!PPENDIX¯

Table3TATUS A.1. The status ANDof raptor populationsTRENDS in BritainOF and Ireland. The RAPTORlatest breeding population POPULATIONSestimates are given. A shaded box indicates an areaIN where the species does not breed. "RITAINAND)RELAND

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2APTORS 

., 2003 in prep in prep in prep in prep ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., ., ., ., 2010 ., et al ., 2007 et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al Etheridge Etheridge Hayhow Holling & RBBP, 2012 Holling & RBBP, Etheridge Holling & RBBP, 2012 Holling & RBBP, 2012 Holling & RBBP, RSPB, unpublished data unpublished data Golden Eagle Trust, Golden Eagle Trust, unpublished data Golden Eagle Trust, 2012 Holling & RBBP, Ruddock 2012 Holling & RBBP, Golden Eagle Trust, unpublished data Golden Eagle Trust, Irish Raptor Study Group Musgrove Greenwood 2013 Rooney, Eaton Musgrove Musgrove Musgrove Musgrove Source(s)

Year I: 2013 I: 2010 I: 2008 S: 2012 S: 2012 E: 2010 W: 2010 NI: 2012 GB: 2009 RoI: 2012 I:1988-91 S, E: 2003 2006 – 10 2006 – 10 E, W: 2010 I: 2012 – 13 S: 2008 – 12 S, E, W: 2010 NI, RoI: 2011 UK: 2006 – 10 UK, IoM: 2009 S, E, W, NI, IoM: 2010 S, E, W, 25 128 pairs 2 – 3 3 – 6 8,600 1,500 Ireland 3 Breeding Republic of

29 Man Isle of

59 12 2,000 Ireland Northern

2 57 556 6 (4) (min) 35,000 Wales 320 – 380 280 – 430 1 11 12 458 (min) 36 (25) 12 – 16 England 57,000 – 77,000 505 441 232 4 (0) 67 (59) 168 – 211 Scotland

Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Units females Breeding probable breeding) Territories Territories confirmed (pairs laying) Breeding Pairs breeding pairs Confirmed and Territorial pairs Territorial Territorial pairs Territorial occupied (pairs 1 3 4 5 2 7

8 Red kite White-tailed eagle Species Honey-buzzard Marsh harrier Osprey Montagu’s harrier Hen harrier Goshawk Sparrowhawk Buzzard Golden eagle

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2APTORS  ., 1993 et al ., 2003 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2013 ., 2009 et al ., 2007 ., 2007 ., 2007 ., 2007 ., 2007

., 2011 ., 2003 et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al Ewing Shaw, 2007 Shaw, Greenwood Banks Musgrove Musgrove Madden Irish Raptor Study Group, unpublished data Sharpe Irish Raptor Study Group Riddle, 2011 Sharpe Sharpe Irish Raptor Study Group Sharpe Ratcliffe, 1997; Gibbons Birdwatch Ireland, unpublished data Sharpe Musgrove Musgrove Musgrove Musgrove Musgrove Source(s)

Year I: 2012 I: 2008 I: 2002 I: 2011 I: 2008 I: 2005 GB: 2009 GB: 2009 GB: 2015 1988–91) S: Post 2004 S: Post NI: 1988 – 91 UK: 2007 – 11 UK: 2007 – 11 UK, IoM: 2002 UK, IoM: 2009 UK, IoM: 2009 E, W: 1995 – 97 S, E, W, NI: 2008 S, E, W, I: (compilation of IoM: 1998 – 2003 IoM: 1998 – 2003 IoM: 1998 – 2003 IoM: 1998 – 2003 IoM: 1998 – 2003 estimates 1976–96 – 1-3 390 Pairs 10,000 Ireland breeding (occupied territories) 250 – 400 300 – 350 760 - 3,500 Republic of 1,500 – 2,500

1 30 22 0 - 5 pairs 0 – 4 Man < 40 Isle of Breeding

32 87 Ireland 140 – 210 Northern 94 300 264 7,400 46,000 Wales 620 – 2,180 1,800 – 6,000 301 477 3,400 2,800 5,700 50,000 England

733 544 Pairs Scotland 500 – 1,000

Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs eggs Units Breeding Breeding Territorial Pairs producing Pairs 15 14 13 12 9 11 10 16 Species Kestrel Barn owl Hobby Little owl Long-eared owl Short-eared owl Raven Merlin Peregrine owl Tawny

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2APTORS  Notes for Table A.1:

1. The first survey of honey-buzzard in Britain, organised by the Rare Breeding Birds Panel, found a total of 33 confirmed pairs (4 in Scotland, 24 in England and 5 in Wales) and a further 36 probable or possible breeding pairs (10 in Scotland, 21 in England and 5 in Wales; Ogilvie, 2003). Etheridge (2007) estimated 15 – 20 pairs in Scotland and suggests that the Scottish population may be as many as 50 pairs based on the availability of suitable habitat. 2. Red Kite numbers for Wales and southern England are thought to be gross underestimates; Holling & the RBBP (2012) suggest there may be over 2,200 pairs in the UK. 3. Up to 9 pairs of marsh harrier have nested in Scotland in recent years (Etheridge et al. in prep.). A resident female marsh harrier was recorded in the Republic of Ireland in 2008 (Aonghus O Domhnaill, pers. comm.). 4. The criteria for defining territorial pairs of hen harrier in Ireland differ slightly from those used in the UK and Isle of Man (see Section 3.3 of hen harrier species account). Since the most recent national hen harrier survey in 2010 (Hayhow et al., in prep.) the English population has declined with only one breeding pair in 2012. 5. Goshawk is well monitored in key areas but is easily overlooked and a small but unknown population goes unrecorded each year (Holling & RBBP, 2012). Recent population estimates for Scotland: 130 pairs (Petty, 2007); England: 143 – 222 pairs, 2010 (Holling & RBBP, 2012); Wales: 51 – 105 pairs, 2010 (Holling & RBBP, 2012); Northern Ireland: 15 – 20 territories based on recent sightings data (Marc Ruddock, pers. comm., 2012). 6. Recent population estimates for sparrowhawk are not available for all countries so a combined total for the UK and Isle of Man is given in the table. Separate estimates are available for Scotland: 8,000 – 12,000 pairs (Newton, 2007); and the Isle of Man: 75-80 breeding pairs, 1998 – 2003 (Sharpe et al., 2007). 7. For buzzard, Holling (2007) estimated 15,000 – 20,000 pairs in Scotland. 8. The Scottish total for osprey is a range based on the minimum and maximum number of pairs reported to the Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme between 2008 and 2012 (Etheridge et al., in prep.). It has beome increasingly difficult to locate all pairs as the population has increased so it is throught that some pairs are missed each year (Dennis, 2007). 9. For kestrel, separate estimates are available for Scotland: 7,500 – 7,800 pairs (Riddle, 2007); and the Isle of Man: 120 breeding pairs, 1998 – 2003 (Sharpe et al., 2007). 10. The population estimate for merlins in Wales may have been biased upwards by low coverage in the south (Ewing et al., 2011) and may not have captured regional declines. 11. Between 1-5 pairs of hobby have been reported from Scotland in recent years (Etheridge, 2013; Etheridge et al., 2013, in prep.). 12. The Scottish population of little owls is unlikely to exceed a few tens of pairs (Park et al., 2005) and may be less than 10 pairs (Greenwood et al., 2003; Gordon, 2007). 13. The Scottish tawny owl population was estimated at between 3,900-5,700 pairs by Park et al. (2005) and 6,000 pairs by Petty (2007b). 14. Based on local atlas studies, and the fact that breeding of long-eared owls is almost certainly under-recorded (most records of breeding birds are of calling young, but 40- 60% of breeding attempts fail), Jardine (2007) suggests that the Scottish population may be 600 - 2,200 pairs. 15. Based on reported sightings of short-eared owls by fieldworkers taking part in the 2004 hen harrier survey, Calladine et al. (2005) estimated 423-658 apparently occupied territories in Scotland, 78-117 in Wales, and 1-2 in Northern Ireland (no estimate was

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2APTORS  available for England). These are likely to be underestimates because hen harrier fieldwork was not carried out at the best times of day for observing short-eared owls (which are likely to be most active in the early morning and evening) and will have omitted some of the grassy moorland habitats favoured by the owls. 16. Recent population estimates for raven are not available for all countries so a combined total for the UK and Isle of Man is given in the table. Park et al. (2005) estimate 1,400 – 13,200 pairs in Scotland in 2003 based on extrapolations from the 1988-91 breeding atlas data (Gibbons et al., 1993; upper estimate) and Ratcliffe (1997; lower estimate), taking into account an 85% increase in abundance reported from Scottish BBS squares between 1994 and 2003. Sharpe et al. (2007) estimate 85-89 breeding pairs on the Isle of Man, 2002.

Table A .2. Population trends of raptors in Britain, Ireland and Europe.

Species in bold type are those for which Britain and Ireland hold at least 5% of the European population (excluding Russia; population percentages based on Greenwood et al., 2003 for all species except raven which is based on BirdLife International, 2004). Trends for Britain and Ireland 1970 – 2000 are based on Greenwood et al. (2003). European trends 1970 – 1990 are also based on Greenwood et al. 2003 and exclude Russia, except for raven which is taken from BirdLife International (2004). European trends for 1990 – 2000 are based on BirdLife International (2004) and include Russia. Many of the increasing trends actually represent recoveries in numbers and range for populations affected by persecution and pesticides.

Proportion of Population trend Population trend Population trend European in Britain Species in Europe in Europe population in and Ireland (1970 – 1990) (1990-2000) Britain and Ireland (1970 – 2000) Honey-buzzard <0.1% Increase Stable Stable Red kite 2% Increase Increase Decline White-tailed eagle <1% Increase Increase Increase Marsh harrier <1% Increase Increase Increase Hen harrier 7% Increase Decline Decline Montagu’s harrier <0.1% Increase Increase Increase Goshawk <1% Increase Increase Increase Sparrowhawk 25% Increase Increase Increase Buzzard 4% Increase Increase Increase Golden eagle 5% Increase Decline Stable Osprey 2% Increase Increase Increase Kestrel 20% Decline Decline Decline Merlin 9% Increase Decline Stable Hobby 6% Increase Decline Stable Peregrine 19% Increase Increase Increase Barn owl 3% Stable? Decline Decline Little owl 2% Stable? Decline Decline Tawny owl 4% Stable? Stable Stable Long-eared owl 2% Decline? Decline Stable Short-eared owl 12% Decline? Stable Fluctuating Raven 1% Increase Increase Increase

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2APTORS  Scottish Natural Heritage www.snh.org.uk

Great Glen House Leachkin Road Inverness IV3 8NW Tel: +44!PPENDIX (0)1463 725000 ¯#ONTACTS

Licences Te: 01463 725364 Email: [email protected] www.snh.org.uk/protecting-scotlands-nature/species-licensing/bird-licensing

Natural England www.naturalengland.org.uk

Natural England Foundary House 3 Millsands Riverside Exchange Sheffield S3 8NH Tel: +44 (0)845 600 3078 Email: [email protected]

Licences Customer Services Wildlife Licensing Natural England First Floor Temple Quay House 2 The Square Bristol BS1 6EB Tel: +44 (0)845 601 4523 Email: [email protected] www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/regulation/wildlife/licenses/applicationforms.aspx

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2APTORS  Natural Resources Wales www.naturalresourceswales.gov.uk

Tyˆ Cambria 29 Newport Road Cardiff CF24 0TP Tel: +44 (0)300 065 3000

Licences www.naturalresourceswales.gov.uk/apply-buy-report/apply-buy-grid/protected-species- licensing/uk-protected-species-licensing/bird-licensing/

Department of Environment, Food and Agriculture Isle of Man www.gov.im/daff

Thie Slieau Whallian Foxtail Road St. Johns Isle of Man IM4 3AS Email: [email protected]

Licences www.gov.im/daff/wildlife/licences.xml

Northern Ireland Environment Agency www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/index.htm

Klondyke Building Cromac Avenue Gasworks Business Park Lower Ormeau Road Belfast BT1 2JA Tel: +44 (0) 28 9056 9605

Licences – contact address above www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/biodiversity/wildlife_management_and_licensing.htm

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2APTORS  National Parks and Wildlife Service, Ireland www.npws.ie

National Parks and Wildlife Service 7 Ely Place Dublin 2 Ireland Tel: 1890 202021 (Republic of Ireland only) +353 1 8883210

Licences www.npws.ie/licences

Joint Nature Conservation Committee www.jncc.gov.uk

Monkstone House City Road Peterborough PE1 1JY Tel: +44 (0)1733 562626

Scottish Raptor Monitoring Group www.scottishraptorstudygroup.org/srms.html

Email: [email protected]

Scottish Raptor Study Groups www.scottishraptorstudygroup.org

Secretary Old Kippenross Dunblane Perthshire FK15 OLQ Tel: +44 (0)1786 824048 www.scottishraptorstudygroup.org/contact.html

Northern England Raptor Forum

NERF Secretary c/o 25 Pinewood Crescent Heighington Co Durham DL5 6RR Tel: +44 (0)1325 314 292 Email: [email protected]

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2APTORS  English Raptor Study Groups In addition to the Northern England Raptor Forum, there are a number of raptor groups that cover counties, or other areas, within England. Natural England or the British Trust for Ornithology can provide contact details for licensed raptor workers in order to help ensure coordination of monitoring effort.

Wales Raptor Study Groups www.birdsinwales.org.uk/rare/wrbbrsg.htm

Northern Ireland Raptor Study Groups www.nirsg.com (website to be launched in 2013)

Chairman 16 Bridge Road Lurgan Craigavon Northern Ireland BT67 9LA

Secretary Cemetery Cottage 12 Church Street Greyabbey Newtownards BT22 2NQ

Tel: +44 (0)28 38 321837 Email: [email protected]

Irish Raptor Study Group / Golden Eagle Trust Ltd. www.goldeneagle.ie

Golden Eagle Trust Ltd. 22 Fitzwilliam Square Dublin 2 Republic of Ireland

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2APTORS  British Trust for Ornithology www.bto.org

The Nunnery Thetford Norfolk IP24 2PU Tel: +44 (0)1842 750050

BTO Scotland School of Natural Sciences Cottrell Building University of Stirling Stirling FK9 4LA Tel: +44 (0)1786 466560

Ringing permits www.bto.org/ringing/index.htm Email: [email protected]

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds www.rspb.org.uk

UK Headquarters The Lodge Sandy Bedfordshire SG19 2DL Tel: +44 (0)1767 680551

Scotland Headquarters RSPB Scotland 2 Lochside View Edinburgh Park Edinburgh EH12 9DH Tel: +44 (0)131 317 4100

Wales Headquarters Sutherland House Castlebridge Cowbridge Road East Cardiff CF11 9AB Tel: +44 (0)2920 353000

Northern Ireland Headquarters RSPB Belvoir Park Forest Belfast BT8 7QT Tel: +44 (0)28 9049 1547

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2APTORS  The Rare Breeding Birds Panel www.rbbp.org.uk

The Old Orchard Grange Road North Berwick East Lothian EH39 4QT Tel: +44 (0)1620 894037 Email: [email protected]

Scottish Ornithologists’ Club www.the-soc.org.uk

Waterston House Aberlady East Lothian EH32 0PY Tel: +44 (0)1875 871 330

Local Bird Recorders www.bto.org/birdtrack/bird_recording/county_bird_recorder.htm www.the-soc.org.uk/soc-recorders.htm

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2APTORS  Included on the following pages are examples of raptor recording forms. These comprise a summary of the reporting spreadsheet for the Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme, and copies of recording forms for hen harrier, short-eared owl, golden eagle and marsh harrier that were provided!PPENDIX to fieldworkers taking part in recent¯ national%XAMPLES surveys for these species. OF ScottishRAPTOR Raptor MonitoringRECORDING Scheme Reporting SpreadsheetFORMS The table below lists and describes the variables that contributors to the Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme (SRMS) are asked to submit each year with each site record. In this context, ‘site’ refers to an individual home range of a given raptor species during the breeding season. These variables are incorporated into a standard reporting spreadsheet which is circulated to all contributors. A copy of the spreadsheet is available from the Scottish Raptor Monitoring Coordinator (see contacts in Appendix 2).

Contributors are asked to provide a six figure grid reference for each nest site if at all possible, to facilitate rigorous analyses of the information and maximise the value of the data for nature conservation purposes. All such location information provided to the Scheme is stored securely and used only for agreed purposes. If contributors do not provide a grid reference, they are asked to ensure that a unique site code and site name are given and are used consistently between years.

Geo-referenced data are requested to ensure that information submitted to the SRMS can be used to derive the most robust trend information possible for a number of variables (e.g. occupancy and productivity) for as wide a range of raptor species as possible. The ability to track sites across years is important in this respect. If the turnover of sites between years is high, i.e. most fieldworkers do not visit the same sites each year but visit different sites in different years, then year to year changes in a given variable, such as productivity, may result at least partly from the different characteristics of the sites checked in different years. If the same set of sites is checked each year, then any changes are likely to be more clearly attributable to other environmental factors rather than to differences in site locations. Provision of six figure grid references allows the locations and site codes received for each species in each year to be checked and the number of years in which data has been received for individual sites to be identified. This in turn allows the degree of site turnover and the robustness of trends to be assessed. Tracking sites across years also allows the identification of sites that have a history of failure, for example, and which can be investigated in relation to other factors.

For any given species, the potential to identify robust trends is also enhanced if the sample of sites (raptor home ranges) from which data are derived is as large as possible. To minimise bias, the sample must also be representative of the area or habitat under consideration and

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2APTORS  ideally sites should be selected at random. As sites monitored for the Scheme are not selected at random, there is a need to assess whether they are broadly representative of the spatial units (e.g. regions of Scotland) for which trends are desirable. To facilitate this, location information is required for as many sites as possible.

For the purposes of recording productivity, contributors to the Scheme are asked to try to make a visit to each site at an appropriate time (or times) to check whether any young have fledged. Additional visits at intermediate stages of breeding to record clutch size and brood size are also desirable if it is possible to obtain information without risk to the breeding attempt.

Variable name Variable description or recording Notes on recording (*= optional options variable)

Year Year (e.g. 2009)

Observer Name of observer Contributors are asked to be consistent in spelling between years to facilitate automatic sorting of data.

Source A note of the organisation with which Contributors are asked to be consistent in the observer is affiliated e.g. a regional spelling between years to facilitate automatic Raptor Study Group sorting of data.

Species The name of the raptor species to which The spreadsheet includes a drop-down menu of the nest record belongs all species which breed regularly in Scotland.

Area / district A discrete study area or sub-area Contributors are asked to be consistent in covered by the raptor worker spelling between years to facilitate automatic sorting of data.

Site code A unique code for a particular nest Contributors are asked to be consistent in (typically a mixture of letters and spelling between years to facilitate automatic numbers) sorting of data.

Site name A unique name for the nest site Contributors are asked to be consistent in spelling between years to facilitate automatic sorting of data.

Grid reference Grid reference with two upper case Six figure grid references are requested for letters and 6 or 4 numbers, no spaces each nest site if possible. All such location information provided to the Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme is stored securely and used only for agreed purposes. If a grid reference is not provided, contributors are asked to provide a unique site code and site name and to ensure that both of these are used consistently between years.

Monitoring record Recording options: Contributors are asked to provide details of Site monitored in previous years whether or not a site has been monitored Site not monitored previously previously or whether it is known to be a newly Site newly occupied by birds occupied site by selecting an option from a drop-down menu.

Alternate 1 to 4* Unique nest codes Where appropriate, contributors are asked to provide site codes of possible alternate nest sites within the same nesting range (up to four can be listed in separate columns).

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2APTORS  Variable name Variable description or recording Notes on recording (*= optional options variable)

Nesting habitat 1 Recording options: Contributors are asked to record one or two and 2 Montane (Arctic-Alpine) habitats, selected from a drop-down list, which Heather moorland are considered most important in an appropriate Grass moorland area around the nest site. Whilst the area of Mixed moorland importance will vary between species, the area Scrub within 1 km of the nest site could be used as a Upland farmland/sheepwalk guide. The most extensive habitat is recorded Machair under ‘nesting habitat 1’ and the second most Lowland pastoral farmland extensive (if any) under ‘nesting habitat 2’. Lowland arable farmland Nesting habitat 1 need not be the habitat Lowland mixed farmland within which the nest is located. For example, Coniferous woodland - mature if a pair of red kites is nesting in a small conifer commercial plantation but the majority of the area is mixed Coniferous woodland - young farmland, ‘mixed farmland’ should be recorded commercial under nesting Habitat 1 and ‘coniferous Coniferous woodland - mature native woodland - mature plantation’ under nesting Coniferous woodland - replant native habitat 2. Nesting habitat 2 need not be used Clearfell/brash unless a second habitat is considered important Deciduous woodland - mature for the study species or forms a significant Deciduous woodland - young proportion of the whole area available to the Mixed woodland – mature pair. Mixed woodland - young Marshland/reedbed Urban/industrial Estuarine Coastal Other - specify in notes

Management Recording options: If one or both nesting habitats are managed Actively keepered upland (e.g. for country sports, contributors are asked to muirburn, grouse butts, crow traps indicate this using the drop-down menu, or present) enter ‘unknown’ if they are unsure whether any Actively keepered lowland (e.g. traps, such management takes place. release pens, supplementary food present) Not actively keepered (no evidence of active game management) Managed for stalking only (e.g. known stalker, high seats, recent signage present) Stalking with walked-up grouse Unknown

Nest site Recording options: Contributors are asked to select the nest Alder site location (the tree species for a tree nest, Ash vegetation type for a ground nest or the type of Aspen cliff or building) from a list of options in a drop- Beech down menu. Birch Elm Gean Horse chestnut Oak Rowan Other broadleaf Douglas fir Larch Lodgepole pine

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2APTORS  Variable name Variable description or recording Notes on recording (*= optional options variable)

Norway spruce Scots pine Sitka spruce Other conifer Heather Grass Bracken Rush Bog myrtle Reedbed Dam Active quarry Disused quarry Coastal cliff/crag Inland cliff/crag Ravine Small rocky outcrop Farm building in use Derelict building Industrial/urban building Other building Pylon Bridge Other (specify in notes)

Nest type Recording options: Contributors are asked to select the nest type New self-built nest from a list of options in a drop-down menu. Old self-built nest Old other species’ nest Natural cavity Man-made cavity (e.g. in building) Scrape Nest box Nest platform Other man-made Other (specify in notes)

Distance to Recording options: Contributors are asked to indicate the vehicular track* <100 m approximate distance to the nearest driveable 100 m - 500 m track (which may be private and only accessible 500 m-1000 m to off-road vehicles). This request is optional but >1000 m (1 km) may be used to investigate potential impacts of human disturbance.

Distance to public Recording options: Contributors are asked to indicate the road* <100 m approximate distance to the nearest surfaced 100 m - 500 m public road. This request is optional but may be 500 m-1000 m used to investigate potential impacts of human >1000 m (1 km) disturbance.

Visit dates Dates (dd/mm) Contributors are asked to enter the dates of all visits to the site in the recording year. They can submit either all visits in a single row of the spreadsheet, with summary data about the nesting attempt, or (preferred option) they can submit a row for each visit, with nest contents at each visit specifed.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Variable name Variable description or recording Notes on recording (*= optional options variable)

Checked for Recording options: Contributors are asked to select from a drop- occupancy? Adult pair down menu to record whether the site was Single adult found to be occupied and the evidence for this Single immature (for example, a pair of birds, a single bird, of Immature pair what age, or other fresh signs that the species Adult female was present e.g. splash marks, plucked prey, Adult female/male unaged moulted feathers). If a site was not checked in Adult male the reporting year, contributors are asked to Adult male/female unaged record ‘Not checked’ in this column. For analysis Immature male purposes it is important to know which sites Immature male/female unaged were not checked each year. Immature female Immature female/male unaged Mixed adult/immature pair Unaged pair Unaged individual Fresh signs but no birds Old signs but no birds No signs and no birds Not checked

Eggs laid Recording options: Contributors are asked to complete this column Outcome unknown if they are able to visit at an appropriate stage No of breeding, without risk to the breeding Yes attempt, and record the nest contents (either 1 from a distance or by visiting the nest) or infer 1+ that eggs were laid from the behaviour of birds. 2 2+ 3 3+ 4 4+ 5 5+ 6 6+ 7 7+ 8 8+ 9 9+

Eggs hatched As above Contributors are asked to complete this column if they are able to visit at an appropriate stage of breeding, without risk to the breeding attempt and ascertain whether eggs have hatched (either by observing from a distance or by visiting the nest) or infer hatching from the behaviour of birds.

Large young As above Contributors are asked only to make an entry in the ‘young fledged’ column if they are certain that the young fledged (e.g. if fully feathered young are seen in or close to the nest). If young are ringed a short time before fledging or observed them in the nest at a distance, the ‘large young’ column should be used instead.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Variable name Variable description or recording Notes on recording (*= optional options variable)

Young fledged As above See above.

Reason for failure Recording options: If a breeding attempt fails to produce fledged Deliberate human young, contributors are asked to select a reason Accidental human for failure from the drop-down menu if there is Predation - mammal evidence that enables an objective decision to Predation - avian be made with respect to the cause of failure. Predation – other (specify in next column) Predation - unidentified Poor weather Starvation Adult(s) disappearance Infertile eggs Other cause (specify in next column) Unknown cause

Supporting (Free text field) Contributors are asked to provide supporting evidence for failure evidence for their conclusion with respect to nest failure. For example broken egg shells or chewed feathers close to the nest as evidence for a mammalian predator or for deliberate human intervention a shot or poisoned carcass, poison bait or an illegal trap set close by or evidence that someone had been close to the nest. If human persecution is suspected as much detail as possible in terms of supporting evidence is requested.

Persecution Recording options: Contributors are asked to indicate if a suspected incident reported Yes persecution incident was reported to the RSPB. to RSPB No

Persecution As above Contributors are asked to indicate if a suspected incident reported persecution incident was reported to the Police. to Police

Number of people Recording options: Contributors are asked to select from the drop- see (potential for 0 down menu the approximate total number of disturbance)* <5 people seen within 1 km of the nest site during 5 to 10 all visits made. This information is not essential >10 but could help us to investigate the potential >100 effects of human disturbance.

Other notes (Free text field) A space to specify further information where requested, or for further details that a contributor wishes to provide. To facilitate data analysis, contributors are asked to use existing recording fields and variables to enter information if at all possible.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Hen harrier and short-eared owl The text below is reproduced from the instructions for fieldworkers for the 2004 national hen harrier survey of the UK and Isle of Man (Sim et al., 2007). Fieldworkers were asked to survey a sample of 10 km squares of the national grid, and to complete a form and map for each 10 km square. Fieldworkers were asked to record details of hen harrier sightings according to the instructions below. They were also asked to record, on a separate form, all observations of short-eared owls made during the hen harrier survey fieldwork (see Calladine et al., 2005; short-eared owl species account in Etheridge et al., 2006).

Recording form When you have finished survey work for the day you should complete or (on a second or subsequent visit to the same area) update a survey form — please use clear handwriting. In the top part of the form enter:

• the nearest place name to the surveyed area; • the name of all observers surveying the 10 km square; • the grid reference of the square; • the county or region the square is located in; • the name of the study group to which the observers belong; • the number of pages and current page number, e.g. page 1 of 2 (where more than one page is used, please repeat all the top part information in case the forms become separated).

In the mid-part of the form enter the details of hen harriers seen in the 10 km square.

• Record Number: number each nest or sighting of one or more harriers at one point (1, 2, 3 etc.), and mark the corresponding location on the map, preferably in red pen, (e.g. 1, 2, 3 ...) with that number. Remember to use the same numbers whenever you do an additional visit to the same nest or pair. • Grid Reference: two letters and six numbers e.g. SX 123234 (one letter and six numbers in Northern Ireland). This detailed information is of great value to RSPB and other conservation bodies, and all records will be kept in strict confidence. • Date: e.g. 01 05 = 1st May. • Hen Harrier Numbers: record the number of adult males, immature males and females at each location. • Behaviour Code: record the behaviour of all harriers seen, using the codes given on the recording form. This will be used to determine whether breeding has been proved, probable or unlikely. • Habitat Code: the dominant habitat within a 100 m radius of each sighting or nest. • Heather moor type: say whether or not the moor is managed for grouse shooting. Such moors will typically have shooting butts and rotational heather burning. • Nesting Evidence: for each nest found record the number of eggs, chicks or fledged young, if known. • Comments: further information which you think may be useful, such as grazing pressure, nest success or failure and general comments. Also include any information on known or suspected persecution incidents.

There may be cases where no hen harriers are found in a 10 km square. If this occurs, please enter details of the visit dates and area covered and write ‘NIL RETURN’ in the boxes supplied for recording the number of harriers. Comments as to your opinion of the suitability of the habitat for nesting harriers would be welcome. Maps You will be required to photocopy the 1:50,000 map of the 10 km square onto the back of the recording form. You will need at least a further three photocopies of the Landranger map for each 10 km square. To obtain a suitable quality copy, on the photocopier increase the copy density or darkness to two or three stops darker than the normal mid setting. Adjust the zoom to reduce the size of the photocopy to 90% so that all of the 10 km square can fit onto A4 with space for the grid numbers. Please ensure that the grid numbers and OS map number are clearly written on the copy.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Take a new field map on each visit to the study area/10 km square and mark clearly the boundary of the 10 km square on it. Areas where the habitat is unsuitable should be shaded with a highlighter pen and marked ‘UNSUITABLE HABITAT’. Areas where access is refused should be shaded a different colour and marked ‘ACCESS REFUSED’.

Once completed this map and form will constitute your return for the nominated 10 km square.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Golden eagle The following form was used for the third national golden eagle survey of Great Britain in 2003 (Eaton et al., 2007). A complete census of the breeding population was conducted, for comparison with the results of the two previous surveys in 1992 and 1982. This survey was designed to provide valuable data on factors affecting golden eagle habitat use, and to provide information on the location of breeding sites for site and species protection purposes. The survey aimed to cover all known golden eagle home ranges, past and present. Surveyors were asked to visit ranges that had not been occupied in recent years (and in some cases not for many years) as well as ranges presently known to be occupied. As well as checking for breeding eagles, observers were asked to check for non-breeding birds which may be resident or passing through, an important component of the survey.

Fieldworkers were asked to complete forms according to the instructions below. The survey forms We have attempted to keep the survey forms simple, and the amount of data collected to a minimum. However, we would welcome any further data observers may be willing to provide on separate (attached) sheets.

Please try to write legibly within the spaces supplied, and remember to put your name in the box provided along with the home range code (please check with your regional coordinator if you have any uncertainty regarding the correct code) on each sheet. Form 1 Summary of eagle breeding activity This form is intended to summarise observations of breeding activity in a home range over the three (or two, if unoccupied) visits, and to record productivity if breeding was attempted. Incubation or brooding behaviour can be used as indication of egg or chick presence respectively, and should be used if efforts to see eggs or chicks are likely to disturb the birds. Very few chicks that survive to eight weeks do not subsequently fledge. Therefore, if at the last visit by a surveyor a chick is still in the nest but over eight weeks old, it can be recorded as ‘fledged’.

Please record details of all the birds that were recorded during the field season in the table provided, assigning each individual a number from one upwards. Although observers with experience (and possibly personal knowledge of the individual birds concerned) may be able to age birds with great precision, we would urge caution due to the great variation that can occur in the signs of age between individual eagles. Eagles should be assigned to one of three categories:

• 2nd–3rd calendar year: underwing with distinct white patches, varying from just the base of the inner four primaries on some individuals to the base of all primaries and along the secondaries on others. Apart from white patch, upperwing uniformly dark brown with little contrast between coverts and secondaries, although some more advanced birds can show a paler panel. Tail has a white base sharply demarcated from dark band at tip. • Sub-adult: still white on the primary bases forming patch on underwing, although generally reduced from younger birds and may be small. Marked contrast between bleached upperwing (greater and median) coverts and dark secondaries. White tail base still present but less distinctly demarcated from dark tip than on younger birds. • Adult: no white on the wing, although some individuals may show a very pale tail base.

If you are uncertain about the age of a bird, please record it as ‘unknown’, or as ‘immature’ if not certain whether it is a 2nd–3rd calendar year bird or a sub-adult.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  There is space to add any notes concerning decisions made on the ageing and sexing of eagles, plus anything surveyors may feel noteworthy about individual birds.

Reverse side - summary of all visits made Please list all visits that were made to the home range in this table, regardless of whether birds were seen. Please give details of all birds seen, referred to by the numbers assigned on the first page of the form. Nest sites should be given a letter code (please keep to any previously used codes, if available) and full details given on Form 2 (see below). Please remember to record any new alternate nest sites and give them an appropriate new code. This form should also be used to give details on any signs recorded and used as proof of home range occupation in the absence of sightings of eagles.

The 1992 survey requested details of breeding success in home ranges in all years since 1983. We have decided against requesting this volume of information for this survey and appreciate some fieldworkers may have reservations about providing it. However, we would be grateful if surveyors would indicate in the box at the bottom of Form 1 whether they have this data and would be prepared to provide it if asked. There are specific research questions, and species protection issues, for which such series of data would be particularly valuable.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Form 2 Details of all nest sites within home range Please use this form to list all nest sites, used and unused, which were surveyed in 2003 and any others known but not surveyed (although if possible, please visit all nest sites). Please record the basic nest details — whether a tree or cliff nest, accessibility, and estimated distance to the nearest footpath and track. The latter will be used in an analysis of possible disturbance effects on nest site choice by eagles, and is one of the reasons we are very keen to get information on unused alternates as well as the occupied nest sites. Please try not to just record this information only for those ranges or nest sites where you think disturbance may be problem, as if we only have this data we will have no means of making an appropriate comparison. In addition, we would be grateful if surveyors could record the dominant land use category within 6 km of nest sites. Codes are given for the four main land use types (deer forest, grouse moor, sheep, forestry); if surveyors are entering ‘other’ we would be grateful for brief details.

Reverse side — details of areas covered during surveying In order that we know which areas were covered during surveying, we would like details of all 1 km grid squares visited, with brief information about the visit and any eagles seen, using the numbers assigned to birds on Form 1.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Form 3 Records of persecution Unlike the 1982 and 1992 surveys, this survey does not request details of breeding attempts in a home range over previous years. However, information on persecution would be extremely valuable for helping the work of the RSPB and SNH in preventing and prosecuting raptor persecution. Please record all incidences of raptor persecution that you have records of, or can recall, at any time dating back to the last golden eagle survey (1992). Even if you are unsure of the exact year, any details you can recall may be helpful. Please be as specific as possible about the details of any evidence of persecution. If there is no evidence of any persecution, please record this, so that this is clear when we later collate survey forms.

Reverse side — nest site location. The exact location of the active nest site can be recorded on the reverse of Form 3. Notes on exact nest locations made by observers in 1992 are going to be very useful during the present survey, helping surveyors to locate nests in home ranges that are not regularly surveyed. Likewise, any information recorded in 2003 may help surveyors in the course of the next survey. They will also be valuable in species protection work. Please record any information on nest location on the reverse of sheet 3: a written description, a sketch map or a sketch of the actual view of the nest. If possible, a photograph of the nest and its surroundings would be particularly valuable (please attach to the form and write the home range code on the back).

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Marsh harrier Recording form for the 2005 survey which covered potential breeding areas throughout the UK.

During incubation After hatching (tick one)

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Birds*!PPENDIXBats¯ Chiroptera3CIENTI½C Collared lemming Dicrostonyx groenlandicus American kestrel Falco sparverius Deer Cervidae Bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Field vole Microtus agrestis Magpie (Eurasian magpie)NAMES Pica pica OFSPECIES Hare, leveret Lepus spp. Kingfisher (common kingfisher) Alcedo atthis Mice Apodemus spp., Mus spp. Pheasant (common pheasant) Phasianus Orkney vole Microtus arvalis orcadensis colchicus MENTIONEDINTHETEXT Pine marten Martes martes Woodpigeon (common wood pigeon) Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Columba palumbus Rats Rattus spp. Cormorant (Great cormorant) Phalacrocorax Red fox Vulpes vulpes carbo Sheep Ovis aries Carrion crow Corvus corone Stoat Mustela erminea Crow Corvus spp. Squirrel Sciurus spp. Ducks Anatidae Voles Clethrionomys spp., Microtus spp. Jay (Eurasian jay) Garrulus glandarius Weasel Mustela nivalus Geese Anser spp., Branta spp. Wildcat Felis silvestris Grey heron Ardea cinerea Wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus Great skua Stercorarius skua Grouse Lagopus spp., Tetrao spp. Reptiles Gulls Laridae Adder Vipera berus Hooded crow Corvus cornix Lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina Insects Meadow pipit Anthus pratensis Bee Hymenoptera Common gull (mew gull) Larus canus Emporer moth Saturina pavonia Pigeons Columbidae Flea Siphonaptera Feral pigeon/rock dove (common pigeon) Hornet Hymenoptera Columbia livia Northern eggar moth Lasiocampa querqus Ptarmigan (rock ptarmigan) Lagopus muta Wasp Hymenoptera Rook Corvus frugilegus Swans Cygnus spp. Arthropods Swift (common swift) Apus apus Ticks Ixodidae Terns Sterninae Plants Mammals Ash Fraxinus excelsior American mink Mustela vison Beech Fagus sylvatica Badger Meles meles Birch Betula spp. Bank vole Clethrionomys glareolus Bog myrtle Myrica gale

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Bracken Pteridium aquilinum Oil-seed rape Brassica napus Bramble Rubus spp. Pedunculate oak Quercus robur Common reed Phragmites australis Purple moor grass Molinia caerulea Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii Common reed Phragmites australis Elm Ulmus spp. Rosebay willowherb Epilobium angustifolium Field woodrush Luzula campestris Rowan Sorbus aucuparia Fir Abies spp. Rushes Juncus spp. Gorse Ulex spp. Scots pine Pinus sylvestris Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna Sessile oak Quercus petraea Heather Calluna vulgaris, Erica spp. Spruce Picea spp. Ivy Hedera helix Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis Larch Larix spp. Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus Norway spruce Picea abies Willow Salix spp. Oak Quercus spp.

* English names for bird species follow the list of vernacular names recommended by the British Ornithologists’ Union (www.bou.org.uk/british-list/bird-names/). Recommended international English names for bird species (Gill & Donsker, 2012) are included in brackets where these differ from the vernacular names (see also editorial note, page xii). The scientific names of the raptor species for which survey methods are described are included in the species accounts.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  The glossary includes definitions of selected terms used in the text and also full names for all acronyms. Many of the definitions are adapted from Campbell & Lack (1985). Italics indicate a term defined elsewhere in the glossary. Terms which are defined in the text are not included in the glossary (their definitions can be found by checking the index).

Accipitriformes: sometimes known as accipiters or hawks, a large order (taxonomic grouping) of diurnal birds'LOSSARY of prey that includes the honey-buzzards, kites, harriers, eagles, sparrowhawks, goshawks, buzzards and osprey. Addled: an egg in which the developing embryo has died, as opposed to an infertile egg in which no development has taken place. Assemblage: a collective term for a group of different species found in the same area. Asymptotic: a mathematical term which may be applied to a growth curve, where the given parameter, such as body mass, increases rapidly for a period and then levels off as the bird reaches adult size. The asymptote is the maximum value reached. Asynchronous hatching: when the eggs of a clutch do not hatch at the same time, but instead over a period of time; in some species of birds of prey, several days may elapse between the hatching of the first and last chicks. Asynchronous hatching generally occurs if incubation begins before all the eggs in a clutch are laid. ASL: above sea level (for altitude measurements). BBS: the BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey which monitors population changes of more than 100 widespread birds in the UK. Biome: an extensive, ecologically defined region such as tundra, savannah, grassland, desert, and temperate and tropical forest. Brooding: parent birds brood small chicks by covering them, usually in the nest. The main purpose of brooding is to keep young nestlings warm, but also on occasion to protect against hot sun, rain or predators. In raptors it is usually the female that broods the young. BTO: the British Trust for Ornithology. CBS: the Countryside Bird Survey run by BirdWatch Ireland to monitor population tends of widespread birds in the Republic of Ireland. CEH: the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (Natural Environment Research Council); formerly known as ITE. Cold searching: in the context of this book, cold searching means surveying an area without prior knowledge of the distribution of the target species and/or its nests, roosts or other signs of occupation or breeding. Conspecific: a term used to describe organisms that belong to the same species. Corvids: members of the family Corvidae, a taxonomic group of passerine birds that contains the crows, magpies, ravens and jays.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Coverts: feathers which overlie the bases of the flight feathers of the wing (remiges) or tail (rectrices) on the upper and lower surfaces, and help to smooth airflow. Feathers covering the external ear region are also known as coverts. Crepuscular: active primarily at dawn and dusk (during twilight). Crepuscular animals may also be active on bright moonlit nights. Many animals that are casually described as nocturnal are in fact crepuscular. Some species have different habits in the absence of predators. For example, in the Galapagos archipelago, the short-eared owl is diurnal on those islands where buzzards are absent, but crepuscular on the others. Crop: part of the digestive tract; a pouch used to store food temporarily which extends from the oesophagus in some birds. When full it can be seen externally in some species as a bulge in the upper breast (e.g. see Plate 70). Culmen: the dorsal (top) ridge of a bird’s bill. Dispersal: the movement of an individual bird from the place of birth to its first breeding locality (natal dispersal). If further movements take place after first breeding, then ‘breeding dispersal’ describes movements between a series of different breeding localities. In many monogamous bird species, female chicks disperse further than males. The term dispersal is also sometimes used in a more general sense, for example to describe the movements of birds away from a communal roost on a daily basis. EN: English Nature, which became part of Natural England in October 2006. Eyrie: the nest of a bird of prey, most often applied to nests on cliffs or crags or high in trees. It may refer to a scrape on a cliff ledge (e.g. peregrine) or a large bulky nest (e.g. osprey). Extra-pair copulations: matings that take place between birds that are not members of a pair; for example if a female paired to a particular male mates with another male. Falconiformes: an order of diurnal birds of prey containing kestrels, merlin, hobbies and peregrine. Falcons differ from Accipitriformes in several ways, including some parts of the skeleton, bill structure and the sequence of moult of the primary feathers. Fidelity: faithfulness, returning to or remaining in an area (site-fidelity) or with a mate (mate- fidelity) over time. In some bird species a pair which has bred successfully may be more likely to show fidelity to a site and/or to each other than an pair which has been unsuccessful. Fledging: used in this book to refer to the acquisition of the ability to fly by raptor chicks. This may coincide with the time of leaving the nest, or, in species where the young disperse from the nest before they can fly, may take place after leaving the nest. For each species the average age of fledging (days after hatching) is given. The precise point of fledging can be difficult to define, however, as, for example, the young of some species may regularly return to the nest after taking their first flights. The definition of fledging varies in the scientific literature (Middleton & Prigoda, 2001) and it may also be described as: the act of leaving the nest; or the acquisition by a young bird of its first true feathers (a bird may be said to have fledged when this process is complete) GPS: Global Positioning System. Growth curves: changes in a measured feature, such as body mass or wing length, over time; in this book these are used in the context of the growth of raptor chicks. If values for a measured feature are available for chicks of known age they can be plotted against time and the resulting growth curves can be used to estimate the age and/or sex of conspecific raptor chicks measured during a single nest visit.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Hallux: the first toe (or ‘big toe’) of a bird’s foot, usually opposed or directed backwards which allows for grasping and perching. Immature: a young bird that is not yet sexually mature, the usual assumption of which is the attainment of full adult plumage. The immature stage of some species such as golden eagles may last for several years, during which time the plumage may change recognisably as the birds moult, and can be used to estimate age. (See also juvenile.) Incubation: the process whereby the heat necessary for embryonic development is applied to an egg after it has been laid; such heat is usually derived from the body of the parent bird covering the eggs. There are various different definitions of incubation period in the literature. The incubation period per egg is often quoted. This may be defined as the average time taken for an egg to hatch once incubation starts; the time between the laying and hatching of a single egg; or the time that elapses, with regular uninterrupted incubation, from the laying of the last egg in a clutch to the hatching of that egg. The incubation period for a clutch of eggs can be defined as the time period from the start of incubation by the parent bird(s) until all eggs are hatched, or the time from the laying of the first egg to the hatch of the last egg. If full incubation starts with the first egg, as is the case for many raptors, then the young may hatch at similar intervals to those at which the eggs were laid (asynchronous hatching). If proper incubation starts with the final egg then the earlier eggs may have received some intermittent warmth and undergone some development so that hatching may occur in rapid succession but the precise period of incubation per egg will differ between eggs (Harrison, 1975). Accurate determination of incubation period requires intensive observation of nests (and if incubation per egg is being measured, marking of eggs). The sources for the incubation periods quoted in this book did not always specify whether they were for an egg or a clutch. Interspecific: between different species, for example interspecific variation in body mass means variation between individuals of more than one species; as opposed to intraspecific. Intraspecific: refers to variation within individuals that belong to the same species. ITE: the former Institute for Terrestrial Ecology, now renamed as CEH. Jesses: leather straps used to tether the legs of a hawk or falcon in falconry. JNCC: the Joint Nature Conservation Committee. A Statutory Nature Conservation Agency with a UK remit (sometimes referred to as special functions). Juvenile (juvenal): a young bird in its first flying plumage. Some authorities apply the term juvenile to young raptors up until the end of their first calendar year, and thereafter refer to them as immature. Keratinous: containing keratin, a structural protein forming the basis of feathers and claws (as well as skin and hair). Lagomorphs: an order (taxonomic group) of mammals which includes rabbits and hares. Mantling display: a type of behaviour where a perched bird spreads its wings and tail to cover prey, usually to prevent the prey being taken by a potential thief.

Mass: a measure of the amount of matter in a body, measured in grams. Although the terms mass and weight are sometimes used interchangeably, strictly, weight is the force of gravity acting on a body determined by multiplying its mass by the acceleration due to gravity.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Metapopulation: literally a population of populations; a collective term for a group of individuals of a single species that consists of a number of discrete populations between which there is some (limited) interchange of individuals, for example, butterflies occupying grassy clearings in woodland. Monogamous: used to describe the pairing of a male and female to the exclusiveness of other individuals; however, pairs are often more accurately described as ‘apparently monogamous’ because paired males and females may seek extra-pair copulations if the opportunity arises. Moult: the periodic shedding and replacement of plumage. Because they become worn over time, feathers must be replaced to maintain their functions, including flight performance. Within each tract of feathers, feather loss and replacement proceeds in a regular sequence that varies between different orders/families of birds. In many species, including raptors, flight feathers are moulted sequentially so that the birds retain the ability to fly. Some birds, however, shed all flight feathers simultaneously and are temporarily unable to fly during moult (e.g. ducks, geese and swans). Neotropical region: as defined in zoogeography (the study of the distribution of species), this includes tropical America, South America and nearby islands. NIEA: the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (formerly the Environment and Heritage Service). NPWS: the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Ireland. NRC: Nest Record Card – the recording system for the BTO/JNCC Nest Record Scheme which operates in the UK. NRW: Natural Resources Wales (formerly the Countryside Council for Wales) Palearctic region: includes all of Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, Asia north of the Himalayas, and the northern and central parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Passeriformes: a large and diverse order (taxonomic grouping) of birds. Passerines are sometimes known as perching birds or song birds. Passerines: bird species of the order Passeriformes. Pins: a term which may be applied to the sheaths around the growing wing and tail feathers of a nestling bird. The pins split and are lost as the feathers emerge. Polyandry: a female mated to more than one male. Polygamy: mating with more than one member of the opposite sex. Polygyny: a male mated to more than one female. Population: a group of individuals of the same species occupying a particular geographical region. Pulli (singular pullus): chicks; young birds prior to fledging. Race: or subspecies, a discernibly different, geographically defined population within a species. Random: a random sample from a population is one where every member of that population has an equal chance of being selected. Raptor: the traditional term for a bird of prey, derived from the Latin verb rapere, ‘to take by force’.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  RBBP: the Rare Breeding Birds Panel. RSPB: the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Sexual dimorphism: differences in size and appearance (with regard to colouration this is sometimes called dichromatism) between males and females of the same species. In raptors the female is usually larger than the male, sometimes referred to as ‘reverse’ sexual dimorphism, because in many dimorphic species males are the larger sex. As the term sexual dimorphism is derived from morphology (the study of form), strictly speaking it should not be applied to differences in calls or behaviour between males and females, but the term is often used to include such differences as well. SNH: Scottish Natural Heritage. SOC: the Scottish Ornithologists’ Club. SPA: a Special Protection Area for birds, a protected area classified under the EU Wild Birds Directive (2009/147/EC; often referred to as the Birds Directive). Species: a number of different definitions exist in the scientific literature but essentially a species is a group of natural populations of a bird (or other organism) whose members can interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring. The species is the basic level of taxonomy, which is the naming and classification of plants and animals. SRMG: the Scottish Raptor Monitoring Group, which oversees the SRMS. SRMS: The Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme. SSSI: a Site of Special Scientific Interest, a statutory (legally protected) nature conservation area in Britain. In Northern Ireland, equivalent sites are known as Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSIs). Standard deviation (SD): a statistical term which describes the spread of data around the mean or average. If the standard deviation of a measurement such as the wing length of raptor nestlings of a given age (e.g. the growth curves of raptor chicks included in some species accounts) is close to zero then the data points are bunched tightly around the mean and the variation between individuals is small; if the standard deviation is large then this implies a high degree of variation between individuals. The SD therefore tells us a lot about the variability of data, and can be important in helping people think about why a particular dataset has a lot or little variation around the mean. Standard error (SE): a statistical term; a standard error (sometimes called the standard deviation of the mean) is often calculated for a mean (average) value of a particular series of measurements, such as the mean mass of raptor nestlings of a given age (e.g. in the growth curves for raptor chicks included in some species accounts). A mean calculated from a sample of nestlings is in fact an estimation of the true mean, which would be arrived at if all nestlings within the population were measured. There is a 95% chance that the true population mean lies within approximately 2 standard errors either side of the measured mean. Statistical confidence limits: these may be applied to the results of a survey to determine the size of a raptor population in a given geographical area based on surveys of a sample of study plots within that area. Because the entire population is not surveyed, the results of such surveys represent an estimate of the population size rather than a complete count. In such cases, it is normal to calculate 95% confidence limits that represent the range of values within which there is a 95% chance that the true population count lies. Statistical confidence limits can also be applied to measurements

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  of raptor chicks and many of the growth curves in the species accounts show mean values and 95% confidence limits. Statutory Country Conservation Agencies / Statutory Nature Conservation Agencies: a collective name for the Government funded conservation agencies in the UK, Isle of Man and Republic of Ireland: Natural Resources Wales (which came into being in April 2013 and includes the former agency, Countryside Coucil for Wales); the Department of Environment, Food and Agriculture, Isle of Man; the Northern Ireland Environment Agency; the National Parks and Wildlife Service, Ireland; Natural England; and Scottish Natural Heritage (website addresses and contact details given in Appendix 2). These agencies have statutory or legal duties relating to nature conservation in their respective countries, including the conservation of birds of prey. Stratified sampling: is a method of sampling from a population whereby members of the population are divided (i.e. ‘stratified’) into subgroups before sampling. It can be used to improve the accuracy of population size estimates. An example is provided by the 2004 hen harrier survey in Scotland. That survey covered a sample of study plots (in this case 10 km squares of the national grid) within the known range of the hen harrier in Scotland (which includes all 10 km squares for which there are records of hen harrier sightings since fieldwork for the first Breeding Atlas (Sharrock, 1976) began in 1968). All 10 km squares within the known hen harrier range were divided into three groups or ‘strata’. The first stratum (singular form of strata) comprised areas monitored regularly by members of the SRSG and a number of Special Protection Areas (SPAs) or potential SPAs, for which the hen harrier is formally recognised as a ‘qualifying interest feature’. These areas were selected for a complete survey (100% sampling). The remaining area from the known hen harrier range (362 10 km squares) was divided between two sampling strata. Stratum two consisted of 55 squares known, or suspected, to hold relatively high hen harrier numbers (based on recent survey work); a random sample of 26 (47.3%) of these squares was selected for survey. Stratum three consisted of the remaining 307 squares from within the known range, for some of which there are few or no recent records of hen harriers; 43 (14.0%) of these were randomly selected for survey to assess whether there had been any re- colonisations. Sampling intensities (i.e. the proportions of squares surveyed in each stratum) were selected in proportion to the expected number of territorial pairs within the strata (Sim et al., 2007). Strigiformes: the order (taxonomic group) of birds which includes all owl species. Study plot: a defined geographical area within which survey fieldwork is carried out. This term can be applied to an area identified by an individual fieldworker for survey work on a particular species. Surveys designed to produce estimates of raptor populations over large geographical areas may be based on fieldwork within selected study plots (e.g. 10 km squares of the National Grid) within that area. Thermo-regulation: the process whereby a bird maintains a stable body temperature, irrespective of variations in the temperature of the surroundings. Birds are warm- blooded and maintain their body temperature at 40±2°C. In common with most birds, raptor nestlings are unable to maintain their body temperature for a period after hatching. During this time they are kept warm by brooding.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Adair, P. (1892). The short-eared owl (Asio accipitrinus Pallas) and the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus) in vole plague districts. Annals of Scottish Natural History, 1892, 219–231. Alerstam, T., Hake, M. and Kjellén, N. (2006). Temporal and spatial patterns of repeated migratory journeys by ospreys. Animal Behaviour, 71, 555–566. Alisauskas, R.T. & Hobson, K.A. (1993). Determination of lesser snow goose diets and winter distribution using stable isotope analysis. Journal of Wildlife Management, 57, 49–54. Amar, A., & Redpath, S.M.2EFERENCES (2002). Determining the cause of the hen harrier decline on the Orkney Islands: an experimental test of two hypotheses. Animal Conservation, 5, 21-28. Amar, A., Redpath, S. & Thirgood, S. (2003). Evidence for food limitation in the declining hen harrier population on the Orkney Islands, Scotland. Biological Conservation, 111, 377-384. Anonymous (1989). Goshawk breeding habitat in lowland Britain. British Birds, 82, 56–67. Anonymous (1990). Breeding biology of goshawks in lowland Britain. British Birds, 83, 527–540. Anonymous (2000). Report of the UK Raptor Working Group. Department of the Environment, Transport and Regions, and Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. Anonymous (2002). Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme Agreement. Scottish Natural Heritage, Perth. Anonymous (2007). Scotland’s Biodiversity Indicators. The Scottish Government, Edinburgh (www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/10/08091435/0). Appleby, B.M. & Redpath, S.M. (1997). Variation in the male territorial hoot of the tawny owl Strix aluco in three English populations. Ibis, 139, 152–158. Appleby, B.M., Yamaguchi, N., Johnson, P.J. & MacDonald, D.W. (1999). Sex-specific territorial responses in tawny owls Strix aluco. Ibis, 141, 91–99. Appleton, T.P., Bolt, S.R.L. & Dixon, H. (1997). Translocation of osprey chicks to Rutland Water. The Raptor, 24, 12–15. Arroyo, B.E. (1995). Breeding ecology and nest dispersion in Montagu’s harrier Circus pygargus in central Spain. PhD Thesis, Oxford University, Oxford. Arroyo, B.E. (1996). A possible case of polyandry in Montagu’s harrier. Journal of Raptor Research, 30, 100–102. Arroyo, B.E. (2002). Fledgling sex ratio variation and future reproduction probability in Montagu’s harrier, Circus pygargus. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 52, 109–116. Arroyo, B., Amar, A., Leckie, F., Buchanan, G.M., Wilson, J.D. & Redpath, S. (2009). Hunting habitat selection by hen harriers on moorland: implications for conservation management. Biological Conservation, 142, 586-596. Arroyo, B.E., DeCornulier, T. & Bretagnolle V. (2000). Sex and age determination of short- eared owl nestlings. Condor, 102, 216–219. Arroyo, B.E., Leckie, F., Amar, A., Hamilton, J., McCluskie, A. & Redpath, S. (2005). Habitat use and range management on priority areas for hen harriers: 2004 report. Scottish Natural Heritage, contract no. F02AC307.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

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2APTORS  McLeod, D. R. A., Whitfield, D. P., Fielding, A. H., Haworth, P., McGrady, M. J. (2002a). Predicting home range use by golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos in western Scotland. Avian Science, 2, 183-198. McLeod, D. R. A., Whitfield, D. P., McGrady, M. J. (2002b). Improving prediction of golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) ranging in western Scotland using GIS and terrain modelling. Journal of Raptor Research, 36 (1 Supplement), 70-77. Mead, C.J. (1973). Movements of British raptors. Bird Study, 20, 259–286. Mead, C.J. (1993). Peregrine ringing returns affecting Britain and Ireland. In The Peregrine Falcon, D.A. Ratcliffe. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 259–266. Mearns, R. (2007). Common raven. In The Birds of Scotland, ed. by R.W. Forrester, I.J. Andrews, C.J. McInerny, R.D. Murray, R.Y. McGowan, B. Zonfrillo, M.W. Betts, D.C. Jardine & D.S. Grundy. The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Aberlady. pp 1364-1366. Mearns, R. & Newton, I. (1984). Turnover and dispersal in a peregrine Falco peregrinus population. Ibis, 126, 347–355. Mearns, R. & Newton, I. (1988), Factors affecting the breeding success of peregrines in south Scotland. Journal of Animal Ecology, 57, 903–916. Melling T., Dudley S. & Doherty P. (2008). The eagle owl in Britain. British Birds, 101, 478-440. Meyburg, B-U. & Fuller, M.R. (2007). Spatial tracking: Satellite tracking. In Raptor Research and Management Techniques, ed. by D.M. Bird & K.L. Bildstein. Hancock House Publishers Ltd., Canada and USA. pp. 242-248. Meyburg, B.U., Ellis, D.H., Meyburg, C., Mendelsohn, J.M. & Scheller, W. (2001). Satellite tracking of two lesser spotted eagles, Aquila pomarina, migrating from Namibia. Ostrich, 72, 35–40. Michelat, D. & Giraudoux, P. (1999). Characteristics of rough-legged buzzards Buteo lagopus wintering in Doubs (NE France). Alauda, 67, 103–108. Middleton, A.L.A. & Prigoda, E. (2001). What does ‘fledging’ mean? Ibis, 143, 296–298. Mikkola, H. (1983). Owls of Europe. T. & A.D. Poyser, Calton. Millsap, B.A. & LeFranc, M.N. Jr. (1988). Road transects for raptors: how reliable are they? Journal of Raptor Research, 22, 8–16. Millspaugh J.J., & Marzluff, J.M. (2001). Radio Tracking and Animal Populations. Academic Press, California. Minns, D. & Gilbert, D. (2001). Red Kites: Naturally Scottish. Scottish Natural Heritage, Perth. Mitchell, D. (1994). Observations on the breeding and hunting behaviour of little owls near an East Hampshire village. Hampshire Bird Report. Hampshire Ornithological Society. Mosher, J.A. & Fuller, M.R. (1996). Surveying woodland hawks with broadcasts of great horned owls vocalizations. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 24, 531–536. Mosher, J.A., Fuller, M.R. & Kopeny, M.H. (1990). Surveying woodland raptors by broadcast of conspecific vocalizations. Journal of Field Ornithology, 61, 453–461. Moss, D. (1979). Growth of nestling sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus). Journal of Zoology, London, 187, 297-314. Moss, D., Joys, A.C., Clark, J.A., Kirby, A., Smith, A., Baines, D. & Crick, H.Q.P. (2005). Timing of Breeding of Moorland Birds. BTO Research Report No. 362. BTO, Thetford. www. moorlandforum.org.uk/documents.php.

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2APTORS  Mougeot, F., Thibault, J.C. & Bretagnolle, V. (2002). Effects of territorial intrusions, courtship feedings and mate fidelity on copulation behaviour of the osprey. Animal Behaviour, 64, 759–769. Movalli, P., Duke, G. & Osborn, D. (2008). Introduction to monitoring for and with raptors. Ambio, XXXVII, 396-396. Müller, W., Epplen, J.T. & Lubjuhn, T. (2001). Genetic paternity analyses in little owls (Athene noctua): does the high rate of paternal care select against extra-pair young? Journal of Ornithology, 142, 195–203. Murray, R. (1993). Scottish Bird Report 1991. Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Edinburgh. Musgrove, A., Aebischer, N., Eaton, M., Hearn, R., Newson, S., Noble, D., Parsons, M., Risely, K. & Stroud, D. (2013). Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds, 106, 64–100. Nachtigal. W. (1999). Aktionsraum und Habitatnutzung des Rotmilans (Milvus Milvus) im nordoestlichen Harzvorland. Doctorate thesis. Insitut fuer Zoologie, Martin Luther Universitaet, Halle-Wittenberg. Natural England (2008). A Future for the Hen Harrier in England? Natural England, Sheffield (www.naturalengland.org.uk/about_us/news/2008/221208.aspx). Nethersole-Thompson, D. (1931a). The field habits and nesting of the hobby. British Birds, 25, 142–150. Nethersole-Thompson, D. (1931b). Observations on the peregrine falcon. Oological Record, 11, 73–80. Newton, I. (1973). Egg breakage and breeding failure in British merlins. Bird Study, 20, 241–244. Newton, I. (1974). Changes attributed to pesticides in the nesting success of the sparrowhawk in Britain. Journal of Applied Ecology, 11, 95–102. Newton, I. (1975). Movements and mortality of British sparrowhawks. Bird Study, 22, 35–43. Newton, I. (1979). Population Ecology of Raptors. T. & A.D. Poyser, Berkhamsted. Newton, I. (1986). The Sparrowhawk. T. & A.D. Poyser, Berkhamsted. Newton, I. (1998). Population Limitation in Birds. Academic Press, London. Newton, I. (2002). Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus. In, The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 235–237. Newton, I. (2007). Eurasion Sparrowhawk. In, The Birds of Scotland, ed. by R.W. Forrester, I.J. Andrews, C.J. McInerny, R.D. Murray, R.Y. McGowan, B. Zonfrillo, M.W. Betts, D.C. Jardine & D.S. Grundy. The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Aberlady. pp 472–475. Newton, I., Davis, P.E. & Davis J.E. (1982). Ravens and buzzards in relation to sheep-farming and forestry in Wales. Journal of Applied Ecology, 19, 681–706. Newton, I., Davis, P.E. & Davis, J.E. (1989). Age of first breeding, dispersal and survival of red kites Milvus milvus in Wales. Ibis, 131, 16–21. Newton, I., Davis, P.E. & Moss, D. (1994). Philopatry and population growth of red kites, Milvus milvus, in Wales. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 257, 317–323. Newton, I., Marquiss, M., Weir, D.N. & Moss, D. (1977). Spacing of sparrowhawk nesting territories. Journal of Animal Ecology, 46, 425–441.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Newton, I., Meek, E.R. & Little, B. (1978). Breeding ecology of the merlin in Northumberland. British Birds, 71, 376–398. Newton, I., Meek, E.R. & Little, B. (1986). Population and breeding of Northumbrian merlins. British Birds, 79, 155–170. Newton, I. & Rothery, P. (2001). Estimation and limitation of numbers of floaters in a Eurasian sparrowhawk population. Ibis, 143, 442–449. Nielsen, O.K. & Cade, T.J. (1990). Annual cycle of the gyrfalcon in Iceland. National Geographic Research, 6, 41–62. Norriss, D.W. (1991). The status of the buzzard as a breeding species in the Republic of Ireland. Irish Birds, 4, 291–298. Norriss, D.W. (1995). The 1991 survey and weather impacts on the peregrine (Falco peregrinus) breeding population in the Republic of Ireland. Bird Study, 42, 20–30. Norriss, D.W., Marsh, J., McMahon, D., Oliver, G.A. (2002). A national survey of breeding hen harriers Circus cyaneus in Ireland 1998–2000. Irish Birds, 7, 1–12. Nygård, T., Kenward, R.E. & Einvik, K. (2000). Radio telemetry studies of dispersal and survival in juvenile white-tailed sea eagles Haliaeetus albicilla in Norway. In Raptors at Risk (Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls), ed. by R.D. Chancellor. & B.U. Meyburg. Hancock House Publishing and World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, Towcester. pp. 487–497. O’Connor. R. (1982). Habitat occupation and regulation of clutch size in the European kestrel Falco tinnunculus. Bird Study, 29, 17–26. Ó Toole, L., Fielding, A.F., Haworth, P.F. (2002). Re-introduction of the golden eagle into the Republic of Ireland. Biological Conservation, 103, 303-312. Odsjö, T., Roos, A. & Johnels, A.G. (2004). The tail feathers of osprey nestlings (Pandion haliaetus L.) as indicators of change in mercury load in the environment of southern Sweden (1969-1998): a case study with a note on simultaneous intake of Selenium. Ambio, 33, 133–137. Ogilvie, M.A. (2003). European honey-buzzards in the UK — correction to breeding totals. British Birds, 96, 145. Ogilvie, M.A. & The Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2002). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2000. British Birds, 95, 542–582 Ogilvie, M.A. & The Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2003). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2001. British Birds, 96, 476–519. Ogilvie, M.A. & The Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2004). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2002. British Birds, 97, 492–536. Orchel, J. (1992). Forest Merlins in Scotland: Their Requirements and Management. Hawk and Owl Trust, London. Orr-Ewing, D. (2007). Red kite. In The Birds of Scotland, ed. by R.W. Forrester, I.J. Andrews, C.J. McInerny, R.D. Murray, R.Y. McGowan, B. Zonfrillo, M.W. Betts, D.C. Jardine & D.S. Grundy. The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Aberlady. pp 448-450. Overskaug, K., Bolstad, J.P., Sunde, P. & ∅ien, I.J. (1999). Fledging behaviour and survival in northern tawny owls. Condor, 101, 169–174. Pandolfi, M. & Pino d’Astore, P.R. (1992). Aggressive behaviour in Montagu’s harrier Circus pygargus during the breeding season. Bolletino di Zoologia, 59, 57–61.

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2APTORS  Panuccio, M. & Agostini, N. (2006). Spring passage of second-calendar-year honey-buzzards at the Strait of Messina. British Birds, 99, 95-97. Park, K.J., Calladine, J.R., Graham, K.E., Stephenson, C.M. & Wernham, C.V. (2005). The impacts of predatory birds on waders, gamebirds, songbirds and fisheries interests. A report to Scotland’s Moorland Forum by the Centre for Conservation Science, University of Stirling and the British Trust for Ornithology, Scotland. Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh. www.moorlandforum.org.uk/documents.php Parker, A. (1979). Peregrines at a Welsh coast eyrie. British Birds, 72, 104–114. Parker, P.G., Snow, A.A., Schug, M.D., Booton, G.C. & Fuerst, P.A. (1998). What molecules can tell us about populations: choosing and using a molecular marker. Ecology, 79, 361–382. Parkin, D.T. (2003). Birding and DNA: species for the new millennium. Bird Study, 50, 223–242. Parr, S.J. (1985). The breeding ecology and diet of the hobby Falco subbuteo in southern England. Ibis, 127, 60–73. Parr, S.J. (1991). Occupation of new conifer plantations by merlins in Wales. Bird Study, 38, 103–111. Parrish, J.R., Rogers, D.T. & Ward, F.P. (1983). Identification of natal locales of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) by trace element analysis of feathers. Auk, 100, 560–567. Pennington, M. (2007). Snowy owl. In The Birds of Scotland, ed. by R.W. Forrester, I.J. Andrews, C.J. McInerny, R.D. Murray, R.Y. McGowan, B. Zonfrillo, M.W. Betts, D.C. Jardine & D.S. Grundy. The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Aberlady. pp 909-911. Penteriani, V. (1997). Long-term study of a goshawk breeding population on a Mediterranean mountain. Journal of Raptor Research, 31, 308–312. Penteriani, V. (2001). The annual and diel cycles of goshawk vocalizations at nest sites. Journal of Raptor Research, 35, 24–30. Penteriani, V., Gallardo, M. & Cazassus, H. (2000). Diurnal vocal activity of young eagle owls and its implications in detecting occupied nests. Journal of Raptor Research, 34, 232–235. Penteriani, V. & Pinchera, F. (1990). Census of a population of eagle owl Bubo bubo in the central Apennines, Abruzzi, Italy. Rivista Italiana di Ornithologia, 60, 119–128. Percival, S.M. (1990). Population trends in British barn owls Tyto alba and tawny owls Strix aluco in relation to environmental change. BTO Research Report 57. BTO, Thetford. Percival, S. (1992). Methods of studying the long-term dynamics of owl populations in Britain. In Ecology and Conservation of European Owls, ed. by C.A. Galbraith, I.R. Taylor & S. Percival. UK Nature Conservation 5. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. pp. 55–63. Percival, S. (2002). Tawny owl Strix aluco. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 432–433. Petty, S.J. (1979). Breeding biology of the sparrowhawk in Kielder Forest 1975–1978. Tyneside Bird Club Occasional Report, 2, 1–18. Petty, S.J. (1989). Goshawks; their status, requirements and management. Forestry Commission Bulletin 81. HMSO, London. Petty, S.J. (1992). Ecology of the tawny owl Strix aluco in the spruce forests of Northumberland and Argyll. PhD Thesis. Open University, Milton Keynes.

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2APTORS  Petty, S.J. (1995). Merlins and forestry. Forestry Commission Research Information Note 254. Forest Authority, Farnham. Petty, S.J. (1996). Reducing disturbance to goshawks during the breeding season. Research Information Note 267. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. Petty, S.J. (1999). Diet of tawny owls (Strix aluco) in relation to field vole (Microtus agrestis) abundance in a conifer forest in northern England. Journal of the Zoological Society of London, 248, 451–465. Petty, S. (2002). Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 232–234. Petty, S. (2007a). Northern goshawk. In The Birds of Scotland, ed. by R.W. Forrester, I.J. Andrews, C.J. McInerny, R.D. Murray, R.Y. McGowan, B. Zonfrillo, M.W. Betts, D.C. Jardine & D.S. Grundy. The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Aberlady. pp 468-471. Petty, S. (2007b). Tawny owl. In The Birds of Scotland, ed. by R.W. Forrester, I.J. Andrews, C.J. McInerny, R.D. Murray, R.Y. McGowan, B. Zonfrillo, M.W. Betts, D.C. Jardine & D.S. Grundy. The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Aberlady. pp 917-920. Petty, S.J. & Anderson, D.I.K. (1986). Breeding by hen harriers Circus cyaneus on restocked sites in upland forests. Bird Study, 33, 177–178. Petty, S.J. & Anderson, D.I.K. (1996). Population Growth and Breeding Performance of Goshawks in the English/Scottish Borders during 1987–1996. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. Petty, S.J. & Fawkes, B.L. (1997). Clutch size variation in tawny owls Strix aluco from adjacent valley systems: can this be used as a surrogate to investigate temporal and spatial variations in vole density? In Biology and Conservation of Owls of the Northern Hemisphere, ed. by J.R. Duncan, D.H. Johnson & T.H. Nicholls. General Technical Report NC-190. USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station: St. Paul, Minnesota. pp. 315–324. Petty, S.J., Shaw, G. & Anderson, D.I.K. (1994). Value of nest boxes for population studies and conservation of owls in coniferous forests in Britain. Journal of Raptor Research, 28, 134–142. Petty, S.J. & Thirgood, S.J. (1989). A radio tracking study of post-fledging mortality and movements of tawny owls in Argyll. Ringing and Migration, 10, 75–82. Petty, S.J. & Thomas, C.J. (2003). Distribution, numbers and breeding performance of tawny owls Strix aluco in relation to clear-cutting in a conifer forest in northern England. In Birds of Prey in a Changing Environment, ed. by D.B.A. Thompson, S.M. Redpath, A.H. Fielding, M. Marquiss & C.. Galbraith. TSO Scotland, Edinburgh. pp. 111–129. Petty, S.J., Lambin, X., Sheratt, T.N., Thomas, C.J., Mackinnon, J.L., Coles, C.F., Davison, M. & Little, B. (2000). Spatial synchrony in field vole Microtus agrestis abundance in a coniferous forest in northern England: the role of vole-eating raptors. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37 (Supplement), 136–147. Phillips, R.L., Cummings, J.L., Berry, J.D. (1991). Effects of patagial markers on the nesting success of golden eagles. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 19, 434-436. Picozzi, N. (1978). Dispersion, breeding and prey of the hen harrier Circus cyaneus in Glen Dye, Kincardineshire. Ibis, 120, 498–509. Picozzi, N. (1981). Weight, wing length and iris colour of hen harriers in Orkney. Bird Study, 28, 159–161. Picozzi, N. (1983). Growth and sex of nestling merlins in Orkney. Ibis, 125, 377–382.

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

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2APTORS  Underhill-Day, J.C. (1989). The effect of predation by marsh harriers Circus aeruginosus on the survival of ducklings and game bird chicks. Ardea, 77, 47–56. Underhill-Day, J.C. (1990). The status and breeding biology of marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus and Montagu’s harrier Circus pygargus in Britain since 1900. PhD Thesis, Council for National Academic Awards. Underhill-Day, J.C. (1998). Breeding marsh harriers in the United Kingdom, 1983–1995. British Birds, 91, 210–218. Underhill-Day, J. (2002a). Eurasian marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 225–226. Underhill-Day, J. (2002b). Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 230–231. Valkama, J. & Korpimäki, E. (1999). Nestbox characteristics, habitat quality and reproductive success of Eurasian kestrels. Bird Study, 46, 81–88. Van Nieuwenhuyse, D., Genot, J-C. & Johnson, D.H. (2008). The Little Owl. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Varland, D.E., Smallwood, J.A., Young, L.S. & Kochert, M.N. (2007). Marking techniques. In Raptor Research and Management Techniques, ed. by D.M. Bird & K.L. Bildstein. Hancock House Publishers Ltd., Canada and USA. pp. 221-236. Village, A. (1981). The diet and breeding of long-eared owls in relation to vole numbers. Bird Study, 28, 215–224. Village, A. (1982). The home range and density of kestrels in relation to vole abundance. Journal of Animal Ecology, 51, 413–428. Village, A. (1985). Turnover, age and sex ratios of kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) in south Scotland. Journal of Zoology (London), 206, 175–189. Village, A. (1986). Breeding performance of kestrels at Eskdalemuir, South Scotland. Journal of Zoology (London), 208, 367–378. Village, A. (1989). Factors limiting European kestrel Falco tinnunculus numbers in different habitats. In Raptors in the Modern World, ed. by B.U. Meyburgh & R.D. Chancellor. WWGBP, Berlin, London & Paris. pp. 193–202. Village, A. (1990). The Kestrel. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. Village, A. (1998). Kestrel. BWP Update, 2, 121–136. Village, A. (2002). Common kestrel Falco tinnunculus. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 246–249. Viñuela, J. (1997). Road transects as a large-scale census method for raptors: the case of the red kite Milvus milvus in Spain. Bird Study, 44, 155–165. Walker, L.A., Shore, R.F., Turk, A., Pereira, M.G. & Best, J. (2008). The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme: identifying chemical risks to top predators in Britain. Ambio, XXXVII, 466-471. Walls, S.S. & Kenward, R.E. (1995). Movements of radio-tagged common buzzards Buteo buteo in their first year. Ibis, 137, 177–182. Walls, S.S. & Kenward, R.E. (1998). Movements of radio-tagged buzzards Buteo buteo in early life. Ibis, 140, 561–568.

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2APTORS  Walls, S.S. & Kenward, R.E. (2001). Spatial consequences of relatedness and age in buzzards. Animal Behaviour, 61, 1069–1078. Walls, S. S. & Kenward, R.E. (2007). Spatial tracking: Radio tracking. In Raptor Research and Management Techniques, ed. by D.M. Bird & K.L. Bildstein. Hancock House Publishers Ltd., Canada and USA. pp. 237-241. Walls, S.S., Kenward, R. & Holloway, G. (2004). How common is the common buzzard, Buteo buteo? Biologist, 51, 23–26. Walls, S.S., Manosa, S., Fuller, R.M., Hodder, K.H. & Kenward, R.E. (1999). Is early dispersal enterprise or exile? Evidence from radio-tagged buzzards. Journal of Avian Biology, 30, 407–415. Walters Davies, P. & Davis, P.E. (1973). The ecology and conservation of the red kite in Wales. British Birds, 66, 183–224, 241–269. Warkentin, I.G., Curzon, A.D., Carter, R.E., Wetton, J.H., James, P.C., Oliphant, L.W. & Parkin, D.T. (1994). No evidence for extrapair fertilizations in the merlin revealed by DNA fingerprinting. Molecular Ecology, 3, 229–234. Waterston, G. (1964). Studies of less familiar birds 130. White-tailed eagle. British Birds, 57, 458–466. Watson, A. (1957). The behaviour, breeding and food-ecology of the snowy owl Nyctea scandiaca. Ibis, 99, 419–462. Watson, A., Payne, A.G. & Rae, R. (1989). Golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos: land use and food in northeast Scotland. Ibis, 131, 336–348. Watson, D. (1977). The Hen Harrier. T. & A.D. Poyser, Berkhamsted. Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. Watson, J. (2002). Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 241–242. Watson, J. & Dennis, R.H. (1992). Nest site selection by golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos in Scotland. British Birds, 85, 469–481. Watson, J., Rae, S.R. & Stillman, R. (1992). Nesting density and breeding success of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos in relation to food supply in Scotland. Journal of Animal Ecology, 61, 543–550. Way, L.S., Grice, P., Mackay, A., Galbraith, C.A., Stroud, D.A. & Pienkowski, M.W. (1993). Ireland’s internationally important bird sites: a review of sites for the EC Special Protection Area network. Report from the Joint Nature Conservation Committee to the National Parks and Wildlife Service of the Office of Public Works, Dublin, and the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland), Belfast. Weir, D.N. (1978). Wild peregrines and grouse. Falconer, 7, 98–102. Wendland, V. (1984). The influence of prey fluctuations in the breeding success of the tawny owl Strix aluco. Ibis, 126, 284–295. Wernham, C. & Baillie, S. (2002). The future of migration studies for bird conservation science. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 730–759.

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2APTORS  Wernham, C. & Siriwardena, G. (2002). Analysis and interpretation of the ring-recovery data. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 44–69. Wernham, C.V., Etheridge, B., Holling, M., Riddle, G., Riley, H.T., Stirling-Aird, P.K., Thompson, D.B.A. & Wilson, J.D. (2008). The Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme: objectives, achievements in the first four years and plans for future development. Ambio, XXXVII, 460-465. Wernham, C., Toms, T., Marchant, J., Clark, J., Siriwardena, G. & Baillie, S. (eds.) (2002). The Migration Atlas: Movements of the Birds of Britain and Ireland. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. Wetton, J.H. & Parkin, D.T. (1997). A suite of falcon single-locus minisatellite probes: a powerful alternative to DNA fingerprinting. Molecular Ecology, 6, 119–128. White, C.M. (1975). Studies of peregrine falcons in the Aleutian Islands. Raptor Research Report, 3, 33–50. White, C. M., Clum, N.J., Cade T.J. & Hunt, W.G. (2002). Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). In The Birds of North America Online, ed. by A. Poole. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca (http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/660). Whitfield, D.P., Bulman, R., & Band, B. (2005). Survey methods for use in assessing the impacts of onshore windfarms on birds communities. Scottish Natural Heritage Guidance Note. www.snh.org.uk/strategy/renewable/sr-we00.asp. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F., (2004a). The effects of persecution on age of breeding and territory occupation in golden eagles in Scotland. Biological Conservation, 118, 249–259. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A. & Haworth, P.F. (2004b). Modelling the effects of persecution on the population dynamics of golden eagles in Scotland. Biological Conservation, 119, 319–333. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A., Haworth, P.F. & Watson, J. (2006b). A conservation framework for the golden eagle in Scotland: refining condition targets and assessment of constraint influences. Biological Conservation, 130, 465–480. Whitfield, D.P., Fielding, A.H., McLeod, D.R.A., & Haworth, P.F. (2008a). A conservation framework for the golden eagle: implications for the conservation and management of golden eagles in Scotland. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 193, Perth. Whitfield, D. P., Fielding, A. H. & Whitehead, S. (2008c). Long-term increase in the fecundity of hen harriers in Wales is explained by reduced human interference and warmer weather. Animal Conservation, 11, 144-152. Whitfield, D.P., McLeod, D.R.A., Fielding, A.H., Broad, R.A., Evans, R.J. & Haworth, P.F. (2001). The effects of forestry on golden eagles on the island of Mull, western Scotland. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38, 1208–1220. Whitfield, D.P., McLeod, D.R.A. , Haworth, P.F. & Fielding, A.H. (2006a). Scoping Assessment for a Conservation Framework for the Hen Harrier. Report to SNH (contract 15367), Perth. Whitfield, D.P., McLeod, D.R.A., Watson, J., Fielding, A.H. & Haworth, P.F. (2003). The association of grouse moor in Scotland with the illegal use of poisons to control predators. Biological Conservation, 114, 157–163.

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2APTORS  Whitfield, D. P., Ruddock, M. & Bulman, R. (2008b). Expert opinion as a tool for quantifying bird tolerance to human disturbance. Biological Conservation, 141, 2708-2717. Widén, P. (1985). Breeding and movements of goshawks in boreal forests in Sweden. Holarctic Ecology, 8, 273–279. Wiggins, D.A., Holt, D.W. & Leasure, S.M. (2006). Short-eared owl (Asio flammeus). In The Birds of North America Online, ed. by A. Poole. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca (http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/062). Wijnandts, H. (1984). Ecological energetics of the long-eared owl (Asio otus). Ardea, 72, 1–92. Wiklund, C.G. & Village, A. (1992). Sexual and seasonal variation in territorial behaviour of kestrels, Falco tinnunculus. Animal Behaviour, 43, 823–830. Williams, G.A. (1981). The merlin in Wales: breeding numbers, habitat and success. British Birds, 74, 205–214. Williams, R. (2002). Long-eared owl Asio otus. In The Migration Atlas. Movements of the birds of Britain and Ireland, ed. by C. Wernham, M. Toms, J. Marchant, J. Clark, G. Siriwardena & S. Baillie. T. & A.D. Poyser, London. pp. 434–436. Wilson, M.W., Irwin, S., Norriss, D.W., Newton, S.F., Collins, K., Kelly, T.C. & O’Halloran, J. (2009). The importance of pre-thicket conifer plantations for nesting hen harriers Circus cyaneus in Ireland. Ibis, 151, 332-342. Wilson, R.T., Wilson, M.P. & Durkin, J.W. (1987). Growth of nesting barn owls Tyto alba in central Mali. Ibis, 129, 305-318. Witherby, H.F., Jourdain, F.C.R., Ticehurst, N.F. & Tucker, B.W. (1940). The Handbook of British Birds. H.F. & G. Witherby, London. Wobus, U. & Creutz, G. (1970). Eine erfolgreiche mischbrut von rot- und schwarzmilan (Milvus milvus x M. migrans). Zoologische Abhandlungen des Staatlichen Museums fuer Tierkunde Dresden, 31, 305-313 Wotton, S.R., Carter, I., Cross, A.V., Etheridge, B., Snell, N., Duffy, K., Thorpe, R. & Gregory, R.D. (2002). Breeding status of the red kite Milvus milvus in Britain in 2000. Bird Study, 49, 278–286. Wright, P.M. (1997). Distribution, site occupancy and breeding success of the merlin Falco columbarius on Barden Moor and Fell, North Yorkshire. Bird Study, 44, 182–193. Wright, P.M. (2005). Merlins of the South-East Yorkshire Dales. Tarnmoor Publications, Skipton. Wyllie, I. (1985). Post-fledging period and dispersal of young sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus. Bird Study, 32, 196–198. Wyllie, I. & Newton, I. (1999). Use of carcasses to estimate the proportions of female sparrowhawks and kestrels which bred in their first year of life. Ibis, 141, 504–506. Yalden, D.W. (2003). The Analysis of Owl Pellets. 3rd edition. Mammal Society, London.

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2APTORS  Notes: 1. Italicised page numbers indicate the pages of illustrations; there are frequently textual references on the same page. 2. Bold numbers indicate plate numbers. 3. All references are to the United Kingdom, except where otherwise specified. 4. ff: ‘and following pages/plates’ access to land 39 )NDEXbarn owl (Tyto alba) 3, 14, 15, 25, 36–38, 191–198, Accipitriformes 22, 282, 323 205, 246, 247, 296, 298, 41, 42 Accipiter Barn Owl Monitoring Programme 15 A. gentilis see goshawk baskets, nesting 38, 166, 177, 218 A. nisus see sparrowhawk bats 178 Accipiters 244 BBS (Breeding Bird Survey) 6, 7, 14, 50, 157, 298, 323 adder 167 beech 71, 72, 79, 222, 307 addled (eggs) 36, 323 bees 71, 74 adverse weather see weather bill (culmen), measuring 54, 55, 82, 83, 90, 148, aerial display 26, 67, 153, 179, 212, 235 149, 155, 172, 173, 190, 324 see also display binoculars 46 aerial photographs 10 biological markers 8, 33–35 aerial surveys 13-14 biome 35, 323 ageing and sexing young 34, 35-37, 68 birch 79, 102, 128, 167, 169, 307 measurements for 50-56 Birds Directive (EU) 4, 59, 327 alarm calls 28, 44, 48 BirdWatch Ireland 14, 323 black kite (Milvus migrans) 239 ‘alert’ 10 blood samples 11 alert distance 67 licences for 42 alula 249 BOU (British Ornithologists’ Union) xiv, 5, 322 altricial 282 bracken 102, 167, 169, 218, 224, 308 see also semi-altricial bramble 218 Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 42 breeding annual cycle 13, 35 behaviour of raptors 26 ff Aquila chrysaetos see golden eagle display 26 ARTS (Automatic Radio Tracking Station) 31 egg laying and incubation 27 ascendant 244, 246 hunting and feeding 27 ash 192, 205, 307 interpretation of 28 Asio evidence for 21 A. flammeus see short-eared owl failure 8, 15, 20–23, 27, 46, 68 A. otus see long-eared owl see also non-breeding ASL (above sea level) 323 pairs 16, 17, 20 assemblage 7, 10, 69 , 323 rare birds see RBBP asymptotic 116, 148, 323 season 19 ff, 46, 47, 67, 244, 246, 247, 305 asynchronous hatching 21, 323 success see productivity Athene noctua see little owl Breeding Bird Survey see BBS Automatic Radio Tracking Station 31 British Association for Shooting and Conservation 58 avian influenza 61 British Ornithologists’ Union see BOU British Trust for Ornithology see BTO bacterial diseases 61 brood size 46, 66, 306 badger 74 BTO (British Trust for Ornithology) 3, 4, 5, 7, 14, 15, bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) 13 29, 30, 31, 33, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 49, 50, bank vole 209 59, 61, 62, 303, 323

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  Breeding Bird Survey see BBS compass (bearing) 13, 27, 46, 48, 49, 95, 96, 107, licences and permits see Ringing Unit 114, 153, 212 Scotland 5, 303 Conservation Ranger (Ireland) 58 see also Ringing Unit conspecific 19, 48, 323 Bubo contour feather 148, 244 B. bubo see eagle owl copulations, extra-pair 151, 324, 326 B. scandiacus see snowy owl cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) 35 Buteo corroboration (Scots law) 57 B. buteo see buzzard Corvidae see corvids B. lagopus see rough-legged buzzard corvids 8, 22, 25, 74, 78, 106, 160, 166, 167, 169, buzzard (Buteo buteo) 3, 7, 14, 15, 20, 25, 26, 30, 171, 180, 228, 236, 323 32, 71, 72, 79, 81, 88, 107, 119, 136–142, Corvus 158, 167, 169, 171, 177, 185, 210, 213, 236, C. corax see raven 246, 248, 295, 297, 298, 23, 24 C. cornix see hooded crow buzzards see buzzard; honey-buzzard; rough- C. corone see carrion crow legged buzzard C. frugilegus see rook see also crows, corvids calls, calling 8, 13, 24, 28, 44, 45, 48, 297 count units 7, 17 see also perching-and-calling; vocalisations Countryside Bird Survey see CBS call playback 13, 121, 161, 171, 206-207, 212-213, Countryside Council for Wales xii, 326 220 Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 39, 43 Campylobacter jejeuni 61 coverts 78, 110, 162, 163, 181, 246, 247, 314, 324 captive birds, escaped 24, 34, 117, 191, 240 crepuscular 45, 179, 194, 203, 226, 231, 324 carpal joint 51, 244, 249 crime, wildlife/persecution 2, 7, 11, 14, 23, 44, 47, carrion crow (Corvus corone) 72, 185 49, 57-59, 310, 311, 318 CBS (Countryside Bird Survey) 14, 323 crop (digestive tract) 55, 56, 75, 142, 181, 324, 70 CEH (Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, formerly crown (of the head) 92, 282 ITE) 3, 323, 325 Crown and Common Lands (Isle of Man) 43 census techniques 11 crows 20, 79, 81, 137, 159, 166, 167, 169, 171, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology see CEH 172, 177, 185, 210, 213, 218, 236, 239, 323 cere 54, 90, 181, 58, 59 see also carrion crow; corvids; Corvus; hooded chemical markers 8, 11, 35–35 crow; carrion crow chicks culmen, (measuring) length see bill crop fullness 55, 56, 75, 142, 181, 324, 70 growth and development 8, 34, 35–37, 282, 58-80 demography 18, 29 see also growth curves see also population handling and measuring 50–56 Departure of Environment, Food and Agriculture, see also ageing and sexing young; fledging; Isle of Man 41, 42, 43, 300, 328 immature birds; ringing Department of Environment, Transport and Regions Circus see DETR C. aeruginosus see marsh harrier descendant 244 C. cyaneus see hen harrier DETR (Department of Environment, Transport and C. macrourus see pallid harrier Regions) 4 C. pygargus see Montagu’s harrier diet 35, 136, 207 claw 35, 60, 103 dimorphism, sexual see sexual dimorphism measurement 54, 108, 115, 124, 125, 126, 148, diseases 60–62 149, 172, 173, 190 dispersal 10, 11, 18, 32, 34, 324 clothing for observers 44, 59, 60, 61 display 8, 17, 19, 26–27, 28, 45, 48, 67 clutch size 46, 66, 306 aerial see aerial display see also incubation mantling see mantling display Coillte (Ireland) 43 see also flight-play; mock-fighting; sky-dancing; common buzzard see buzzard soaring-and-calling display; ‘wing-clapping’ common kestrel see kestrel disturbance 2, 3, 8, 11, 13, 21, 35, 36, 39 ff, 44 ff, common gull xiii 48, 57, 67, 68, 308

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2APTORS  DNA, use for identification 33–34, 42, 58, 75, 83, Falconiformes 8, 282, 324 89, 244 see also falcons; Falco Douglas fir 71, 307 falconry 24, 51, 269, 325 down (nestling) 21, 23, 50, 83, 282, 58 ff feathers ix ff, 8, 11, 17, 20, 23 ff, 30, 33 ff, 37, droppings/faeces 19 ff, 25, 61, 67 42, 48, 51, 54, 243–280, 282, 324, 326, 1–57 growth 51, 119, 244, 58 ff eagle owl (Bubo bubo) 240–241, 244, 247, 43–44 morphology 244–245, 249 EU (European Union) Birds Directive 4, 59, 327 see also alula; contour feather; down; fledging; `ecological traps’ 11 moult; moulted feathers; pins; primary; quill; eggs rachis; secondary; wing and tail feathers addled/infertile 22, 36, 199, 310, 323 feeding 27–28 and breeding failure 15, 21, 22, 27, 46, 68 courtship 8 density 35–36, 68 see also food pass handling and measuring 36, 39, 41, 55, 56, 57, rate 33, 66 68, 198, 214, 216 fidelity 324 laying and incubation 27 site 29, 30, 34, 66, 106 mass 35–36, 55 mate 30 see also clutch size and incubation; nests field vole 209, 218 elm 192, 307 fieldwork(er) ix ff, 3 ff, 7–8 emargination 245, 249 frequency of site visits 45–46 EN (English Nature) 324 good practice for 39–63 see Natural England legal aspects 39–44 encephalitis, tick-borne 61 minimising disturbance and good field craft 44–45 English Nature see EN observer effort 46 English Raptor Study Groups 302 population estimates 16, 17 Environment and Heritage Service (former) 326 survey methods 11–14 environmental impact assessments (wind farms) time of day 45 13, 59 weather 45 equipment wildlife crime 57-59 basic, for field surveys 46 see also handling and measuring eggs and young; health and safety 59, 60 health and safety; licences and permits; radio- and satellite tagging 31, 32 recording observations and site features night-vision 226 fir see Douglas fir Escherichia coli 61 fledging/fledgling 21–22, 32, 35, 46, 50, 66, 68, Eurasian eagle owl see eagle owl 282, 309, 324 Eurasian hobby see hobby flight-play 26, 88, 104, 146, 188 Eurasian sparrowhawk see sparrowhawk food pass 21, 27, 48, 95, 96, 104, 105, 106, 113 ff, Europe 5, 6, 7, 61, 298 170, 179, 180, 188, 189 European honey buzzard see honey-buzzard foot 51 ff European Union 4, 6 span, measuring 54 European Commission 4 see also tarsus measurement; hind claw extra-pair copulations 151, 324, 326 fox see red fox eyrie 86 ff, 144 ff, 151, 154, 185 ff, 233, 324 Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust 58 failure, breeding 8, 15, 20–23, 27, 46, 68 Garrulus glandarius see jay Falco genetic markers 11, 25, 33–34, 35 F. c o l u m b a r i u s see merlin Global Positioning System see GPS F. p e r e g r i n u s see peregrine golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) 3, 5, 7, 11 ff, 17, F. r u s t i c o l u s see gyr falcon 19, 20, 26–28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, 86, 88, 143- F. s u b b u t e o see hobby 149, 158, 167, 185, 233, 244, 246, 282, 295, F. t i n n u n c u l u s see kestrel 298, 325, 25, 26, 58–63 falcons 30, 170, 234, 244, 246, 324 recording forms 314–319 see also merlin; peregrine; gyr falcon; hobby; Golden Eagle Trust 302 kestrel see also Irish Raptor Study Group

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  gorse 111, 137 234, 246, 282, 296, 297, 298, 37, 38, 70–72 goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) 13, 14, 19, 26 ff, 32, holes, nests in 20, 25, 37, 158, 159, 161, 192, 196, 38, 65, 71, 72, 79, 117–126, 128, 130, 139, 205, 207, 210, 241 167, 177, 179, 246, 295, 297, 298, 323, 19, 20 Home Office 42 home ranges 11-12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 34, 45, 46, GPS (Global Positioning System) 32, 46 ff, 58, 324 47, 57, 66, 67, 68, 305, 314 ff grey heron (Ardea cinerea) 25, 158, 169, 185 see also nesting range; occupancy; territory grid references, recording 15, 47 ff, 58, 59, 305, honey-buzzard (Pernis apivorus) 6, 14, 15, 28, 32, 306, 311 70–76, 79, 246, 295, 297, 298, 1, 2 grouse 61, 188 hooded crow (Corvus cornix) 158, 239 butts 169, 307 hunting (in birds) 19, 21, 27–28, 30, 245 moor 11, 143, 233, 316 hybrids, hybridisation 24, 239, 240 growth curves 34, 36, 37, 68, 324, 327, 328 hypothermia 59 gulls 22, 25, 88 identification of raptors 8, 24–28, 30, 33, 34, 42, gyr falcon (Falco rusticolus) 234, 240 66, 67, 245, 247–248 illegal (persecution; egg collection; poisoning) 2, habitat 2, 6, 10 ff, 20, 25 ff, 34, 60, 66, 69, 246, 11, 14, 39, 40, 57, 58, 100, 107, 143, 151, 310 298 see also crime, wildlife; persecution; poisoning description and recording 47–50 immature birds 11, 18, 22, 24, 32, 247, 309, 311, Haliaeetus 314, 325 H. albicilla see white-tailed eagle see also juvenile H. leucocephalus see bald eagle immunisation 60–61 hallux 148, 149, 325 inbreeding 34 incubation 20, 22, 27, 28, 33, 35, 36, 44, 45, 50, handling and measuring eggs and young 50–57 56, 66, 68, 246, 314, 320, 325 hare 61, 236, 325 see also clutch size and incubation see also leveret influenza, avian 61 harriers 17, 26, 27, 30, 244 insects 28, 74, 160, 177 ff, 207, 236, 248 see also marsh harrier; hen harrier; Montagu’s Institute for Terrestrial Ecology see ITE harrier; pallid harrier Ireland see Northern Ireland; Republic of Ireland hatching, asynchronous 21, 323 Irish Raptor Study Group 7, 295, 296, 302 Hawk and Owl Trust 14 see also Golden Eagle Trust hawks 244, 323 Isle of Man 4, 7, 12, 24, 67, 328 health and safety 62 see also sparrowhawk; goshawk legislation 39, 41, 42, 43, 58 hawthorn 218, 222 population status and trends 295-298 head and bill length 37, 54, 55 isotopes, chemical markers 33 ff health and safety 8, 30, 41, 48, 50, 59-63, 67 ITE (Institute for Terrestrial Ecology) 3, 325 diseases 60-62 see CEH legislation and responsibilities 62-63 jay (Garrulus glandarius) 158, 210, 213, 324 Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 62 jesses (in falconry) 24, 325 Health and Safety at Work Inspectorate (Isle of JNCC (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) 4, 5, Man) 62 7, 14, 50, 301, 323, 325, 326 Joint Nature Conservation Committee see JNCC Health and Safety at Work (Northern Ireland) Order juvenile 32, 34, 244, 248, 325 1978 63

Health and Safety Authority (Ireland) 63 keratinous 35, 325 Health and Safety Executive (HSE) 60, 62 kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) 3, 7, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, Health and Safety Executive (Northern Ireland) 63 37, 38, 157–164, 167, 170, 180, 207, 218, heather 20, 49, 86, 101 ff, 111, 137, 144, 158, 166 ff, 234, 246, 296–298, 29–32 187, 200, 218, 244, 231, 239, 307, 308, 311 kills 8, 21, 24–25, 67 hen harrier (Circus cyanus) cover image, frontispiece, kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) 25 3, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 20, 23, 26, 27, 30, 32, 39, kites 30, 244, 323 100–109, 167, 171, 175, 224, 231, 239, 246, black (Milvus migrans) 239 282, 295, 297, 298, 305, 311, 328, 11–14, 80 red (Milvus milvus) see red kite recording form 312 lagomorphs 112, 325 hind claw 54, 124, 125, 126, 172, 173, 190 see also rabbit; hare hobby (Falco subbuteo) 7, 14, 15, 20, 28, 176–183, Land Reform Act (Scotland) 2003 42

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  larch 79, 118, 121, 128, 218, 307 of feathers 51, 247, 248 law see legal considerations for fieldwork; merlin (Falco columbarius) 3, 7, 12, 14, 15, 20, 21, legislation 25, 27, 38, 165–175, 234, 246, 282, 296, 297, leg see tarsus 298, 324, 33–36, 64–69 legal (considerations for fieldwork) 2, 39-44, 58, 67 metapopulation 34, 326 see also legislation; licences migration (immigration, emigration) 10, 11, 18, 29, legislation 8, 39-44 32, 34, 71, 82, 153, 164, 246 England and Wales 39–43, 62 see also dispersal Europe 4 Milvus health and safety 62-63 M. migrans see black kite Isle of Man 39–43, 62 M. milvus see red kite Northern Ireland 40–44, 63 mink 167 Republic of Ireland 40–43, 63 mobbing 45, 214, 227 Scotland 39–43, 62 mock-fighting, mock-attacks 26, 95, 146, 160 see also licences and permits monogamous 17, 101, 324, 326 leptospirosis 60 Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus) 15, 110-16, lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) 32 246, 295, 298, 15–18 leveret 112 Moult 35, 244-247, 324, 325, 326 licences and permits 39-42, 48, 60 moulted feathers 17, 20, 25, 26, 33, 34, 244, 246, handle eggs 36 247, 248, 309 nest visits 8, 39–41, 50, 57 photography 41 nape 101, 208 ringing 29, 39, 40–41, 50 National Parks and Wildlife Service see NPWS taking blood or tissue samples 33, 42 Natural England 299, 302, 324, 328 wing-tagging and remote tracking 41–42 Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act see also Ringing Unit; Schedule 1 2006 39 little owl (Athene noctua) 15, 37, 38, 204–208, Natural Resources Wales 42, 300, 326, 328 247, 282, 296–298, 47–48, 73–78 Nature Conservancy Council 3 Local Access Forum 42 Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004 39 Local Authority 42 neotropical 34, 326 Local Bird Recorders 14, 24, 240, 241, 304 nesting range 19–20, 28, 45, 68, 306 long-eared owl (Asio otus) 14, 15, 38, 213, nests and nest sites 10, 11-12, 13, 16, 19-20, 21, 217–222, 227, 247, 296–298, 52–53 25, 27, 28, 33, 44 ff, 50, 57, 59, 60, 66 ff, 246, Lyme disease 61 282, 305 ff, 316, 317, 318, 319, 324 see also holes, nests in; licences for nest visits magpie (Pica pica) 158, 205, 210, 218, 323 nest boxes 20, 37-38, 60, 62, 308 mammals and predation 22, 24, 25, 48, 58, 112, 158, Nest Record Card (NRC) 15, 59, 326 160, 170, 193, 199, 207, 209, 211, 213, 221, Nest Record Scheme 4, 14, 15, 37, 40, 326 224, 248, 310 nestling see chicks, ageing and sexing young see also prey; voles NIEA (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) 41, 42, mandible 54 300, 326, 328 mantle (back) 101 nocturnal species 13, 18, 24, 26, 28, 45 mantling display 57, 75, 201, 325 see also owls maps 10–12, 43, 46, 47, 49, 50, 311–312, 318 nomograms 35-37, 56, 68 marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) 14, 19, 30, 33, non-breeding birds 11, 17-18, 19, 21, 22–23, 68, 92–99, 243, 246, 295, 297, 298, 305, 7–10 314 recording form 320 Northern England Raptor Forum 301 mass (of bird/chick) 37, 55, 325 northern goshawk see goshawk see also egg mass Northern Ireland 4, 7, 311 ‘Mayfield’ method 22 Environment Agency see NIEA meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis) 14 health and safety legislation 62–63 measurements legislation and licensing 40–44, 58, 67 of chicks 35, 36-37, 48, 50-56 population status and trends 295–297 of eggs 35–36, 48, 50, 56, 57 Raptor Study Groups 302

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  northern harrier see hen harrier pine marten 38 northern raven see raven pins (feathers) 37, 83, 135, 190, 77, 326 Norway 7, 85, 86, 200, 209 PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder) tags 33 Norway spruce 129, 222, 308 platform terminal transmitters (PTTs) 32 notch (feather) 245, 249 point counts 12–13 notebooks 46–48 poison 2, 11, 57, 58, 310 NPWS (National Parks and Wildlife Service, Ireland) Police Wildlife Crime Officer (PWCO) 58 41–43, 58, 301, 326 poliomyelitis 61 NRC see Nest Record Card polyandry 102, 111, 326 polygyny 101, 102, 104, 107, 326 oak 71, 72, 79, 192, 205, 307 population 326 occupancy 5, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 24, 25, 27, 28, count units 16-18 45, 46, 66, 67, 305, 309 estimates 10, 16-18 Occupiers Liability Act (Republic of Ireland) 1995 43 modelling 11 Ordnance Survey 43, 47 sampling 16 organochlorines ix, 2 status and trends 294-298 Orkney vole 226 see also demography; metapopulation; osprey (Pandion haliaetus) 3, 7, 13, 14, 19, 20, 26, non-breeding birds; productivity 27, 32, 33, 37, 39, 81, 150–156, 244, 246, 249, prey 2, 14, 19, 20, 24–25, 27–28, 49, 57, 68, 309 295, 297, 298, 323, 324, 27, 28 see also hunting and feeding; kills, voles owls 5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18 ff, 24, 25, 26, 28, 40, 60, primary (feather) 51, 115, 131, 132, 135, 140, 141, 130, 158, 244, 246–248, 282 142, 173, 175, 190, 198, 234, 237, 244–247, see also barn owl; eagle owl; little owl; long-eared 249, 314, 324 owl; short-eared owl; snowy owl; tawny owl productivity (of breeding) 3, 5, 8, 13, 16, 21, 22, 29, 31, 66, 68, 305, 306, 314 Palearctic 224, 326 PTTs (platform terminal transmitters) 32 pallid harrier (Circus macrourus) 239 Public Liability Insurance 44 Pandion haliaetus see osprey pullus/pulli 31, 326 Partnership for Action Against Wildlife Crime purple moor grass 102 see PAW PWCO (Police Wildlife Crime Officer) 58 Passeriformes 8, 326 passerines 61, 166, 170, 177, 282, 326 quill (feather) 24, 107, 140, 198, 245, 247, 249 passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags 33 PAW (Partnership for Action Against Wildlife Crime) rabbit 25, 112, 137, 158, 201, 205, 207, 236, 325 58 race (of a species) 34, 68, 126, 148, 191, 326 pellets 8, 17, 19, 20, 24, 25, 41, 61, 67, 244 rachis 230, 245, 249 see also signs, recognition of radio-tracking 31-32, 144 perching-and-calling display behaviour 26 random/randomised (selection, sample) 12, 14, 16, peregrine (Falco perigrinus) 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 14, 15, 126, 135, 142, 164, 306, 326 17, 19, 20, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 38, 167, ranges see home ranges 184-190, 233, 234, 236, 246, 281, 296, 298, Raptor Study Groups 3–4, 7, 14, 16, 44 324, 39, 40 Scottish (SRGS) 5, 7, 301 permits see licences and permits; Ringing Unit Rare Breeding Birds panel see RBBP Pernis apivorus see honey-buzzard Rare Breeding Birds Panel (Republic of Ireland) 14 persecution see crime, wildlife; illegal raven (Corvus corax) 5, 8, 15, 20, 21, 24, 28, 30, pesticides 2, 3, 15, 298 40, 79, 158, 167, 169, 171, 172, 177, 185, pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) 32, 61, 248 232–238, 244, 246, 282, 296, 298, 323, 56, 57 photograph 10, 26, 48, 57, 58, 244, 247–248, 282, RBBP (Rare Breeding Birds Panel) 5, 14, 241, 297, 318 304, 327 licences for 40, 41 recording 7, 8, 22, 28, 46-50, 57, 68 pigeons (Columbidae) 4, 188, 236 forms 47, 305–320 see also woodpigeon red fox 24, 25, 38, 167 pine 119, 144, 169, 177, 218, 307 red kite (Milvus milvus) 3, 7, 13, 14, 25, 30, 39 see also Scots pine 77–84, 239, 246, 295, 297, 298, 307, 3, 4

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  remote tracking 8, 31–33 secondary (feather) 222, 230, 231, 244, 247, 249 licences for 41–42 sexing see ageing and sexing Republic of Ireland 4, 7, 14, 58 sexual dimorphism 37, 50, 127, 244, 247, 327 access 43 short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) 1, 7, 13, 14, 167, health and safety 62, 63 210, 221, 222, 223-231, 247, 282, 296, 297, legislation and licenses 39–42, 67 298, 305, 311, 324, 54, 55, 79 National Parks and Wildlife Service see NPWS recording form 313 population status and trends 295–297 sightings, of birds 20, 21, 30, 31, 47-49, 297, 311, ringing 29–30, 31, 33, 44, 49, 50, 59, 60, 66, 67, 70 315 Irish Ringing Scheme 29 single birds and occupancy 17 licences, permits and legislation 39–43 sites see home ranges; nests and nest sites; Ringing Unit (BTO) 29, 30, 31, 39–42, 44, 50 occupancy; territory; study plot risk assessment 62 Sites of Special Scientific Interest see SSSIs road surveys 12, 84, 99, 109 sitka spruce 167, 308 rook (Corvus frugilegus) 158 sky-dancing 26, 104, 113, 130, 139, 146 rosebay willowherb 102 SNH (Scottish National Heritage) 4, 5, 42, 43, 299, rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus) 239–240 318, 327, 328 rowan (mountain ash) 167, 307 snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus) 199–203, 247, 45, 46 Royal Society for Protection of Birds see RSPB soaring-and-calling display behaviour 26 RSPB (Royal Society for Protection of Birds) 2, 3, 5, 7, SOC (Scottish Ornithologists’ Club) 4, 5, 304, 327 14, 50, 58, 114, 303, 310, 311, 318, 323, 327 sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) 3, 7, 14, 15, 19, 21, Scotland 2, 5, 303 25, 26, 27, 30, 38, 117, 119, 127–135, 158, 210, Russia 199, 298 213, 246, 295–298, 21, 22 SPAs (Special Protection Areas) 4, 5, 327, 328 safety see health and safety spruce 102, 218 Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act (Republic of see also Norway spruce: sitka spruce Ireland) 1989, 2005 63 squirrel 72, 79, 177, 210, 213, 218 salmonellosis 61 SRMG (Scottish Raptor Monitoring Group) 5, 6, 30, sample, sampling 10–12, 16, 31, 42, 46, 68, 301, 327 244, 248, 305, 311 see also Scottish Raptor Monitoring Coordinator see also blood sample; stratified sampling; tissue SRMS (Scottish Raptor Monitoring Scheme) 5, 6, 15, sample 47, 59, 62, 305, 327 satellite imagery 10 see also Scottish Raptor Monitoring Group (SRMG) satellite tracking 32-33 SRSG (Scottish Raptor Study Groups) 5, 301 SCARABBS (Statutory Conservation Agencies/RSPB SSSIs (Sites of Special Scientific Interest) 5, 327 Annual Breeding Bird Scheme) 14 standardised counts 12 Schedule 1 39 ff, 67 stand-watches (vantage point surveys) 13 Schedule II 41, 67 statistical confidence limits 12, 327 Schedule ZA1 39, 87, 145, 153 status of raptors 6–7, 294–298 Scotland/Scottish 2, 3, 4, 5 ff, 11, 12, 20, 31, 33, Statutory Country Conservation Agencies/Statutory 34, 57, 58, 62 Nature Conservation Agencies 4, 14, 24, 39 ff, 58 ff, legislation and licenses; Scots law 39–43, 57 114, 241, 325, 328 Natural Heritage see SNH stoat 167 Ornithologists’ Club see SOC stratified sampling 16, 169, 328 Outdoor Access Code 43 Strigiformes 8, 282, 328 population status and trends 295–298 see also owls Raptor Monitoring Coordinator 5, 30, 305 Strix aluco see tawny owl Raptor Monitoring Group see SRMG study plot 10, 16, 327, 328 Raptor Monitoring Scheme see SRMS surveillance 10–15 Raptor Study Groups see SRSG survey 10–15 Scots pine 71, 79, 144, 151, 167, 308 and monitoring in Britain and Ireland 14–15 seabirds 35, 88, 187 methods 6, 8, 11–13, 16, 66, 69, 239 season (shooting) 39, 40 see also transect surveys; point counts; aerial see also breeding season surveys; call playback

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  survival rates 4, 11, 18, 29, 34, 35, 161 45, 49, 50, 55, 57, 58, 59, 248, 310 swift (Apus apus) 177 recording 12, 50 sycamore 79, 128, 192 western barn owl see barn owl western marsh harrier see marsh harrier tail feather(s) 8, 26, 48, 81, 83, 122, 150, 162, 202, western osprey see osprey 244 ff, 249 Weil’s disease 60 tarsus (measurement) 37, 51, 52, 53 white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) 3, 7, 9, 14, tawny owl (Strix aluco) 13, 15, 19, 32, 36 ff, 194 ff, 20, 26, 30, 35, 37, 39, 85–91, 146, 147, 246, 206, 209–216, 217, 220, 221, 247, 275, 295, 298, 5, 6 296–298, 49–51 Wildlife Act 1976 (Republic of Ireland) 40, 41, 42, 67 territorial pairs 16, 17, 22 Wildlife Act 1990 (Isle of Man) 39, 41, 67 see also breeding pair Wildlife (Amendment) Act 2000 (Republic of territory 11, 17, 19, 20, 66, 67 Ireland) 40 see also home ranges Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 39, 40, 57, 67 tetanus 60, 61 wildlife crime see crime ticks 61 willow 102, 192, 218, 222 time of day for fieldwork/of observation 12, 45, 46, windfarms 13, 59 55, 67 wing tissue samples, licences for 42 length, measuring 37, 51 trace elements 35 tagging and licences 29, 30–31, 41-42, 48 training for surveying, ringing, marking and handling ‘wing-clapping’ courtship display flight 73, 74, 29, 30, 33, 40, 41, 50, 60 220, 226, 227 transect surveys 12-14 winter roost survey, hen harrier 14 traps and snares 58, 307 wintering populations 34, 35, 66, 69 Tyto alba see barn owl woodland raptors 13, 28 woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) 158, 181, 210, UK Raptor Working Group 4-5, 7 213, 221 undertail coverts (feathers) 110, 181 see also coverts young birds see chicks; juvenile; immature birds United States 20, 37, 155 zoonoses 60 vantage points 12, 13, 44, 48, 49 see also stand-watches (vantage point surveys) viral diseases 61 visits to sites access 42–44 frequency 45–46 licences and permits 39–42 recording details 46-50 vocalisations 28 see also calls, calling voles 101, 112, 157, 158, 159, 162, 192, 196, 218, 219, 223 ff, 236, 239 see also bank vole; field vole; Orkney vole volunteers 3, 4, 5, 7, 14, 15, 43, 62 waders 94, 188 Wales 3, 4, 34 health and safety 62 legislation and licences 39 ff, 58 population status and trends 295–297 Raptor Study Groups 302 wasps 60, 71, 74, 75 weather (conditions; adverse/poor) 10, 12, 13, 22,

a field guide for surveys and monitoring

2APTORS  RA Tere are increasing demands for high quality information on the numbers, distribution and population trends of birds of prey. Tis book, now in its third edition, aims to promote best practice for feldwork, drawing on the knowledge and experience of more than 300 raptor PT specialists, especially members of the Raptor Study Groups. Incorporating new information and feedback from raptor feldworkers on the second edition, it covers all birds of prey (diurnal ORS raptors and owls) which occur regularly in Britain and Ireland. Introductory sections provide a Raptors history of raptor monitoring, background to survey techniques and design, and advice on good A Field Guide For Surveys And Monitoring practice for feldcraf. Detailed descriptions of survey methods for individual species follow, supplemented by photographic identifcation guides for raptor feathers and illustrations of

the growth of raptor chicks for a range of species. Tere is an updated section on population A estimates for raptors in Britain and Ireland, contacts for organisations involved in raptor FIELD GUIDE FOR SU monitoring, and examples of data recording forms. Te accompanying CD describes the use of raptor calls to aid species identifcation and interpret behaviour. Tis highly successful and authoritative guide has been written and edited by a team from the Scottish Raptor Monitoring Group. It has been funded by Scottish Natural Heritage with assistance from other Statutory Nature Conservation Agencies in Britain and Ireland, and voluntary conservation bodies concerned with birds of prey. “People studying raptors should fnd this book indispensable…” Professor Ian Newton FRS

“Tis ‘how-to’ book should be bought and read by all R VEY new and not-so-new practitioners in the feld”

Keith Bildstein S

A ND M O NIT OR IN G Brian Etheridge Des J Chris WernhamChris Helen Riley on Hardey Humphrey Crick T ird edition T ompson

Jon Hardey Humphrey Crick Chris Wernham Helen Riley Brian Etheridge Des Tompson Price £18.99 Tird edition