A Companion to Organizational The Blackwell Companions to Anthropology offers a series of comprehensive syntheses of the traditional subdisciplines, primary subjects, and geographic areas of inquiry for the field. Taken together, the series represents both a contemporary survey of anthro- pology and a cutting-edge guide to the emerging research and intellectual trends in the field as a whole.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A companion to organizational anthropology / edited by Douglas Caulkins and Ann T. Jordan. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9982-7 (cloth) 1. Corporate . 2. Business anthropology. I. Caulkins, Douglas. II. Jordan, Ann. HD58.7.C6263 2013 302.3'5–dc23 2012015979

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1 2013 Contents

Notes on Contributors viii Abstracts xiv

Expanding the Field of Organizational Anthropology for the Twenty-first Century 1 Ann T. Jordan and D. Douglas Caulkins

Part I Critique and Theory 25

1. The Organization of Anthropology and Higher Education in the United States 27 Davydd J. Greenwood

2. The Changing Rhetoric of Corporate Culture 56 Allen W. Batteau

3. New Institutional Approaches to Formal Organizations 74 Marietta L. Baba, Jeanette Blomberg, Christine LaBond, and Inez Adams

4. Entrepreneurship Studies 98 Peter Rosa and D. Douglas Caulkins

5. Neurological Model of Organizational Culture 122 Tomoko Hamada Connolly

Part II Methods and Analysis 147

6. Social Networks and Organizations 149 Brandon Ofem, Theresa M. Floyd, and Stephen P. Borgatti vi CONTENTS 7. A Mixed-Methods Approach to Understand Global Networked Organizations 167 Julia C. Gluesing

8. Measuring Organizational Dynamics 193 Gerald Mars

9. Semiotics of Organizations 204 Joseph D. Hankins

10. An of Numbers 219 Daniel Neyland

11. Managing Conflict on Organizational Partnerships 236 Elizabeth K. Briody

Part III Organizational Processes 257

12. Working on Work Organizations 259 Charles N. Darrah and Alicia Dornadic

13. Organizational Innovation Is a Participative Process 275 Morten Levin

14. Communities of Practice 289 Susan Squires and Michael L. Van De Vanter

15. Organizational Networks and Social Capital 311 Gunnar Lind Haase Svendsen and Christian Waldstrøm

16. American Labor Unions as Organizations 328 Paul Durrenberger and Suzan Erem

17. Virtual Organizations 346 Christina Wasson

18. Sustaining Social Sector Organizations 362 Joan A. Tucker and D. Douglas Caulkins

Part IV Globalization, Development, and Modernization 379

19. The Contemporary World of Finance 381 Allen W. Batteau

20. Globalization, Modernization, and Complex Organizations 399 Ann T. Jordan

21. Chinese Business Ventures into China 418 Heidi Dahles and Juliette Koning CONTENTS vii 22. Corporate Social Responsibility: Interaction between Market and Community 438 Bengi Ertuna

23. NGOs and Community Development: Assessing the Contributions from Sen’s Perspective of Freedom 455 J. Montgomery Roper

24. Why Are Indigenous Organizations Declining in Latin America? 471 Carmen Martínez Novo

25. Australian Indigenous Organizations 493 Sarah E. Holcombe and Patrick Sullivan

26. Organization of Schooling in Three Countries 519 Edmund T. Hamann, Saloshna Vandeyar, and Juan Sánchez García

Index 538 Notes on Contributors

Inez Adams is a Visiting Scholar at The Lung Cancer Disparities Center (LCDC) at the Harvard School of Public Health. Her primary research interests are class and race-based disparities in the United States. In the private sector, she has done con- tractual work for corporate clients, using anthropological methods to guide product development and marketing.

Marietta L. Baba is Dean of the College of Social Science, Professor of Anthropology, and Professor of Human Resources and Labor Relations at Michigan State University. Dr. Baba is the author of more than 75 scholarly and technical publications in the fields of organizational anthropology, technological innovation, and evolutionary processes.

Allen W. Batteau is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at Wayne State University, and former Director of the University’s Institute for Information Technology and Culture. He is the author of The Invention of Appalachia (University of Arizona Press) and Technology and Culture (Waveland Press).

Jeanette Blomberg is a Research Staff Member at IBM Research whose research explores issues in social aspects of technology production and use, ethnographically informed organizational interventions, and service innovation. Most recently she has been examining how specific historic, geographic, demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural characteristics shape trajectories of change in enterprise transformation initia- tives. Jeanette received her PhD in anthropology from the University of California, Davis.

Stephen P. Borgatti is the Paul Chellgren Endowed Chair of Management at the University of Kentucky. His research interests include social networks, knowledge management, and research methods. NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS ix Elizabeth K. Briody is Founder and Principal, Cultural Keys LLC, which special- izes in improving work culture and partnership effectiveness, and enhancing health care satisfaction. Recent publications include The Cultural Dimension of Global Business (with Gary P. Ferraro, Prentice Hall, 2013), Transforming Culture (with R.T. Trotter, II and T.L. Meerwarth, Palgrave, 2010), and Partnering for Organiza­ tional Performance (with R.T. Trotter, II, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).

D. Douglas Caulkins, BA Carleton College, PhD Cornell University, is Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Grinnell College and Emeritus Director of the Donald L. Wilson Program in Enterprise and Leadership. He has published on high tech entrepreneurship, organizational networks and sustainability, heritage sites, social capital, and ethnonational identity. Currently he is chair of the board of directors of the Social Entrepreneurs of Grinnell.

Tomoko Hamada Connolly is Professor of Anthropology at The College of William and Mary. She holds an MA in Sociology from Keio University, and an MA and a PhD in Anthropology from University of California, Berkeley. Her research projects include sociocultural analyses of neurological connectivity in human groups; cross- cultural team building; and multinational enterprise.

Heidi Dahles is full professor in International Business & Asian Studies at Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Brisbane (Australia) and guest professor in Trans­ national Business Networks at the Department of Organization Sciences at VU University Amsterdam (Netherlands). Her research interest is in the ethnic and cultural dimensions of Asian business and the intricacies of cross-border business ventures. Heidi is review editor for the Journal of Business Anthropology and editor- in-chief (with Ooi Can Seng and Juliette Koning) of the open access journal Asia Matters: Business, Culture and Theory.

Charles N. Darrah is a professor of anthropology at San Jose State University. He is author of Learning and Work (1997) and coauthor of Busier Than Ever!: Why Americans Can’t Slow Down (2007), and a partner in Design Practices Collaborative.

Alicia Dornadic is a practicing anthropologist who holds an MA in from San Jose State University. She is a partner in Design Practices Collaborative and has worked at Allstate Research and Roche Diagnostics.

Paul Durrenberger, a Penn State University and the University of Iowa professor emeritus, is an economic anthropologist who has done extensive field work in Thailand, Iceland and the United States. For the last 15 years, he has worked with his wife, writer Suzan Erem, on the ethnography of American labor unions. They have published a number of books and articles including Class Acts: An Anthropology of Service Workers and Their Union (Paradigm Publishers, 2005), On the Global Waterfront: The Fight to Free the Charleston 5, (Monthly Review Press, 2008), and Anthropology Unbound, A Field Guide to the 21st Century (Paradigm Publishers). x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Bengi Ertuna is an Associate Professor of Finance at Bogazici University. Her research interests include corporate social responsibility, corporate governance, and family business groups. She has articles on corporate social responsibility practices of Turkish companies, the impact of globalization, and diffusion of CSR to the Turkish business context.

Theresa M. Floyd is a PhD candidate in management at the University of Kentucky. Her research interests include social networks, virtual work, and organizational culture.

Juan Sánchez García is Director of the Research and Innovation for Educational Improvement program (PIIMCE) at the Institute for Research, Innovation, and Postgraduate Studies in Education (IIIEPE) in Monterrey, Mexico. He was a public school teacher and teacher educator in Mexico for 30 years before coming to IIIEPE.

Julia C. Gluesing, President, Cultural Connections, Inc., is a practicing business anthropologist and former research professor at Wayne State University whose research is directed at understanding collaboration and innovation in global net- worked organizations. Recent publications focus primarily on the revolution in diffusion caused by new media and on mobile work.

Davydd J. Greenwood is the Goldwin Smith Professor of Anthropology at Cornell University. His work centers on action research, political economy, ethnic conflict, community development, and higher education reform. He worked in the Spanish Basque Country, Spain’s La Mancha region, Norway, and in the Finger Lakes of New York.

Edmund “Ted” Hamann is an Associate Professor in the Department of Teaching, Learning, and Teacher Education at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. An anthro- pologist of education, he studies how transnationally mobile students make sense of their mobility and how such movement shapes the development of local school policies.

Joseph D. Hankins is Assistant Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, San Diego. He researches the politics of stigmatized labor in contempo- rary Japan.

Sarah E. Holcombe has a disciplinary background in and has been involved in research in relation to Indigenous Australians for 20 years. Almost half of this time has been spent as an applied anthropologist for the two major Northern Territory Land Councils. She undertook her PhD field research in the central Australian community of Mt Liebig and has, for the last 9 years, been engaged in a diverse range of research projects at the Australian National University (ANU). This has principally been through the Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (CAEPR) where Indigenous community governance and the social sustainability of mining were major research interests. Sarah was also Social Science Coordinator for NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi the Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre where the ethics of research governance and the collaborative management of intellectual property further diversi- fied her research interests. She is currently a Fellow in the Research School of Humanities and the Arts, ANU.

Ann T. Jordan is Professor of Anthropology at the University of North Texas. Her most recent book is The Making of a Magic Kingdom: Globalization and Change in Saudi Arabia (2011) and she is currently working on a second edition of her 2003 book, Business Anthropology.

Juliette Koning is associate professor in the Department of Business and Manage­ ment at Oxford Brookes University (UK). Her current research is on business, eth- nicity, and religion in Southeast Asia. Recent publications include the coedited volume Chinese Indonesians and Regime Change (2011), and contributions to Christianity and the State in Asia (2009), and Entrepreneurship in Context (2012). Juliette has a PhD in social anthropology from the University of Amsterdam (the Netherlands).

Christine LaBond is a PhD candidate in the Department of Anthropology at Michigan State University. Her areas of interest include medical anthropology, dis- course analysis, and the anthropology of policy. Her dissertation research explores the cultural assumptions that inform and reproduce the private, employer-based health insurance model in the United States. Specifically, her work focuses on moral discourses of health insurance, employment, and health reform as expressed by General Motors autoworkers in the mid-Michigan area.

Morten Levin is a Professor at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Levin holds graduate degrees in engineering and in sociology and has applied action research to the study of organizational change. He has directed four PhD programs in action research. He is author of a number of books and articles.

Gerald Mars is BA, Cambridge (Economics and Social Anthropology); PhD, LSE, London (Anthropology and Industrial Relations). He is Honorary Professor of Applied Anthropology at University College London, and Visiting Professor at UCS, Ipswich. Most of his work has been spent applying Cultural Theory to modern western and using anthropological theory and methods alongside tradi- tional disciplines – criminology, economics, sociology, and industrial relations. He is in demand as a consultant to industry and government, has held eight Visiting Professorships and published 11 books and over 60 articles. In 2003, The Royal Anthropological Institute awarded Mars their Lucy Mair Medal “for consistent excel- lence in applied anthropology.”

Carmen Martínez Novo is Associate Professor of Anthropology and Director of the Latin American Studies Program at the University of Kentucky. She has worked on indigenism and indigenous identities in Mexico and Ecuador. She is the author of Who Defines Indigenous? (Rutgers University Press, 2006), the editor of Repensando los movimientos indígenas (Rethinking Indigenous Movements) (FLACSO, 2009), xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS and author of a number of articles and book chapters on indigeneity in Mexico and Ecuador.

Daniel Neyland is a Reader at Goldsmiths College, . His research engages issues of governance, accountability, and ethics in forms of science, technology, and organization, drawing on ideas from ethnomethodology, science and technology studies, and his research is ethnographic in orientation.

Brandon Ofem is a PhD candidate in management at the University of Kentucky. His research interests lie at the intersection of strategy, entrepreneurship, and social networks.

J. Montgomery Roper is an Associate Professor at Grinnell College, where he teaches courses in anthropology and global development studies. His research focuses on indigenous social movements, nongovernment organizations, and the political economy of natural resource management and community development in rural areas, particularly in Latin America.

Peter Rosa, BA and PhD, Anthropology (Dunelm), is the George David Professor of Entrepreneurship and Family Business at the University of Edinburgh. He has published on female and portfolio entrepreneurs, family business, and entrepreneur- ship in developing countries. He holds visiting positions at Makerere University Business School and Witten University, Germany.

Susan Squires, Anthropology Department – University of North Texas, is an anthro- pologist working with businesses to find innovative solutions to their challenges. She is a recognized expert on customer insights research and her edited book, Creating Breakthrough Ideas (2002), chronicles the application of her research theory and methodology as used by anthropologists in business and design.

Patrick Sullivan has been a Research Fellow in Indigenous Regional Organisation, Governance and Public Policy at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies since 2002, and is an Adjunct Professor at the National Centre for Indigenous Studies (ANU). His numerous field studies and placements within indigenous organizations have involved practical research and advice on issues of land use and distribution, community control of community development, and govern- ance institutions at the local and regional levels. His book Belonging Together: Dealing with the Politics of Disenchantment in Australian Indigenous Policy was published by Aboriginal Studies Press (Canberra) in 2011.

Gunnar Lind Haase Svendsen, PhD, is an anthropologist and professor with special responsibilities at the Danish Centre for Rural Research at University of Southern Denmark. He has done historical, anthropological, and sociological research on civic movements, associational life, social capital, and trust. His international publications include four books and 15 peer-reviewed journal articles. NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii Joan Tucker, PhD, University of South Florida, is an independent researcher. Her dissertation research focused on disability rights advocacy in Jamaica, which included ethnography of the Combined Disabilities Association, the premier disability rights organization in Jamaica.

Saloshna Vandeyar is a Professor in the Department of Humanities Education at the University of Pretoria in South Africa. She is author of Diversity High: Class, Color, Culture, and Character in a South African High School (2008) and of Hyphenated Selves: Immigrant Identities within Education Contexts (Pretoria: UNISA Press, 2011).

Michael L. Van De Vanter is a researcher at Oracle Labs in Redwood Shores, California, with an extensive background in software development technologies and education. His research interests include advanced program editing systems, High Performance Computing, software development methodologies, source code analysis for developer tools, source code management and configuration control, and the human factors of software development.

Christian Waldstrøm, PhD, is an Associated Professor at Aarhus University and has done research on social network analysis and worked as a network consultant and facilitator for a large number of Danish companies. He has presented and published his research internationally and has been awarded “Lecturer of the Year.”

Christina Wasson, Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of North Texas. Wasson’s research investigates how technology can bring together people who are geographically separated, applying findings to the design of technologies and organizational change processes. Recent publications include the coedited Applying Anthropology in the Global Village (2012) and “Linguistic Anthropology” in The Handbook of Business Discourse (2009). Abstracts

Expanding the Field of Organizational Anthropology for the Twenty-first Century Ann T. Jordan and D. Douglas Caulkins This introduction focuses on the developments of organizational anthropology in the last 20 years and declares that organizational anthropology has come of age. It first provides a brief history of organizational anthropology and then discusses two reasons that account for the increase in anthropological work on organizations in the last two decades: (i) the increase in numbers of anthropologists working outside academia; and (ii) the significance of globalization in anthropological research. This is followed by a description of the broad scope of organizational anthropology today, including a review of organizational types studied, and the foci, methods, and theories used in those studies. It concludes that the result of all the work anthropologists conduct in organizations is a body of work on complex organizations that is so large, broad- based, and important to our understanding of life in the twenty-first century as to constitute an important subfield in our discipline.

Part I: Critique and Theory 1. The Organization of Anthropology and Higher Education in the United States Davydd J. Greenwood Beginning with a review of the vexed historical relationship between anthropology and the industrial where it originates, the chapter shows how this led anthropologists away from studying organizations in their own societies. The chapter engages in an organizational analysis of the difficulties created by the inappropri- ate use of the Tayloristic manufacturing model in higher education. Finally, the chapter points to ways that the lessons learned from the study of foreign sociocultural systems are useful in both the analysis and reform of our own systems of higher education. ABSTRACTS xv 2. The Changing Rhetoric of Corporate Culture Allen W. Batteau In the past 30 years, “corporate culture” has gone from being a curiosity to consult- ants’ nostrum to a management fad to a standard element of business school curricula. As the concept has evolved, its mission or purpose has changed as well: from a per- quisite of employment, to an explanation of differential success in different industries, to a tool for improving employee motivation. In this evolution, the locus of corporate culture has changed as well: from a pervasive set of shared understandings uniting labor and management, to an active management concern, to an instrumentality available for improving management. This chapter examines the shifting discourse of corporate culture and its variants including “quality culture” and “safety culture,” noting that its shifting emphasis reflects the evolving challenges faced by business over the past 30 years. Based on an analysis of references to corporate and organiza- tional culture in academic, trade, and popular press, and placing these in the context of contemporaneous developments in the corporate world, this chapter suggests that the changing rhetoric of corporate culture reflects the changing forms of flexible accumulation in global business today.

3. New Institutional Approaches to Formal Organizations Marietta L. Baba, Jeanette Blomberg, Christine LaBond, and Inez Adams The contributions of anthropology to new institutionalism are the subject of this chapter, especially as these relate to our understanding of formal organizations. New institutionalism is understood to be an emerging corpus of empirical research and theory across the social sciences relevant to scholars with interests in the study of formal organizations and their larger societies. We explore the concept of new insti- tutionalism and discuss the advantages that may be offered by anthropological epis- temology, methodology, and substantive knowledge. The institutional characteristics of formal organizations are discussed, together with a historical overview of anthro- pological research in the field. Three analytic dimensions of an anthropological approach to new institutionalism are suggested that may provide a framework for further discussion.

4. Entrepreneurship Studies Peter Rosa and D. Douglas Caulkins This chapter reviews the past and present contribution of social anthropology to mainstream entrepreneurship research since it took off as an important business dis- cipline in the 1980s. Although social anthropologists did play a significant role in the development of the relationships between entrepreneurship, social change, and devel- opment in the 1950s and 1960s, the connection has faded recently. There are few social anthropologists in major anthropology departments specializing in entrepre- neurship, or in mainstream entrepreneurship departments. There is a greater tradition of development applied anthropologists with interests in entrepreneurship, but their output is focused on microgeographical regions and small-scale ethnic communities, and not linked into mainstream entrepreneurship debates. We highlight contribu- tions by entrepreneurship researchers with anthropology training, but note that their role is increasingly being overtaken by nonspecialists. We suggest some reasons for xvi ABSTRACTS revitalizing this relationship and note the growing anthropological interest in social entrepreneurship.

5. Neurological Model of Organizational Culture Tomoko Hamada Connolly This chapter applies the latest neurological approach to Organizational Culture (OC), where individual agency’s sensemaking activity is neurologically defined as the establishment of a “signified association” of neural firings elicited in the cerebral cortex, when new environmental stimuli are perceived against the backdrop of past connectomic activities. OC is conceived as webs of multiple nodes of cognitive and affective connection and interaction that constantly receive new stimuli. As more webs of connectivity get established by repeated exposures to similar stimuli–responses over time, the individual OC agency progressively develops more reflective, deeper, “meaning creation,” separate from “knee jerking” responses to stimuli. The new OC perspective offers a holistic understanding of shared (or disjointed) circuits of synaptic connectivity, from the inside of the individual brain, to the collective webs of symbolic meaning and memory creation. To illustrate this process, an ethnographic study of a multinational firm’s retirement party is presented.

Part II: Methods and Analysis 6. Social Networks and Organizations Brandon Ofem, Theresa Floyd, and Steve Borgatti The field of social network analysis (SNA) has exploded in recent years, notonly in the social sciences, but also biological and physical sciences. A hallmark of the approach is a focus on the social environment of actors as causative factors in addi- tion to internal characteristics of the social actor. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the field, including both theory and method, as applied to the understanding of organizations. We start with a discussion of fundamental concepts, and end the chapter with a discussion of the methodological tools and challenges.

7. A Mixed-Methods Approach to Understand Global Networked Organizations Julia C. Gluesing To understand global organizing, especially in the postindustrial or postbureaucratic organizations that are enabled by information technology (IT), mixing research methods is a good way to accomplish both depth and breadth of understanding and to keep pace with emerging patterns and meanings. Combining IT-based network analysis and ethnography in a mixed-methods research approach, it is possible to investigate organizing in globally networked organizations and to learn why and how people practice work across boundaries, how they develop (or not) shared meaning and communities around the work that they do, and how they innovate to meet new challenges. This chapter traces the history of network analysis in anthropology, offers an example of such mixed-methods research in a large, global innovation team, and demonstrates the value of network analysis coupled with multi-sited ethnography ABSTRACTS xvii as a promising future direction for both theory and method in organizational anthropology.

8. Measuring Organizational Dynamics Gerald Mars The first part of the chapter outlines Cultural Theory’s theoretical underpinning and later developments; the second outlines case studies that reveal the power, insights, and extensive range of applications obtained when it has been applied to organiza- tions. The final part offers a practical guide to the fieldworker/analyst on how to use the theory to understand the dynamics of organizations.

9. Semiotics of Organizations Joseph D. Hankins This chapter proceeds from a basic argument that organizations are a particular insti- tutional mode of managing the circulation and commensuration of people, things, and words across various contexts of interaction. Circulation requires economic and political solvency; it also requires underlying, context-forming work of producing these objects as the same, or different, as they move. In this chapter, I develop a methodology, based on American pragmatic semiotics, to approach this latter task. I examine how, as these objects move across contexts, both those objects and the contexts are transformed, and I argue that it is in this movement that organizations come to effect. I make this argument with an examination of a political solidarity project between stigmatized social movements – the Buraku and the Dalit – across Japan and India.

10. The Ethnography of Numbers Daniel Neyland This chapter engages with the rise of numbers as crucial forms of organizational evidence. From measures, benchmarks, metrics, and indicators through to assess- ments of value for money, performance, and reliability, this chapter argues that the rise of numerical evidence is central to the organization of organizations. However, this centrality can lead to both a kind of clarity in terms of what numbers referentially stand in for and a kind of problematic narrowness. Despite the breadth of work to which numbers can be put, accounts of numerical evidence also always include a great deal of discounting of people, things, actions, places, relationships, and so on, which are not to be counted. The chapter argues that ethnography, on the other hand, offers the kind of messy, challenging, and rich insights which numerical accounts seek to bar from entry, while also suffering from challenges for organizations expecting portability, referential clarity, and tabulation.

11. Managing Conflict on Organizational Partnerships Elizabeth K. Briody Firms use a variety of means to enhance their operations and markets. One such mechanism is organizational partnerships whose goals typically include improving efficiency and effectiveness and reducing costs. This chapter focuses on an internal xviii ABSTRACTS organizational partnership in a large manufacturing firm based in the United States. Product-program personnel were expected to follow the new corporate strategy of convergence in which product architecture and component parts would be shared by the partnering units. The case study reveals the difficulty of achieving conver- gence due largely to the firm’s strong cultural tradition of autonomy. An excerpt from one engineering meeting documents the conflict on the ABC Program particu- larly well. I examine the nature and sources of the conflict in relation to the conver- gence strategy. I also recommend ways of managing the conflict by applying insights from anthropology’s concepts of holism and the emic perspective, and through the use of the case study as a planning and problem-solving tool.

Part III: Organizational Processes 12. Working on Work Organizations Charles N. Darrah and Alicia Dornadic Changes in work organizations, driven by information technology and global systems of production, provide new opportunities to apply anthropological knowledge to designing work organizations. Anthropologists are well suited to work on work organizations; to both help work organizations transform themselves as conditions change and to try to anticipate unintended consequences in the future. In particular, cross-cultural knowledge of organization and social interaction, seeking out multiple perspectives, and challenging taken-for-granted categories complement and enhance stages of the design process. Design is part of the human experience, and part of working on work organizations means enabling agency of the people in organiza- tions. This occurs by facilitating conservations across organizations and by acknowl- edging the potential divergence between intention and interpretation of organizational changes. As anthropologists engage in working on work organizations, potentially significant implications for the field’s tools, methods, and modes of communicating and working may emerge.

13. Organizational Innovation Is a Participative Process Morten Levin Two perspectives dominate the conceptualization of organizational change. The traditional perspective of change is a “commoditized” view, where change is expected to come about by decree without any particular interest in how members of the organization act in the change process. The alternative perspective is to view change as a gradual and involved social evolutionary process where participants enact the changes. Thus, change is totally in the hands and heads of the involved participants. The essential point in this chapter is to show that all change has to involve the members of the organization whether it is commoditized or evolutionary. Change will only occur through people acting and working in a new way, which means the change emerges because employees solve problems and complete tasks in a different way. The implication of this position is that all changes are participative, either rec- ognized as such or not. Accordingly, the core issue in organizational change is to create good participative processes. ABSTRACTS xix 14. Communities of Practice Susan Squires and Michael Van De Vanter Communities of practice have had an important place in organizational theory since the concept was first defined by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a group of people who share an interest, a craft, and/or a profession (Lave and Wenger 1991). In this chapter, we will review the rise of communities of practices and its impact on educa- tion practices and business management. We will also address the emergence of virtual communities of practice. Unlike the more traditional understanding of communities of practice, virtual community of practice members are unlikely to have met, may not share a common set of knowledge/craft, and often have differing professional back- grounds. Yet, by virtue of the Internet, the members of these communities meet the criteria of a community of practice where knowledge management is central for cap- turing, organizing, and retrieving information. As we will illustrate in a case example of computational scientists, like the more traditionally conceived communities of practice, virtual communities help the individual bridge the gap between knowing what and knowing how.

15. Organizational Networks and Social Capital Gunnar Lind Haase Svendsen and Christian Waldstrom It has been argued that social capital is not only important for individuals but also for organizations. Hence, studies on organizational social capital stress network resources as a crucial, intangible form of capital, which – interacting with more tan- gible forms of capital as economic, physical, and human – contributes to make an organization prosper, be it a firm, an NGO, or a voluntary association. We argue that two main types of organizational social capital exist: bridging social capital, that is, networks of an open, inclusive nature, and bonding social capital, that is, networks of an exclusive nature. Furthermore, we argue that the four subtypes of organizational social capital are positive bridging (BR+), negative bridging (BR–), positive bonding (BO+), and negative bonding (BO–) social capital. We explain these four types, as well as indicate the optimal mix for an organization. We finally illustrate their work- ings, using the case of cooperative movements in rural Denmark.

16. American Labor Unions as Organizations Paul Durrenberger and Suzan Erem Labor unions originally formed to organize workers to transform the weakness of individuals into power via collective action. Labor’s role in the economy as well as law, policy, and history shape labor organizations. We discuss how these factors have affected the organizational features of labor unions in the United States and how they continue to do so in the age of globalization. As laws and policies have changed, the role of unions has changed, and their organization has evolved. Because unions are closely related to the industries whose workers they represent, their organization has also changed as the industries have changed. Ethnographic research shows a number of contradictions within labor unions. While internal obstacles include coop- tation and internal strife, the major obstacle for the labor movement is national-level law and policy, largely shaped by corporate interests that weigh against it achieving any primary or derivative goals. xx ABSTRACTS 17. Virtual Organizations Christina Wasson In recent years, organizations have increasingly become “virtual,” in the sense that more and more employees are collaborating across geographic distance using elec- tronic communication media. This rise in virtuality is due to factors such as the globalizing economy, developments in the technologies that support virtual com- munication and collaboration, and increased concerns about the safety, costs, and temporal outlays involved in travel. The chapter reviews five areas in which anthro- pologists have significantly contributed to this field of research: (i) virtual teams, (ii) virtual communication in the workplace, (iii) mobile work and telework, (iv) placeless organizations and, as a background for the preceding topics, (v) virtual communities and the anthropology of the Internet. Next, the chapter articulates three overarching themes. One is that ethnographic methods have led to discoveries that were missed by researchers from other disciplines. Second, anthropologists have highlighted the close connections between online and offline experiences. A final theme is that a significant number of the anthropologists working in this field are applied; they engage in research in order to actively help employees and community members navigate these new virtual terrains. In conclusion, it is noted that anthropologists have generally been rather slow to investigate virtual interactions. Virtual organiza- tions offer a rich and rewarding space for further investigation and theorizing by organizational anthropologists.

18. Sustaining Social Sector Organizations Joan Tucker and D. Douglas Caulkins Social sector or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have grown substantially in scope and number. Diverse in size, structure, and function, NGOs range from small community-based groups to larger transnational entities. As vital parts of developing societies, they tackle a wide range of advocacy and social justice issues. Despite their prominence, however, NGOs often lack the resources for building capacity and sustaining themselves and their projects over time. While NGO sustainability has been widely discussed in the literature, there has been little consensus on operational definitions. We focus on the four core themes of sustainability: strategic, program, funding, and personnel sustainability. This chapter analyzes the sustainability of NGOs by exploring the sustainability challenges of the Combined Disabilities Association (CDA), a disability rights NGO established and operated by people with disabilities (PWDs) in Jamaica. Second, we use Jim Collins’s “Good to Great” frame- work for development of organizations in the social sector to establish a processual framework for sustainability research, using case studies of anthropology departments in small private liberal arts colleges.

Part IV: Globalization, Development, and Modernization 19. The Contemporary World of Finance Allen W. Batteau In recent years, several important studies by anthropologists of financial institutions have pierced the veils of economic rationality and technocratic capability, suggesting ABSTRACTS xxi that even the commanding heights of global institutions are rooted in local particu- larities. This article reviews this work, noting that “globalization” is a centuries-old phenomenon, and that its celebration in recent years marks the rise of a pervasive new ideology of governance. The unique development of recent years, as several of these studies document, is that finance has become increasingly institutionalized, which is to say detached from traditional, patrimonial, or national structures of gov- ernance and increasingly subject to the dictates of regimes of instrumental rationality. Organizational anthropology provides an understanding of the social construction and hence alternative configurations of institutions and institutional practices that are frequently presented as economic necessities.

20. Globalization, Modernization, and Complex Organizations Ann T. Jordan In today’s hyperconnected world, an understanding of organizations includes an understanding of the complex ways in which those organizations are woven through the larger processes of globalization and modernization. This chapter places organi- zations within the larger geopolitical landscape of which they are a part and makes two main points. The first point is that complex organizations are important in the processes of globalization and that anthropologists need to be studying organi- zations in these contexts. The second point is that nation-states are important to organizational change. Past anthropological work on organizational culture and organizational change processes has focused primarily on change factors internal to the organization or on factors in the organization’s immediate external environment such as market demand. This chapter expands that lens to include not only the roles of outside agents, specifically nation-states, but also partnering multinational organi- zations and international regulatory agencies.

21. Chinese Business Ventures into China Heidi Dahles and Juliette Koning The prominent role of the Southeast Asian ethnic Chinese in brokering business ventures into China has ignited an academic debate revolving around the assumptions that ethnic Chinese business success relies either on shared cultural values or on stra- tegic deployment of resources, power relations, and institutional co-optation. Comparing the ethnic Chinese in Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia, this chapter challenges conventional approaches. Instead, it is argued that it is not “culture” or “institutional support” in a narrow sense but “context” in a wider sense, and more specifically “legacies of the past in the present” that provide a conceptual framework for explaining the diverse involvement of ethnic Chinese business people with China. The contribution of anthropology to organization and business studies is bringing back in space and time as dimensions of analysis.

22. Corporate Social Responsibility: Interaction between Market and Community Bengi Ertuna Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a western concept which developed based on the Anglo-American type of corporation. Globalization has contributed both to the xxii ABSTRACTS evolution of CSR and its diffusion to different contexts. In this chapter, the cross- cultural model of economy from anthropology is used to integrate the different approaches to CSR and thereby explain the different guises that it takes in different contexts. The case of the Turkish business context illustrates the relevance of using the cross-cultural model in understanding local interpretations of CSR. Moral basis of the businesses and the institutional mechanism connecting the community realm to the market realm seem to influence the CSR perception and practice in the Turkish business context.

23. NGOs and Sen’s Notion of Freedom in Community J. Montgomery Roper Southern intermediary NGOs can enhance capabilities and remove unfreedoms for communities by providing basic services, helping to access markets, creating linkages with other communities and institutions, building local institutions, and strengthen- ing human capital. NGOs come closest to Amartya Sen’s ideal of development when they use participatory processes to ensure that activities are based on local values and priorities. Yet, such collaboration is frequently undermined by reliance on donor funding, which can influence NGO projects, work habits, management styles, base ideologies, and the nature of employees in ways that distance them from the com- munities with which they work. In the worst cases, such influences can diminish broader democratic processes as well as lead NGOs to perpetrate unfreedoms on communities.

24. Why Are Indigenous Organizations Declining in Latin America? Carmen Martinez Novo This chapter discusses how the literature has explained the contextual and the organi- zational factors that have led to the formation of powerful indigenous social move- ments in Latin America. I argue that more attention has been given to the larger economic and political contexts than to the internal strategies of indigenous move- ments. Then, the chapter explores recent bibliography that argues that the once stronger movements, the indigenous movement of Ecuador and the Zapatistas of Mexico, are experiencing a relative stagnation or decline. I review the factors that explain the decline of these and other movements, and suggest that some scholars may be pointing toward a more general decline in the politics of identity. Finally, I argue that the ethnographic method allows for more nuanced accounts that pay attention to movements’ internal forms of organization and not only to contextual factors, allowing more agency to indigenous subjects.

25. Australian Indigenous Organizations Sarah E. Holcombe and Patrick Sullivan In a discussion on the role that Australian Indigenous organizations have come to play in the contemporary Indigenous polity, our chapter examines them as more than service providers, but also as intercultural mediators. The chapter traces the rise of Indigenous organizations in Australia from the self-determination era of the 1970s to what has been recently referred to as the neo-assimilationist turn in government ABSTRACTS xxiii policy (Morphy 2008). The “self-determination” era of the 1970s saw the rise of the “Indigenous sector” (Rowse 2005) – a distinct not-for-profit sector recognizing that Indigenous organizations provide more than functional service delivery; rather, they also provide core social rights in a liberal democracy and are the vehicle through which a minority citizen group make themselves visible. There is some convergence of interest here with the mainstream not-for-profit sector that is investigated, follow- ing Lyons (2003). For a range of reasons, which are discussed, Indigenous organiza- tions tend to fall into Lyons’s third sector – encompassing advocacy, community development functions, and self-empowerment.

26. Organization of Schooling in Three Countries Edmund T. Hamann, Saloshna Vandeyar, and Juan Sánchez García Applying the anthropology of organizations to our study of schooling, we consider schools and school-related institutions as particular settings for the anthropology of organizations. Following Rockwell (2011) and Wolf (1982), we look historically across three societies – the United States, Mexico, and South Africa – to consider the origin of the key concepts that constitute what schools are, the contemporary social organization that operates within schools, and the larger networks they are part of. We ultimately argue that whether one uses a vertical (historic) or horizontal (cross-cultural) investigation strategy, there is striking congruence regarding what counts as school and what the roles are of the social actors within them. We presume this is so because the social formation we call school reconciles itself with several paradoxical dynamics – like the impulse for social reproduction and the impulse for social transformation – and has embedded itself within the structure of the modern nation-state and its political economy.

Expanding the Field of Organizational Anthropology for the Twenty-first Century

Ann T. Jordan and D. Douglas Caulkins

INTRODUCTION

Reporting on a British conference on “The Anthropology of Organizations” in 1989, Mary Ellen Chatwin (1990: 18) drew attention to the comments of two senior rap­ porteurs who summarized the results of the conference. One, an economist, lamented anthropology’s failure to develop a unified theoretical approach. Anthropologist Mary Douglas, the second rapporteur, echoed the economist’s criticism of anthropol­ ogy for its failure to develop an appropriate theoretical foundation for organizational research and also called for more comparative research to develop typologies of organi­ zations and decision-making strategies (Chatwin 1990: 18). We suggest Douglas was calling for a more systematic development of an anthropology of organiza­ tions; however, organizational anthropology has yet to become a major subfield in anthropology. In this introduction we pose the following questions. With regard to Mary Douglas, has the anthropology of organizations made any progress toward the unified theory that she called for in 1989, and was her formula for progress in the anthropology of organizations appropriate? We suggest that Douglas’s call for unified theory and more comparative research to develop typologies of organizations and decision-making

A Companion to Qrganizational Anthropology, First Edition. Edited by D. Douglas Caulkins and Ann T. Jordan. © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2 Ann T. Jordan And D. Douglas Caulkins strategies is too limited a vision for studying organizational life in the twenty-first century. At this writing, organizational anthropology is a dynamic and growing field. Rather than a unified theory, organizational anthologists use multiple theoretical approaches and varied methodologies to confront a growing variety of research ques­ tions on multiple levels of analysis. While physicists may pine for the day when they will achieve that unified theory, this should not be the ambition of organizational anthropologists as the dynamic human situation requires a continued flexibility in approaches to organizational problems. Perhaps more crucially, we additionally ask: Has organizational anthropology developed into a significant field of anthropological study? In this book, we survey the state of an anthropology of organizations in order to address this question. We focus on the developments in organizational anthro­ pology in the last 20 years and declare that organizational anthropology has come of age. In this introduction, we will first provide a brief history of organizational anthro­ pology. Then we will discuss two reasons that account for the increase in anthropo­ logical work on organizations in the last two decades: (i) the increase in numbers of anthropologists working outside academia; and (ii) the significance of globalization in anthropological research. This will be followed by a description of the broad scope of organizational anthropology today, including a review of organizational types studied and the foci, methods, and theories used in those studies. We conclude that the result of all the work anthropologists conduct in organizations is a body of work on complex organizations that is so large, broad-based, and important to our under­ standing of life in the twenty-first century as to constitute an important subfield in our discipline.

HISTORY OF THE FIELD

The origin of anthropological interest in complex organizations is usually credited to the work of members of the new department of anthropology at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s. Between 1924 and 1933, Chicago was the location for possibly the most famous human relations study in a business setting in all of North American organizational research. Elton Mayo, an Australian psychiatrist, W. Lloyd Warner, an American anthropologist, and others, conducted the first qualitative study of informal social organization in the work setting. The Hawthorne studies and Warner’s anthropological contribution to them were seminal to the realization by organization scientists that understanding human relations was crucial to understand­ ing organizations and worker productivity. This realization led to the creation of human relations as a field of study and to the anthropological study of complex organizations. Conrad Arensberg and Eliot Chapple, students of Warner at Harvard, began working in industrial anthropology. Previously, industrial studies had been dominated by the stop watch and clipboard-wielding approach of Frederick Winslow Taylor’s Scientific Management (1911) that surrendered worker autonomy and skill in favor of management-designed procedures to assure efficiency and uniformity in manufac­ turing. During the 1940s, anthropologists who were trained by the Harvard and Chicago groups conducted numerous studies and spread the specialty of industrial EXPANDING THE FIELD OF ORGANIZATIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY 3 anthropology to universities around North America. Examples include Arensberg’s study of teamwork and productivity in a shoe factory and William F. Whyte’s study of the interrelations of supervisors, waitresses, cooks, and customers in local restau­ rants in Chicago (Jordan 2003). Possibly the most important contribution of the human relations school was the appreciation of the informal structure in organi­ zations. Organizations leave a lengthy paper trail of their formal organization struc­ ture, for example, the organization chart and formalized ways of behaving (the policies, job descriptions, etc.) that are legitimized and publicly stated by the holders of authority. Equally important, however, are the structure and ways of behaving that are not written down or expressed in organizationally sanctioned ways. These infor­ mal patterns in the organization are outside the control of formal structure and are key to understanding the organization. It is the human relations school that gave us the concept of informal organization (Gamst 1977). A second thread of interest in organizations developed from Robert Lowie, and the American historical school of anthropology. Lowie devoted two chapters of his 1920 Primitive Society to associations, or organizations based on principles other than (Lowie [1920] 1947). Chapter 10 provided examples of such organizations in seven different , and the next chapter argued with Heinrich Schurtz’s evolutionary theory that voluntary associations were motivated by and based primarily on age and gender divisions (Schurtz 1902). By the time of his mature work, Social Organization (1948), Lowie had expanded the scope of his anthropology to include western societies as well – Imperial Austria was his case study – and concluded that associations, or “sodalities” in his terminology, were extremely important but almost impossible to classify.

Since the concept of sodalities is merely a convenient lumber room for a great variety of associations, we cannot link it with a particular institution or with any one psychologi­ cal motive. Aims and functions change in these associations, and their very composition may be revamped. (Lowie 1948: 294)

While Lowie helped to create greater interest in nonkinship organizations and advanced the description of those associations, the theoretical residue of these inquir­ ies was modest. The work in the 1940s largely reflected the functionalist theoretical paradigm; however, functionalist theory was proving inadequate. This theory assumes that social phenomena are present in an organization because they serve a function in that organization and if they did not, they would not be there. This does not allow for tension, conflict, or dissidence. The human relations school, with functionalism as its paradigm, could not explain or understand many of the real issues of business organi­ zations. There was no room in the theory for strife and conflicts of power. Labor disputes, strikes, and the rise of labor unions could not be accounted for in this theo­ retical paradigm, and the human relations school was criticized for ignoring labor unions. While theory in the general field of anthropology was changing, and theoreti­ cal approaches like Julian Steward’s (1972) cultural ecology could have brought interesting insights into organizational studies, the anthropologists studying organi­ zations remained loyal to functionalism. Their influence, like the human relations school as a whole, began to wane around 1960. 4 Ann T. Jordan And D. Douglas Caulkins In England during the 1950s and 1960s, the Manchester school of shop-floor conducted a series of studies, inspired partly by the work of Max Gluckman on social conflict (Frankenberg 1982). Wright (1994: 11–14) characterizes the approach of these studies as “problematizing context” in which different factories were found to exhibit different levels of accommoda­ tion between workers and management, and varying forms of “cross-cutting ties” (Gluckman) that brought moments of cooperation within a context of intermittent industrial conflict. Different levels of articulation between the workplace and the external social structure of the wider community also attracted the interest of the Manchester School, in contrast to the Harvard group’s focus on the workplace as a unit. A hiatus from anthropological work in organizations followed in the 1960s and 1970s largely due to ethical concerns about proprietary research in business organiza­ tions brought on by the political turmoil surrounding the Viet Nam war. Britan and Cohen (1980) edited a collection of papers on bureaucracy in several societies, reflect­ ing a renewed sense of urgency in addressing this topic. “A full-blown anthropologi­ cal theory of formal organizations is not currently available” Britan and Cohen assert, “nor at this stage of research is it even desirable” (1980: 14). They provide a checklist of topics that need to be covered in this developing methodology. In addition to determining an appropriate unit of analysis, these include describing the input and output functions of the bureaucracy, its relations with its environment, and the social networks and the rules, formal and informal, within the organization (Britan and Cohen 1980: 20–22). With cross-cultural psychologist David McClelland’s (1961) The Achieving Society, a new set of questions were available to organizational anthropology: what charac­ teristics promote entrepreneurship, the formation of new firms and organizations? McClelland’s answers primarily involved achievement motivation and the psychologi­ cal characteristics of entrepreneurs. During Margaret Thatcher’s long reign as Prime Minister (1979–1990), her government sought to create a revitalizing but much debated “Enterprise Culture” in the United Kingdom (Cross and Payne 1991; Heelas and Morris 1992). The new culture was signaled by new labels: “The Scottish Development Agency” morphed into “Scottish Enterprise.” The hope was the United Kingdom could counter the de-industrialization of much of the United Kingdom with new high technology industries. British social anthropologist Mary Douglas reflected on the problems of creating such a cultural revolution in Understanding the Enterprise Culture (Hargreaves Heap and Ross 1992). Social Anthropology in Britain had a more vigorous turn toward the study of entrepreneurship than in the United States (see Chapter 4, Entrepreneurship Studies). Rosa and Caulkins trace the devel­ opment of the topic of entrepreneurship in social anthropology. They suggest that anthropology has been marginalized in mainstream entrepreneurship studies, although some of the methodology of anthropology has been appropriated into business and entrepreneurial studies. The rapid rise of interest in social entrepreneurship provides another opportunity for anthropologists to reenter the topic, with a renewed empha­ sis on ethnographic research on citizen initiatives for social change. By the 1980s, however, large numbers of anthropologists were working in applied fields in a wide variety of contexts not considered to be related to for-profit business. At the same time, business leaders and the popular press took a sudden interest in