogue in young people, as premise for a democratic society’s consolidation, together with identifying educational contents and strategies able to contribute to the spread of tolerance.

Keywords: tolerance, intolerance, indifference, indulgence, totalitarianism

1. WHAT IS TOLERANCE? constraints. Still in the common use of the term, tolerance is associated with pluralism, as The term originates in the Latin tolerantia, a right justification of a plurality of opposite tolerare and it stands for “constantly enduring stands, which transforms it in the premise of something”. The original meaning of this term good cohabitation under the circumstances of suggests some disapproval reasoning in front an infinite human diversity. The word of improper or undesirable ideas and attitudes, “tolerant” has been used both in the common which, for various causes, does not stand language as well as in philosophy, as a virtue against them nor does it penalize them. This opposing fanaticism, sectarianism, would also be the common significance of the authoritarianism, a “refrain from taking action term that sends us to the idea of bearing against something that is disapproved or something (physical and moral perturbations) against something that is politically opposite whereas indicating the decision of not or strange” (Dicíonar filosofic Oxford, contesting opinions and behaviors considered 1999:404), or the “tendency of admitting other to be blamable. For example, tolerance of pain modalities of thinking or acting and feelings or noise. From here derives the pejorative different from ours” (Didier, 1996:345). meaning of tolerance, which consists of In politics and ethics, the principle of approving something we cannot avoid, due to tolerance gets a distinct shape, based on

TOLERANCE – FUNDAMENTAL VALUE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION equality of freedom and dignity of own wondered “What is tolerance? it is the convictions, and it requires of people not to consequence of humanity. We are all formed condemn an opinion if it opposes their beliefs. of frailty and error; let us pardon reciprocally In European context, tolerance became each other's folly; that is the first law of manifest in the seventeenth and eighteenth nature”. (Sponville, 1998:184). Consequently, centuries, through its religious connotations, in tolerance of self and of others is part of the an environment of religious oppressions behavioral repertoire of the human species, as towards protestants, after the cancellation of a premise of its living together and surviving. the Edict of Nantes (1685). Meanwhile, The Liberal Revolution of the nineteenth absolute power ruling and the absence of century has determined an extension of the distinct powers in a state, phenomena so significance of tolerance. While for a long specific to that time, led to claiming of time the issue of tolerance used to be of political tolerance. religious nature only, nowadays it tends to Although the first theoretical reflections on invade almost all aspects of social life. The tolerance appeared in the European culture term begins to be used in reference to political, history with the representatives of the ideological, cultural or social differences. medieval humanism (Erasmus of Rotterdam, Sectarianism, which, initially, was only Thomas More, Jean Bodin etc.), the most religious, has been omnipresent and multiform significant works that constitute the foundation under the dominance of politics, much more for modern doctrines are ”Tractatus than it used to be under religion, which makes Theologico-Politicus” (1670), by Baruch political tolerance gain priority. It condemns Spinoza, “Letter concerning Toleration” the use of violence and political offenses (1689), by John Locke and “A Treaty on (imprisonment for political beliefs). In Tolerance” (1763), by Voltaire. accordance with the political credo, the The political philosophy of the English practical political life shows us that tolerance thinker, John Locke (1632-1704) spins around manifests various justifications. For example, the question: How can people live together based on liberal thinking, tolerance is peacefully? Animated by this interrogation, perceived as a moral ideal. The work of the Locke achieved an initial definition for the law English philosopher, John Stuart Mill, “On of tolerance: “all churches were obliged to lay Liberty” was considered the most eloquent down toleration as the foundation of their own pleading for tolerance of the nineteenth liberty, and teach that liberty of conscience is century. Advocate of liberalism, the author every man's natural right” (Locke, 1994:214- claims that the intervention of the state, which 215). The English philosopher formulates, in holds legitimacy in defending individual his paper, the most famous argumentation of rights, needs to subordinate to the individual’s the religious tolerance: should religious belief liberties, at all times: ”To justify that, the imply a conscious consent, then it cannot be conduct from which it is desired to deter him externally constrained. The function of a state must be calculated to produce evil to someone consists of maintaining public order and else. The only part of the conduct of any one, security and the only intolerance accepted is for which he is amenable to society, is that related to anything that might prevent the which concerns others. In the part which accomplishment of this objective. By merely concerns himself, his independence is, promoting tolerance of various religious of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own beliefs, John Locke transformed it into an body and mind, the individual is sovereign” antidote to the practice of persecution, specific (Mill, 2001:101). Thus, tolerance turns into an to his time. essential condition for social progress, for Voltaire was attributed the statement that is moral and spiritual development of an considered a motto of tolerance: "Je n'aime pas individual. Moreover, tolerance becomes the vos idées, mais je me batterai jusqu'à la mort source of maximizing happiness and wellbeing pour que vous puissiez les exprimer". He for a great number of people, which 206

TOLERANCE – FUNDAMENTAL VALUE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION utilitarianism claims as its own goal, and the modified condition of our inner, psychic author himself belongs to this movement. The world, “a kind of logical and axiological historical events of the twentieth century, anesthesia, a symptom of a merry interior together with the new geopolitical paralysis” (Ple u, 2005:5). configuration, globalization, the profound The German philosopher Herbert Marcuse unprecedented mutations, affecting the human (1898-1979), representative of the Frankfurt condition, bring about new aspects of School, has tried to discover the reasons for tolerance. Tolerance covers more and more “oppressing” the modern man and found out extended areas: sexual practices, gender that the conflicting subjective dynamics is equality, political opposition, religious beliefs intensified and reiterated by social oppression. and last but not least, interculturalism. This is The risk that threatens the developed capitalist how more and more species (types) of society consists of replacing tolerance with tolerance appear, and they do nothing else but tolerance of oppression, which gives way to a to prove the vulnerability of the term. Within generalized indifference, meant to reject any the contemporary world, axiological opposing attitude and allows for the decentered, we witness an expansion of the mechanism of privilege and discrimination: idea of tolerance, under the pressure of all “What is proclaimed and practiced as tolerance sorts of controversies: from economic to today, is in many of its most effective political, social, moral or religious ones. manifestations serving the cause of oppression” (Marcusse, 1977:286). 2. TOLERANCE NOWADAYS In his study “One Dimensional Man” (1964), Marcuse analyzes the industrial At first sight, the issues of tolerance civilization, which he considers to be a form of simplified. In democratic states, rights and well-disguised totalitarianism. Even though, liberties, judicially recognized and guaranteed, apparently, everything is possible, and replace tolerance. In the last decades of the everybody has maximum of freedom, in this twentieth century, undeniable principles of the type of society there functions a refined civilized world became distinct: respect for system of persuasion and manipulation that alterity, right to be different, tolerance of continuously nurtures the societal needs and others’ opinions etc. Nevertheless, the interest people’s illusions. On the other side, for this topic is nothing else but the symptoms constitutions of all modern democratic states of the crisis humanity lives, symptoms of the guarantee various types of individual and intensification of tensions and imperfections of group freedoms (freedom of opinion, religious the world that humans have created and in freedom etc.). Tolerance is included in the which they must learn again to live together. United Nations Organization’s Universal The excessive formalization of inter- Declaration of Human Rights, from 1948. human relationships, due to the manifestation Under the circumstances in which pluralism of the axiological vacuum, and the atrophying represents one of the characteristics of modern of reason lead to a conversion of tolerance into society, it is necessary that a promotion of amiability and a distortion of its true meaning permanent dialogue exist between the bearers of various spiritual, moral and religious “reciprocal tolerance ends up in a universal, beliefs, as well as an accomplishment of smiling and peaceful silence, the kind of community and communion in diversity. This silence for which dialogue is nothing but an constraint determined the contemporary undesired jamming (…), it amputates the thinkers (Marcel, Buber, Levinas) to promote a appetite of knowledge, of real understanding philosophy of dialogue to bring about the of alterity and it destroys the necessity of necessity for the practice of tolerance to be debate”. (Ple u, 2005:4). present within a culture capable of accepting This distortion of tolerance and the and fully recognize difference and equally to pseudo-tolerance it generates reveals the respect and value it. 207

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On the background of the same blockage of 3. BETWEEN INTOLERANCE AND dialogue, the year of 1995 was declared the INDIFFERENCE United Nation’s Year for Tolerance, Peace and Good Cohabitation between Peoples and Opposing tolerance, intolerance can result States. This decision of great responsibility in the extreme facet of fanaticism. The fanatic was made under the pressure of numerous is the one who blindly believe in something or conflicts, tensions and divergences between someone and manifests his or her absolute different human groups, a pressure that spread devotement through his or her behavior. Such over the world just like a giant and devastating traits make the individual unable to foresee or historical fire: “In the eve of the third tolerate any other opinions but his own. His millennium, tens and hundreds of human blindness, toward others’ opinions, becomes beings die or get mutilated in absurd and dangerous whenever he tries to impose ‘his’ inhumane confrontations. This is an authentic truth on others. Intolerance now shapes as “a proliferation of barbarianism” (Curier deliberate attempt at eliminating any UNICEF, 1994). In this context, learning to disapproved conduct, by means of coercive live together has turned into the very condition methods, usually in a very energetic manner, for humanity’s survival, in this new planetary close to brutality (persecution)” (Miller, Babel Tower. The axiological education, 2006:747). intercultural education, fostering of tolerance From a philosophical perspective, are the means of this lesson on survivability intolerance is a reaction attitude toward through learning how to live together: “We are everything that is different or opposite to one’s condemned to tolerance” (Ple u, 2005:15). own beliefs and way of self-being, both at Alternatively, maybe we should give a individual or group’s level. Most of the thought to Emile Boutroux’s words, in order to massacres in history were nourished by overcome weaknesses: “I do not like the word intolerance. This is how the phrase “ There is ‘tolerance’; let us rather call it respect, mutual one thing that cannot be tolerated and that is understanding, love. Until the day of grace intolerance” was coined. Imposing one’s point when tolerance will become love, we cannot of view and making it legitimate by means of say that tolerance, the prosaic tolerance is all force is the mechanism that constitutes the we can do. Tolerance – as little attractive as foundation for the manifestation of the word may sound, remains an acceptable totalitarianism. Any type of intolerance aspires solution while waiting for something better. to become totalitarianism, characterizing itself People should be happy that they started to through a settlement of the tyranny of one bear one another, until they are able to love single truth, considered as absolute truth. one another, or simply, to get to know one Concerning the amenity that ideology and another! Tolerance is just a provisory stage” totalitarian movements practiced against (Sponville, 1998:190). democracy, Karl Popper stated the paradox of In a desecrated World, tolerance becomes tolerance: “Unlimited tolerance must lead to the profane expression of ascetic virtues, the disappearance of tolerance. If we extend through which the man imitates God’s unlimited tolerance even to those who are sovereign ‘kindness’, His patience, intolerant, if we are not prepared to defend a understanding and love, thus trying to save tolerant society against the onslaught of the himself. While talmudically rereading the intolerant, then the tolerant will be destroyed, bible, Emmanuel Levinas states that human and tolerance with them” (Popper, 1993:230). side of man, authentically manifested as care The danger of tolerating intolerance is thus for the close ones, can prevent or generate highlighted as well as the fact that the type of violence. Everything depends on the real tolerance that ignores anything is destined to proximity consciousness of “Absolute becoming obsolete. Therefore, the issue of a Alterity” (God) and the manner in which this ‘tolerance area’ appears, next to the objective is reflected by every man’s fragile face. limits of tolerance and the identification of the 208

TOLERANCE – FUNDAMENTAL VALUE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION intolerable. The difficulty of this endeavor relationships between people, thus consists of the fact that tolerance is not a value highlighting the attitude of acceptance or in itself, yet it is intimately connected with the isolation of different ethnic groups by the social context, whose coordinates represent its population that held majority. experimentation or testing. Humanity is In Romania, the first psycho-sociologic conflicting, passionate and torn in its nature, study based on the social distance scale, and that is why tolerance is needed. A society, adjusted to the Romanian environment, was in which universal tolerance would be accomplished in 1993, by the sociologist possible, would be much more humane. In a Septimiu Chelcea. Applied to a representative humane society, there will always be sample, the survey supplied relevant data something intolerable, even for the most about the social contact index and the quality tolerable human being on earth. of social contacts index. The survey revealed Recent history of humankind displays an that Romanians manifest powerfully positive eloquent case of tolerance: the city of attitudes toward the ethnic minorities. tolerance, namely Sarajevo. Its abandonment The changes to which the military to its own fate of a besieged, famine, blood- institution was subjected, next to the washed city (in December 1993) meant experience of volunteering-based army and of cowardice and lack of tolerance from Europe. international operation theaters extended the Passivity in front of horror and the very study of tolerance to the military organization acceptance of evil has transformed people in as well. Of great interest is the identification of accomplices to this event. Accordingly, we are tolerant/intolerant behaviors from the military confronted with indifference at the opposite environment, the limits of tolerance and the pole of tolerance, which is the most dangerous presence of this attitude with the military form that the western culture of individualist personnel, an attitude reflected by tolerance type may manifest. toward the human being’s diversity. Another term, which in common The problem under investigation aims at acceptance is confused for tolerance, is analyzing the contents of military regulations, indulgence. Indulgence is regarded, through which, by their stipulations contribute to the daily experience, as an excess of tolerance instauration of a tolerant setting or fails to do manifested toward less essential aspects. By so. The content analysis of the Regulation for correlating these three terms, we can conclude Military Discipline has led to the following that tolerance represents an mean value conclusions: between intolerance, the refuse to tolerate - norms and rules stipulated by this military what should be tolerated and indulgence, that directive are norms of social cohabitation, fact is tolerance of what should not be tolerated, that implies the cultivation and promotion of yet not considered indifference, which stands civic spirit and behavior (Art. 3, clause c); for a denial to consider what deserves being - internalization of these norms carrying considered (Miller, 2006:748). values (dignity, honor, comradery etc.) is pursued, together with forming of convictions 4. THE ISSUE OF TOLERANCE so as to guarantee discipline and authentic military conduct; The issue of tolerance it has generated long - rules involving military order and debates within the American territory, which, discipline converge to the necessity of in its nature and configuration, as a mixture of consolidating the military groups’ cohesion ethnicities, religions, cultures etc. – is and functionality, which implicitly appeal to predisposed to and vulnerable in front of such cultivation of tolerance toward human social behaviors. Influenced by these social diversity and capitalization of such diversity; realities, Emory S. Bogardus wrote “Social - the commanding officer is the person Distance Scale” (1993) to measure the degree who, by personal positive example (Art.4, of understanding and affection manifested in clause f; Art. 19, clause h; Art. 22, clause f) 209

TOLERANCE – FUNDAMENTAL VALUE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION provides a behavioral model, both related to harmonious cohabitation. All of these professional relations and societal ones. A guarantee the well-functioning of military tolerant commanding officer will have tolerant structures and the efficiency in accomplishing subordinates and the other way round: military missions. The International Human intolerance will always generate intolerance. Rights extend these values, norms and Correctitude and impartiality are indispensable behaviors toward the relationships with the qualities of a good leader; enemy as well, which strengthens the idea that - art. 5, clause c explicitly mentions among promotion of tolerance among the military the factors that diminish military discipline personnel is an exigency of modern and “tolerance of behaviors and denigrating or postmodern armies. discriminatory actions from the military personnel”; BIBLIOGRAPHY - the most elaborate and explicit support of tolerance is found in art. 19, clause e that 1. Didier, J. (1996). Dicţionar de filosofie stipulates the commanding officer’s Larousse. Bucharest: Enciclopaedic obligations regarding the military discipline: Universe Publishing House. “to respect the rights and fundamental 2. Locke, J. (1994). Scrisoare despre freedoms of his subordinates, as well as their toleranţă. Bucharest: Nemira. personality and dignity; 3. Mill, J. S. (2001). Despre libertate. - relevant for the issue under debate is art. Bucharest: Humanitas. 42, clause i: “volunteer participation at some 4. Miller, D. (2006). Enciclopeda Blackwell a religious communities’ gatherings or gândirii politice. Bucharest: Humanitas. organizations through which the soldier’s, 5. Marcuse, H. (1977). Scrieri filosofice. state’s or nation’s dignity is affected and Bucharest: Political Press. emission of discriminatory opinions in relation 6. Pleşu, A. (2005). Toleranţa şi with groups of people or social entities” are intolerabilul. Criza unui concept. deeds that compromise military honor and Bucharest: LiterNet. dignity. Manifestation of such behaviors is 7. Popper, K. (1993). Societatea deschisă şi followed by disciplinary reprimands. duşmanii ei. Bucharest: Humanitas. In conclusion, although explicit statements 8. Sponville, C. A. .(1998) Mic tratat al are not numerous, all stipulations included in marilor virtuţi. Bucharest: Univers. this military regulation promote tolerance 9. ***. (1999). Dicţionar de filosofie Oxford. directly or indirectly. The military Bucharest: Univers. organization is guided by rules involving 10. ***. (1994). Curier UNICEF. no.2-3. mutual respect, cohesion, comradery,

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STUDY ON THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS

Mihaela GURANDA

“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This paper presents some of the conclusions of a research endeavour undertaken in two different institutions: a private company (PO) and a state- financed organization (SO). Its purpose was the comparative investigation into the similarities and differences characterizing them in terms of the communication patterns underlying their organizational behavior. Hence, the research method employed was based on the comparison and contrast techniques, whereas the paradigm it adopted was that of organizational communication patterns. Thus, out of the five dimensions describing the concept of organizational communication, namely vertical, horizontal, informal, formal and organizational outward communication this article will only present the findings related to informal, formal and horizontal communication patterns. Based on these, the paper will then focus on the prospective challenges for the two organizations in terms of micro-organizational behavior and also on the way the two dimensions of organizational communication can inform on the future decision-making process. Keywords: communication patterns, horizontal communication, informal/formal communication, organizational behavior

1. INTRODUCTION the relationships, by the need of affiliation. Those with a interdependent structure live the Intercultural psychologists are preoccupied self fulfillment by others. Those bent with testing some models of personality in to indirect communication, being careful to the attempting to find if there are universal unvoiced feelings and thoughts of the others. personality traits. The personality models The interdependent structure is characterized suggested by H. Eysenck have dimensions that by internal assignments and the tracking of the can be considered universals(by example own purposes. The favorable social extroversion and introversion) and which have environment for development of the been tested in 25 different national cultures. interdependent is the individualist culture By example, introverted, the type of the where is followed the objectivity of thoughts retained subject, puts the accent on the in behavior. From the cultural point of view, to interdependent values. The extroverted, the dimension interdependence-interdependence type of the relational effusive, enjoys to meet corresponds the dimension individualism- unknown people and promotes the collectivism. Too much individualism kills the interdependent values. An hypothesis that person, too much community kills the society deserves to be tested in future studies is if (Ferreol, 1999). Efficacy could be a introversion is connected in a positive way compromise solution, by example, a with interdependence implicitly if extraversion collectives person involved in a collectivist is connected in a positive way with culture. interdependence and individualism. With studies and research from Interdependence refers to the need to be with intercultural psychology domain was proved the others borned from the need of attachment that the dimension of individualism and in each person. Interdependence manifests by collectivism represents an increased validity the tendency to the social contact, by valuing and can be considered universal dimensions.

STUDY ON THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS

The individualism is associated with equality 2. ASSOCIATION BETWEEN relationships and with flexible roles. The CULTURAL ASPECTS AND collectivism characterize the cultures that PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS encourages the individual tendency to see like part of a social group, promotes adhesion to R. McCrae and P. Costa, by Big Five rules ,respect for authorities, conformity and model, revealed five major dimensions of success of group (Hofstede, Hofstede, Minkov, personality: extraversion, agreeability, 2010).The intercultural researchers suggests conscientiousness, emotional stability and that differences in cultural values, openness for experience. All this dimensions individualists and collectivists influences team have correlations with different cultural work and the group results (Sosik, Jung, aspects. Therefore, it can be said that certain Berson, Dionne, Jaussi, 2005). personality characteristics associate with significant transcultural valets (table no.1).

Table no. 1 Association between personality traits and cultural dimensions Personality characteristics Cultural dimensions emotional stability uncertainty avoidness conscientiousness feminity extraversion individualism

J. Allick and R. McCrae (2004) unreeled a from private environment from Brasov, in a study in 36 national cultures where they tested number of sixty subjects, with ages between the hypothesis of association between a certain 28 and 50 years, 28 boys and 32 girls. The personality profile and affiliation to a certain provenance domain from where the subjects cultural area. have been selected was the one of social The intercultural approach of personality sciences. The results indicated the subject`s started with the focusing attention on study of predisposition to extraversion, the defining a culture, with extensive study of relations trait of the sociologists and the specific trait of between cultures and personality variables. collectivist culture. The study has 6 major Sociocultural variables influences human objectives, two of them being significant: behavior, generating different guidance in - identification of personality traits that different cultures. In turn the culture induce a define sociologists study participant ; certain way of acting, a certain social system - association features with specific cultural that creates the needed personality (Gavreliuc, aspects of social sciences 2011). People processes differently acquired The basic tool used in the study was test information from the cultural environment and BFA - Big Five Adjectives - the adjectival reacts differently according with the acquired form of the best known european Big Five experiences. Personality is influenced by (BFQ) - Gian Vittorio Caprara, Claudio culture. Therefore, the interaction between Barbaranelli, Patricia Steca- accredited by the culture and personality is essential to College of Psychologists from Romania and understand the intercultural psychology applied with license. BFA is a psychometric intercession. All these determined me to see if instrument, validated in a variety of research this hypothesis of association of personality programs, and it is based on Big Five traits with cultural aspect is valid to Brasov personality model . The Big Five represents sociologists. It was pursued if exists a the meeting point of different traditions and personality structure from a community psychometric approaches, especially it formed from professional point of view that represents the result of psycholinguistic and have defining characteristics with significant the factorial approach. By applying this tool, frequency. The study was done on sociologists researchers pursued to detect the universal 212

STUDY ON THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS personality traits, traits specific for many -The sociologists who participated at the cultures. study are characterized by optimism, The results and findings of the study: generosity and kindness. They are generous - By analyzing data from exploration of not only by sharing their experience but by personality traits we find that the higher factor providing help when needed. has the friendliness factor (m=247, 85, a.s.= 25,53)

Table no. 2 Mean and Standard deviation for personality traits in sociologist Information about personality traits N Minimum Maximum Media A. S. BFA extraversion 60 184 320 236,88 37,742 BFA friendliness 60 193 305 247,85 25,530 BFA conscientiousness 60 146 298 235,25 31,010 BFA emotional stability 60 137 276 218,83 32,653 BFA openness mind 60 166 306 234,75 30,838

The Factors Extraversion (m=236, 88, In terms of differences by gender, the a.s=37,742) and conscientiousness (m=235,25, factors extraversion, friendliness and openness a.s.=30,01) complete the portrait of the mind are above average, superior in feminine sociologist using characteristics like energy, environments than in masculine ones. The ease, seriousness, sociability, communicability factors conscientiousness and emotional and activism. stability have higher values in masculine environments.

Table no. 3 Mean and standard deviation for personality traits in women and men Information about personality traits genre N Media A. S. BFA extravesion feminine 36 239,22 36,130 masculine 24 233,38 40,574 BFA friendliness feminine 36 251,08 25,955 masculine 24 243,00 24,615 BFA conscientiousness feminine 36 233,72 29,367 masculine 24 237,54 33,842 BFA emotional stability feminine 36 217,69 33,104 masculine 24 220,54 32,594 BFA openness mind feminine 36 238,69 29,715 masculine 24 228,83 32,170

If you make comparisons between these aspects: extraversion and intellectual results and those obtained on subjects others autonomy(Schwartz, Bardi, Bianchi, 2000). than Europeans, it can be elaborate a portrait A previous psychological investigation value including the following dominant (Smith, Dugan, Peterson, Leung, 1998) emphasized a significant correlation between 213

STUDY ON THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS individualism and conflict, but a lack of 3. Gavreliuc, A. (2011). Psihologie correlation with job satisfaction, which invoke interculturala. Iasi: Editura Polirom. the functionality of this variable. 4. Gouveia, V., Clemente, M., Espinosa, P. Triandis’ study (2000) proved that man (2003). The Horizontal and Vertical becomes more collectivist with the passage of Attributes of Individualism and time, valuing the stability of social relations. Collectivism in a Spanish Population, in Collectivists perceive themselves realistic, Journal of Social Psychology, 143 (1). knowing their limits, they show interest in 5. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J., Minkov, M. others' needs and they encourage positive (2010). Cultures and Organizations: emotions in order to maintain group cohesion Software for the Mind (ed. a III-a). New (Matsumoto, 2007). Members of collectivist York: 2010. cultures are strongly influenced by the 6. Matsumoto, D. (2007). Emotion thinking of others, they make less new friends, judgments do not differ as a function of but their relationships are closer and stronger perceived nationality, in International (Gouveia, Clemente, Espinosa, 2003). Some Journal of Psychology, 42 (3). researchers have drawn attention to the 7. McCrae, R.R., Costa, P.T. (1996). Toward importance of reputation and prestige in a new generation of personality theories: collectivist cultures. Theoretical contexts for the five-factor Triandis (2000) proposes a number of model, in J.S. Wiggins (ed.) The five factors contributing to the difference that factor model of personality: Theoretical occurs in appreciation of wellness within the perspectives. New York: Guilford. two types of culture, the most important being: 8. Schwartz, S., Bardi, A., Bianchi, G. compatibility between personality and culture, (2000). Value adaptation to the imposition extraversion, high availability for personal and collapse of Communist regimes in development and chances of achieving East-Central Europe, in S.A. Renshon, objectives. Dukitt (ed.). Political Psychology. New York: Macmillan. 3. CONCLUSIONS 9. Smith, P., Dugan, S., Peterson, Leung, A.F. (1998). Individualism: Collectivism Therefore, a good knowledge of the and the handling of disagreement. A 23 personality traits is essential in the person`s country study, in International Journal of integration in social environment and allows Intercultural Relations, 22 (3). the identification of some universal 10. Smith, P.B., Bond, M.H. (1993). Social characteristics, valid in as many cultures. psychology across cultures, (ed. I). Boston: Allyn&Bacon. BIBLIOGRAPHY 11. Sosik, J.J., Jung, D., Berson, Y., Dionne, S.D., Jaussi, K.S. (2005). Making all the 1. Allik, J., McCrae, R.R. (2004). Toward a right connection: The strategic leadership Geography of Personality Traits. of top executives in high tech Patterns of Profiles across 36 Cultures, in organizations, in Organizational Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35 Dynamics, 34. (1). 12. Triandis, H.C. (2000). Cross-cultural I/O 2. Ferreol, G., Jucquois, G. (ed.) ( 1999). psychology at the end of the millennium, Identitatea, cetatenia si legaturile sociale. in Applied Psychology: An International Iasi: Editura Polirom. Review, 49 (1).

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TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY

Alberto FORNASARI

“Aldo Moro” University of Bari, Bari, Italy

Abstract: Intercultural education is a very relevant topic for research in Pedagogy. Intercultural education is not spontaneous, everybody is afraid of the word "foreign". Intercultural education is something to be built thanks to projects. Fondazione Intercultura is an institution which is trying to face these topics and trying to educate trainers. Most of the time foreign students are considered problematic, especially in high schools as they are considered a problem by families and teachers alike. Foreign students are considered as a threat in slowing things down. They are considered inadequate. The feelings create social difficulties. A lot of essays insist on the poor language training they have and that means they have to work more and this slows down the learning process of other students or creates tension between different cultures and/ or religions. Starting from this point a group of Italian researcher that I coordinated have conducted a survey on behalf of the Foundation to answer to some questions such as: what determines the success of the foreign students in Italy and allows them to be better integrated in our country? This essay aims at finding a way to understand problems and to acknowledge positive experiences, the so called best practice. The "evaluation" from a pedagogic point of view aims to develop the conscience of the person who is learning and it allows the trainer to verify the methods of his teaching, to ascertain the validity of its methodology. The study took in consideration the scholastic performances which are influenced by various elements: expectations of parents, self-esteem, social life, family, educational policies, relationships with teachers and classmates.

Keywords: integration, Intercultura, education, schools, success, evaluation

1. INTRODUCTION the objectivity of this experience. (Santelli- Varisco, 2000). Try to understand that How do foreign students, classmates, success in schools means -beyond the teachers and families define it? We can pedagogical studies- above all to clarify what assume the scholastic careers, the success and that terminology represents for teachers, the failures of foreign students as tests to students and families. It is clear that the two measure the capability of the schools to offer concepts of: scholastic success and positive something valid in a multi and intercultural result have two different meanings, they are context. The evaluation is a relevant step not equivalent. In fact positive results means to towards the learning process; it is most have reached an acceptable level of learning probably the stage which has caused more considered basic, whereas success in school discussions. The "evaluation" from a means to get high profile levels. pedagogic point of view aims to develop the Strictly connected to success in school is conscience of the person who is learning and it the question related to the evaluation allows the trainer to verify the methods of his procedure was performed by teachers. The teaching, to ascertain the validity of its research elaborated on a lot of data, studying methodology. The evaluation in schools has them from a quality and quantity point of been carefully studied in the last years; those view. The research as a matter of fact has not studies have enquired into the correctness and only studied data and statistics fixing all those

TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY cases where foreign students -part of the Their presence, as witnessed by the Intercultura Programme- achieved success in teachers, has given an added value to their schools while they spent one year in Italy, but classrooms, improving the knowledge of the it has studied processes, modality and foreign language. Above all the experience has conditions which allow the comprehension and represented an opportunity for the school to the evaluation of educational, managerial and grow and it has represented a positive step didactic strategies which all concur to make a upwards the intercultural dialogue in a positive experience for these students. globalized society, improving the learning The intent of the scholars who have acted processes. on behalf of the Foundation was that of knowing students (males and females), namely 2. MEANINGS, PURPOSES AND young people who have lived a special METHODOLOGY scholastic reality insofar as it is possible, to know these young learners in the extra-school It is remarkable how multi- and life; the intent was to reconstruct the social and intercultural education as well as the presence interpersonal dynamics between teachers and of foreign students pose two different subject students, and between the other people fields with own characteristics together with involved in the school activities. The study particular developments and difficulties. was an empirical one. Multi- and intercultural education should We gave questionnaires to teachers and configure itself as a dimension that marks the students, we organized groups to understand school’s activity per se, and should proceed the concrete situation lived out in schools in according to innovative and open terms. Look order to help trainers. We wanted trainers to at Item 45, 7th paragraph Presidential decree become at the same time both observers and 394/399 CC. MM. 205/90 and 73/94 according main actors of the educational process in to which: school and in class. We adopted empirical techniques and one of them was this: to be “Schools must arrange intercultural education actively involved in the observation. The initiatives, whether in the presence or in the stories we have gathered have allowed us to absence of foreign students. Intercultural get information and to have a better education must be viewed as a school’s understanding of the learning processes. The fundamental value and therefore as the main criterion for a school’s program; as an pedagogical structure was based on interdisciplinary training process addressed to comparative education. The study took in anyone with an ordinary character to be consideration the scholastic performances activated in order to overcome any possibility which are influenced by various elements: of special treatments, stereotypes or biases, expectations of parents, self-esteem, social ethnocentric and sectarian visions with the life, family, educational policies, relationships aim of training minds that will be “open” to with teachers and classmates. The study has confrontation, sympathy, co-operation, peace also analyzed the scholastic programmes as and other ground values onto which a multi- stated in the various P O F in the schools ethnic society should be founded.” attended by the foreign students of Intercultura. The time period considered was The presence of foreign students, their one year according to the Kerr Map known school “careers”, their successes and failures internationally. Foreign students of should be envisioned as testing moments of Intercultura have spent one year in Italian the school’s actual abilities to act in multi- and schools and they appreciate the experience intercultural terms. The evaluation lies because they consider it a way of growth and amongst the components of the training and most of them are ready to repeat the understanding processes like the one that has experience. produced and still produces arguments and 216

TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY controversies. One first differentiation poses by spotting all the school success cases of the the evaluation beyond the meaning of yearly participants to the Intercultura project in measurement and control and basically intends Italian schools, it means to detect the it to simply be an assessment. This allows to processes, the modalities and the significant view the trainee not only as someone whose conditions that allow to understand and to performance level is being tested, but as enhance the educational and organizational someone who is going through a process that study choices concurring to a good outcome of should provide him with the information on these students’ school experience. The main his own situation with the aim of easing his intent of the researchers operating on behalf of way through the cultural and educational the Foundation was that of getting to know all process. In this perspective emerges what has of the students, youngsters “in the flesh” in been acknowledged as “ the pedagogic their own school reality, and, as far as function of evaluation” (Reuchlin, 1974), possible, also in their outside reality to aimed at making the trainee’s understanding reconstruct the group trends, the interpersonal processes easier, once he has been provided relationships existing between students and with all the information that will help him to teachers, as well as between all of the different come to terms with his own experiences. people involved in the many school activities. 2.1 Evaluation intended as… The The survey has been carried out through research aims at spotting the school’s observations on the field, through successful cases with foreign students who questionnaires submitted to the teachers and attended schools in Italy for one year with the students, and the administering of some focus Intercultura program, at gathering information groups in order to collect some data pertaining on their personal histories as well as to let to the actual school situations and to facilitate emerge the educational and study choices that and encourage the school personnel to make led to the final outcome. The main purpose of themselves observers-researchers on the main this research is to establish some good school and class dynamics regarding the educational techniques and to help overcoming understanding processes of their students. the biases that often lead to viewing the Amongst the empirical techniques: the active foreign student as a threat, as a burden and a observation, life histories have allowed the slowdown to the ordinary class activities. gathering of some informative data and the Trying to investigate on the school success possibility to verify the adequacy and entails, first and foremost, going more in-depth influence on the understanding processes. The on what the use of such terminology means for pedagogic framework was built up on the basis teachers, for the students and families, as well of comparative education. The research took as on the many definitions given by previous into account the school performance, affected pedagogic studies. It appears to be sufficiently by several crucial factors amongst which: clear that the terms positive outcome and parents’ expectations, self-esteem, forms of school success don’t have the same meaning, socializing outside of the school context, nor are they equivalents: with positive outcome structure of the family, educational policies, one means to refer to the reaching of the the relationships with students and classmates. understanding of basic notions, whereas with In the research, The school profiles were also the second expression one might refer to the analyzed, as they were present in the TOP understanding of high-profile notions. (Training Offer Program) of each school Another matter that is strictly linked to the attended within a year on behalf of the school success is that of the evaluation Intercultura, with Kerr’s Map, a valid procedures that the teachers might opt for. The international well-tested instrument. carried out research is rooted in quanti- 2.2 Stages and instruments of the qualitative factors: other than retrieving data research. The research staff included and analyzing the matter on a statistical basis researchers coming both from different 217

TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY university institutions and different areas of them between their original school system expertise (cultural anthropology , intercultural and the one from the hosting country, the pedagogy, language science, sociology), who relationships with the teachers, their brought different competences to the project in school “career”. order to build a solid research group, whose • Questionnaire for the Italian students who individual points of view were totally unbiased were present in the classes hosting the from their own fields of expertise and foreign student from Intercultura (mirror converged in the choice of a common group) to monitor their interaction skills methodology and lexicon. (Maria Chiara with the foreign student, their intercultural Spotti, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, competences; Milan and Francesco Schino, Università of • Open-answer questionnaire (in Italian or Bari). in English) to be taken at home or during The research work took place in the second classes, on behalf of the foreign students trimester of the academic year 2009-2010. from Intercultura; These were the followed steps: • Identification of the foreign students from • Selection of the two champion and most Intercultura to be involved in focus valuable Regions in the research (both groups; Northern and Southern): Apulia for the • Carrying out and analysis of the focus South (all the provinces), Emilia Romagna groups, during approximately one hour for the North (7 provinces); and a half each, on behalf of one or more • Presentation of the project through an members from the research group; Introduction letter and meetings with all • Analysis of the school profiles through of the school Principals and the professors specific table forms based on Kerr’s map, to the fourth year’s classes, in order to so as to be able to compare the results present the research modalities and the from the different institutes either in a sharing of useful context data helping to regional and national context; set up the work; The research sample was based upon 328 • Election of a teacher to make reference to students distributed in 57 secondary schools; for each school, who then followed the 72 foreign students from Intercultura (34 in different stages of the research; Emilia Romagna, 38 in Apulia) plus the mirror • Collecting of data pertaining to the plan of group. studies in the school through the 2.3 Analysis of the Training Offer acquisition of the TOP (Training Offer Programs by the schools that were involved. Program); From the brief analysis of the TOP (Training • Interviews with the schools’ Principals, Offer Programs) by the 57 2nd degree high with literature and language teachers and schools involved in our research – having an assigned teacher for the institute’s hosted in the academic year 2009-2010 the intercultural activities (concerning the foreign students that have arrived to Apulia an used methods, the contents and Emilia Romagna the Intercultura Association – docimological contents), that were it has emerged in an evident way that organized through specifically elaborated intercultural pedagogy strictly in terms of questionnaires. didactics, concrete interventions and programs, • Questionnaires for foreign students aimed may not be a widespread approach – especially at monitoring their level of integration in in Apulia – which does not exclude though the class, in the family, in their peer that the single institutes took very great care to group; the questionnaire helped also in the well-being of students (so, being the finding out some difficulties, the interculture a relationship with a foreigner, to criticalities, the differences perceived by the interculturalness implicitly). As we have noticed, often, the support given to the 218

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Intercultura foreign students is in the facts generate new ideas and avoid therefore to stay merely linguistic. The presence of many anchored to the old study methods.” project with an intercultural feature may result in being far less significant if compared to the The request for improvement, passion, various areas of intervention and the amount vividness in order to motivate to studying also of the offered projects. It emerges that the refers to the theme of the lacking motivation conditions which facilitate understanding are and a series of other problems, amongst which others. school waste. In general, the answers given by The protocols for the management of the the foreign students make reference to many students are not widely spread, although they factors that characterize school success. would be necessary, perhaps in co-operation Amongst the main ones, besides the with the Intercultura local Centres ( the motivational one, the relational dimension teachers often talk about useful materials emerges and regularly becomes the main coming from the Foundation itself, though focus. Many of the answers given in Emilia they also complain about the absence of any Romagna can be sum up in the expression “to kinds of contacts with it), as well as with the fit well”. Here’s what a Chilean girl says: training of the teachers and classmates that are about to welcome the Intercultura student in “ … for me success in school means having their class. schoolmates that… become your friends. That 2.4 School success and evaluation: the make you feel like a fellow student and not “just the foreigner”, to whom you may ask for Intercultura students’ point of view. The help without any fear. Success with professors, question related to school success was posed for me, means being treated like the others and both in the questionnaires and in the focus not believing that you’re retarded just because groups. The definition of school success given you still can’t speak well.” by the foreign students may sometimes turn out to be an overall judgement on their year And here’s the witnessing from a Hong abroad and they often refer to their personal Kong girls whose ending evaluation was inner growth and the satisfaction for having negative: confronted several challenges. For many students school success is the school’s success “It means that he or she fits well in school that refers to the school succeeding in its mission the others se him/her as one of them. Has to involve and motivate/thrill to attending friends in the school. Gets pretty good grades (7 classes and studying. and such), studies, is committed and has fun in school.” “I think that the word “success” in school means that in the school environment the Being/ feeling part of the class group, and students reckon the school to be suitable for moreover of the school despite the linguistic them. By giving the students the right difficulties, is considered, by the great motivation to make them study and be fond of majority of the participants to the program, to school.” be the very sign of success. “Fitting well” also implicitly includes the reaching of numerous It also is a multi-generation school, whose learning objectives and the development of younger and older teachers may give different highly complex transversal competences to be but fundamental contributions: reached within a rather limited manner of time. In other words the foreign students wish to be “In a “successful school” there are either able to follow and take part to the studies more young and old teachers. This is a very or less in equal conditions as the other important thing as no one is too old in their students. As S. (Guatemala) affirms, success is experience. The presence of young people is important as in 2010 they might be able to 219

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“seeing the world of studies in a different way, There’s also those who give their priority to being able to to fit oneself in another studying learning Italian as a sign of success or those environment despite the linguistic difficulty…” who talk about personal growth and maturity. A few others match success with intercultural In this statement one can read the necessity learning and the capability to operate the to rapidly overcome to moving, the change of perspective as required from anxiousness and the struggle that accompany experience and to open up to another context: the first period so as to fully and joyously take part to the school fervor. Fitting happily into M. (Japan): “For me it lies in having become the group is part of the success as it is a friends with as many people as in one’s own conquest – it is not always easy to relate country , in having learned about oneself (as oneself to people of the same age – but it is well as one’s own country) from the point of also the key to overcome the early difficulties view of people from another culture, and most in communication and of course in studies. As of all in having enjoyed and liked it.” a matter of fact the interest from the schoolmates is a strong motivational factor to Very few definitions of school success the linguistic progress and the overcoming of mention evaluation, saying that it is important obstacles in the single disciplines. It is a fact not to fail, or having low grades, whereas only anyway that “successful” experiences in one student talks about high grades. Even in Emilia Romagna as well as in Apulia were the focus groups the participants declare to be characterized bay a good and rapid phase of careless about the result. From the statements initial integration (within the month of of the second questionnaire, the grades October). Even those who had some travels at obtained in the Italian school result as their arrival to the school, e.g. for a wrong dropping but the personal satisfaction factor program choice with a subsequent change of stays strong and balances out an apparently institute, have then carried on happily, by less brilliant result. In fact the students feel to finding a quick solution to the problem. It is have confronted additional difficulties likely nonetheless that the quickness in compared to other students of the same age. responding on behalf of the teachers and Not only did they have to fit in the school, but volunteers might help the students to feel they have also given proof of being able to listened and understood in their needs, and it pass a hard test, that is to make themselves also helps maintaining the motivation to the independent and able to live abroad for a program vivid as well as the capability to rely whole year. on the Association. Some of the more articulated and descriptive definitions of M. (Dominican Republic): “Though it was school success make the reference to the difficult, I’m very content because i made it. It went well.” learning and the study more explicit. Here’s an account by a participants whose school N. (Thailand): “I’m very happy about this experience fully satisfactory and with experience, because all the good and the bad excellent results also in terms of evaluation: things are experiences that helped me growing. Even the friends and teachers are F. (Sweden): [school success] means that the really nice, they made me feel good and foreign student was able to integrate himself in helped me a lot”. the class, to follow the subjects and learn the language well. Sometimes it is hard to manage Somebody else was surprised about the school as well as in one’s own country, so it can achieved results, as they were expecting lower be said that… all that matters is what one has grades and admit having committed learned and the effort made in order to learn it”. themselves scarcely:

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A. (Germany): “Even though I hadn’t studied I worse. Only 4.8% reckons them to be better. had high grades… A real miracle… Since I had Certainly this one major issue that leads to a higher grades than some Italians in my class…” more thorough consideration, based on the outcome of questionnaires aimed at “our” It is certified then that the evaluations, foreign Intercultura students. The challenge despite suffering from a decrease compared to was also that of finding plausible explanations the initial ones, seem to keep into account the to this anything but simple phenomenon and, confronted difficulties as well as the rather, very complex as it merges together motivation and commitment on behalf of the several variants related to the different school students. system, to the many teaching strategies, to the 2.5 Comparison between the initial and different cultural origins, to the many life final evaluations. In Emilia Romagna on 21 histories. Even for the unwillingly studied out of the 32 questionnaires that were expected subjects on behalf of the foreign Intercultura to be released from the teachers, it emerges students, as well as for the more appreciated that the final evaluations are coherent in 50% ones, the motivations are on one hand related of the cases with the initial ones. 4 students to the teachers’ capabilities to plan the didactic have even maintained a “very positive” activities so as to help the foreign Intercultura evaluation. In 5 cases no judgement was students, seeing as how 17.7% claims not to ventured as a result of some lackings in the understand the explanations and 10.5% utters admission documentation, 2 were given a that the teachers are unable to help them; on positive evaluation with some differences and the other hand they are disliked (21,8%). This only 3 have a rather negative evaluation. last data matches with what was said Amongst the particularly successful cases, 4 previously (on the liking of Math as studied in students are to be reported. 2 of the students their own country) only if underneath such are central-American, 1 is Japanese and 1 is disliking lies a different appreciation between Swedish. Besides from their origins and a the Italian teaching methods and the foreign major or minor facility for learning Italian, the ones. A 26.6% of unanswered questions has four seem to have in common not only a also been detected. In order to close the strong motivation for integration but also the analysis strictly related to the school aspects it fact of having met strongly strongly inclusive is important, however, to point out that 62.9% environments and a great disponibility on of the foreign Intercultura students have behalf of the school to personalizing the generally perceived a good acceptance of the programs and to value the competences of the cultural diversities. The “critical” ones on this students. issue are certified to be 9.7%. 2.6 Italian lifestyle, in the school and 2.7 Mirror group and school success. The outside. From the point of view of the definitions of schools success provided from Intercultura foreign students the Italian school the mirror group are connotated with a certain experience has generally produced rather extention and make reference to multiple positive results. 71% claims to go to school factors, especially to the occupation and the in Italy with pleasure. The “new” data, evaluation, almost completely absent in the compared to the question asked in the previous foreign student’s questionnaires. It is almost as paragraph, is the appearance of unsatisfied if they lived in the present time as entirely students certified to 11.3% together with 17% focused on their amazing experience, whereas of partially unsatisfied. By asking directly to the Italian ones who are their same age the Intercultura foreign students to assess data manage to envision a continuity between their on the school achievings as compared to their present and their future. Aside from this, the “home” ones, it is confirmed that 79,0% is definitions from the two groups have many aware that the results are average-good; things in common. Even in the mirror whereas 14.5% considers them to be far 221

TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY questionnaires, in fact, the relational “Success is achieved when you go to school dimension is a vital component: every day wearing a smile, fearless of being considered as a grade from 1 to 10” – “For me “School success is getting along with your school success is both being rewarded from the schoolmates and professors” – “For me, school professors, with votes or any such thing, and success is being committed to the greatest the interest for certain subjects that lead to extent in order to achieve good grades, to relate student to delve into them also outside of the to the schoolmates and to bond with everyone”. school environment”.

Even here the priority seems to be that of Recognition, interest, pleasure in the “getting on well” with both students and Exchange are closely linked to the dimension teachers, that of feeling fully accepted in the of motivation towards studies which is class. For someone, it is important for this to sometimes hard to find. Hence the teaching happen no matter whether the results are figure seems to be essential in order to involve positive or negative, that is outside of a the students: competitive context and a relationally exclusive one. A quiet life amidst the school “To me, school success is managing to get high and class group in its ensemble seems to be grades given from the interest and the passion that the professors should be able to convey to generally desirable or one reality in which to each and every single one of us”. be truly happy. This is what two satisfied student utter on the importance of the It strikes though that the school success relationship with the schoolmates just to learn definitions are so close between the two that this is, by far, the general standard groups as are the critics more or less concealed procedure. under a school system into which it is not “In my class the activities are articulated in always pleasant or amusing to find oneself in group researches, presentations, etc. which may determine the grades. Thus, it is necessary to and often lacking in truly involving and create an active teamwork atmosphere and, motivating situations and/or modalities. Thus, luckily, this is possible in my school.” – “In my some delay the commitment to the university opinion, school success does not only result years, when the subject will be far more from frontal school lessons, but also from the inherent to one’s own interests, and settle for classmates, through discussions and the option of surviving to an absolutely argumentative themes”. unappealing daily routine. 2.8 Success as viewed by the teachers. In Even the students from the mirror group the definitions provided by the teachers, as seem then to appreciate the two didactic much as enriched with a great deal of facets, modalities in favour of the group trends and school success coincides essentially with the entailing interaction, in total synchrony with success of an educational project pertaining to the majority of the Intercultura students the person in its entirety. The developments of complaining, instead, about its lack in their a student’s potential along with its individual original country. At the same there is a strong growth are therefore considered as a priority. desire for a school where learning is set aside Studying is then linked to one’s own maturity, from the performance, but it is rather linked to of the developing of an independent thinking, the pleasure and the interest for the contents. of the acquisition of instruments that will help In this context arises then a need for to confront life in its variety of aspects. recognition and appreciation on behalf of the teachers, which foreign students sometimes “Naturally school success does not entirely complain about not obtaining. identify itself with a final high evaluation; it is on the contrary much more than this. In my opinion a student is to achieve school success

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whenever he absorbs notions that allow him to individual knowledge, aimed at delving into elaborate a personal vision of the world with and discovering new notions, is quite frequent. broader horizons and to acquire competences The prevailing of a frontal teaching that is that will allow him to confront life by achieving more addressed to the single individuals rather positive outcomes. It is an ambitious goal that than to groups together with the harshness of the teachers for one should challenge part of the teaching personnel and the School themselves with, although it’s not easy”. Councils in planning the contents’ Many definitions insert the single person in programming seems to impede at least one a relational dimension. In these cases the part of the Italian school in the project of school burdens itself of the civil-ethical creating responsible and active citizens, training of young people and the concept of whereas it often manages to make them lose school success embraces a much wider horizon their motivation, as the definition of the mirror than the local schools by projecting itself in group have testified. the society. Many, in fact, point out the 2.9 School success as viewed by the importance of the training of “citizens that families. According to the carried-out should be able to manage their own life research, the role played by the host families project”. Only a teacher makes explicit in easing the Intercultura students’ integration reference to the sense of belonging to the process in the school life and in guiding them national community and focuses thus on the through the critical phases that they might go school being a fundamental means of values’ through. Family plays a major mediation and cultural transmission of a historically and function in letting understand the “game rules” geographically defined community. The and in encouraging and motivating them to the teachers seem to implicitly respond to the reaching of the defined goals. Without the motivation and commitment drop, following to essential aid of the families, many foreign the scarce appreciation for the Italian school students would not find a way to overcome the on behalf of a high percentage of participants inevitable frustrations and difficulties in order to the gathering of data. A discrepancy also to live a happy school experience. How do detected between the intentions and host families define the school success? The viewpoints of one part of the teacher’s families highlight on the multiple factors that personnel and the reality detected with contribute to its achieving. They also highlight Intercultura by the students in Italy and their the importance of the relational dimension and schoolmates. The pedagogic project as make school success coincide with a good expressed in these definitions seems not to integration in the class group. keep into account, at least in words, the “I would define school success the ability to dimension of motivation and involvement of participate and interact in class activities, the students in building their own learning although with a strict link to their own pattern. In fact lessons are not always competences and abilities, as well as the appealing and the teaching methods do not possibility to socialize and to be involved in the always seem to be coherent with the goals that schoolmates’ initiatives, whether inside or the interviewed teachers originally intended to outside of the school.” achieve. If the atmosphere in the class group is considered to be important, it is also true that In this definition, one might implicitly read the adopted teaching methods (frontal lesson, that the foreign student can, or rather must feel oral questionings and individual written tests) “a part of” from the very beginning, despite rarely tend to favour the creation of a group. the limits in one’s skills which are destined to The use of appealing teaching methods such as increase during the stay. As the family itself problem solving issues, group activities, field affirms: researches, other than the effort to value

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“Certainly the guys must be particularly such as keywords written on the board or motivated to learning and to the constant written summaries from the lesson and or the improvement of their Italian language skills, textbooks. Many appreciate, on the other hand, whereas the professors must devote themselves the fact that one can learn to give oral to define a specific and adequate program speeches in front of others thanks to oral tests, continuing throughout the whole year” which has a remarkably positive effect on

learning the Italian language. For a minority of 2.10 School and Intercultura’s foreign students coming from eastern Europe and Asia students: positivity and criticality. Foreign the relationship with the professors is very students testify to a very reassuring data for positive as it’s run in a horizontal way whereas the Italian school: cultural diversities are for students of other origins the professors are viewed in a positive way and Intercultura’s viewed negatively as they are quite distant. foreign students don’t complain about feeling The professors, on their account, highlight on excluded in no way. Cultural stereotypes and the advantages given by the presence of biases are present in the early phase of the foreign Intercultura students. In fact, with their arrival. Many questions that the students are choice to confront the many obstacles in order puzzled about and that show a great deal of to open to new realities, they represent a great ignorance of the country of origin are a stimulus and encouragement for Italian people significant symptom to this. But through the of the same age to believe in their strengths “contact” and interaction among students a and potentials. In concrete terms, they great ability to being open and flexible, such contribute to their opening to the world and to stereotypes were then torn down, one would new realities. But the presence of foreign say rather “spontaneously” as a result of an students is stimulating for teachers as well. intention that was programmed by the Class The colleagues are brought together to work in Council through well-targeted interventions. groups in order to achieve the pre-established The Italian students’ mentality appears to be goals in a more synergic way. Furthermore, by rather ethnocentric and the study programs do confronting with different needs and goals, not contribute to modifying it by only dealing they are brought to refine the preparation work to a low extent with the geographical areas and to focus on a more detailed programming. outside of Europe. In this situation, the arrival in class of a student from a different country is 3. EVALUATION OF THE EXPERIENCE nonetheless a changing factor towards a multi- perspective vision of life. An adequate Overall, the experience of the foreign preparation of the class at the arrival might Intercultura foreign students is definitely good facilitate going more in-depth on relevant (83,8%). Only for 5 students it turned out to be issues also under a didactic profile and might negative. drastically broaden the cultural horizons of the The key to success: good school practice. Italian students. From a more methodological- It has been observed that the experiences didactic point of view, the foreign students referred to as positive have often got an initial complain about the italian school’s scarce integration phase in common into which ability to motivate. As a negative example they several positive action are accomplished, in report the teaching procedure of frontal order to reduce the initial drawbacks towards lessons, the few lab activities and the many foreign students and to lay the mnemonic learning methods. Foreign students foundations for a happy development of the also report the teacher’s scarce ability in the relationships and the learning process. use of spoken English, which may represent an Naturally, before all of this, it is assumed that initial obstacle for many as well as a general every single Intercultura Local Centre, difficulty in understanding lessons, entirely supported by a sufficiently informative oral and not unenhanced by a written support, documentation on the program and the areas of 224

TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY interest, plans the insertion of a non-Italian tutor’s class so as to be followed more Intercultura student in an adequate Institute. It carefully; would be of great use for teachers not only to • The preparation of the class at the know the material gathered by Intercultura arrival of a new student (e.g. through timely “Educating to the world”, but also to be information gathered from the Local Centre); thoroughly informed on the student’s original • The preparation by the Class Council school system, on the didactic modalities and of each and every single teacher to the on anything that might be useful to rapidly reception of the new student; compile a didactic and educational project. • The assignment of a personalized Once this choice is made by the Intercultura didactic program, including eventually a Local Centre, everything else is up to the reduction on the schedule, the exclusion of students and teachers. certain subjects (e.g. latin), the enhancement The key elements to this insertion phase are of some others (e.g. English or other foreign enlisted in the following order: languages); • The presence of a reception protocol in • An open-study program with the order to deal with the arrival of the student, insertion in two classes in order to follow despite in many institutes such insertion personalized patterns and to expand procedure takes place even in the absence of a relationships; for some student, switching protocol; classes can be less pleasant but this procedure • The assignment of a tutor who’s able to is generally viewed as positive; communicate in a foreign language (generally • Adopting every possible strategy in English), even better if well informed on the order to help the student to expand his/her Intercultura program and in contact with the relationships (e.g. by getting involved in extra Local Centre. The tutor seems to be one the afternoon activities with other groups of figure that the foreign students appreciate the students); most. In fact, he has a great function of • insertion of the new student and mediation between the foreign student and generating the need for support on their behalf the institution. (e.g. supplementary explanations, group Generally, he defines the didactic patterns, the homework, delivering notes, etc.); selection of the classes to attend, coherent to a Involving of returnees, if present in the previous agreement by the Class Council. He school, for a presentation to classmates and listens to the specific needs of the single class groups; involvement in extra afternoon students and manages to find personalized activities; involvement in well-known foreign forms of insertion in the school reality. languages’ lessons(e.g. English/Spanish); Moreover he has a similar function to the lessons in the student’s native language (e.g. counselor, available to listen to the foreign activation of a Japanese language course); student and his problems and to provide presentations on the single disciplines’ issues guidance in his school path; in agreement with the teachers; • The assignment of a study program • in general, it is important to give a coherent with the previous and future school certain value to the competences of the foreign studies, that also keeps into account of the students in order to allay the frustration student’s interests; feeling, especially in the initial phase; • The assignment of an adequate class in • support to the learning of Italian terms of ability to welcome, include and co- language through a well-targeted teaching, the operate with the new student; the same individual studies on specific material, the function should be performed on behalf of the regular correction of the written works, etc.; teachers, or at least from the majority of them; • showing interest to the person and the an option is the insertion of a student in the original cultural context by asking questions,

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TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY by asking for information and by helping to • illustrating to the intercultural students eliminate the stereotypes related to the original the evaluation criteria country, so as to promote the exchange and • use standard language for preparing mutual knowledge; written tests and the consequential double As regards didactic programming, schools evaluation (e.g. English + history) are suggested to: • postpone oral tests to the moment when • establish the main objectives to be the communicative competence is sufficiently reached in the single disciplines through a good. previous agreement with the Intercultura As for didactics it is generally important student to: • simplify the concepts in order to allow • value the knowledge and competences a better understanding of the Italian language of the Intercultura foreign students by and make a presentation on traditional values involving them in lessons on well-known and the national culture: issues or that can be delved into through 1. to express oneself orally and put research; something down on paper in Italian • selecting the studying materials for the 2. knowing the Italian school system single issues according to the student’s skills 3. knowing the main aspects of the Italian in oral speech; using eventually middle school culture books, to be integrated with additional 4. socializing and communicating with information whenever scarce; classmates and teachers • visualizing the explanation clues and 5. allowing the student to talk about the keywords on the board; more in general uses, costumes and habits of his/her adopting every possible strategy so as to make own country; explanations more easy to understand; 6. moreover, every involved teacher has • verifying on the understanding of the elaborated a program with the main explanations and give further details if goals to be achieved in his/her own necessary; taking care, in general, of the discipline as well as the notions and learning process; competences to be acquired; Giving good value to the desire to learn by As regards didactic programming, schools arousing the student’s interest; ability to are suggested to: motivate all the students, not just the • analysing the needs Intercultura foreign ones. 1. planning on the general aims and goals 2. planning on specific objectives (for 4. CONCLUSIONS each discipline) 3. research-action of the adequate means In order to be able to “measure” the school and instruments success of the non-Italian student’s experience 4. synthetic planning on the contents (for who came to our schools in the previous each discipline) academic year, one should make reference to 5. monitoring, verifying and evaluating the specific indicators that may result, in this (before, during and after) case, result to complex and difficult to define. As for the evaluation it might be In fact, one may confront with a adviseable to: multidimensional concept towards which the • define evaluation modes and times in Department of Education, despite avoiding to complete agreement with the Intercultura provide a possible conceptualization, has since student; contents and modalities of the long ago shown a great priority interest to the verifying tests might differ from the class ends of improving and increasing the value of group ones; the educational system – especially since, after

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TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY the launching of the Lisbon strategy in 2000, Focus groups have clearly stated their the value of competences has become of opinions. It only takes to think about the low primary importance in the concept of school ratings towards Mathematics, which instead success. Within a policy that is aimed at they study with great pleasure and great results creating the conditions for a lifelong learning in their own country. Some important process, amongst the strategic goals there is pedagogues, such as J. Dewey, A. Patri, M. that of improving the learning level, to ensure Montessori, C. Freinet, M. Wagenschein, have the access equity, to grant the mastery of basic laid, in the schools where their ideas were and transversal competences, even with implemented, the foundations to a successful actions on the reference context, so as to learning process on behalf of all the students, improve the school system’s appeal and to including the physically disabled ones. Their contrast school dispersion. A fundamental lessons are anything but overrated and, today, objective for the personal development of all they may be summarized like this: when the the boys and girls lies in the improvement of students are involved in well-targeted the education level, to be intended as the main activities, they think, ask questions, identify instrument to the country’s social and the problems and pose different issues, to economic growth. School, as many ministerial which the teacher had not thought, this is the documents quote, must give its contribution to school of success. This school is far different the well-being of the society that one lives from the traditional one, which used to outline into, by training active and responsible citizens a strict and where the teacher is the only one in who must be able to demand on their rights charge of transmitting knowledge. In the and to contribute in a conscious way to the school of success the students are the resolution of problems. The school-time protagonists of the building of their own becomes then a fundamental component knowledge. The school of success is based, to although one’s own individual motivation, the a large extent, on Socrates’ ideas. The teacher social context that learning takes place into, asks questions, but leaves to the students the the technical-didactic instruments at one’s task of planning some adequate investigations disposal and the teacher’s ability to keep up to in order find the answers. Thus, Socrates’ date, must not be forgotten. Recovering the ancient didactic mode sets the mode for the student’s basic and transversal competences is students to be curious, to think on their own also useful to contrast school dispersion, a thoughts and to keep asking questions to phenomenon for which many actions were which they will have to find some answers in taken, and several specific projects were order then to compare their thoughts with their financed, especially for southern regions schoolmates’ and the teacher’s. Moreover, referring to the PON projects 2007-2013 could self-esteem, family and social relationships be enough. First of all, the school of training definitely affect school success. More success does not coincide with the school of specifically, a vast international literary corpus easy pass, which would entail a lack in the proves the strict relation between some of the didactic contents and methods. The school of so-called temperamental characteristics – success aims at creating, for all and in the dimensions named as “task orientation” – and classroom, the conditions that may help each school success. Such characteristics are student to be successful in the learning perseverance, level of distraction and level of process. However, what the many OCSE-PISA activity. A high activity level or the scarce or INVALSI surveys do not measure is the perseverance to bring the task to its boredom and indifference for certain accomplishment are all elements which might disciplines which are the same that underwent compromise one’s ability to focus and pay the analysis. Such teachings are reckoned to be attention and might therefore affect the difficult and/or boring by the Intercultura performance, as well as the reaching of a goal, students as well, whom in questionnaires or in a negative way. But the factor that might 227

TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY help the most in foreseeing the outcome of the interviewed internal teachers themselves performance is the self-esteem level that the admittedly view as a drawback the fact that student possesses in relation to his “school” there was no specific didactic-educational skills, as it may strongly affect the grades in program referring to the new foreign every subject. Those with an essentially good Intercultura student – together with their own self-esteem present themselves as optimist lacking in the knowledge of a foreign people, confident of what their possibilities language. The persisting presence of the might be, has ambitious goals to achieve and frontal didactic at the expense of the lab easily confronts with the negative experiences. experience, generates in many students who On the other hand, the ones with a low self- were already used to it in their country of esteem tend to be pessimistic and become origin (with the exception of the Asian depressed, their potential stays on a low- students) some difficulties and a certain level profile. But there’s more to it. Several of underachievement in school compared to researches have proved that each and every their country of origin. Whether we consider one of us possesses an inborn tendency to self- school success in terms of disciplinary improvement. And it’s just through such achievements or in terms of the student’s own mechanism that the individuals tend to obtain well-being, the results of our research appear a positive response about themselves from the to be generally good despite posing the surrounding environment and to avoid the necessity to activate a good practice for a negative ones, to overestimate their own further increase of the positive aspects. The successes and to forget about their failures. analysis itself has let emerge some important These tendencies to self-improvement seem to positive factors on the Intercultura students’ have a strong adaptive value as they help the school experience. Their presence – according individual to live more peacefully. The points to the interviewed teachers – has often brought of reference that a student may need in order the class students closer to each other, has to increase his self-confidence also have a improved the knowledge of the foreign remarkable importance and they can either be language as it has “forced” the classmates to internal factors (feeling competent in one express themselves in a non-Italian language,; particular activity or interpersonal ability) or but more than anything else, it was external factors (family, teachers, unanimously acknowledged as an opportunity schoolmates). Self-evaluation is so strongly for the school to grow, an invitation to the affected be the judgement of others, as to be intercultural dialogue in our global society, to named “self mirror image”. It is therefore the questioning of one’s own perspectives, of fundamental that the parents or the educators the teaching-learning techniques. The school manage to convey to the students a positive personnel involved in the survey has idea on his skills and to confide deeply in their acknowledged to the Association a relevant potential. Let’s try then to apply all this to added value in pursuing and in bringing this “our” foreign Intercultura students who have process forward. The foreign Intercultura lived a school (and life) experience outside of students: bring the local class students closer their affective-relational-psychological and to each other, prompt to the use of foreign socio-cultural daily context and let’s briefly languages, oblige to cross-cultural dialogue, consider some elements that have emerged question the teaching-learning techniques, from our research. It seems evident that many stimulate the school to improve itself! It is for Intercultura foreign students were inserted in sure, several things must still be activated in school institutes that hardly include order to stimulate the school institution intercultural pedagogy among the educational towards a higher awareness of the relevance of expedients of their TOP and that have often the transversalness and unrenounceability of received the student without going through a intercultural cross-cultural pedagogy in the preparatory phase of the class group. The training offer, but some factors testify to its 228

TO INTERPRET SUCCESS: THE SUCCESS IN SCHOOLS AND THE INTEGRATION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN ITALY undeniable success: the extremely positive 11. Cambi, F. (2003). Saperi e competenze. evaluation expressed by the Intercultura Roma-Bari: Laterza. foreign students as well as by the Italian 12. Capperucci, D. (2010). Curricolo e students who have welcomed the new intercultura. Porblemi, metodi, strumenti. unexpected schoolmates, along with the great Milano: Franco Angeli. availability provided by the Italian host- 13. Castoldi, M. (1998). Gli indicatori: uno families, that soon became a second home for strumento per la qualità. Brescia: La these non-Italian youngsters, who now dream Scuola. (or have planned already) to come back as 14. CENSIS. (2008). Vissuti ed esiti della soon as possible. scolarizzazione dei minori di origine immigrata in Italia. Sintesi dei risultati. BIBLIOGRAPHY Roma: CENSIS. 15. Chryssochoou, X. (2004). Cultural 1. Alessandrini, G. (1988). Manuale per Diversity. It’s Social Psychology. Oxford: l’esperto dei processi formativi. Roma: Blackwell. Carocci. 16. Citterio, S. (1999). Dalla verifica alla 2. Alleman Ghionda, C. (2005). Le ragioni valutazione. Citterio, Magnoni (a cura di). dell’insucccesso scolastico dei ragazzi 11-124. italiani nel sistema scolastico Tedesco e le 17. Commissione Comunità Europee. (1995). possibili soluzioni. Studi Emigrazione. Libro Bianco su istruzione e formazione. no.158. Insegnare e apprendere. Verso la società 3. Anderson, C.A. (1959). Methodology of conoscitiva. Bruxelles. Comparative Education. in International 18. Commissione Europea. (2003). Eurydice, Review of Education, 3. La rete d’informazione sull’istruzione in 4. Ansaloni, D. (a cura di). (1990). Gli Europa. Bruxelles. indicatori di qualità nei sistemi educativi. 19. Corradini, L. (1983). L’educazione e la Bologna: Cappelli. diversità delle culture. Pedagogia e Vita. 5. 5. Antonello, M., Eramo, P., Polacco, M. 20. Damiano, E. (2005). La sala degli Specchi. (1996). Le voci dell’altro. Materiali per Pratiche scolastiche di Educazione un’educazione alla differenza. Torino: Interculturale in Europa. Milano: Franco Loescher. Angeli. 6. Balboni, P. (2004). Parole comuni culture 21. De Landsheere, G. (1971). Evaluation diverse: guida alla comunicazione continue et examens. Precis de interculturale. Padova: Marsilio. docimologie. Bruxelles: Laboro. 7. Becchi, E., Vertecchi, B. (1984). Manuale 22. Dewey, J. (1939). Theory of Valutation. critico della sperimentazione e della Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ricerca educative. Milano: Franco Angeli. 23. Domenici, G. (2003). Manuale della 8. Brewer, M.B., Miller, N. (1984). Beyond valutazione scolastica. Roma-Bari: the contact hypothesis: Theoretical Laterza. perspectives ondesegregation, in Miller N., 24. EUMC (European Monitoring Centre on Brewer, M.B. Groups in contact: The Racism and Xenophobia). (2004). psychology of desegregation. Orlando: FL Migrants, Minorities and education. Academic Press. Documenting Discriminations and 9. Broadfoot, R. (2000). Comparative Integration in 15 Member States of the Education for the 21st Century: Retrospect European Union, Office for Official and Prospect. Comparative Education. 3. Publications of European Communities. 10. Brown, R. (1989). Group process. Luxembourg. Dynamics within and between Groups. 25. Farrel, P. (1979). The Necessity of Oxford: B. Blackwell Ltd. Comparisons in the Study of Education: 229

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SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST EARLY CONTACTS: JESUIT FIELDWORK REMARKS FROM PIONEER EXPERIENCE IN INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION

Maria de São José CÔRTE-REAL

Instituto de Etnomusicologia - Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), Lisboa, Portugal

Abstract: Intercultural communication, based on tested strategies and skills, was a major concern on the early years of the Jesuit’s educational missions centered on Goa. Music and some other knowledge domains played a fundamental role in those hard intellectual works. This communication, based on original reports from the sixteenth century by the hand of Francisco Xavier and Fernão Mendes Pinto, points out and discusses aspects then presented as preoccupations and/or findings; it stresses some fundamental questions identified today as recent trends in the crossroads of arts, intercultural concerns and education; and it points out the beginning of the missionary activity of the Society of Jesus as a pioneering landmark of the policy for Intercultural Education.

Keywords: Ethnomusicology, intercultural education, Society of Jesus, Goa, music, intercultural communication, teachers training, social cohesion.

1. INTRODUCTION: THEN & NOW like reports, practical advices and personal outflow, direct questions and orders, soft and Menor filho em exílio maior [Minor child severe punishments and also rewards and kind in exile higher], the farewell formulae from advice, application for financial, spiritual, Francisco Xavier (1506-52) to Inácio de legal and human resources from Portugal or Loyola (1491-1556) on April 9th 1552, eight from other European origin, as well as months before dying in the small Chinese reflections on pedagogical methods and island of Sanchão (an elision of the Portuguese techniques, and on arguments for faith and version for Saint John) expresses his feelings spiritual discussions and practices of different after ten pioneering years of intercultural religions. Among the most impressive education under extreme harsh conditions. The references, classified as such by the first hand reports of the Jesuit founder based missionary himself, those that stress the on Goa, the Portuguese ruled port city, in West distance between erudite traditions of the India, located in todays smallest and richest Iberian Peninsula home culture and those of state of the country, represent an invaluable the great Japan Island, motivated rather source for reflection on education for social challenging educational paths meanwhile cohesion. Francisco Xavier challenges the interrupted. Arts and sciences related state and the church powers through their references in this set of documents involve the higher representatives, the Portuguese King valorization of the spoken word, stressing and the Pope, for local individual interests sound, emotion and body expression and also dependent on cultural, religious, geographical the best contents for the pedagogic texts, the and environmental conditions. His letters and most confortable hours of the day to teach, the documents, that could take more than one year best days in the week and places to locate the to get to their recipients, include field notes classes. Didactical concerns even include

SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST EARLY CONTACTS: JESUIT FIELDWORK REMARKS FROM PIONEER EXPERIENCE IN INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION comments on the kinds and ages of students to where after Portuguese resistance of sorts his group for the success of the intercultural early death impeded his entrance. It seems that educational enterprise. These multiple aspects no details are missed in his vivid letters in are scattered throughout the 137 documents which he stresses good health and constitution (docs.) written by Francisco Xavier. These to confront extreme conditions of food documents, known until 2006, were constrain, cold weather and isolation (doc. 47). transcribed, classified and in some cases He even stresses, in some cases (as for Japan) translated from Castilian or Latin into the preference for Jesuits from the North of Portuguese in the commemorative centennial Europe (Flemish or German), but with edition celebrating 500 years of his birth experience of life acquired in Spain or Italy (Baptista 2006). In addition, the musical (doc. 107). The five decades of Portuguese references of the long and famous travelogue presence in India and in many coastal regions Peregrinação by Fernão Mendes Pinto, who of the so-called Far East, however, rendered lived and worked for a while in close the Portuguese language a necessity for those connection with Francisco Xavier and then early educators in the most isolated places. with the Company of Jesus before leaving it, Local interpreters, needed in the educational were taken into consideration. These settings, understood no other European descriptions provide contemporary references language. Among the skills needed he stresses that in many ways complement the knowledge good temperament, dilligence in teaching and given in the letters, namely in what concerns an obedient character (docs. 49 and 50), music related aspects, and were analyzed by experience of life, academic and artistic Côrte-Real in 1985 (1996). This presentation qualifications (docs. 107 and 110). Different brings the theme of pioneer intercultural situations required different missionaries: for educational experience to light. Doing so, it the small coastal communities of fishermen stresses two fundamental issues identified and Christians (Portuguese personnel in today as worldwide recent trends for the command, traders and some local individuals success of the crossroads of arts, intercultural meanwhile converted, whose children needed concerns and education: the performance education) close to the Cape of Comorin in practice of educators and the respect for the Southern India (doc. 84), the profile of other in the overall process. In the 16th century educators was completely different from that the aim of the Jesuit global educational needed for the Japanese court of Bungo, in the strategy was to save souls, in the 21st century, Eastern coast of the island, were the local UNESCO’s one, worked on successive world religious intellectuals, with interests in music, conferences, is to build creative and literature and astrophysics were eager to know citizenship capacities (Lisbon 2006) and discuss the Christian doctrine and faith reinforcing socio-cultural dimensions in (docs. 96 and 107). Above all skills, however, ambiance of social cohesion and cultural the most appreciated was a performing one: diversity (Seoul 2010). Comparable situations, the capacity to move the listeners and the in which most teachers ignore the cultural students to different emotional states. Master environments of their students, deserve thus Gaspar, who Francisco Xavier nominated as our attention. rector of the College of Santa Fé in Goa, had the grace to move listeners to tears when he 2. EMOTION AND PERFORMANCE preached (doc. 107). Francisco Xavier gave great importance to the performance practice Francisco Xavier repeatedly mentions in the intercultural context on the field. He the characteristics of the Jesuit priests needed described his own behavior in this respect, for different places such as those in Southern explaining in detail how he used to teach the India, Malacca, Moluccas, Japan and China prayers, using gestural expression, loud and 232

SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST EARLY CONTACTS: JESUIT FIELDWORK REMARKS FROM PIONEER EXPERIENCE IN INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION clear voice, call and response vocal technique, Portuguese water music played by brass and extended repetition (doc. 48). In many instruments in the small boats in the harbor of instances he reminded Francisco de Mansilhas, the city of Fuchéu in Japan, when the local a younger Jesuit to recommend his interpreter king of Bungo welcomed Francisco Xavier to use loud and clear voices in his translation (ibid: 191). The sensation that the first guitar tasks. Although Francisco Xavier does not like instrument, played by the Portuguese provide many references to music practice in Gaspar de Meireles, produced in the local his letters and documents, he mentions the population in China is also object of a curious sung mass and the processional singing of description by Fernão Mendes Pinto (ibid: 193 Ladaínhas of the young men and friars in and 194). Finally, the descriptions of the Malaca (doc. 84). The use of music in the religious musical funeral ceremonies of Jesuit Portuguese religious services abroad was very practice that accompanied the corpse of appreciated and in especial the Jesuits would Francisco Xavier in Malaca and Goa give us a be famous for music theory and practice clear notion of the missionary tradition that knowledge and development, not only, but included music performance practice in its especially in China. Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), systematic educational work (ibid: 191). The Tomas Pereira (1645-1708) and the non-Jesuit heaviness of the emotions created by the missionary Teodorico Pedrini (1671-1746) Portuguese religious music played abroad were famous composers and music theorists must have had its impact in the intercultural from Italy and Portugal in China, responsible relations developed by the Portuguese in far for great intercultural contact through spoken lands since the fifteenth century. and written language and music. They were authors of pioneer dictionaries (e.g. the first 3. THE PRICE OF CULTURAL RESPECT Dictionary of Portuguese-Chinese, lost for long, only found in the 1930s and published as According to his own writings, the late as 2001) and music treaties, not to intercultural educational policy practiced by mention the compositional and performance Francisco Xavier in coastal regions and islands work done by all of them. from India to Japan was characterized by a Among the most vivid descriptions in close connection with the local uneducated or Peregrinação (1614) are many mentioning erudite cultures, attending their needs and music performance. Fernão Mendes Pinto expectations. The impetus of this procedure (1510/14-1583) was a very good writer, with a may be readily observed in the second letter keen sense of humor and a sharp critical written from Goa to Inácio de Loyola on the vision. He described with extraordinary detail 20th of September of 1542 (doc. 17), in which not only what he saw, but also what he heard he transmits what he says is the governors will in his most adventurous life in East Asia, then to exchange the Easter lent period in the year, called Far East by Europeans. His descriptions so that the youngsters and the men, who used include music and sounds of war and peace, to go out then to the sea and land for long term Portuguese and of local traditions, in private fishery and commerce, could confess and and in new public environments in Peking and receive communion, then only permitted other places (in Côrte-Real 1996: 190) not yet during that time. The weather calendar was in use in Portugal by then. He mentions how thus proving to be worthy of religious respect the local population appreciated the and for that reason of justified adjustment. The polyphonic church music of the Portuguese insistent applications for the authorization of church of Our Lady of Conceição in the the Pope remained however unanswered. No Chinese city of Liampó interpreted by voices sign is given in the letters mentioning it. In the and musical instruments (ibid: 188). As well as court of Bungo, Francisco Xavier managed to the chill created in the local population by the interest the king, his intellectuals and religious 233

SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST EARLY CONTACTS: JESUIT FIELDWORK REMARKS FROM PIONEER EXPERIENCE IN INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION men in the knowledge of the Christian doctrine power of the Catholic colonial domination of and faith. Plans were made and later executed the time, in particular by Portugal and Spain for the exchange of missionaries between under the rules of the Society of Jesus. The Portugal and Japan. The interest in the two papal bulls about the missionary activity building of an intercultural population of Ex quo singulari (1742) and Omnium students in the early Jesuit schools is solicitudinum (1744) mention the Jesuit mentioned in several letters in which he accommodation of Christian words and uses to describes his plans for the huge college of S. express non-Christian ideas and practices of Paulo-o-Velho [St. Paul-the-Old] in Goa for native cultures in India and China. example. Creio que, dentro de seis anos, há-de The intercultural education strategy ter passados de trezentos estudantes, entre os implanted by the Portuguese policy in Asia quais os há-de haver de várias línguas, nações and in the South and East Asia regions of the e gentes [I believe that in six years it will have world through the Jesuits was interrupted by more than three hundred students, among the Roman church itself. The Society of Jesus which there will be various languages, nations would suffer even larger setbacks, from which and people] (doc. 16). Francisco Xavier’s will it would however subsist and recover. With was however vexed soon. The note 10 to the five centuries of delay, intercultural education document 117 states that in the his absence, in would come again to the agenda of some 1549/50 António Gomes dismissed all pedagogic groups in the 20th century Australia, “indigenous” students from St. Paul to include Canada and United States first and then as a twenty eight Portuguese candidates to the European and world major effort, not yet Society of Jesus. The Jesuit intercultural however full valorized. Cultural respect then policy, as stated by Francisco Xavier, for as now, for its imperative need for mutual education was in fact based on principles of understanding, discussion, negotiation, and cultural respect, promoting cultural proximity acknowledgement, challenges many installed and mutual acknowledgement. His letters to powers. Neglecting its value implies a price the king of Portugal, John the 3rd are that men did not yet measured effectively. impressive, regarding the means he used to convince the monarch about the interest on 4. CONCLUSION: SOCIAL COHESION supporting his educational policy. Equally impressive is the way he notes that the The field work remarks produced by the revenues sent back to India are not by any way two early Jesuits mentioned in this study possible comparable to the richness the highlight expressive behaviour, stressing kingdom receives from there (docs. 46, 57, 61, music and non-music performance practice as 83, 99, and 109). The cultural proximity a major tool for intercultural communication. between the Southern European missionaries As mentioned before, namely in studies on mostly of Portuguese, Spanish and Italian music and migration by Baily and Collyer origin and the coastal communities through the (2006) and Côrte-Real (2010) and (2011) world, first in Africa, Asia and East Asia, and among others, this early remarks corroborate then also in South America, under the political that music provides ground and processes for power of the Iberian kings, was not welcome social adjustment (Sorce-Keller 2010) in by the Pope’s court in Rome. Pope Bento XIV intercultural context. Social cohesion, a major (1675-1758) finally considered inadequate the value in this context, that needs growing Jesuit hegemonic control of the Catholic attention and careful handling in current times, education abroad. Rome created the will benefit from the acknowledgement of Congregation of Propaganda Fide still in the such assumption. The said properties of music 17th century to coordinate the church performance, that have been analysed in missionary activity, counterbalancing the Ethnomusicology, to unmask boundaries, 234

SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST EARLY CONTACTS: JESUIT FIELDWORK REMARKS FROM PIONEER EXPERIENCE IN INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION nurture participation, enhance emotions, The Encounter of Cultures in Music. challenge categories and renew references Lisbon: Publicações Dom Quixote, pp. (Côrte-Real 2010a) with extreme easiness and 185-200. ISBN: 972-20-1353-X. efficacy render it a privileged tool not only to 4. Côrte-Real M.S.J. (ed.) (2010), special study but also to promote intercultural issue Music and Migration, Migrações communication. Journal 7, ISSN: 1646-8104, pp. 278. This old knowledge of worldwide field http://www.oi.acidi.gov.pt/modules.php?na experience will hopefully inspire new thinkers me=Content&pa=showpage&pid=120. in our challenging effort to redefine 5. Côrte-Real, M.S.J. (2010a) Introduction: communities, educational strategies and citizenship, music and migration, in Côrte- policies for social cohesion in the Real M.S.J. (ed.), special issue Music and contemporary global intercultural context. Migration, Migrações Journal 7, ISSN: 1646-8104, pp. 11-24. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.oi.acidi.gov.pt/modules.php?na me=Content&pa=showpage&pid=120. 1. Baptista, F.S. (ed.) (2006) Obras 6. Côrte-Real, M.S.J. (2011) Music Completas São Francisco Xavier. Braga, Representations as Intercultural São Paulo: Secretariado Nacional do Repertoires at School, in Lesenciuc, A. Apostolado da Oração, Editorial A.O., (ed.) First International Conference ISBN: 972-39-0659-7, Edições Loyola, Redefining Community in Intercultural ISBN: 85-15-03211-2, pp. 820. Context, pp. 39-45. ISBN: 978-973-8415- 2. Baily, J. and Collyer, M. (2006), 99-7. Introduction: Music and Migration, in 7. Sorce-Keller, M. (2010) Music as indicator Baily, J. and Collyer, M. (eds.), special of social adjustment: national patterns in issue Music and Migration, Journal of Melbourne, in Côrte-Real M.S.J. (ed.), Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32 (2), special issue Music and Migration, pp.167-82. Migrações Journal 7, ISSN: 1646-8104, 3. Côrte-Real, M.S.J. (1996) Music in Fernão pp. 177-85. http://www.oi.acidi.gov.pt/ Mendes Pinto’s Peregrinação, in Castelo- modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpag Branco, S. (ed.) Portugal and the World: e&pid=120.

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THE ROLE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION IN DEFINING PERSONAL IDENTITY IN THE POSTMODERN SOCIETY

Mihaela VOINEA

Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The article is focused on the effect of postmodern society on human and cultural identity and the role of intercultural education for defining personal identity. Nowadays the personal identity is caught in between localism and globalism, between nothing and something (G.Ritzer). The values which dominate our society are the postmodern values (which are presented in G. Lipovetsky`s opinion), hedonistic values, respect for differences, the cult of individual freedom and autonomy, free expression and personal affirmation. These postmodern values are a challenge for personal identity and education. Intercultural education is seen as a necessity and also as a solution to the problems of the contemporary world, where social skills, networking and cooperation, communication and the ability to adapt have become indispensable and help students define their identity. In order to observe how people define their personal identity nowadays, we initiated an observatory research on 200 people. The subjects were divided into two categories: the youth representing the postmodernist, globalized society (students aged between 18 and 22) and the adults, representing the traditional society (aged between 50 and 60). They were given questionnaires concerning the way they define or find themselves. The results of our research showed that the intercultural education has a strong impact on (re)defining personal identity in postmodern society.

Keywords: personal identity, postmodern society, intercultural education

1. INTRODUCTION A. Neculau, for instance, analyses ‚the way of life between standardization and The globalized society is defined by a personalisation’ laying emphasis on the idea of series of paradoxical features, in the view of redefining the notions of social relations, socio-humanistic specialists. One of the identity, citizenship. paradoxes is excellently emphasized by G. In a world currently undergoing the Ritzer in his work ‘The Globalization of process of globalization, in which the frontiers Nothingness’, where he describes the ways in tend to become symbolic, one clearly needs to which ‘the nothing’ (i.e. the things, deeds and redefine concepts in order to better know and people labelled according to certain standards) understand himself and the others. ‘Learning becomes a more and more defining part of our to live with the others’ has become one of the existence. It is to be noted that the milestones of today’s education (Delors, characteristics of an ever-changing society, 2000:74) currently undergoing the process of . globalization are to be observed best at an 2. THE PERSONAL IDENTITY IN individual level. This society is based on a POSTMODERN SOCIETY multitude of contradicting values such as: local vs. Global, the masses vs. the individual, Globalization and all that it entails is but a personal vs. anonymous, quantity vs. quality, mere part of the issue related to redefining communion vs. isolation etc. one’s identity as reported not only to the local community, but to the national, international,

THE ROLE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION IN DEFINING PERSONAL IDENTITY IN THE POSTMODERN SOCIETY even planetary one. To this aim, the main idea of togetherness and communication, the objective of education is ‘to render the bond between the individuals disappears as diversity of the human race and raise they become isolated and lonely in front of awareness on the likenesses between motionless machines’ (Cucoş, 2006:100). individuals and on their interdependence’. Globalization attracts, as C. Bârzea shows, (Delors, 2000:75) the need to redefine the concepts of David Lyon notes another issue which is citizenship, democracy, cultural identity still related to the individuals’ identity in (Bârzea, 2001). today’s society. He states that ‘projecting the Nowadays the answer to the question self is translated in owning a series of desired ”How am I?” is no longer definite, nor final. goods and leading some artificially created The answer is complex and dynamic, because lifestyles’ because ‘the mediated experience is the identity in postmodern society is dynamic. involved in the contemporary structuring of The students are postmodern and the the self’(Lyon, 1989:102-103) teachers are modern and this is a real aspect of It seems that this mediated experience school today. This is a challenge for teachers. plays a major part in structuring the As a result, teachers are forces to develop new conception of the individuals on the world and relational and methodological competences. life in general, having both positive and They must make school more attractive for negative effects on the individual and social students. Therefore they must develop new relations scales alike. didactical strategies which promote Although some authors (R. Silverstone) cooperative learning, tolerance and state that the mass-media (the T.V. and more democracy, critical thinking and positive recently internet in particular) promote a attitude to change. The roles of teachers today lifestyle which has helped people adapt to are more and complex. The teachers can help certain demands of the current society, most students to define themselves if they offer the authors underline the negative effects of the model. Teachers need to provide models of media, such as: turning the auditorium into an leadership, critical thinking, democracy infantile one, rendering the culture vulgar, promoting mediocre role-models, promoting a 3. RESEARCH DESIGN fake conception upon family life, etc. To sustain this idea, Roger Silverstone Considering all these issues specific to states ‘the T.V. is, both from a historical and a postmodern society, the question that arises is: social point of view, a means of What is happening to the notion of ‘identity’? communication of the suburbia’ (Silverstone, How do youngsters define themselves 1999:66). ‘it is suburban because of the nowadays? How can education help them structure and content of its programs. It is define their own way of being? suburban because of its inclusion in everyday To come up with an answer, we have life, because of the way in which it expresses undertaken a research on 200 subjects divided the specific balance between isolation and into two categories, namely: teenagers, integration, uniformity and variety, cultures representatives of the postmodern society and and identities (both global and restraint), adults, representatives of the modern society. which are indeed the mark of suburban The main objective of the research was to existence’ (R. Silverstone, 1999:71). identify the way in which teenagers and adults The Romanian specialists also share these define themselves in the post-modern, opinions. When talking about the risks of an globalized society. The hypotheses were: informational society, C. Cuco , for instance, 1. We presume that there is a connection shows that ‘a new society is born-that of the between the way in which the teenagers and anonymous –less responsible, where too many the adults define their identity (self-image) and things are allowed (...) and despite the fake the values promoted by society. 237

THE ROLE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION IN DEFINING PERSONAL IDENTITY IN THE POSTMODERN SOCIETY

2. There is a connection between and those given by adults. Beside the natural participating in the Intercultural Education differences between the two categories of lecture/discipline and the way in which the subjects, we note that teenagers have a wider teenagers define themselves. scope of self-defining (for instance, a lot of The subjects had to answer two teenagers see themselves as representatives not questionnaires. One concerning the individual only of an age group or of a nation, but rather values, the role of education in defining a as representatives of the whole world!!). system of values and another one concerning As opposed to the teenagers, adults define the image of the self from a real perspective themselves through the social parts that they (‘how I am’) and from an ideal one ‘how I’d play (husband/wife, parent, professional), like to be). sticking to the classical definition of the adult In the case of the first questionnaire, the (similar to the one Freud had given in the past subjects had to tick all the options they thought –an adult is a person who works and loves). they possessed from a list of features, and in Apart from these differences, both the case of the second questionnaire they had teenagers and adults make efforts in order to to tick the options they would like to possess. integrate features of the contemporary society The feature list also included features specific to their image of the self, thus reflecting a to the contemporary society, such as: tolerant, common effort to adapt to society’s demands. flexible, pragmatic, dynamic, non-conformist. Teenagers and adults alike have positively Two focus-groups were created (one for appreciated the part that mass-media play in the teenagers and the other for the adults), promoting some specific values of debating issues on identity in the globalized contemporary society: tolerance, environment society and the role of education in general, protection, reduction of violence, fighting and that of intercultural education in particular discrimination etc. Adults state that for them, in defining personal identity. T.V. shows are the main means of defining some conceptions on contemporary society. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the case of the subjects who have attended the intercultural education lectures, The questionnaire data analysis has the definition of values is far more obvious. revealed the fact that the particularities of Most of the subjects who have taken part in society influence the way in which people the research have expressed an opinion define their own system of values. The according to which ‘intercultural education has questionnaire on the self-image of the two helped them clarify their own system of categories of subjects has revealed differences values’. Another benefit which intercultural between the image of the self of teenagers and education has brought is that the subjects have the one of adults. To illustrate, most teenagers become aware of the fact that it is normal for see themselves as dynamic (73%), sociable different people to have different values, but (64%), tolerant (68%), open to the new (63%), the meaning of these values could be creative (54%), non-conformist (43%), negotiated in order to favour communication ecologists (56%). The current society and and cooperation. The tendency to place the educational system reflects on their image of values in the category of ‘something’ is a lot the self. higher with the subjects who have attended the By way of contrast, most adults see intercultural communication lectures. themselves as pragmatic, competent, sociable, responsible, faithful citizens. It is the 5. CONCLUSIONS & ‘classical’ image of an adult (in any society!) ACKNOWLEDGMENT The analysis of the focus-group data has revealed significant differences (as expected) Although one of the limitations of this between the self-definitions given by teenagers study is the reduced number of subjects, which 238

THE ROLE OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION IN DEFINING PERSONAL IDENTITY IN THE POSTMODERN SOCIETY does not allow general conclusions, one can educational levels. The research enrichment analyse the main tendencies which are shaped perspectives are: enlarging the study on a in this study. national level sample and studying the impact One of the conclusions of the conducted of the mass-media on defining the self-image research is that education in general, and of teenagers as compared to adults. intercultural education in particular contributes, via the values that they promote, BIBLIOGRAPHY to the definition of personal identity. The image differences perceived between the two 1. Bârzea, C., (2001). Educa ia pentru categories are also related to the educational cetă enie democratic într-o societate în background of the subjects. Teenagers, for schimbare. Revista de pedgogie. nr.1-12. example, have studied disciplines such as 2. Cuco , C., (2006). Infomatizarea în environment education, civic education, and educa ie. Ia i: Ed.Polirom. intercultural education. These disciplines 3. Delors J. (coord.) (2000). Comoara promote values related to the environment, lăuntrică. Raportul către UNESCO al tolerance, democracy, human rights, Comisiei Interna ionale pentru stereotypes etc. which have an impact on the Educa ie în secolul XXI. Ia i: Polirom. teenagers’ behaviour, their life conception and 4. Lyon, D, (1999)., Postmodernitatea, last but not least, their self-image. Society also Bucureşti: Ed. Du Style. contributes to shaping the life conception of 5. Neculau, A., (2003). The communication the adults, either by the values it promotes society: a psychosociological approach. through the mass-media (i.e. humanitarian Learning and teaching in the campaigns on environment protection, health, communication society. Council of Europe children’s rights, minorities’ rights etc.) or via Publishing, 57-81. various social institutions or organisations. 6. Ritzer, G. (2010). Globalizarea nimicului. Another practical conclusion to be drawn Cultura consumului i paradoxurile from this research is the introduction of the abunden ei. Bucure ti: Humanitas. discipline of intercultural education in the 7. Silverstone, R., (1999). Televiziunea în national curriculum as a mandatory one for all via a cotidiană. Ia i: Ed. Polirom.

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THE CRITICAL THINKING –A STRATEGY TO DEVELOP INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCES

Mihaela VOINEA

“Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The article is focused on the effect of critical thinking strategies for intercultural competences development. The competences development is the most important aim of school. The new competences that are necessary today are: the ability to select information, tolerance, critical thinking, communicational skills, empathy, to solve problems, to work in a team, to form value judgments. Kim (1991) considers that the essence of intercultural competence is the ability to change, to transform the human beings from rigid, intolerant and boring into open, flexible, creative and not closed ones. For developing intercultural competences is not enough only theoretical knowledge: there are necessarily behaviors that promote tolerance, empathy, assertive communication. A solution to develop intercultural competences is critical thinking strategies. This kind of learning strategies is focused on group and relationship. In our research, we were interested in identifying the impact of critical thinking strategies on students’ intercultural competences. The research involved 100 students who are using critical thinking strategies. The quantitative results and the qualitative analysis show that the critical thinking strategies have a major impact on developing intercultural competences. These learning strategies offered the opportunity to reflect and develop our own social behavior. The students have competences: critical thinking, tolerance, flexibility, communication skills.

Keywords: taboo, prohibition, culture, ban, rule, sexuality, unspeakable

1. INTRODUCTION beliefs, to subject to review and assessment any idea, be it personal or belonging to others" Today the competences are the most (Dumitru, 2000:25-26). important aim of school. In Perrenoud`s opinion „a competence of a certain complexity 2. CRITICAL THINKING IN operates several schemes of perception POSTMODERN SCHOOL thinking, assessment and action, supporting inferences, anticipations, generalizations, Why is critical thinking needed in today's probability estimations, settling a diagnosis society, more than ever before? Because starting from a set of indexes, seeking research on the types of thinking has shown prevailing inferences, the elaboration of that certain types of societies require a certain decision, etc.” (apud. Potolea, 2003:224-225). type of thinking. We refer to closed societies, In nowadays school and society, one of the where, as described by KR Popper, there is no transversal critical thinking skills is the critical distinction between the laws of nature and thinking, defined in a pedagogical sense as the those of the society. "Taboos rigidly regulate ability "to support with convincing and and dominate all aspects of life" (Albu, rational arguments certain views and to reject 1998:9). In such societies, the individual’s task others, to "doubt" in order to obtain new is to take in and transmit society's laws, arguments which strengthen or, on the interpreted as immutable. Originality, contrary, weaken your own convictions and initiative, responsibility, critical thinking are

THE CRITICAL THINKING –A STRATEGY TO DEVELOP INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCES not the values of this society because they are nature to adapt properly to the world that not needed. People feel safe obeying rules. person lives in. Teachers should train their "Nobody asks anything because there is no students’ positive character traits, to ensure room for questions" (Albu, 1998:9) harmonious relationship with the self, with the The critical thinking is an important skill others, with the world. In a personal research that will enable us to better cope with the new about postmodern teacher as critical thinker demands of the information and (Voinea, 2010:59-60) we identify a few communication society, and will give us a characteristics of teachers’ as critical thinkers: large perspective on much of what we learn about and do. Some specialists argue that the Table No.1 - The frequency of characteristics critical thinking, communication, problem of the teacher as a critical thinker solving, decision-making are cross- The teachers’ Frequency disciplinary competences. The literature about characteristics as critical thinking offers many definitions of the critical thinkers term. All of these definitions show that the Didactical 92% critical thinking is an important competence innovation today. Seen as a cognitive skill necessary for Capacity of reflection 89% all individual activities, critical thinking Co-learner with his 84% involves analyzing and making judgments, not students necessarily to identify errors but also to fully Encourage the 80% understand and describe what has been students to ask understood (...) it involves posting all the Offer different 78% elements of components to see how they are perspectives related and to issue judgments on it. (apud He does not always 70% Negovan, 2007:131) R. Sternberg defines have the right answer critical thinking as mental processes that He is an action- 69% involve strategies and representations used by researcher the individual in problem solving, decision making and learning new concepts and a range The students need to see that the teacher is of skills of self assessment, discovery of their a model of critical thinker: a teacher who own weaknesses and overcoming obstacles searches and selects relevant information, who and mistakes. Another researcher of critical asks and creates new questions and waits not a thinking is Richard Paul. He defines critical single answer; a teacher who has pedagogical thinking as "disciplined thinking which is values and promotes these values in his guided and one whose evaluation criteria are: behaviour; a teacher who believes in his clarity, accuracy, relevance, logical and students’ power to change. appropriateness for purpose." (Sălăvăstru, 2.1 Critcal thinking-a way to from 2008:209). What distinguishes him from the intercultural competences. The benefits of authors presented above is that R. Paul critical thinking as a skill for the knowledge believes that a critical thinker must show a and communication society are reflected in number of attitudes, rules, habits of thought intercultural education. and character traits. What seems particularly Today, in our global society, one of the valuable in the design of R. Paul is the focus pillars of education is "to know how to live on character traits, which is particularly together with others". This pillar of education important for anyone, especially for a critical refers to intercultural education, so necessary person, the knowledge that positive character even in societies culturally homogenous. What traits give strength, uniqueness and value to a does actually the capacity of people to live person. In the modern world dominated by together mean? globalization, rapid change is a secure force 241

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According to J. Delors, it requires learning also feelings, positive attitudes in dealing with the rules of coexistence starting with knowing intercultural interaction situations. one’s own identity, and thus knowing the Kim (1991) believes that the core of the other. But knowledge of the other means the intercultural competence is the person's ability ability to decentralize of yourselves, your own to adapt, the ability to reorganize in an open, interests, to feel the other and to understand flexible, creative, and not closed, rigid, that person from his perspective (not yours). intolerant and dull way. Here are descriptions And this ability to take distance from yourself, of the person that thinks critically! the transposition in the way of thinking of the The intercultural competence is proved by other is specific to critical thinking. the ease with which the person establishes This is why we advocate the development intercultural contacts, the degree of of critical thinking from the earliest age, effectiveness in understanding and because it is a guarantee of overcoming transmitting cultural meanings. In fact, prejudices and stereotypes that prevent real individual performance in a relationship of closeness to each other. (Voinea, 2010) intercultural communication does not depend Critical thinking strategies require value only on the personal factor, his competence, clarifications, resulting in attitude and but also on numerous other factors related to behaviour changes that lead to the social environment. (Cozma, 2001:84) development of intercultural competences. Byram and Zarate describe the components We are speaking here about the character of intercultural competence as follows: traits developed by a "critical thinker" in the 1. Attitudes: curiosity, openness to combat opinion of R. Paul: intellectual humility – it stereotypes about other groups and about the implies to be aware of the limits of your in group; knowledge, to acknowledge your ignorance 2. Knowledge of social groups, "products" and prejudice, intellectual courage - involves and practices of their own culture or of others, fair examining and evaluating of the ideas or concerning the general processes of social views that you are not interested in; interaction at the macro - and micro- level; intellectual empathy – implies the recognition 3. Interpretation and relationship abilities. of the need to put yourself in the other’s shoes Balanced analysis of a document or event to better understand him; intellectual integrity belonging to a culture, explaining and linking – presumes to be faithful to your own thinking, them appropriately with those of the in group’s to be consistent in applying your own culture; intellectual criteria, to comply with the same 4. Interaction and discovery abilities. The rigorous standards that are used for the ability to take in new information and opponents; intellectual perseverance - practices of other cultures, to operate with expressed willingness to explore and develop knowledge, attitudes, within the constraints of intellectual truths or intuitions, despite real communication and interactions; obstacles or difficulties that may arise; 5. Abilities of critical reflection and confidence in reason- expressed in the belief evaluation based on criteria, perspectives, that only the free exercise of reason can best practices and products of their own culture serve both your own interests and those of and of the otherness. general humanity; intellectual meaning of As it can be easily seen, the components of justice - the will to consider all points of view intercultural competence are found in the based on the same intellectual criteria, characteristics of those with critical spirit and regardless of feelings or private interests. thinking. On the other hand, critical thinking, Is not a critical thinker the man holding a through its characteristics, the processes that particular intercultural competence? support it (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) Intercultural competence is an ability to contributes decisively to the formation of the mobilize knowledge, methods of action, but intercultural competence. We may add that an 242

THE CRITICAL THINKING –A STRATEGY TO DEVELOP INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCES intercultural competent person must have the most strong, is represented in the table / graph ability to think critically, precisely because below: this is the way to overcome ethnocentrism, to reflect on their own values and those of others. Table No.2 - The frequency of formative effect of Like any competence, intercultural critical thinking learning strategies competence too involves a gradual training The formative effect Frequency based on complex interactions within the Flexible thinking / approaching 86% environment where the individual lives, problems from different starting with the family, the community and perspectives ending at the macro level, the society. Empathy development 73% The most important ingredient in the Accepting differences 64% formation of the intercultural competence, as Self - confidence / Confidence 59% well as of critical thinking and spirit is in one’s own their thinking participation. Overcoming stereotypes 52% Intercultural education, with the help of critical thinking, invites us to exercise self- The items related to the age when the knowledge and deep knowledge of the other, subject "Critical Thinking" should be attended an exercise in comparison and admiration, and the subject status (optional or compulsory) acceptance and tolerance. School is the showed that most students, 73.50%, said that institution that can play a specific part in this this subject should be studied from primary regard: "We need an educational system that school to university, with a mandatory status. honours the principles and behaviours The qualitative analysis, on the content of associated with high social intelligence and the answers, revealed that students appreciate teaches young people to understand cultures this subject primarily for its pragmatic and subcultures in which they have to navigate character, with immediate formative effects. in the modern world and which emphasises the We offer as an example some of the students’ value of cooperation and avoidance of answers to the open question "describe an conflicts". (Albrecht, 2007, p.47) everyday life situation where you used critical thinking strategies". 3. RESEARCH DESIGN One answer was: "recently, I was offered a very well paid job, but which prevented me To study the impact of the critical thinking from coming to classes. My situation a home course on forming intercultural competences was very difficult and I really needed this job. (empathy, tolerance, coope-ration), we have On the other hand, I had to graduate with a built and implemented a joint questionnaire high average point”. I used De Bono’s with closed and open items aimed at the "thinking hats" method and, with the green hat formative effects of the critical thinking on, I had a saving idea… course. Another answer highlights the impact of The questionnaire was applied to the third critical thinking on the development of year students who have attended the course of tolerance and cooperation: "the greatest gain critical thinking. for me was the identification of certain stereotypes and prejudices. (....) So I got to 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION work with great ease with Roma children. "

The quantitative analysis revealed that 5. CONCLUSIONS most students consider critical thinking to be a useful subject, with immediate applications in One conclusion that emerges from this everyday life. The formative effect, felt as the research is that critical thinking, through the transformations it induces in the person’s 243

THE CRITICAL THINKING –A STRATEGY TO DEVELOP INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCES system of values and conceptions, leads to the 4. Cozma, T. (coord.) (2001) O nouă formation/development of those competences provocare pentru educaţie: absolutely necessary in the globalized world interculturalitatea. Iaşi: Polirom. we live in: tolerance, empathy, cooperation, 5. Delors J. (coord.) (2000). Comoara flexible thinking, multiple perspectives, which lăuntrică. Raportul către UNESCO al are also aims of the intercultural education. Comisiei Interna ionale pentru Another practical conclusion is the Educa ie în secolul XXI. Ia i: Polirom. introduction of the strategies that develop 6. Dumitru, I. Al. (2000) Dezvoltarea critical thinking in the national curriculum as a gândirii critice şi învăţarea eficientă, compulsory subject and even in the initial and Timişoara: Western Publishing Press. ongoing training program for teachers from all 7. Negovan, V. (2007). Psihologia învăţării. school levels, so that they are able to provide Forme strategii şi stil. Bucharest: students with patterns of critical thinking and Universitary Publishing Press. of genuine democratic participation to the life 8. Potolea D. ( 2003) Reshaping the Teaching of society. Profession In An ICT-Enriched Society, in Learning and teaching in the BIBLIOGRAPHY communication society, Council of Europe Publishing. 1. Albrecht, K. (2007) Inteligenţa socială, 9. Sălăvăstru, D. (2008). Psihologia Bucharest: Curtea – Veche. invatarii. Iaşi: Polirom. 2. Albu, G. (1998) Introducere într-o 10. Voinea, M. (2010). Gândirea critică i pedagogie a libertăţii, Iaşi: Polirom. coala postmodernă. Bra ov: 3. Ciascai, L., Marchiş, I., Educaţia Transilvania University Press. interculturală şi multimedia, (2008) Cluj- Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeană.

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THE PERCEIVING OF THE WORD FROM PSYCHO-PASTORAL PERSPECTIVES

Maria Dorina PA CA

University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Târgu Mure , Romania

Abstract: Starting on the road of word represents a cognoscible and also an intellectual adventure, behaviors and statements. Therefore, knowing the word is synonymous with knowing the light, making the first steps, but also knowing virtues and laws that govern the human value. That is why the perspective of its psycho-pastoral values determines a new perceptual attitude giving to the word various interpretations and motivations. Thus, the word brings people close, defines cultures and interferes values identifying with a state trademark, of some concepts and cognitive evolutions. All this starting from the words “in the beginning was the word, and the word was with God, and the word was God”. (John 1, 1)

Keywords: word, perceiving, attitude, code, psycho-pastoral.

1. INTRODUCTION a word to another unity that is historical preceded and from which one derives”. Starting on the road of word represents a In this context the study of a word, cognoscible and also an intellectual adventure, Sala M. (1999, p.21) takes into account three behaviors and statements. Therefore, knowing axes: the word is synonymous with knowing the a) – diachronic = makes reference at the light, making the first steps, but also knowing word age in language; virtues and laws that govern the human value. b) – diatopica = the geographical use of the word; 2. PSYCHO-PASTORAL PERSPECTIVE c) – diastratica = the affiliation of the OF THE WORD word in common language at a more restrained group (technical terms) or/and belongs to a That is why the perspective of its psycho- social variant. pastoral values determines a new perceptual If generally to a word we determine criteria attitude giving to the word various under the form of basis criteria and (phonetic interpretations and motivations. and semantic) and supplementary (geographic, In this context through correct perceiving functional, semantic-onomasiology and of the word it is necessary to understand the historical and social) in the value construction operating mechanism of this one, fact of our paper work, its importance derives from demonstrated by the multitude of functions implications that it has in shaping a profile and interpretations that it may code and then remarking also its psycho-pastoral identity as decode at a certain moment. Therefore we exponent of knowledge. Only in this way considered as stringent the need of beginning etymology constituted as study of word origin with the element that defines the etymology as may outline structural the component that being, Zamboni Etin (after Sala M. – 1999, defines in time attitudes and concepts giving p.8) “the science that studies the origin of the value of human sequence in determining words or, in other words the investigation of the personal identity. It builds and as in “the the formal and semantic relations which relate water flows the rocks remain” the words last

THE PERCEIVING OF THE WORD FROM PSYCHO-PASTORAL PERSPECTIVES but talking slides along knowledge leaving (Marc 7, 34) – where the heard word becomes behind them the knowledge of human to believed word and further word understood understand them. and further on healing word. We can’t robotize the meaning of the word The receiver (R) receives the word that but making it closer to men never forgetting as manifests through its complexity in the sense Nichita Stanescu said “Mind the way you talk that its importance as psychical load imposes because the words attract the facts” completed or not a behavioral attitude remarkable being by Victor Hugo “The word knows a secret of the interpretations: the Human Spirit” (Duta V. – 1997, p.6) a) – A kind look cheers the heart and a synthesized in Romanian’s people wisdom that good news strengthens the bones (Parables says “The good word heal and the bad ones 15,30) - in the idea that Chirila P. si Valica M. hurt” therefore the word left in writing remains (1992- p.69) the power of the good word, of “a sweet burden” that leads to knowledge, the nice word is overwhelming; the good news human evolution. between people gets to the rocky walls of the Are we ready to feel the word? Do we bones as a healing balm. perceive it? Do we identify with it? Here are b) – In the judgment day our words will be some questions that have as joint the word. Is present with their nuances, their weight, with it only that? Psychologically talking it may the truth that they contain: “Because from your appear when similitude is shaped into the form words you will be found as honest and from of mystery and knowledge. For our study the your words you will be condemned.” (Mathew sayings that will fallow Duta v. (– 1997, 12,37) (Chirila P and Valica M (1992- p. 76). p.333) certify the semantic load given to the We determine thorough the conceptual soul-word, leaving interpretation up to the structure the fact that (saint Gregory from reader: The one that suggests us to know Sinai in Philokalia) “In man is mind, word and ourselves suggests us to know our soul – Plato; spirit and the mind can’t exist without the As we know the soul represents a form of word nor the word without the spirit and those existence relatively independent of space and are one in each other… Through this the man time. – G. Jung; The souls that never confess carries an image of the Trinity…” We can see their mysteries… are like rooms with closed from the context that all the elements have as doors that never get fresh air. – O. Goga; Even common element the word defining in the the most modest souls are not living in vain in same time the starting point to knowledge of this world. V. Parvan; The soul is the force human personality. that makes you think ideally, is the connection If in sacred texts and religious literature the that helps you to tend to it. – V. Duta; The soul word takes the shape of the Greek for logos helps the body and sometimes it lifts it from the identity of Jesus Christ to be and the the ground. Is the only bird that carries its Creating Logos is relevant after He becomes cage. – Voltaire; What use is for the man to the Savior Logos. Thus, Manzat I. (1997- win the whole world if he looses his soul? – p.217) “Saint Maxim the Confessor showed Gospel of Marc that the entire creation has its fundament in a We end thus to perceive the message of the rationality that finds its origin into the Divine word through its cognoscible load that may Logos”. The centrality of the Logos into have at a certain moment. Is actually the road- creation is pointed out by Saint Maxim the word between transmitter (T) and receiver – Confessor when says that “the many reasons the finality deriving from the strategy of are one and the one is many”. M. of Unamuto message communication (understanding, show that in the words there is a creating acceptance and learning). potential. The word is creating. Christ made It comes as application the way in which miracles using the word sometimes without we outline the path-word Chirila P. and Valica any action. M. (1992-p. 49) – “And looking to the skies he It is the moment when spirituality become sighed and said: Effata! which means Open!” value and virtue of Christian religion. The man 246

THE PERCEIVING OF THE WORD FROM PSYCHO-PASTORAL PERSPECTIVES tends towards transfiguration that becomes which we can make ourselves object of possible (the psychotic universe at C.C. Jung) thinking – the material alone can’t think upon when the spirit does not remain exterior to the itself. The man passes through several substance but within it. anatomic and physiologic transformations but What is than the constructive valence of also through spiritual transformations. It what the word spirit? Does it bring as touch to concerns the spirituality we can see at the child knowledge? After Larousse- the dictionary of manifesting mostly the fantasy, at maturity psychology (2006- p. 297) – the word spirit is judgment and memory at adult and old age the the surprising assertion that uses often the will. resources specific to the language that Freud Thus, we gave importance to the word, demonstrated its technique to explain the through word all being triggered by it because special satisfaction that it causes and in a more “And He said: It is indeed so, but happy are general manner its role in psychic life. Do we those who hear the word of God and keep it”. find it in pastoral life, or we remain in the area (Luc 5, 12) that spirit as word determines discharge? Still, In our work we ended to a theological if we want to see the word spirit under another perceiving of the word and we’ll make first light, in the idea in which it can reveal the steps making appeal to the dictionary Ciobanu truth, we should accept the scholastic R. (1994- p. 55) starting from: the Latin interpretation as element of evolution. conventum = agreement, bargain; it appears in If, Larousse (2006- p. 298) with the aid of sacred texts comments under Greek form – the word spirit the subject may finally speak, logos; the second person of the Holy Trinity, only making him laugh it disarms the other The Son, inseparable by the Holy Trinity being who may criticize. Freud underlines the God Himself is eternal and manifested as position of the third person concerning the Creator of the world, implicitly of the word spirit; a joke may target a certain person: substance; Jesus Christ is embodied hypostasis but it only becomes a word of spirit only if it is of the word told by Saint John the Baptizer enounced for a third person who, laughing, and discovered in its complexity by God will confirm that it was perceived. This third himself; may be considered one of the sources on the - God – the Word is the light as the only base of Lacan founds the concept of Other, true and absolute word and in the same time that resort that we try to make recognizing our love of men in its absolute expression; truth. In other words, the word of spirit is one - The creation itself of the man, artistic, of the most exact representations of discharge. literary and scientific is a reflex of the word If our previous demarche made a “willful which resides, more or less relevant, in each of misconduct” towards the word of spirit as a us; considered as a culmination of those sign of un-limitation in what concerns mentioned before and having a remarkable empirical knowledge, it is the time to return to construction, nothing being beyond than: the spirituality of the soul, Chirila P. and “In the beginning was the Word, and the Valica M. (1992- p.89) understanding that the Word was with God, and the Word was God. soul does not consist from ponderable material The same was in the beginning with God. All as the body, but it is a fine immaterial things were made by him; and without him substance with reason and freedom, lacked of was not anything made that was made. In him the known attributes of material as dimension, was life; and the life was the light of men. divisibility and weight. The spirituality of the …And the word was made flash, and dwelt soul concerns another attribute which is the among us (and we beheld his glory, the glory independence of the body. The cause of the as of the only begotten of the Father), full of spiritual phenomena can’t be the body; their grace and truth.” (The Gospel according to cause may only be into the soul. Saint John, 1, 1-4; 14). The self-conscience tell us that inside us The word appears in similitude with the there is a special principal, the soul due to light thus John 1, “In the beginning was the 247

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Word, and the Word was with God, and the as obedience, the word being hearing and Word was God. The same was in the discerning (Noica R. 2002- p.19) remembering beginning with God. All things were made by that obedience means listening the word as him; and without him was not anything made essence of hearing, knowing that this one (the that was made. In him was life; and the life word) shares only in godly living. In this way was the light of men. And the light shined in the word of Christ is the transition from darkness; and the darkness comprehended it discipline to life (Noica R. 2002- p.25), and not”, fact that certifies the existence of the two grown in us this word, the word of God marks: the word and the light, the light and the himself, the Word discovers what He really is. word to which Creation is reported… But until we get here, the Savior Jesus Christ gives 3. CONCLUSIONS value to those said by him “My words are spirit and they are life” going on “Heaven and And yet tender as a thread we go back to earth shall pass way, but my words shall not John 6, 63 “It is the spirit that quickened; the pass away” (Matthew 24, 35), ending to the flash profited nothing: the words that I speak wisdom “Man shall not live by bread alone, unto you, they are spirit and they are life”, but by every word that proceeded out of the remembering that “In the beginning was the mouth of God” (Matthew 4,4). word, and the word was with God, and the Thus we aspire to a culture of the spirit word was God”. (John 1, 1) through God’s word that is, Noica R. (2002- p.24) life given word, giving the possibility to BIBLIOGRAPHY this word to live within us discovering that it guards and leads us further. 1. Ciobanu R (1994). Mic dicţionar de In Noica’s acceptation (2002) the word is cultură religioasă. Timişoara: Ed.Helicon; the creating energy. It is (p.11) the word of 2. Chirilă P, Valicu M (1992). Meditatie la God living in man. God through the energy of medicina biblica, Bucureşt: Asociaţia the word tries to contact the man. The man Medicală Creştină Christiana through the word of prayer tries to answer to 3. Duţă, V (1997). Dicţionar de aforisme, God. The man shows his freedom and his free expresii, maxime, proverbe şi zicători, choice when he answers to God through Bucureşti: Victor. prayer, when he can say “Amen” to God, to 4. Droit, R, P.(2005). Filosofia pe înţelesul God’s call. But what redeems the man is not copiilor, Bucureşti : Humanitas. what the man does in his uselessness, but what 5. Devine, T. M. (1999). The Scottish nation makes the word of God living within him. In 1700-2000. London: The Penguin Press. this way “the man in prayer gets to the highest 6. Mânzat, I (1997). Psihologia credinţei state of word, where his word is fortified”. religioase. Bucureşti: Ştiinţă şi tehnică (Working miracles from saints). 7. Noica, R (2002,) Cultura Duhului. Alba But the word, Noica R. (2002- p.29) in Iulia: Reîntregirea spiritual living is also communion because 8. Pasca, M, D. Tia, T (2007), Psihologie feeds the man at every level: at the level of pastorală. vol I, II. Alba Iulia: word, of sense, at the actual level of feeding. Reîntregirea And when the Savior said that not only with 10. Sala, M (1999), Introducere în etimologia bread shall live the man, but from the word limbii române, Bucureşti: Univers said by God’s mouth (Matthew 4, 4), if we Enciclopedic. heard than in the desert this word who could 11. Sillamy, N (1996), Dicţionar de psihologie have thought that this word that came from Larousse, Bucureşti: Ed. Univers God’s mouth will be given to us under the Enciclopedic. form of bread as Eucharist? Do we have an answer? Only when we start towards the word

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READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA

Nonye R. IKONTA, Anthonia N. MADUEKWE

University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria

Abstract: English Language is a foremost and most prestigious language in Nigeria. It is the lingua franca, official language, medium of instruction in schools, the language of the media, politics, business, administration and most social interactions. It is a core school subject which every student must study and pass at a minimum of credit level before any employment or further educational pursuit can be guaranteed. Thus, English language is a major index for measuring the quality of the senior (high) school certificate examination and failure in English is tantamount of failure in the whole examination. Despite the high premium placed on English language, the students’ perennial abysmal performance in all its components in high school examinations continues to cause disquiet among all the stakeholders (West African Examinations Council, WAEC, 2010). The Chief Examiners’ Reports (WAEC 2003, 2005, 2007, 2010) have painted gloomy pictures about high school students performance in reading comprehension and summary writing thus: ‘students perform poorly in that though the comprehension passages were straightforward and easy to follow, the candidates engaged in mindless lifting or copying of the passages as they could not put the answers in their own words; also the hallmark of good summary writing which are relevance and conciseness, exclusion of detail and extraneous materials were completely forgotten’. These perennial reports have provoked this study. Consequently, there is need to overhaul the English learning process by focusing attention on the complementary skills of reading and writing as tools for effective communication. Summary writing is advanced comprehension which requires deep understanding of the passage and the skill of paraphrase. The purpose of the study is to train English language teachers on the efficacy of using reading strategies to enhance comprehension and summary writing and subsequently to engage those teachers to teach high school students reading comprehension and summary writing employing appropriate reading strategies. This is because Song (2007) decried the absence of reading comprehension strategies in reading programmes in ESL classes.

Keywords: reading strategies, reading comprehension, summary writing, ESL situation, comprehension strategies

1. BACKGROUND overhaul its learning process in order to achieve the goal of effective communication English language is the most prominent using the relevant language skills. Two of language in Nigeria, it is the lingua franca, the these skills – reading and writing have been language of administration and the mass focused on in this study as the major tools for media, the medium of instruction in schools determining students’ capability in English. and a core subject which must be studied and The primary purpose of reading is to obtain passed by all students irrespective of course of information which could lead to enjoyment, the level and study. In fact, it has been appreciation, judgement and creativeness described as a major index for measuring the (Emenike and Odeyemi, 2002). Reading quality of high school external examination comprehension has been described by Pardo, result (Ukwuegbu 1999). The high status of (2004) as a process in which readers construct English language in Nigeria and the high meaning by interacting with the text through a failure rate in it has necessitated the need to combination of prior knowledge and previous

READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA experience, information in the text and the The need to develop reading stance the reader takes in relation to the text. comprehension proficiency and summary Reading comprehension features at three writing skills becomes apparent. According to levels: on-the-lines for literal/factual Pflaum and Bishop (2004), because information; between the lines wherein the youngesters are asked to read texts with reader reads the mind of the author, making increasing complexity, the (question of) the inference and evaluation; and beyond the lines need for instruction in strategies for where reading goes beyond decoding facts and comprehending a variety of text types takes making inferences to thinking and making some urgency. Reading comprehension projections from the text (Davis, 2006). instructions should therefore focus on creating Reading is also gradable and so we can talk self-regulating strategic readers. about “good readers” and “ poor readers”. Despite the significance of teaching these A good reader is fluent, reads much, is not strategies highlighted above, Johnson(2007) easily distracted because he reads with has observed that not much work has been concentration and is able to follow the writers done that relates to training in reading direction of reasoning and interpretes comprehension strategies in (ongoing accurately the writers intended meaning classroom) reading programmes particularly in (Hudson, 2000). Johnson (2005) describes English as a Second Language (ESL) classes. good readers as “proficient readers” and Thus teachers of English language and their attributes their proficiencies to the fact that students in Nigeria may not be conversant with they use reading strategies. According to Song reading strategies or use them to develop (2007), reading strategies indicate how readers proficiency in reading comprehension and conceive a task, what textual cues they attend summary writing. to, how they make sense of what they read and what they do when they do not understand. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Thus, strategies help readers to engage with the text to monitor their comprehension and The study was influenced by both fix it when it fails (Pressley 1999). Studies cognitive and meta-cognitive theories of have shown that these reading strategies or reading. Unlike the traditional theory which instructional techniques are students centred places emphasis on the form and views and when taught to students help to improve reading as basically a matter of developing a their performance on test of comprehension series of written symbols (words and (Song, 2007). The strategies include: structures) to make sense of the text (Nunam inference, visualizing, determining 1991; McCarthy 1999), cognitive theory importance, predicting, read aloud, skimming emphasizes the interactive nature of reading and scanning, think aloud, questioning, and the use of strategies to monitor reading synthesizing, among others. comprehension. According to Dole et al Summary writing as an aspect of writing (1991), besides knowledge brought to bear on skill represents a short-to-the-point distillation the reading process, a set of flexible, adaptable of the main ideals in a text. Summary has been strategies are used to make sense of a text and described as an advanced comprehension to monitor on-going understanding. The meta- which requires deep understanding of the cognitive theory is concerned with the passage and the skill of paraphrase (West “thinking and control” readers exercise during African Examination Council, WAEC, 2003). the reading process. This control includes all The use of appropriate strategies enables the strategies and manipulations that readers readers to sift main ideas from supporting have on the act of manipulating a text. The details in reading texts and to be able to write study draws from these theories to enhance same concisely and correctly. comprehension. 250

READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA

3. THE PROBLEM 5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Many teachers and students of English The following questions guided the study language are not aware of reading 1. Are the English Language teachers and comprehension strategies and so do not the students in the study aware/knowledgeable encourage their use in reading lessons. about reading strategies? According to Maduekwe (2007) not much 2. Will the students’ exposure to reading work has been done that relates to training strategies enhance their performance in students to use reading strategies particularly reading comprehension and summary writing? in ESL classrooms. Consequently, WAEC 3. Will the students exposed to reading (2007) added that the hallmark of good strategies perform better in reading summary writing which are relevance and comprehension than those not so exposed? conciseness, exclusion of detail and extraneous 4. Will the students taught reading materials were completely forgotten. Most strategies perform better in summary writing students perform poorly in comprehension as than those not taught? they are yet to come to grips with the complex skills of comprehension (WAEC, 2005). 6. HYPOTHESES Similarly, students are not proficient in summary writing, they engage in mindless The following hypotheses were tested lifting of portions from the passage. The need 1. The use of reading strategies will not to teach relevant reading strategies to help have any significant effect on students’ students cope with comprehension and performance in reading comprehension. summary writing becomes evident. The 2. Reading strategies will not question is; will the teaching of specific significantly affect students performance in reading strategies enhance students’ summary writing. proficiency in reading and summary writing? 5. There will be no significant difference in performance in comprehension and 4. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY summary writing between students who receive instructions in reading strategies and The study was undertaken to examine the those who do not. place of reading strategies in the development of reading comprehension and summary 7. METHODOLOGY writing proficiency of senior secondary I students. Specific objectives include, to: The Solomon Four quasi-experimental 1. establish the extent teachers and control group design was used in the study. students in the study are knowledgeable about The study population comprised all the senior reading strategies secondary school (SSS1) students in four 2. teach both students and teachers some randomly selected schools in Ifako-Ijaiye area top reading strategies and determine their of Lagos State. A cluster random sampling of effect on the reading comprehension intact classes and 15 English teachers per performance of students school constituted the sample of 240 students 3. teach students the techniques of good and 50 teachers. The main instruments used summary writing using reading strategies and were six reading strategies: predicting, ascertain their impact on students performance inferring, summarizing, questioning, think in summary writing determine whether aloud, and skimming and scanning. Other students exposed to the reading strategies will instruments include a structured questionnaire, perform better in comprehension and summary and some reading passages. The questionnaire than those not so exposed. 251

READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA and the passages were duly validated by application of the strategies. At the end of six relevant experts. weeks of intervention, all the four groups were Data collection was done in four stages post tested on reading comprehension and namely, administration of questionnaire on the summary writing. Data collected were teachers and students to determine their analysed using descriptive and inferential awareness of reading strategies, administration statistical tools. of pretest on the two experimental groups to determine their level of proficiency in reading 8. THE RESULTS comprehension and summary writing, teaching the English teachers how to use reading The analysis of responses to the research strategies to increase students reading abilities. questions and the results of hypotheses testing They subsequently assisted in teaching reading are hereby presented. Research question one to two groups of students using those sought to determine the teachers’ and students’ strategies (three for each group) while the awareness of and use of reading strategies researchers supervised the teaching. The other while reading. Tables 1a and 1b present the two groups were taught reading and summary findings. in the conventional way ie without the

Table 1a. Students’ Awareness of Reading Strategies Items Weighted Mean SD Remarks Responses 1. We know little about reading strategies. 716 3.58 2.122 Accepted 2. We are taught reading using some Not Accepted reading strategies. 453 2.27 1.581 3. We have been taught some strategies like inferring, predicting, think aloud, Not Accepted skimming and scanning, summarizing, 397 1.99 0.332 among others. 4. We can read using some reading Not Accepted strategies. 388 1.94 0.215 5. We know little about techniques of summary writing. 698 3.49 2.327 Accepted 6. Our teachers teach us how to write good summary. 579 2.90 1.452 Accepted 7. We are good in summary writing using Not Accepted strategies. 447 2.24 0.883 8. We practise summary writing weekly using relevant reading strategies. 431 2.16 1.017 Not Accepted 9. Reading strategies can motivate students to read with interest and understanding. 655 3.28 1.895 Accepted

Table 1b. English Language Teachers’ Awareness of Reading Strategies Items Weighted Mean SD Remarks Responses 1. I teach my students reading using reading strategies. 148 2.96 2.252 Accepted 2. I have taught my students strategies like inferring, predicting, think aloud, questioning, skimming and scanning, 145 2.90 1.818 Accepted 252

READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA

summarizing. 3. My students can read using reading Not strategies. 122 2.44 0.632 Accepted 4. I know enough about techniques of summary writing. 158 3.16 1.515 Accepted 5. I teach my students how to write good summary. 167 3.34 2.027 Accepted 6. My students are good in summary Not writing. 113 2.26 0.645 Accepted 7. My students practise summary writing weekly using reading strategies. 118 2.36 0.783 Not Accepted 8. Reading strategies can motivate students to read with interest and 165 3.30 2.552 Accepted understanding

The items in tables 1a & b are considered using strategies and teach them to apply accepted at 2.50 mean value and above. The specific reading strategies, and affirm that responses of the students on reading strategies motivate students to read awareness/knowledge and use of reading with interest and understanding. The responses strategies show that the accepted mean values from both groups reveal a lot of of 3.58, 3.49, 2.90 and 3.28 reveal that while inconsistencies and contradict each other the students know little about reading showing that one group must have made false strategies and less about techniques of claims. In the course of the study, it was summary writing, they agreed that reading discovered that the students had no knowledge strategies can motivate them to read with about reading strategies and knew very little interest and understanding. about summary writing. Research question two On the part of the teacher respondents, the sought to ascertain whether the exposure of acceptable items with the mean values of 2.96, students to reading strategies will increase 2.90, 3.16, 3.34 and 3.30 reveal that they teach their comprehension and summary writing students reading strategies, teach them reading abilities. Tables 2a and 2b present the findings.

Table 2a. Students’ Post-intervention Performance in Reading Comprehension Group Variable N Mean SD percentage E1 (Treatment) Pre-test 60 35.17 16.10 46.6 E1 (Treatment) Post-test 60 61.86 13.21 53.4 E2 (No treatment) Pre-test 60 32.33 15.87 59.5 E2 (No treatment) Post-test 60 29.33 19.03 40.5 C1 (Treatment) Post-test 60 59.83 17.22 60 C2 (No treatment) Post-test 60 33.0 18.80 40

Table 2b: Students’ Post-intervention Performance in Summary Writing Group Variable N Mean SD percentage E1 (Treatment) Pre-test 60 10.83 13.05 44.9 E1 (Treatment) Post-test 60 48.16 12.05 55.1 E2 (No treatment) Pre-test 60 16.17 18.33 38.4 E2 (No treatment) Post-test 60 15.33 14.31 35.7 C1 (Treatment) Post-test 60 49.83 13.21 56.75 C2 (No treatment) Post-test 60 10.33 12.48 43.3

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READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA

The data in tables 2a & b reveal that the improve their performance in reading and mean scores of the students in both summary writing. comprehension and summary writing The Hypothesis stated that the exposure of increased at the post-test in favour of the students to reading strategies will not treatment groups. This shows that when significantly affect/influence their proficiency students are exposed to appropriate and in reading and summary writing. The findings relevant reading strategies and summary are present in table 3. writing techniques they read strategically and

Table 3a. T-test Comparison of Experimental Groups Performance in Reading and Summary Writing. Variable No Mean SD Df T-cal T-crit Remarks Reading: Pre-test 35.17 16.10 P.0.05 Post-test 60 61.83 13.21 58 19.937 1.645 *S Summary Writing: Pre-test 10.83 13.05 1.645 Post-test 60 48.16 12.05 58 33.589 *S

Table 3a reveals that in both reading and study performance in both reading and writing, the students exposed to the reading summary writing at 0.05 level of significance strategies did significantly better in their post (19.937 > 1.645, P.0.05)

Table 3b: Effects of Exposure to Reading Strategies on Students’ Performance in Reading and Summary Writing. Group Variable No Mean SD Df T-cal T-crit Remarks Reading: E1 Post-test 60 61.18 13.21 C1 Pos-test 60 59.83 17.22 118 1.930 1.645 *S Writing: E1 Post-test 60 48.16 12.05 C1 Post-test 60 49.83 13.21 118 1.33 1.645 NS

Also in reading, E1 significantly performed proficiency. The next hypothesis states that better than C1 judging by the calculated t-value there will be no significant difference in of 1.930 while is higher than the critical t- reading comprehension and summary writing value of 1.645 at 118 degree of freedom and proficiency of the students exposed to reading o.o5 confidence level. The difference between strategies and that of those not exposed to the the two treatment groups may be due to the strategies. A 2-way ANOVA test of the particular strategies used for the E1 group performance of the four groups in reading namely, skimming and scanning, making showed the calculated F-values of 0.695, and inference, and questioning. In writing, the 1.160, for the treatment groups and F 0.605 difference in their mean performance was not and 0.395 for the untreated groups while the significant: the t-calculated was 1.33 while the critical F-value was 1.910 at 0.05 level of critical t was 1.645 at 118 degree of freedom significance. The students who were taught and 0.05 level of significance. Both groups reading strategies performed significantly therefore gained from the treatment and better than those not exposed to the strategies. increased their reading and summary writing Similarly, the summary writing test produced 254

READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA

F-values of 0.704 and 0.493 for the treatment to make these inconsistencies understandable. groups and 0.404 and 0.215 for those not Ali (1999) and Leki (2001) had earlier stated exposed to the strategies at 0.05 level of that meaning construction and text significance (F = 1.910). The groups that comprehension appear to depend upon the participated in the intervention therefore degree of active response to a text. Song increased their reading and summary writing (2007) concluded that strategies help to abilities while the other two groups did not. improve reading comprehension; they help to enhance reading efficiency; they help students 8. DISCUSSION as experts do; and they help students process text actively to monitor their comprehension. The findings of the study have shown the need for and the effectiveness of reading 9. CONCLUSIONS strategies in enhancing students’ proficiency in reading and writing. The first research From the findings, it is evident that the use question sought to ascertain the level of of reading strategies impacted positively on awareness and knowledge about reading students reading and summary writing ability. strategies. The findings show that while the The object of reading is to make meaning and students indicated that they were not familiar the intended meaning may feature at the literal, with the strategies, the teachers claimed that inferential and evaluative levels requiring they were aware of and teach reading using students to read on the lines, between the lines specific strategies. The actual intervention and beyond the lines respectively with revealed that the teachers must have made appropriate/relevant reading strategies. It is contradictory claims in that students had no when this meta-cognitive process of knowledge about the strategies. Research comprehension is attained that re-stating question two sought to determine if students concisely in summary writing can be done ability/proficiency in reading and summary successfully. Summary writing, which most writing improved after the study when student students are scared of is just an advanced participants were compared with those not comprehension. This seeming fear will be exposed to the strategies. The findings from removed when students are taught reading the students mean scores after the study as strategies that aid comprehension and well as the test of significance of difference summary writing. between their mean scores revealed that the use of the strategies significantly enhanced the 10. RECOMMENDATIONS students ability in both reading and summary writing. This finding supports Song’s (2007) Based on the findings of the study, the assertion that success in learning mainly following recommendations are pointed: 1. depends on appropriate strategy used and that Teachers should be adequately informed and unsuccessful learners can improve by being trained on how to teach reading strategies to trained to use effective strategies. their students so that students can read When the mean scores of the four groups strategically. 2. Teachers should create of students were compared using ANOVA, it awareness in the students on the importance was discovered the two groups exposed to the and usefulness of reading strategies. 3. strategies performed significantly better than Students should be guided to practice the groups not so exposed in the both reading appropriate and relevant reading strategies at and summary writing. Citing Baker and Brown the three reading stages of pre-reading, reading (1984), Garner (1980), Song (2007) stated that and post-reading stages to enhance their readers who use strategies are able to notice reading proficiency. 4. The curriculum for inconsistencies in a text and employ strategies training teachers should be enriched with 255

READING STRATEGIES: A CATALYST FOR ENHANCING COMPREHENSIVEAND SUMMARY WRITING PROFICIENCY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA topics on different reading strategies global Teacher, 58(8) 766 – 768. International and specific ones, to create awareness and Reading Association (IRA). teach students teachers how to use them 9. Leki, I. and Carbson, J. (2001). (Eds.) among their student- because this study Reciprocal themes in ESL Reading and revealed that such knowledge and awareness writing. Reading in the classroom: Second are presently lacking among teachers of Language Perspectives. Boston: Heinle English and their students. and Heinle 10. Maduekwe, A. N. (2007). Principles and BIBLIOGRAPHY practice of teaching English as a second language. Lagos: Vitalis Educational. 1. Ali, S. (1999). The reader-response 11. McCarthy, C. P. (1999). In British Council approach: An alternative for teaching BBC, Teaching English, Theories of literature in a second language. Journal of Reading at www.teachingenglish.org Reading, 37, 288 – 296. .uk/think/articles/theories-reading. 2. Baker, J. and Westrnp, H. (2003). Retrieved March 12, 2010. Improving Reading Skills. The English 12. Nunam, D. (1991). In Theories of Reading, Language Teachers Handbook. London: British Council BBC at www. Continuum teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/theori 3. Davis, C. (2006). Tips to improve es-reading. Retrieved March 12, 2010. students’ reading. Paper presented at a 13. Pardo, L. S. (2004). What every teacher workshop for English Teachers on needs to know about comprehension. The Multiple Roads to Reading, Agege, Lagos, Reading Teaching, 58 (3), 272 – 278. November, 13 – 16. International Reading Association. 4. Dole, J. A., Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R. 14. Pflaum, S. W. and Bishop, P. A. (2007). and Pearson, D. D. (1991). In British Student receptions of reading engagement: Council BBC Teaching English, Theories Learning from the learners. Journal of of reading at www.teachingenglish. Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 48(3) 209. org.uk/think/articles/theories-reading. 15. Song, M. (2007). Teaching reading Retrieved March 12, 2010. strategies in an ongoing EFL University 5. Emenike, D. and Odeyemi, S. T. (2002). Reading Classroom. http://www.cuhk. English Grammar and Writing Skills. edu.hk/ajeit/vol8/art3/htm. Retrieved July Lagos: Benja spirit Ltd. 5, 2007. 6. Garner, R. (1996). Meta-cognition and 16. Ukwuegbu, C. (1999). Current stand of Self-monitory strategies. In Samuels, S. J. English of Nigerian candidates in the and Farstrup, A. E. (Eds) What Research senior school certificate examination. has to say about Reading Instrument (2nd Paper presented at a workshop on English edn) Newark: IRA. Language Teaching in Secondary. Schools, 7. Hudson, R. F., Lane, N. B. and Pullen, P. Lagos, August, 12. C. (2005). Reading Fluency: Assessment 17. West African Examinations Council and Instruction. What, Why, and How? (WAEC), (2005). The West African Senior The Reading Teacher, 58, 702 – 711. School Certificate Examination: Chief 8. Johnson, J. C. (2005). What makes a good Examiners Report, Nigeria, May/June; reader? Asking students to define good Lagos; WAEC. readers: Teacher tips. The Reading

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MENTORING AND COACHING - EFFICIENT INSTRUMENTS FOR THE YOUNG OFFICERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Florentina HĂHĂIANU, Cerasela TUDOSE, Andreea CUCUTĂ

"Mihai Viteazul" National Academy of Intelligence, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The article studies how mentoring and coaching improve the capability of a military organization to thrive for talent in today's competitive environment. It tackles the definitions of mentoring and coaching, their roles and functions, and their differences. The article mentions the benefits and issues of the organizational management which include established systems for leadership succession, employees' professional growth, productivity, talent recruitment and retention. The article suggests that mentoring based on a symbiotic relationship among the mentor, mentee and the organization has potentials for success. It is also mentioned that coaching and mentoring are not the same thing. Mentoring is a two-way mutually beneficial learning situation where the mentor provides advice, shares knowledge and experiences, and teaches using a low pressure, self-discovery approach. The mentor is both a source of information/knowledge and a Socratic questioner. In the case of a coach the one who learns works for him and the concerns of coach are disciple`s performance, ability to adapt to change, and enrolling his support in the vision/direction for their work unit. Both coaching and mentoring are an approach to management and a set of skills to nurture staff and deliver results. They are, fundamentally, learning and development activities that share similar roots despite lively debate among academics and practitioners.

Keywords: mentoring, coaching, officers, organizational goals

1. THE CONTEXT rial qualities and competences. Even though these concepts are fairly new to our socio- In modern societies, organizations which cultural and economic life, they are have a proper management are highly fundamental and the multitude of definitions concerned with developing human resources, that the foreign literature use to define them this concern being part of a larger performance clarify the reason behind the decision to take system that includes, in its turn, performance very seriously all aspects which refer to staff evaluation, formal training, and rewarding. training. In this context, coaching is an activity Besides these more formal traditional in which managers work with their activities, managers-subordinates daily subordinates in order to develop the latter's interaction is as important since it can skills, they share specialized knowledge and strengthen capabilities, enrich knowledge and induce values and behavioural types that will trigger desirable professional values. help the employees to reach their Teamwork is present on all levels so that organizational goals and prepare them for coaching has become extremely important. more challenging tasks. Mentoring, as well as This is what coaching and mentoring do. coaching, is a way of developing human Lately, the literature, especially the foreign resource and it focuses on individual personal one has been dealing with mentoring and orientation in their efforts of personal growth coaching, their place and role, their through education. educational, psycho-sociological and manage-

MENTORING AND COACHING - EFFICIENT INSTRUMENTS FOR THE YOUNG OFFICERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

2. MENTORING AND ITS BENEFITS b. Psycho-social function – improves the feeling of personal capability, personal identity 2.1 Mentoring as an instrument of and the professional role one assumes, helping professional development. Even though the people build self-respect both in and out of the literature provides us with several definitions , organization. it is important to mention that mentoring should be perceived as a process whose goal is Table 1: Personal development support through to convey information and develop a set of mentoring (Kram, K.E., 1988 adapted by capabilities. People who should be involved in Luecke R., 2004: 77). such an activity should be highly experienced Career functions Psycho-social individuals who are willing to pass on their functions knowledge to young people at the beginning of Sponsorship – opens Role shaping – their career. Yet, according to Richard Luecke, doors. emphasizes behavioural, attitude mentoring refers to an experienced, capable and value types. individual who offers wise and substantial Coaching – teaches and Counselling – helps advice, information and counselling to another ensures feedback. the protégé to deal individual in order to help the latter develop with major his personal and professional skills (Luecke, professional dilemmas. 2004: 76). Protection – gives Acceptance and Any mentoring relation which takes places support to the confirmation – within an organization, requires a period of apprentice and acts like morally supports the time sufficient for the mentor to make sure that 'silencer' of the effects protégé and shows him the person he is 'counselling' is able to of other individuals on respect. properly develop and use the information he is his protégé. given. During such an experience, the needs, Challenge – encourages Friendship – takes and the nature of the relationship change, the the apprentice to think care of the protégé out of the box. beyond formal mentor needs to be aware of such changes and requirements. thus vary, according to certain requirements, Exposure and the degree and type of attention, help, visibility– stimulates the information and support he offers. protégé to get involved The successful implementation of such an and assume certain initiative within the process of initial training work tasks. in a military career needs a serious psycho- pedagogic substantiation and a rigorous The mentoring process is not a continual selection of military personnel who can carry one, it unfolds on a certain period of time, and out such attributions. Not all experienced it has a main target reaching certain pre- officers can be an efficient mentor for any established goals (both of the mentor's and the apprentice he has been given. The young apprentice's). Thus, the relation formed officer needs guidance in order to better adjust between the mentor and the apprentice is to the complexity of the military organization. based on the final goal which means effective Therefore the mentor should be willing to assimilation and use of knowledge and support in order to help the apprentice abilities necessary for the position in question. overcome any unexpected situation. Mentoring can 'speed up socializing, Mentoring pursues providing support for encourages social interactions, provides personal development and it has two important opportunities for social interaction, provides functions: opportunities for good interpersonal a. Career function – strengthens/improves interactions, emphasizes identification and basic rule learning and prepares the apprentice involvement in the organization' (Wigard, for a promotion within the organization; Boster, 2001, apud I. O. Pânişoară, 2010). As 258

MENTORING AND COACHING - EFFICIENT INSTRUMENTS FOR THE YOUNG OFFICERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT an unconventional system, mentoring is a understand the programme's goals and personalized method, closer to employees' objectives and thus they can have a valuable special needs in order to enhance their contribution to the organization. Mentors play performance and motivation. a very important role in building self- Mentoring mail role is to reduce the staff's confidence which is essential for the success mobility. This training process must start in a of the mentoring process. They help the very well defined system, it must have a clear apprentices to develop on both a personal and structure and it must make instruments in a professional level. The mentor's signature very efficient manner for the system. certifies a contract between the two parties Thus, regardless of whether the mentor which serves as a measure for later success. works in or outside the organization, the Within CIA, there are several ongoing mentoring process can focus on the following formal mentoring programmes, from a low general objectives: level structures (such as offices) to the 1. supporting the employee carry out his directorates level. The projects are managed role within the organization (a new role); by a dedicated direction which makes sure that 2. smooth integration in the team and all employees, on all levels, get involved in team development; mentoring programmes. CIA supports such 3. knowledge assimilation necessary for a programmes also financially; such present or future position within the company; programmes give annual awards of excellence, 4. action techniques development for a organize workshop meant to analyse the best more efficient adjustment to situations;; practices in the field, etc. ( 5. communication and organization Regardless of the mentoring type, whether climate improvement; formal or informal, the mentor has to show 6. professional abilities and capabilities support: development. • information support - the mentor need All these objectives, once reached, will to be an information resource for his help the individual identify a proper modality apprentices, he needs to provide the newest to have a better relationship with the information, make them accessible, find the organization. When someone manages to get applicable side of information in general. integrated into the organization though • instrument support- the mentor has to mentoring or coaching, that person get crystallise the apprentices' learning skills, to immediate access to the mentor's experience learn how to select a material, to decide on a and professional perspective. Studies and piece of information using his own thinking. research have proven that such programmes The apprentice must be able to make a clear are high successful, since they provide a great difference between ability, skill and flexibility, openness, communication and competence, so he will know how to deal with mutual understanding. any given information. In a military organization, the relationship • evaluation support - the mentor must between the mentor and the apprentice will be provide continual and serious feedback formal so that it could promote the employees' through which he appreciates the quality and development. For example, the US army has the quantity of the job done by the apprentice. adopted this concept and they have adjusted it to their own cultural view, understanding the • emotional support - the mentor has to need of such a formal programme. The provide support and understanding when the relationship is based on mutual responsibility. apprentice needs them, which enhances the Together, the two develop realistic goals. The apprentice's trust in his mentor. Naturally, programme depends on mutual understanding having more trust generates a deeper regarding the goals, missions and objectives. involvement, a higher voluntarily effort, a Mentors help their apprentices to better better learning climate. 259

MENTORING AND COACHING - EFFICIENT INSTRUMENTS FOR THE YOUNG OFFICERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

2.2 Benefits of mentoring. The mentoring coaching programmes could aim at people relationship is beneficial both for the protégé who are on low responsibility position, since and the mentor, but also for the organization. such programmes are extremely necessary for This is why companies must develop and carry employees in a high position and with a high on such programmes of personal growth.. number of employees and apprentices he is - The mentor's benefits. People who responsible for. . undertake such an activity has the personal When the leader does not exercise a satisfaction of conveying something from their dominant authoritarian attitude and manages to experience, knowledge to people who need it. develop a partnership with his employee, the In this way mentors get personal relationship boss-employee changes into a acknowledgment both from the people they mentor-protégé relationship which will be help and also from other people within the more efficient and profitable. Built on a organization. Kram (apud Sonnentag, 2002: mnemonic formula - ARDE: Abandonment, 297) states that 'loyal protégés can also offer Recognition, Dedication, Extension- it psychological support to their mentors'. pragmatically offers a very useful working tool Reflecting on this idea, mentors have in order to have organizational success suggested other benefits too: exercising and supported by a life-long training (Bell, 2010.). development of personal leading style; Without a clear delimitation, coaching can alternative perceptions over a way, activity or be often mistaken for mentoring, training or issue; insights regarding their personal counselling. Coaching which is actually done development ; motivation and positive by a coach means supporting a person- a client appreciations from his protégé. or coachee, within the process of obtaining • The organization and apprentices' certain results both on a personal and benefits. One of the major benefits of professional level. There are lots of structures mentoring on an organizational level refers to and the methods used in the coaching process, a better integration and socializing of the new but essentially they rely on client employees, but at the same time old encouragement to discover new values of their employees' career development as a secondary personality and professional life. benefit such as 'diminishing organization Coaching is different from therapy, migration, a better organizational counselling or mentoring and can be done in communication, a more efficient management, individual or group sessions. Its objective can improvement of managerial and power be similar to other techniques which imply succession' (Zey, in Sonnentag, 2002: 297). helping people in need: supporting personal The fact that new employees have access , change according to the client and helping him through their mentors, to people who can to reach his highest limits. explain certain action rules (that they cannot Through coaching or personal development understand by themselves), people who can certain behavioural patterns could be changed offer them feedback to their behaviour (both such as stress management, time management, appreciative and less appreciative ones), make personal and professional relationships them feel closer to the organization and its management, personal improvement. coaching goals, help them integrate faster and more is intended for people who wish a positive smoothly, etc. change in their life in order to improve their . performance in different areas of life. 3. COACHINGUL AND ITS BENEFITS Coaching is intended for managers, entrepreneurs, people who wish to change 3.1 Coaching - as a professional training something in their personal and professional instrument. The organizational structure is life and who do not have a clear picture about comprised of positions which require more or their life. less responsibility. It is very unlikely that 260

MENTORING AND COACHING - EFFICIENT INSTRUMENTS FOR THE YOUNG OFFICERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

There are several types of coaching but the fulfil our destiny by identifying and reach capabilities involved are generally the same; important personal goals; the difference comes in the way they are used - adjusting to a new situation (for example in different fields. A coaching programme can when you find yourself in a new situation specialize in one of these branches and quite which can create issues on a personal level - often the fields overlap. death of a close person, moving to another The purpose of coaching1 is to identify the city) best solutions in order to eliminate issues Coaching goals regarding professional regarding: development refers to: - weak communication within the team; - problem identification within team - misunderstanding and lack of which lead to not reaching the team or commitment and responsibilities of the organization's targets; employees; - defining clear objectives on a medium - cognitive dissonance, and the employee's and long term in order to identify the elements difference in perception from his employer which allow their achievement; problems regarding the way things should be done and identifying that can occur both on the team what results should be obtained; level and the organization one, but also the - employees negative attitudes and discrepancy between the requirements of the behaviours; organization and the possibility of the team to - little volunteering and pro-activity of cope with them; members of the team; - choosing the best ways to reach such - integration of a new employee in the objectives; structures of the organization; - adjusting to a new reality (for example, - an individual performance on a new or in case of a promotion or lay off or even old position; opening your own business). - identification of the real reasons The activity of coaching takes place by regarding lack of determination of the providing consultancy services. Coaching employees and solving such issues; courses - which allow a person to become a - coach conceptualization in order to coach, are mainly a private enterprise and promote the image of the company. rarely, only in certain countries they are part of According to its field of applicability post graduation studies. This is why, the (personal or professional) coaching can have military system should develop such an different goals, but at the same time it has instrument that relies on internationally common features. accepted structures and standards and are On a personal level, coaching internationally recognized. - offers personalized solutions according 3.2 The benefits of coaching. Among to the individual's personal needs in order to coaching benefits we can mention: self develop, helps finding personal balance - establishing personal goals; and skills which will allow choosing the right - performance improvement; career; - overcoming blockages; - it allows the identification of emotional - improving communication; blockage which influence and slows down the - improving decision making; individual's personal growth; - developing a personal vision; - through coaching we have the chance to - defining priorities; define our role in life ('Know thyself') and - time management; - crisis management; - a better self perspective;

1 http://www.cbc.ro/ro/coaching/scopul-coachingului. - personal balance; html - improving social skills. 261

MENTORING AND COACHING - EFFICIENT INSTRUMENTS FOR THE YOUNG OFFICERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

4. KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN needs on a short MENTORING AND COACHING period. Occasionally Richard Luecke claims that the goal of performed 'when mentoring is wider than the one of coaching, needed'. the latter being, in fact, a subcategory of the Type of The coach is the The mentor is relation- hierarchic boss of rarely the direct former (Luecke, 2004: 77). The same author ship the beneficiary/ boss of the presents the main differences between the two client. protégé . Most activities. experts insist that the mentor Table 2: Key differences between coaching should not be and mentoring (Luecke, R., 2004, p. 79). part of the upper Coaching Mentoring hierarchic chain. Key goals To correct less To support and proper guide the The final difference between the two behaviours, to protégé's activities can be summarized as follows: improve personal coaching refers to the present job and present performances and development. share work of place, whereas mentoring refers to competences that career in general. (Luecke, 2004, p. 78). This the employee last feature defines coaching as professional needs in order to training and mentoring as professional accept new development. responsibilities. Guidance The coach guides The protégé is 4. CONCLUSIONS initiative studying and responsible with training. his own Why would a military organization training. implement such programmes? The motivation Volunteer- Even though it is Both the mentor behind such a decision could be both the costs ing important that the and the protégé advantage which is almost non-existent (in employee accept are pro-active. the coaching comparison with other options available to the process, this Human Resources Department) and also the might not applicability in many areas of interest, as necessarily mentoring and coaching, as well, are happen extremely effective ways of: voluntarily. - employees' stimulation; Focus Immediate issues Long term - general capabilities improvement, ,learning personal career leadership and management in particular; opportunities. development - career planning and development; Roles High emphasis on High emphasis - inter-departments communication; the role of the on mentor personal initiative; coach of telling listening, - and also give a providing a new - educational support/ reducing the proper feedback role model and distance between theory and practice; offering - organizational development and a suggestions and better adjustment and acquiring of the relationships/lin organizational culture; ks to the - behaviour shaping; protégé. - diminishing staff fluctuation. Time Usually focusing Long term. If we were to compare civilizations' on immediate childhood to the individual's childhood we 262

MENTORING AND COACHING - EFFICIENT INSTRUMENTS FOR THE YOUNG OFFICERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT would notice that humankind has always 2. Chişu, C.M. (2010). Mentoratul - chosen role models that they tried to follow concepţie, metode şi impact asupra and imitate, as well, and wise people that carierei didactice – PhD thesis. would both listen and offer guidance, just as a Bucharest. [unpublished]. child would do. 3. Luecke, R. (2004). Harvard Business Nowadays such acts have become modern Essentials: Coaching and Mentoring. practices of mentoring and coaching so that Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business the individual, as part of an organization, School Press. could be both mentored and coached in order 4. Nicola, Gr. (2004). Un ambient pentru to be able to learn a pre-established pattern excelenţă - Mentoratul. Sibiu: which would eventually benefit the Psihomedia. organization. He could be trained to discover 5. Pitariu, H.D. (2000). Managementul native skills and capabilities which are not resurselor umane: evaluarea sufficiently used, both for the individual' performanţelor profesionale. Bucharest: interest and the organization's. Ed. All Beck. All in all, these two instruments mentoring 6. Zlate, M. (2001). Coaching-ul – un tip and coaching have both applicability in the eficient de intervenţie organizaţională. In military field, which is a field that requires Revista de psihologie organizaţională, long-life learning, thus exposing its members Vol. I, nr. 2 . Iaşi: Polirom to such experiences is highly useful in order to 7. Pânişoară, G., Pânişoară, I. O. (2010). improve personal efficiency and effectiveness. Managementul resurselor umane. Bucharest: Polirom BIBLIOGRAPHY 8. Sonnentag, S. (2002). Psychological Management or Individual Performance. 1. Bell, C. R. (2010). Managers and London: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Mentors. Bucharest: Curtea Veche.

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